THE MENTOR 1918.03.01, No. 150,
Julius Cæsar

The Real Julius Cæsar

In person Cæsar was tall and slight. His features were
more refined than was usual in Roman faces; the
forehead was wide and high, the nose large and thin,
the lips full, the eyes dark gray like an eagle’s, the neck
extremely thick and sinewy. His complexion was pale.
His hair was short and naturally scanty, falling off toward
the end of his life and leaving him partially bald. His
voice, especially when he spoke in public, was high and shrill.

His health was uniformly strong until his last year,
when he became subject to epileptic fits. He was
scrupulously clean in all his habits, abstemious in his
food, rarely or never touching wine, and noting sobriety
as the highest of qualities when describing any new
people. He was an athlete in early life, admirable in
all manly exercises, and especially in riding. From his
boyhood it was observed of him that he was the truest
of friends, that he avoided quarrels, and was most easily
appeased when offended. In manner he was quiet and
gentlemanlike, with the natural courtesy of high-breeding.

He was singularly careful of his soldiers. He allowed his
legions rest, though he allowed none to himself. He
rarely fought a battle at a disadvantage. He never exposed
his men to unnecessary danger, and the loss by wear and tear
in the campaigns in Gaul was exceptionally and even astonishingly
slight. When a gallant action was performed, he
knew by whom it had been done, and every soldier, however
humble, might feel assured that if he deserved praise he
would have it. The army was Cæsar’s family.

JAMES ANTHONY FROUDE

IN THE NATIONAL MUSEUM, NAPLES

JULIUS CÆSAR

ONE

Gaius Julius Cæsar was born in 100 B. C. of old
patrician stock. In youth he received from Greek
masters the elements of their culture, including
astronomy, philosophy, and rhetoric. To complete
his oratorical studies he sailed for Rhodes, but on the way was
taken captive by pirates and held for ransom. This mishap
would have subjected him to ridicule, had
he not, on his release, manned a ship and
punished his captors. Returning to Rome,
he entered politics, the most ambitious
career open to fashionable young men. In
this vocation he had to pay his respects
to men of influence, plead cases at court,
and render financial or other assistance to
unfortunate clients; he had to call by
name and compliment all whom he met,
to entertain lavishly, and attend the
various social functions of all classes.
Above all he had to maintain a permanent
coterie of supporters to act as agents in
time of need.

In 68 B. C. he reached the lowest rung
in the political ladder. This was the office
of quæstor, who had the handling of public
funds. Soon afterward as ædile, commissioner
of public works and games, his
magnificent entertainments won the good
will of the voters, and brought about his
election to the Supreme Pontificate. In
this capacity he directed the state religion,
and his person was esteemed sacred. It
was a great political advantage. Next he
was elected prætor, whose chief duty was
to preside over one of the criminal courts.
After a man had held the prætorship or
the consulship the Senate usually appointed
him as a proprætor or proconsul
to the government of a province. As proprætor
accordingly Cæsar governed Spain
in 61-60. Returning home in the latter
year, he formed a political ring, known as
the First Triumvirate, with Pompey, a
general who had gained splendid victories
in the Orient, and Crassus, the wealthiest
capitalist of the empire. This combination
secured the consulship for Cæsar for
the year 59. His opposition to the Senate
during this year, and his legislation in
the interest of the people made him very
popular. As proconsul (58-50) he conquered
Gaul. Meanwhile Crassus was
killed in battle; and Pompey, adopting the
cause of the Senate, prepared nominally
to defend the Republic; in fact, to rid
himself of a powerful rival. In the civil
war that followed the seasoned veterans
of the popular hero proved superior to the
forces of the Senate, most of them hastily
gathered from the farms. Thereupon the
Senate, shifting about, heaped honors and
triumphs upon the victor. As consul,
dictator, and supreme pontiff Cæsar was
virtually, though not in name, a king
(49-44). The power of the aristocracy
was broken, but its hatred lived and generated
a plot to kill the “enemy of the
Republic.” On March 15, 44, Cæsar fell,
stabbed with twenty-three wounds, at the
hands of erstwhile friends.

Cæsar began his career as a politician,
but ended it as a statesman. His courage,
clemency, and personal charm won countless
friends. While costly entertainments
were a political necessity, his moderation
in private life earned the respect of Roman
society. A blue-blooded patrician, he
steadfastly championed the popular cause.
This policy alienated his own class, and
finally resulted in his death. His political
understanding developed hand in hand
with his patriotism. Better than his contemporaries,
he saw the economic and
social decay of the Republic, and felt that
inefficiency and corruption could be eradicated
in no other way than by a strong
monarchy. His own supremacy he
brought about with the minimum of
bloodshed. When once in power he vigorously
swept away the weaknesses and
oppression of aristocratic rule, and laid a
solid foundation for the future peace and
prosperity of the empire.

PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION
ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR, VOL. 6. No. 2, SERIAL No. 150
COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC.

THE RIVER TIBER—IN THE TIME OF CÆSAR

TWO

Through nearly four centuries of conquest and alliance
(400-44 B. C.) the Roman empire came to embrace
the entire Mediterranean region. After
Cæsar’s conquest of Gaul, it extended from the
Atlantic to the Euphrates, from the North Sea and Alps to the
Sahara. This vast area was organized into administrative
divisions, called provinces. Its very size
meant a heterogeneous population, scores
of peoples, each with its own language and
customs. In the east Greek had replaced
local tongues for literary, diplomatic, and
business purposes. In the west many dialects
remained: for Latin, though official,
was but gradually coming into universal
use.

Life in the empire was mainly agricultural.
Tools were simple, if not primitive;
and only after a struggle could the peasant
produce enough to last until the next
harvest. Industries were largely domestic,
carried on at home, or in small shops
for local use. The eastern parts—Egypt,
Asia Minor, and western Asia—were far
wealthier. Here commerce and skilled
industries were more flourishing, though
by any modern estimate, on a small scale.
As there were no machines in the modern
sense, goods had to be made by hand.
The imperial roads were in excellent condition
but distances were long, travel was
slow, and transportation expensive, save
by water.

When a new territory was incorporated
into the empire, it became a province. It
was placed in charge of a quæstor, who
controlled financial matters, and a general
executive called proprætor or proconsul—both
appointed annually by the
imperial government. The governor commanded
the army and acted as the highest
judge in his territory. The province was
divided into city-states, each of which retained
its laws and customs, its magistrates,
council, and popular assembly.
They managed their local affairs, and no attempt
was made to interfere in their religion.
Instead of rendering military service
they had to pay annual tribute. At auction
the highest bidders received contracts for
collecting taxes in the several cities.

