The Historical Department.

[33]

THE
MUSEUM GAZETTE.

OUR HISTORY ROOM. (See Frontispiece.)

A department of our Museum to which, as regards its
educational usefulness, we attach very great importance, is
that which attempts the illustration of Human History. It is
displayed in a separate division of the main building, and is
arranged, as far as possible, on “the space-for-time method.”
This method, which, following the pattern of an ordinary
diary, allots to every period of time the same amount of space,
is, of course, possible only where the time-periods and dates
are fairly well established. It is not well adapted, excepting
as a sort of open and, to some extent speculative, framework
for the illustration of prehistoric times. A courageous
example of such use of it we ventured to offer in our last
number in reference to prehistoric man in Britain. It was
not history in any other sense than that the periods of time
were real; the events assigned to them were largely conjectural.
In the Museum itself we do not attempt to deal
with very remote periods in this manner. Our space-for-time
arrangement begins only with 2000 B.C. It might now,
perhaps, fairly begin with 4000 B.C., but, unfortunately, we
have not space enough. In this Schedule, which occupies the
whole of one side of a long room (70 feet), a measured space
on the wall, of nearly two feet, is allotted to each century.
The centuries are marked out by strong black lines, drawn[34]
vertically from roof to the table-shelf below. This table-shelf
is 18 inches wide, and runs the whole length of the
room. It is upon it that the busts shown in our frontispiece
are standing. Each bust is supposed to be in its appropriate
century, and with it are placed any other illustrative objects
belonging to the period—medals, coins, small architectural
models (when we have them), and the like. For instance, a
model of Stonehenge stands in the century in which it seems
probable that that most remarkable structure was built, and
portions of Roman pavement and other relics mark the period
of the Italian occupation of Britain. Upon the wall itself are
placed engravings, photographs, and the like, illustrative of the
century, and representing either human personality or some
results of human effort. In order to aid the memory each
century is designated by the name of some prominent person
of the time, to whom other associations may conveniently
cling. These names, painted in bold characters, head the
columns which represent the centuries. Beneath these
prominent names we have (in the case of a considerable
number of the most recent centuries) put up schedules of the
principal events, and lists of some of the principal persons.
The appended schedule is one of them and will illustrate what
is meant:—

It will, if what we have tried to describe has conveyed its
intended meaning, be seen that an observer passing slowly[35]
down the length of the room, may appreciate at a glance the
relative position of the principal events in the world’s history.
He can hardly avoid noticing, with fair accuracy, the distance
between Homer and Socrates, between Socrates and Paul,
and between the Christian epoch and the times of Milton and
Shakespeare. He will be impressed at once, as, possibly, he
never was before, with a perception of the brief and very
recent portion of time which contains the whole of the annals
of our own nation. If, in addition to thus obtaining a sort of
bird’s-eye view of the progress of the world, it is desired to
go into detail and devote time to the enquiry, a certain
amount of help will be found to have been provided on the
table-shelf. Detailed schedules taken from the “The Centuries”
(see advertisement) have been mounted on board
conveniently for hand use, and are placed on the table-shelf
at the foot of each century. A few books of reference in
biography and history, and numerous maps, have also been
suitably placed, and there are chairs.

The “Historical Schedule” described takes up, as we have
said, the whole of one side of the long room. The other side
of it, as well as much of the floor-space, is occupied by
somewhat miscellaneous illustrations of prehistoric times, and
of nations and races which have not as yet attained to history.
The anthropoids, anthropology and ethnology in general here
find illustration, in large part, but not wholly, by pictorial aid.
We have also a few interesting objects suitable, as illustrating
social progress, for what is now known as a Folk-Museum.

It is believed that this department of the Museum offers
special facilities to teachers, who bring their classes into it
and give explanations on the spot, and that by enabling the
pupil to obtain a wide purview of historical times, it may do
somewhat to obviate the inevitably cramping influence of the
too detailed study of single epochs.

[36]

FAMOUS WOMEN AT THE NATIONAL PORTRAIT GALLERY.

We have climbed to the third landing. Let us turn into
the left-hand gallery and we shall come to one of the most
interesting groups in the whole Museum.