Unfortunately, abuses crept into provincial
rule. In the first place, Rome favored
her citizens at the expense of her subjects.
Native merchants were superseded
by greedy speculators and traders, who,
reducing the people to poverty, drove the
peasants from their farms and built up
vast estates of their own. The evil of
“farming” taxes became intolerable, for
avaricious contractors made the peasants
pay far more than their due. In his year
of service, too, the typical governor expected
to accumulate a fortune sufficient
(1) to pay political debts, (2) to bribe
judges in case of prosecution, (3) to live
in luxury the remainder of his life. Few
governors were honest enough to check
these wrongs. Furthermore, the wealthier
provinces were heavily overtaxed to help
pay the expense of governing the newly
acquired frontier provinces, which as a
rule were financial failures.

These evils Cæsar went far in remedying.
He curtailed the system of “farming”
taxes, and placed it under strict
supervision. Thus capitalists were prevented
from openly plundering the subjects.
He appointed able, honest governors,
and held them to account. Legionary
commanders, too, appointed by him to
serve under the governor, and revenue
officials—his own servants and freedmen—saw
that his will was everywhere enforced.
The provinces, especially the
poorer ones, were to be cultivated and
improved. An attempt was made to
equalize the burden of taxation, and the
heavy drain on the eastern provinces was
lessened. Lastly, in order to abolish class
and national distinctions, and to weld together
the empire, Cæsar allowed himself
to be worshipped as a god, and adopted
the policy of rapidly granting citizenship
to provincials. In aiming to bring about
such an empire devoid of nationality
Cæsar followed the procedure of the great
Alexander, and set an example for his successor,
Napoleon.

PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION
ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR, VOL. 6. No. 2, SERIAL No. 150
COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC.

THE ROMAN FORUM—IN THE TIME OF CÆSAR

THREE

Early in his career of conquest Alexander the Great
subdued Egypt and founded Alexandria (332 B. C.)
This country proved the most valuable part of his
vast realm, and afterward of the Roman Empire.
The valley of the Nile is exceedingly fertile, well watered as it
is from the river, and continually enriched by the alluvial
deposits from the yearly overflow. The
people were patient and laborious. For
thousands of years they had toiled like
slaves for their Pharaohs, whom they
looked upon as gods, and who owned all
the land and most of the wealth of the
kingdom. Naturally Alexander usurped
the property rights and the divine rights of
the Pharaohs; and ultimately when Egypt
fell as a kingdom, to his general, Ptolemy,
the latter succeeded to all these advantages.
For nearly three centuries Egypt
was ruled by the dynasty thus founded,
in which each king bore the name Ptolemy,
inherited from his father. The king was
proprietor, not only of all the land but
also of the extensive industrial plants and
shipping. As Alexandria was the greatest
manufacturing and commercial center
of the world, Ptolemy was far the wealthiest
capitalist. His military and civil officers
were Greeks; his soldiers were Greeks and
other foreigners; so that with his complex
military and administrative machine
he was able to govern the Egyptians as a
conquered people. In the eyes of the
kings they were mere producers of wealth;
the official language was Greek, and the
majority of sovereigns did not take the
pains to learn the native speech.

At first remarkably competent, the
Ptolemies gradually declined in ability,
and even before the birth of Cæsar had
come to be subservient to Rome. We may
imagine with what longing the greedy
Roman oligarchs viewed this kingdom,
and how persistent was the agitation for
its conquest.

Such an object Cæsar undoubtedly had
in view when he sailed against Alexandria
with the pretext of settling a dispute between
Ptolemy and his sister Cleopatra.
This fascinating woman convinced the
Roman general of the justice of her cause,
and was accordingly placed on the throne.
Their mutual infatuation became the gossip
of Rome when she afterward visited
that city. Though not beautiful, the
Egyptian queen was a charming woman.
A talented linguist, she could dispense
with an interpreter in dealing with her
subjects and with foreign princes. Fond of
music, literature, and art, she made a
pleasing hostess, while her gorgeous entertainments
captivated her guests. She was
gifted, too, with an instinct for the various
paths to men’s affections; and her melodious
voice and pretty ways won her desires
from the strongest of rulers. This
demoniac fascination, coupled with an ambition
to found a great empire, made her one
of the most powerful women in all history.

After Cæsar’s death Octavianus (Octavius—called
Cæsar Augustus) remained at
Rome, while Antony governed the eastern
half of the empire. Soon he fell under the
spell of Cleopatra, and gladly married her
that he might become, without conquest,
king of Egypt. Political motives underlay
this romance: he wanted to add Egypt with
its vast wealth to his domain, while she, no
less ambitious, viewed the chaos at Rome as
an opportunity to secure for herself Antony’s
share of the empire. Octavianus
saw the will of Antony bending before his
consort’s superhuman fascination. Appreciating
the danger to Rome, he defeated
Antony in a naval battle, 31 B. C., sailed
to Egypt, and with little trouble captured
Alexandria. Seeing that all was lost, the
royal lovers committed suicide. Thus
fell the last glorious remnant of the Alexandrian
kingdom. Henceforth it was but
a part of the Roman world-state.

PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION
ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR, VOL. 6. No. 2, SERIAL No. 150
COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC.

ON EXHIBITION AT STERN BROS., N. Y. CITY.

CÆSAR CROSSING THE RUBICON, by J. L. Gérôme

FOUR

Nowhere is the versatility of Julius Cæsar more
clearly in evidence than in his literary accomplishments,
the majority of which unfortunately have
been lost. His scientific spirit is manifest in an
astronomical work, “Concerning the Stars,” which we do not
have, but which was doubtless connected with his reform of
the calendar. As an orator Cæsar was
famed for his precise use of language, good
taste, and vivacious, forcible style of delivery,
qualities as necessary to his political
career as to success in authorship.
The “Dialogue on Orators,” however,
though highly praised by Cicero, has disappeared,
likewise his treatise on Grammar.
The world no longer has his collection of
despatches and letters, many of them in
cipher, or his political pamphlets against
Cato, who had been eulogized as “the
martyr of the Republic,” or his “Collective
Sayings,” a veritable store-house of satirical
witticisms, or his many poems, with
the exception of a well-known criticism of
Terence, the playwright.

We can only judge his varied literary
talents by his “Commentaries On the
Gallic War” in seven books, and “On the
Civil War” in three, known to all schoolboys
and college students. The former
dictated amidst anxiety and distraction
were intended to show his ability and
courage as a general, to justify the moderation
of his Gallic policy, and to forestall
attacks by political opponents. Written
in the third person, their modesty dispels
the suspicion of egoism, yet the author
knew how, without violating the truth and
without boasting, to display his merits to
the greatest possible advantage. The
language is simple and restrained yet
vigorous and clear. There are thrilling
moments, for example, in the description
of the ever-threatening danger of Sabinus,
or the exciting escape of Cicero, when the
fort of Aduatuca was endangered by a
swoop of German marauders. Throughout
the story the natives, with their inferior
civilization, their perfidies and duplicities,
are mere pigmies in the clutches
of a giant. Like an irresistible force of
nature, the great Roman tramples down
everything in his path.

The same impassive restraint is shown
in the “Civil War.” The work contains
fewer thrilling events; but dramatic
movements like the crossing of the Rubicon,
grievances at the hands of his enemies,
and his frequent overtures for peace
seldom fail to awaken the reader’s sympathy.
The word “commentaries,” applied
to these books, signifies merely
“notes,” as the author himself regarded
them; but in the judgment of after ages
they are model historical narratives.

From the “Commentaries,” too, we may
form an estimate of Cæsar the general.
In knowledge of the technical departments
of warfare he has had few superiors.
He knew how to enroll and organize vast
numbers of raw recruits, and to transform
them rapidly into trained military units.
The ease with which he overcame the
dangers and difficulties constantly confronting
him testify to his consummate
tactics and strategy. He was without a peer
in practical psychology—a prime factor in
successful generalship. This quality enabled
him to read and understand the feelings
of adversaries as well as of his own men.
He possessed coolness, too, and self-control
to an extraordinary degree, which
served to win the confidence and affection
of his troops, and to discourage panic and
disaster. He was, moreover, a just critic,
eager to praise, slow to blame. His inherent
generosity willingly recognized and
rewarded merit in officers and men. Cæsar
was especially fond of his centurions—the
flower of those who had risen from the
ranks. Often without political or family
ties, they fought and died for him alone.
Though of slight physique and generally
in poor health, through simple living and
sheer force of will Cæsar bore many
arduous campaigns, often marching on
foot with his men. It was this unfailing
vigor and resolution, manifesting itself in
acts of heroic daring, which gave courage
and moral determination to his forces.

PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION
ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR, VOL. 6. No. 2, SERIAL No. 150
COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC.

PHOTOGRAPHED FROM A PRINT

THE DEATH OF CÆSAR, by J L. Gérôme.

FIVE

The most distinguished of Cæsar’s contemporaries
was Cicero. With an exceptional education, he entered
politics, where, in spite of scant means and
ignoble ancestry, he finally attained to the consulship,
63 B. C. Throughout his career, an ardent supporter of
the Republic, he opposed the arbitrary rule of Cæsar; and in
the Civil War he favored the Senatorial
party. In the troubles following Cæsar’s
murder Cicero heroically defended the
Republic in many a brilliant oration; and
in this cause he sacrificed his life. Though
possessed of many noble qualities, his
vacillation, artistic temperament, and
supersensitiveness unfitted him for statesmanship.

Cicero’s chief claims to greatness lie in
the fields of literature and philosophy.
He was a poet of no mean ability. His
“Orations,” with their kaleidoscopic range
of mood and choice of words, are the most
brilliant in the Latin language. The
painstaking labor required for this supreme
mastery of speech is shown in his rhetorical
works. His “Letters,” written in simple
style, lay bare a human heart, with
all its shortcomings and aspirations, while
through their wide range of topics they
bring the reader into intimate touch with
the spirit of the age. Of farther-reaching
influence are his works on political science
and philosophy. His “Republic” aims to
discover the best form of government,
and to examine into the foundations of
national prosperity. His many philosophic
writings set forth the various Greek
schools of thought, especially the Platonic
and the Stoic. Through the medium of
a diction so perfect as to make Latin the
universal language of culture for centuries
to come, Cicero successfully transplanted
Greek thought to Latin soil. Nor did his
influence cease there; from his philosophy
the Church fathers drew inspiration; and
in it centuries later the scholars of the
Renaissance first found the vitalizing
spark of Greek culture.

Of Cæsar’s immediate associates, Cassius,
Brutus, and Antony are most interesting,
if only for their important rôles in
Shakespeare’s “Julius Cæsar.” Though
showered with offices, Cassius, a malcontent,
bore a grudge against Cæsar for being
his master, and began to plot against
him. He found many influential men,
who, jealous of Cæsar’s power, were themselves
anxious to divide the spoils of government.
To give the plot an air of
respectability, he won over Brutus, ostensibly
a student and man of letters, but at
heart an unfeeling usurer. Appointed
by Cæsar governor of Cisalpine Gaul and
prætor, Brutus became an assassin of his
benefactor.

Among the three near associates of
Cæsar, Mark Antony was far the ablest,
and possessed the merit of remaining faithful
till the death of the benefactor. He
had filled many military and civil offices
with distinction, and was Cæsar’s colleague
in the consulship at the time of the
murder. Shortly before this event, at a
public festival, Antony offered Cæsar a
crown, alleging that it was from the people.
Although Cæsar would gladly have
welcomed any device for legitimizing his
rule, he refused the kingly title because of
its unpopularity.

The assassination left Antony sole consul.
Having control of Cæsar’s papers and
property, he skilfully used these advantages
to make himself absolute. In a
clever oration at the funeral he turned the
feelings of the populace against the murderers,
who thereupon fled from Rome.
With young Octavianus (Octavius) he
patched up a temporary alliance, and in
combination they defeated the armies of
Brutus and Cassius in the two battles of
Philippi, 42 B. C. The beaten generals
committed suicide, and the victors
divided the empire between them, Antony
taking the East and Octavianus the West.
The later history of Antony is told in
connection with Cleopatra.

PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION
ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR, VOL. 6. No. 2, SERIAL No. 150
COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC.

RUINS OF THE TEMPLE OF THE DEIFIED JULIUS CÆSAR—Roman Forum

SIX

In the Rome of Cæsar Hellenic influence was active,
not only in literature and philosophy, but also in
art. The Roman portrait sculpture of this period
reveals Greek knowledge and skill; but its essential
character was determined by native tradition. The earliest
Roman portraits were waxen death masks formed from a
moulding over the face. Hence they were
mechanically accurate but utterly devoid
of animation. Though this material has
perished, the visitor to the museums of
Rome will find in relief many a family
group in which the faces retain the mask-like
quality. Only in a slighter degree
does the principle apply to portrait sculpture
in the round. At its best the Republican
face accordingly is intensely realistic
yet with no intimation of the inner spirit.
Commonly the hair is indicated by parallel
scratches made by firm chisel strokes.
By these characteristics many busts and
statues may be easily dated. It should
be noticed, too, that in the Republican
age the portrait heads, as distinguished
from statues, include in addition to the
head scarcely more than the neck, and
that the bust is a gradual development
during the subsequent period. With this
criterion we are able to assign the Brutus
of this number of The Mentor to the
administration of Claudius, 41-54 A. D.
In the colossal portrait of Cæsar of the
National Museum at Naples the bust is a
modern restoration, and we may only cherish
the reasonable faith that the head is
genuine, though somewhat later than his
lifetime. The famous Cæsar of the British
Museum, comprising head and neck, would
satisfy the criterion here formulated, but
fails to pass another even more important
test. The indication of the pupil in the eye
was not devised till after Hadrian, 117-138
A. D., and accordingly this head could be
no earlier. Recently it has been suggested,
with some reason, that the work is a modern
study. If so, it is a great success, as
it most admirably expresses the physique
and the character of the famous man.

Another aid to identification is the circumstance
that a colossus could represent
no one but a preéminent person; and this
criterion favors the Neapolitan head of
Cæsar mentioned above. The colossus
statue in the Conservatori Palace seems
to be authentic, but was made a half century
or more after his death. The face is
fuller than the literary description or the
coins would warrant, but the difference
may well be due to idealization. The images
on coins are doubtless true likenesses,
but in the case of his sculptured portraits
we can only deal in probabilities.

For Pompey we are in a less fortunate
condition. The colossal statue in the
Palazzo Spada, a detail of which is given
in this number, has long passed as the
image at the feet of which Cæsar met his
death; but the proof is insufficient, and it
seems at least as likely that it represents
an emperor. Other portraits are equally
uncertain. The Madrid bust of Cicero is
genuine, and well represents the orator’s
great intelligence with a momentary expression
of scorn. The better-known Vatican
head, the bust of which is modern, is
also genuine and stands second in merit.
For Cleopatra there are no certain sculptural
portraits. The reclining woman of
the Ariadne type has been mistaken for
her because of the snake, as she is known
to have died by the bite of an asp. The
illustration is given merely because it long
passed for Cleopatra and is a Greek work
of rare beauty. Her true image is shown
on coins.

The various reproductions of edifices
are not creations of the fancy, but have
been carefully worked out by archæologists
from remains of buildings according to
the well established principles of architecture.

PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION
ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR, VOL. 6. No. 2, SERIAL No. 150
COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC.

JULIUS CÆSAR

By GEORGE WILLIS BOTSFORD

Late Professor of History, Columbia University. Author of “Story of Rome,”
“History of Rome,” etc.

MENTOR
GRAVURES

JULIUS CÆSAR

THE ROMAN FORUM
IN THE TIME OF
CÆSAR

THE RIVER TIBER
IN THE TIME OF
CÆSAR

MENTOR
GRAVURES

CÆSAR CROSSING THE
RUBICON

DEATH OF CÆSAR

RUINS OF THE TEMPLE
OF THE DEIFIED
CÆSAR

From History of Rome, by G. W. Botsford, The Macmillan Co., Publishers

JULIUS CÆSAR

Entered as second-class matter March 10, 1913, at the postoffice at New York, N. Y., under the act of March 3, 1879. Copyright, 1918,
by The Mentor Association, Inc.

Rome’s Conquest of the Civilized World

To understand the world in which Cæsar lived it is necessary
first to review the growth of the Roman Empire. Four hundred
years before the beginning of the Christian era Rome was a small
city, an independent state, it is true, but in possession of a territory
no larger than an American county. In a succession of wars
lasting through a century and a third (400-264 B. C.), she gained control
of the whole peninsula of Italy. In another century (264-167 B. C.),
through a new series of wars, she built up an empire that nearly surrounded
the Mediterranean Sea. This rapid expansion of power is one of the most
notable events in the world’s history. In the present number of The Mentor,
however, we are less concerned with the process of conquest than with its
result. When Rome subdued a foreign state, she exercised her right of war
in depriving it of a great part of its wealth, including money, land, and art
treasures, not only paintings and marbles, but
works of great intrinsic value in bronze, silver,
and gold. These confiscations and the subsequent
taxes levied by the imperial government,
together with the illegal exactions of officials,
tended to impoverish the world for the enrichment
of Rome and of the few citizens who monopolized
the offices. The conquest differentiated
the freemen of the empire into three distinct
classes: the few wealthy Romans, who governed
the world, the masses of Roman citizens who,
though in possession of the right to vote had
gained no advantage by the conquest, and the
subjects, barred from all share in the imperial
government and greatly oppressed by its officials.

JULIUS CÆSAR

In the Capitoline Museum, Rome

Rome became a great city with a population
of about a million, who had gathered from all
parts of the empire. Some had come as slaves,
others to seek their fortunes, while others had
been driven from the surrounding districts by the pinch of poverty. As
freemen could find little work in the city, there grew up a great mob of
idlers, who lived in large part on food doled out to them by the state as
the price of their votes.

The ruling class was represented by the Senate, which was the chief
governing body. Generally the senators were the most cultured and
intelligent people at Rome; but they had all the faults of a narrow
plutocracy; through long enjoyment of wealth and power the class was
thoroughly corrupted and enfeebled. Hence the Senate proved incapable
of governing and protecting the empire and even of preventing
the frequent outbreaks of
anarchy in the capital.

TEMPLE OF JUPITER—CAPITOLINE

As it appeared in the time of Cæsar

Early Life of Cæsar

Such in brief was the
world in which Gaius Julius
Cæsar lived (100-44
B. C.) Belonging to the
bluest-blooded aristocracy,
he began life with
all the advantages of
wealth and family repute.
As a boy and youth he
enjoyed the best education
of the time. It consisted
mainly in the study and
imitation of Greek writers, especially orators, in preparation for a
career as public speaker and statesman. Rome had derived her civilization
from Greece; and every business man or diplomatist had to speak
the Greek language, which was the chief medium of communication
throughout the Mediterranean world.

In company with other young aristocrats Cæsar in early life indulged
in all the dissipations and vices of his class. The foppish negligence of
his attire proclaimed him a rake, while exorbitant luxuries, costly entertainments,
forbidden love-intrigues, gambling—in brief, the indulging of
a great variety of expensive tastes—exhausted his fortune and loaded
him with debts so portentous that he could never hope to pay them by
legal means. Through all these immoralities he kept a sound mind and
a body capable of extreme activity and endurance, though in his later
years he was subject to fainting and to epileptic fits.

The clearness and quickness of his intelligence was such that he
could carry on several
lines of thought and
keep a number of stenographers[1]
occupied
simultaneously with
his dictations. These
extraordinary mental
powers enabled him
to master the most
complex political situations
and on the battlefield
to turn many a
defeat into victory.
For the knowledge
necessary to his manifold
activities he devoured
the contents of a multitude of books on a great variety of
subjects. He was an orator of splendid power, a writer of clear and
simple Latin, a man of scientific taste, interested in the customs and
character of the peoples with whom he came in contact, and in the
phenomena of nature; a general with few equals in the world’s history,
and a statesman variously estimated by modern historians.

THE ROMAN FORUM (restored), northwest side

From History of Rome, by G. W. Botsford, The Macmillan Co., Publishers

A ROMAN FEAST

At the beginning of his career he cast his lot with the popular party.
This policy meant little more than a preference for dealing with the
Assembly rather than with the Senate. In theory the Assembly comprised
all the citizens; practically it was attended by the idler members of the
populace. There was no democracy; for those citizens that lived too
far from Rome to attend the Assembly had no voice in the government,
and the vast majority of people in the empire were subjects. It was
expected that a leader of the popular party should propose to the Assembly
bills for the benefit
of the masses of citizens,
particularly of the populace,
and for checking
the powers and privileges
of the aristocracy.

Cæsar was by no
means a believer in
human equality. Speaking
in early life at the
funeral of an aunt, he
gave the following account
of his family’s genealogy:
“My aunt Julia
derived her lineage on
her mother’s side from a
race of kings, and on
her father’s side from the immortal gods;
for her mother’s family trace their origin to
King Ancus Marcius, and her father’s to
Venus, of whose stock we are a branch. We
unite in our pedigree, accordingly, the sacred
majesty of kings, who are the most exalted
among men, and the divine majesty of gods,
to whom kings themselves are subject.” Men
of such pretensions could never descend to
the level of peasants and artisans, nor believe
that the world would benefit by popular rule.

POMPEY

In the Palazzo Spada, Rome

His Wars and His Consulship

Through an attractive personality, political
intrigue sometimes verging dangerously on conspiracy,
and the lavish use of borrowed money,
Cæsar rapidly made his way upward through the higher offices in the
routine order. In those times the surest avenue to political power was
success in military command; and for the years 61-60 B. C. Cæsar was
appointed governor of “Farther Spain.” On his arrival he found his province
at peace; but he managed to stir up trouble with some neighboring
tribes of mountaineers who were beyond the border of the empire. After
imposing upon them orders that they could not obey, he made war upon
them. They had little wealth to plunder, but he took captive great
numbers, whom he sold into slavery. As governor he found other ways
of making money, mostly illegal; so that he was able to reward his
soldiers, pay his huge debts, and have something left for the future. In
this policy he acted like former governors, but with greater cleverness.

JULIUS CÆSAR

In the National Museum, Naples

Returning to Rome, he gained the Consulship, which was the highest
standing office (59 B. C.) There were two consuls; and his colleague
was Bibulus, a stupid person, who chanced to be a political adversary.
For the first time Cæsar was in a position to display his statesmanship.
Two great problems were pressing, the economic improvement of the
masses throughout the empire and their protection from the greedy
oppression of Roman officials. Against the obstruction of his colleague
Cæsar carried a law through the Assembly for the division of large tracts
of public land among the needier citizens—a measure which brought him
great popularity. Although it did nothing to benefit the subjects, it
was a step in the right direction. Another law,
worked out in great detail, aimed to prevent officers
of the empire from committing extortion upon the
subjects. Though doubtless well intended, this
law proved ineffective because no one in power
cared to enforce it. Most of his consular year,
however, he devoted to winning influential friends
and to securing for himself an opportunity for
further military exploits after the expiration of
his Consulship. The territory placed under his
government for this purpose included especially
Cisalpine Gaul—substantially the Po Basin—and
Narbonensis, a strip of land extending along the
southern coast of Gaul, now France.

Disturbances beyond his borders gave him a
pretext for war, which lasted eight years (58-50
B. C.), and which resulted in the conquest of
Gaul. In accomplishing this end Cæsar employed
his most brilliant generalship,
including lightning-like
movements and
daring strategy. When
we consider that he had
had little experience in
warfare, we must regard
his achievements as marvellous.
The conquest
was accompanied by
great cruelty to the conquered.
On one occasion
more than fifty thousand
captives were sold into
slavery; on another he
beheaded the senators of
a conquered community
and sold all the people as slaves. At another
time he massacred an entire tribe, numbering
more than four hundred thousand men,
women, and children. The plunder, and
especially the sale of captives, brought the
victor enormous wealth, a part of which he
devoted to buying supporters at Rome.
After overawing Gaul with terrorism he
adopted a policy of conciliation, by which
he won the fidelity of the survivors. Although
in entering upon the conquest Cæsar
had merely his own aggrandizement in mind,
he must in the end have come to an appreciation
of the value of the new province to
the empire. Even after the vast slaughter
and enslavement of the bravest Gauls, the
survivors were full of vitality. The country
was rich in agricultural and mineral resources,
and the Rhone River formed a convenient
outlet for the country’s products in the direction of Rome. This acquisition
added great strength to the empire, and prepared the ground for the
extension of Roman civilization into western and central Europe. The
conquest was, in fact, the greatest achievement of Cæsar’s genius.

From History of Rome, by G. W. Botsford, The Macmillan Co., Publishers

WARFARE IN CÆSAR’S TIME

ROMAN LEGIONARY SOLDIER

From Duruy’s “History of Rome”

GALLIC SOLDIER

No sooner had he finished this work than he came to blows with
the Senate, which feared his towering ambition. A civil war ensued
(49-45 B. C.) The champion of the Senate was Pompey, who also
had met with great success in war. Though in appearance the struggle
was between Cæsar and the Republic, its real object was to determine
which of the two leading generals should be master of the Roman
world. Pompey was defeated and killed; and in the end Cæsar subdued
the whole empire to his will. He ruled as Dictator, appointed to
that office by the submissive Senate.

His Reforms as Dictator

ROMAN WORKS OF APPROACH

Showing parts of a Gallic wall in which stones are intermixed
with beams

During the civil war and the year
following its close Cæsar gave attention
to internal reforms. Humanely and
prudently he forgave political offenders,
and associated with himself in the government
many who had fought against
him in the war. He sought to reconcile
old hatreds and to introduce an era of
good feeling. There can be no doubt of
his sympathy with the subject peoples.
Those in authority in the provinces were
no longer to enrich themselves and their
friends by oppression, but were held strictly accountable to the Dictator.
Roman citizenship was a highly-prized possession, as it meant justice and
an enviable social standing to the possessor. Cæsar granted it freely to
individuals and to entire communities. Obviously, his aim was the rapid
equalization of all freemen of the empire.

He took especial interest in public improvements at Rome. Among
these works was the completion of the temple to Jupiter, Juno, and
Minerva on the Capitoline Hill. The earlier temple had been destroyed
by fire, and the construction of the new building required about thirty-six
years. This was the largest and most stately temple in the city.
Cæsar laid out a public square, named after his family the Julian Forum,
in which he erected a temple to Venus
Genetrix (ancestress), from whom he
claimed descent. In it he placed a
graceful statue of the goddess, carved
by Arcesilaus, the most famous sculptor
of the age. It is a remarkable
example of clinging transparent
drapery. In this public exhibition
of his descent from a goddess Cæsar
boldly displayed his egotism, which
was further exalted by decrees of the
Senate proclaiming him a god. It
was not till after his death, however,
that a temple was actually erected,
at the east end of the Roman Forum,
for his worship.[2] The Curia, Senate
House, Cæsar began to rebuild, but
its completion was left to Augustus, who named it the Curia Julia, after
the Julian family, to which Cæsar, and by adoption Augustus, belonged. On
the south side of the Forum he began the construction of the Basilica Julia,
afterward finished by Augustus. It was a great hall intended for judicial
and mercantile business. These
are but a small part of the vast
improvements that he planned
for Rome, Italy, and the empire.
The greater number remained
mere schemes. To us the most interesting
was the cutting of a canal
through the Isthmus of Corinth,
a work that has had to await the
skill of the modern engineer.

As supreme pontiff Cæsar was
the head of the state religion and
guardian of the sacred lore. In
this capacity he reformed the calendar,
which in his day had fallen into
dire confusion. The improvement
consisted essentially in the adoption
of the Egyptian solar year of 365¼
days. The Julian calendar remained
in force throughout the civilized
world till 1582, when it was superseded
by that of Pope Gregory XIII,
who introduced a more exact system.

ROMAN FASCES

Bundle of rods and axe bound together and borne before
emperors and other rulers as symbols of power

THE BASILICA JULIA—Roman Forum (restored)

A DENARIUS

Stamped with the head
of Cæsar. A denarius
was a silver coin worth
about 20 cents

Personal Appearance, Friends
and Character

The Romans as a people belonged to the Mediterranean
race, and the great majority, therefore, were short
and dark, like the Sicilians of today. Cæsar, however,
was tall and fair, with round, well-proportioned limbs
and black piercing eyes. His portraits on coins and in
sculpture show a spare face with a high, broad forehead
inclined to baldness, representing a physique too delicate
to sustain the enormous activities of his brain. To the
end of his days he paid, perhaps, an excessive attention
to his personal appearance, and was especially gratified
when the Senate in his honor decreed him the privilege of wearing a laurel
wreath; for he found it a means of covering his baldness. There was in
his face and manner a frank sympathy that won the hearts of all those
that came into close touch with him; and in spite of brutal conquests
he developed an expression of gentleness and clemency mentioned by
writers of his age.

The greatest of his contemporaries was Cicero, who by sheer energy
and ability had worked his way to the highest offices, and had rescued the
state from a dangerous conspiracy. Though
he was a consummate political orator, Cicero’s
tastes lay chiefly in the direction of literary
and philosophic composition, pleasant country
life, and association with intellectual men.
Cæsar tried to win him as a political ally;
but Cicero and those intimate associates that
loved the Republic feared Cæsar’s autocratic
methods and ambition. This aloofness of
the intellectual class drove Cæsar to seek
friends and helpers in the lower ranks of society
and among his subordinate military officers.
Although a few of these people served him
faithfully, the great majority were incompetent
to fill the offices that he gave them, and
were bent only on shirking duty and enriching
themselves. On such a basis no man, however
great, can build up a just and efficient system of
government.

CICERO

In the Vatican Museum, Rome

CICERO

In the Madrid Museum. Considered
the most authentic marble
portrait of the great orator

From History of Rome, by G. W. Botsford, The
Macmillan Co., Publishers

POMPEY

In spite of many admirable qualities Cæsar
shared fully in the moral looseness of the age,
which set at naught all marriage relations. Not
even his friends at Rome, nor friendly kings
who gave him their hospitality, could trust their
wives to his honor. With Cleopatra, queen of
Egypt, he had associated in her capital; but
he shocked even his dissolute countrymen by
bringing her to Rome and into his own house.

An Imitation of
Alexander

POMPEY’S THEATER (restored)

First theater in Rome built of stone

That Cæsar desired
absolute power, not
merely for his own enjoyment
but in the conviction that with it he
could best serve the empire, can hardly be disputed;
but whether or not he wished the kingly
title no one can know. While he was in the
Orient the glamor of Alexander’s achievements
seems to have overcome him; and under this
spell he neglected the work of improving the
empire to plan the conquest of the great Parthian
kingdom, Rome’s only surviving rival. In this
scheme the conqueror got the better of the
statesman. A motive to the new war, in itself
unnecessary, was to escape
from the situation at Rome—from
flattery, intrigue, the incompetence
of officials, from
deadly though silent envy and
hatred, which were making his
life every day more unendurable.
As the conqueror of Parthia
he could overwhelm all
opposition and mold the empire
as clay in the potter’s
hands. For the remainder of
his days he could dwell serene
on the pinnacle of glory; and
at his death, having no son of
his own, he could bequeath
the regenerated world to his
grandnephew Octavius, a
youth of great promise whom
he had adopted as a son.

CLEOPATRA

In the Vatican Museum, Rome

From all that we can learn,
however, success in the Parthian
war would have been a
catastrophe to European civilization.
In wealth and population,
in the resources of war
and peace, the Oriental part
of the empire would have
overbalanced the European.
The capital would have shifted to Alexandria or farther east; and Oriental
absolutism would have dominated the civilized world. Three centuries
after Cæsar, autocracy was to come even to Europe. It came with its
bureaucratic accompaniment to destroy the little that remained of economic
strength and intellectual freedom, and to drag to ruin the decaying
civilization of the ancient world.

Cæsar, however, was not destined even to set out for Parthia. On
March 15 (44 B. C.), the Senate met to take the last measures preparatory
to his departure. The place of session was the Senate House which Pompey
had built near his theater. Scarcely had Cæsar entered and taken
his seat when a throng of about sixty senators gathered round him, pretending
to greet him and to offer a petition. They were conspirators
who had engaged in a plot for his assassination,
through no especial love for the Republic,
but for various personal reasons. Many
had gained office and wealth under his
patronage; but in their greed for greater
wealth and political glory they lost all sense
of gratitude. The best among them was
Marcus Brutus, in his own social circle a
philosopher and an idealist, but in business
a hard, relentless usurer. Caius Cassius,
the brain of the conspiracy, was a plunderer
of the provinces and a robber of temples,
whom envy drove into the plot. By such
men was Cæsar slain. It was a crime
perpetrated upon the civilized world, which
had to endure thirteen more years of desolating
civil war (44-31 B. C.), before Octavius,
the young heir to Cæsar, could gain
the mastery and bring the empire to peace.
This young man, known to history as Augustus,
though less brilliant than his granduncle, possessed
a far greater degree of practical wisdom. It was
he, rather than Cæsar, who gave the Roman world
an organization under which it was to enjoy more
than two centuries of prosperity and happiness.
Viewed in this light, the wisest act of the great Cæsar
was the choice of this youth of delicately modeled
features and frail body as his son and successor.

OCTAVIUS

Called “Augustus.” In the Vatican Museum,
Rome

MARCUS BRUTUS

In the National Museum, Naples.
Found at Pompeii

The Passing of Cæsar—“On March 15 (the Ides of
March), 44 B. C., Cæsar entered the Senate Chamber and
took his seat. His presence awed men, in spite of themselves,
and the conspirators had determined to act at once, lest they
should lose courage to act at all. He was familiar and easy
of access. They gathered round him. He knew them all.
There was not one from whom he had not a right to expect
some sort of gratitude, and the movement suggested no
suspicion. One had a story to tell him; another some favor
to ask. Tullius Cimber, whom he had just made governor of Bithynia, then came close to
him with some request which he was unwilling to grant. Cimber caught his gown, as if in
entreaty, and dragged it from his shoulders. Cassius, who was standing behind, stabbed
him in the throat. He started up with a cry, and caught Cassius’s arm. Another
poinard entered his breast, giving a mortal wound. He looked round, and seeing not one
friendly face, but only a ring of daggers pointing at him, he drew his gown over his
head, gathered the folds about him that he might fall decently, and sank down without
uttering another word. Cicero was present. Brutus, waving his dagger, shouted to
Cicero, congratulating him that liberty was restored. The Senate rose with shrieks
and confusion, and rushed into the Forum. The crowd outside caught the words that
Cæsar was dead and scattered to their houses. The murderers, some of them bleeding
from wounds which they had given one another in their eagerness, followed, crying
that the tyrant was dead, and that Rome was free.”—James Anthony Froude.

THE FALLEN CONQUEROR

A reproduction of the pen drawing of the figure of Cæsar made by the painter Gérôme as a preliminary
sketch for his great picture of the assassination of Cæsar

Copyright by Braun, Clement & Co. Original painting owned by John Wanamaker

THE CONQUERORS

This powerful painting by Pierre Fritel pictures the grim progress
of the great conquerors of the world through an avenue of death
lined by the victims of the world’s wars. Cæsar rides in the center—beside
and behind are Tamerlane, Alexander, Attila, Charlemagne,
Napoleon and other world conquerors.

It is Human Desire that makes world
history—desire for conquest, possession,
and control. The Conqueror of the World
must have his will. He treads the peoples
of the earth under his feet, and spreads
ruin in his path. He knows no social distinctions—this
Re-molder of Humanity.
The habitations of poor and rich alike are
demolished, and the treasured possessions
of city and town desecrated. Monuments
of revered
memory are
razed to the
ground, and new
monuments to
the Conqueror
are raised to the
sky. Nations are
subjugated; governments
are revised;
territory
is re-assigned;
new laws are
made. The people
bow under
the yoke; the
Conqueror is enthroned
with
pomp and ceremony,
and hailed
as Master of the
World.

And then—something happens that saves
the world for the people. Some call it the
“Hand of Fate”; those that live in the faith
call it the “Will of God.” But history tells
us that final defeat awaits the man that
aspires to be Conqueror of the World.

Tamerlane, the Tartar tyrant, called
“the Scourge of God,” swept the hordes
of Asia before him in world conquest.
He died suddenly while preparing to invade
China. Alexander of Macedon,
called “the Great,” made himself master
of the world of his day. He forestalled
Fate by dissipating his young life away,
and died broken-hearted, sighing for
more worlds to conquer. Hannibal, the
Carthaginian, carried the spirit of conquest
across the Mediterranean to Spain,
Italy, and over the Alps. He threatened
Rome itself, and aspired to the overlordship
of land and sea. Finally, defeated by
Scipio Africanus, he was exiled to Syria,
where, dishonored and deserted, he committed
suicide. Julius Cæsar conquered all
Gaul, and carried the standards of Rome
to far-off Britain. The name of Cæsar became
synonymous with conquest, so that
it has been borne by successive emperors
for centuries, and is, even in this day,
the title of Imperialism. But Cæsar crossed
the Rubicon, “and Rome was free no
more.” In the very fullness of his
power he was assassinated by his own
senators, his friend Brutus among them.

“As he was
ambitious,” said
Brutus, “I slew
him. There is joy
for his fortune;
honor for his
valor; and death
for his ambition.”

Napoleon
Bonaparte
gained leadership
in France at
a critical time,
reconstructed
her shattered institutions,
and
built up a military
power that
dominated all
Europe. His ambition
contemplated
a personal
supremacy of the Continent, with
vassal nations paying tribute to his
sovereignty. Beyond the bounds of
Europe he carried conquest into Egypt,
riding his charger to the foot of the Pyramids.
But his over-weening ambition
tempted him too far. As the crossing of
the Rubicon sealed the fate of Cæsar,
the crossing of the Niemen marked the
beginning of Napoleon’s downfall. With
the Grand Army of more than half a
million men, he invaded Russia, penetrating
as far as Moscow. In a few
months, with a pitiful, broken and ragged
remnant of his forces, he recrossed
the Niemen, minus glory and minus the
trophies of war. Soon after, Napoleon
met his Waterloo, and ended his days in
lonely brooding, like an eagle chained to
a rock, on the desolate island of St. Helena.

Sic transit gloria mundi—“so passes
away the glory of the world”; so ends
the career of the
Conqueror.

W. D. Moffat
Editor

THE MENTOR

DO YOU KNOW During the past few months more than 400,000 previous issues
of The Mentor have been purchased by the members of the
rapidly growing Mentor Association. The idea of “Learning One Thing Every Day” is conveyed
just as much through the previous issues of The Mentor, as it is through the current
numbers. The foundation of The Mentor has been laid on things that are worth while,
which gives them great permanent value. In reading through the list you are going to find
a very large number of titles covering subjects that are of the keenest interest to you.

It would be next to impossible for you to obtain this compact information with the
attractive illustrations, from any other source.

If you will make a selection at once of ten numbers that appeal to you most strongly—giving
the serial numbers only (on a post-card) we will send them to you immediately—all
charges paid—and send you a bill for the full amount, $2.00—which you can pay
any time within 30 days. We urge you to act NOW.

• 1 Beautiful Children in Art, by Kobbé.
• 2 Makers of American Poetry, by Mable.
• 3 Washington the Capital, by Elmendorf.
• 4 Beautiful Women in Art, by Willing.
• 5 Romantic Ireland, by Elmendorf.
• 6 Masters of Music, by Henderson.
• 7 Natural Wonders of America, by Elmendorf.
• 8 Pictures We Love to Live With, by Huneker.
• 9 The Conquest of the Peaks, by Fay.
• 10 Scotland, the Land of Song and Scenery, by Elmendorf.
• 11 Cherubs in Art, by Kobbé.
• 12 Statues with a Story, by Lorado Taft.
• 13 The Discoverers, by Albert Bushnell Hart.
• 14 London, by Elmendorf.
• 15 The Story of Panama, by Bonsal.
• 16 American Birds of Beauty, by E. H. Forbush.
• 17 Dutch Masterpieces, by Van Dyke.
• 18 Paris, the Incomparable, by Elmendorf.
• 19 Flowers of Decoration, by H. S. Adams.
• 20 Makers of American Humor, by Burges Johnson.
• 21 American Sea Painters, by Arthur Hoeber.
• 22 The Explorers, by Hart.
• 23 Sporting Vacations, by Beard.
• 24 Switzerland, the Land of Scenic Splendors, by Elmendorf.
• 25 American Novelists, by Mabie.
• 26 American Landscape Painters, by Samuel Isham.
• 27 Venice, the Island City, by Elmendorf.
• 28 The Wife in Art, by Kobbé.
• 29 Great American Inventors, by Bruce.
• 30 Furniture and Its Makers, by Richards.
• 31 Spain and Gibraltar, by Elmendorf.
• 32 Historic Spots of America, by McElroy.
• 33 Beautiful Buildings of the World, by Ward.
• 34 Game Birds of America, by E. H. Forbush.
• 35 The Contest for North America, by Hart.
• 36 Famous American Sculptors, by Lorado Taft.
• 37 The Conquest of the Poles, by Rear Admiral Peary.
• 38 Napoleon, by Ida M. Tarbell.
• 39 The Mediterranean, by Elmendorf.
• 40 Angels In Art, by Van Dyke.
• 41 Famous Composers, by Henry T. Finck.
• 42 Egypt, the Land of Mystery, by Elmendorf.
• 43 The Revolution, by Albert Bushnell Hart.
• 44 Famous English Poets, by Mabie.
• 45 Makers of American Art, by J. T. Willing.
• 46 The Ruins of Rome, by Botsford.
• 47 Makers of Modern Opera, by H. E. Krehbiel.
• 48 Two Early German Painters—Dürer and Holbein, by F. J. Mather, Jr.
• 49 Vienna, the Queen City, by Elmendorf.
• 50 Ancient Athens, by Botsford.
• 51 The Barbizon School, by Hoeber.
• 52 Abraham Lincoln, by Hart.
• 53 George Washington, by McElroy.
• 54 Mexico, by Frederick Palmer.
• 55 Famous American Women Painters, by Arthur Hoeber.
• 56 The Conquest of the Air, by Woodhouse.
• 57 Court Painters of France, by Coffin, N. A.
• 58 Holland, by Elmendorf.
• 59 Our Feathered Friends, by E. H. Forbush.
• 60 Glacier National Park, by Hornaday.
• 61 Michelangelo, by Cox.
• 62 American Colonial Furniture, by Esther Singleton.
• 63 American Wild Flowers, by Eaton.
• 64 Gothic Architecture, by Ward.
• 65 The Story of the Rhine, by Elmendorf.
• 66 Shakespeare, by Mabie.
• 67 American Mural Painters, by Hoeber.
• 68 Celebrated Animal Characters, by Hornaday.
• 69 Japan, by Elmendorf.
• 70 The Story of the French Revolution, by Albert Bushnell Hart.
• 71 Rugs and Rug Making, by Mumford.
• 72 Alaska, by Browne.
• 73 Charles Dickens, by Mabie.
• 74 Grecian Masterpieces, by Lorado Taft.
• 75 Fathers of the Constitution, by Albert Bushnell Hart.
• 76 Masters of the Piano, by Finck.
• 77 American Historic Homes, by Esther Singleton.
• 78 Beauty Spots of India, by Elmendorf.
• 79 Etchers and Etching, by Frank Weitenkampf.
• 80 Oliver Cromwell, by Albert Bushnell Hart.
• 81 China, by Elmendorf.
• 82 Favorite Trees, by Hornaday.
• 83 Yellowstone National Park, by Elmendorf.
• 84 Famous Women Writers of England, by Mabie.
• 85 Painters of Western Life, by Hoeber.
• 86 China and Pottery of Our Forefathers, by Esther Singleton.
• 87 The Story of The American Railroad, by Albert Bushnell Hart.
• 88 Butterflies, by Holland.
• 89 The Philippine Islands, by Worcester.
• 90 Great Galleries of the World—the Louvre, by Van Dyke.
• 91 William M. Thackeray, by Mabie.
• 92 The Grand Canyon, by Elmendorf.
• 93 Architecture in American Country Homes, by Embury.
• 94 The Story of the Danube, by Albert Bushnell Hart.
• 95 Animals in Art, by Kobbé.
• 96 The Holy Land, by Elmendorf.
• 97 John Milton, by Mabie.
• 98 Joan of Arc, by Ida M. Tarbell.
• 99 Furniture of the Revolutionary Period, by Esther Singleton.
• 100 The Ring of the Nibelung, by Finck.
• 101 The Golden Age of Greece, by Botsford.
• 102 Chinese Rugs, by Mumford.
• 103 The War of 1812, by Albert Bushnell Hart.
• 104 Great Galleries of the World—The National Gallery, London, by Van Dyke.
• 105 Masters of the Violin, by Finck.
• 106 American Pioneer Prose Writers, by Mabie.
• 107 Old Silver, by Esther Singleton.
• 108 Shakespeare’s Country, by William Winter.
• 109 Historic Gardens of New England, by Mary H. Northend.
• 110 The Weather, by C. F. Talman.
• 111 American Poets of the Soil, by Johnson.
• 112 Argentina, by Newman.
• 113 Game Animals of America, by Hornaday.
• 114 Raphael, by Van Dyke.
• 115 Walter Scott, by Mabie.
• 116 The Yosemite Valley, by Elmendorf.
• 117 John Paul Jones, by Albert Bushnell Hart.
• 118 Russian Music, by Finck.
• 119 Chile, by Newman.
• 120 Rembrandt, by Van Dyke.
• 121 Southern California, by C. F. Lummis.
• 122 Keeping Time, by Talman.
• 123 American Miniature Painting, by Mrs. Elizabeth Lounsbery.
• 124 Gems, by Esther Singleton.
• 125 The Orchestra, by Henderson.
• 126 The Madonna and Child in Art, by Van Dyke.
• 127 The American Triumvirate, by Albert Bushnell Hart.
• 128 Brazil, by Newman.
• 129 American Water Colors, by Kobbé.
• 130 The Planets, by Prof. Jacoby.
• 131 American Water Color Painters, by Gustav Kobbé, Author and Critic.
• 132 Peru, by E. M. Newman, Lecturer and Traveler.
• 133 The Story of The American Army, by Albert Bushnell Hart.
• 134 Our Planet Neighbors, by Harold Jacoby.
• 135 The Story of Russia, by Leo Pasvolsky.
• 136 The Story of the Hudson, by Albert Bushnell Hart.
• 137 Prehistoric Animal Life, by Dr. W. D. Matthew.
• 138 Hawaii, by E. M. Newman.
• 139 Earthquakes and Volcanoes, by C. F. Talman.
• 140 The Canadian Rockies, by Ruth Kedzie Wood.
• 141 Corot, by Elliott Daingerfield.
• 142 Bolivia, by E. M. Newman.
• 143 Russian Art, by William A. Coffin, N. A.
• 144 The American Government, by Albert Bushnell Hart.
• 145 Christmas in Picture and Story, by Esther Singleton.
• 146 The Picture on the Wall, by Frank Weitenkampf.
• 147 Lafayette, by Albert Bushnell Hart.
• 148 American Composers, by W. J. Henderson.
• 149 Luxembourg Gallery, by William A. Coffin.

THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, 114 East 16th Street, New York City

MAKE THE SPARE
MOMENT COUNT