It is that which contains portraits of English women whose
names have become famous in literature. Here we have
Mrs. Browning, Sarah Austin, Mrs. Carter, Miss Strickland,
George Eliot, Mary Somerville, and many others. The
collection is not nearly so complete as could be wished—for
Jane Austen, Anne and Jane Taylor, Hannah More, the
Brontës, and many others are wanting—still, it is very good.
But few males are admitted. Robert Browning is very
properly allowed to accompany his wife, and the fact, we presume,
that his wife was with him, has also gained access
for Thomas Hood. A portrait of Lady Hamilton strikes us
as a little out of place, but the Museum has as yet no department
for female charm, and as this is by Romney it may
have been difficult to refuse it. With the exception of it and
one of Elizabeth Fry, all the others have more or less direct
claim to be associated with literature or science. To Mrs.
Opie, Mrs. Browning and Miss Strickland no one will
hesitate to accord the praise of good looks, and many others
exhibit in a remarkable degree the bright-eyed intelligence
which we expect from authoresses. Several show a splendid
breadth of forehead, the accompaniment, no doubt, of a
brachycephalic or broad head. Mrs. Carter, Miss Mitford (of
“Our village”), Mrs. Trimmer, Miss Strickland and George
Eliot are the best, but not the only instances of this. It might
be hardly good manners to describe too exactly the various
features of feminine faces, and the fact that but few show
the profile makes it difficult to judge accurately as to size and[37]
shape of nose and chin. Few are, in any sense, disappointing.
That of Mrs. Carlisle might have been kept back without loss,
since, if it is in the least true to life, it gives a too painful
sense of justification to the rumours of married unhappiness,
which were probably to a large extent unfounded. The
portrait of Sarah Austin, when old and ill, might also perhaps
be spared, since there is a very pleasing one of her in earlier
life. At any rate, the two ought to be placed together.
Declining, as we do, in reference to almost the whole, the
task of detailed analysis of features, we cannot, in the interests
of physiognomical research, exempt those behind which lay
the most profound intellect ever possessed by a woman.
Mrs. Carter in classical and literary attainments, and Mary
Somerville in the domain of science, must be accorded foremost
places. Mrs. Browning is second, perhaps, to none in
depth of human sympathy and beauty of poetic expression;
but if we estimate character by profundity of insight, we shall
probably accord to George Eliot amongst women much the
same position as that which Shakespeare holds amongst men.
We do not for a moment compare her with Shakespeare.

Of George Eliot the Museum possesses three portraits.
Most fortunately, it has also one of her father. It would
add enormously to the value of portraits as a means to the
illustration of character, if we might always have associated
with that of a distinguished individual those of his parents,
and even of his brothers and sisters. The portrait of Robert
Evans (George Eliot’s father) is a very pleasing one—a grave,
serious face, with a large Roman nose, well-formed lips and
chin, and a really magnificent forehead. The nose probably
gives a clue to his family descent.

Of those of the authoress herself, the first, taken when she
was 23, by a lady friend (Mrs. Bray), is a poor work of art,
and exhibits a commonplace face, surmounted by a very
large rounded forehead. It is impossible to judge of the nose.
A second is of some years older, and is much better executed.
The forehead is still there, and the nose is shown of good[38]
size and shapely, and the lips and chin are well formed. The
face is a shorter one than in the next, and the hair is of a
much lighter tint. The face is pleasing and attractive, not
much unlike, if we remember rightly, one which represented
Jenny Lind.

Lastly, we come to the often copied and well-known portrait
at age 46, by Sir F. Burton. In this the nose and face are
long, almost suggesting an approach to what is called a horse
face. The chin is good, but as the fine forehead is much
concealed by folds of hair, the balance of features is not
perfect, and the whole result not pleasing. All the three
show the eyes light grey or blue. There can be no doubt
that George Eliot had a large forehead and a fairly large
nose and chin, but further than this these somewhat disaccording
portraits do not take us. We must fall back on
her father’s Roman nose and really beautifully balanced
features.

Mary Somerville’s face is a very intellectual one, but a
trifle cold as regards mouth and chin. Looking at Mrs.
Carter’s width of forehead, no one can doubt that she had
“skull-room” for many languages and what had been written
in them. There is a most pleasant expression on her face,
suggesting a genial companion and ready conversation, but
her chin is weak and small. Mrs. Browning’s face is alive
with graceful vigour, and her forehead, as we have already
said, is full and round.

It is held that the heads of women are dolichocephalic
(long in proportion to breadth) in larger average than those
of men. There is certainly nothing in this collection of
portraits which would oppose the supposition that the higher
developments of intellect in women, as in men, are usually
met with in heads unusually broad. Such an inference must,
however, be accepted with some caution.

[39]

THE BRAIN IN RELATION TO INTELLECT.

When we speak of size of brain in reference to intellectual
endowments we must draw a clear distinction between the
eminence of a specialist and that of one of wide attainments.
A man may become famous as a specialist by the sedulous
cultivation of one branch of knowledge, whilst far from being
distinguished by wide grasp of thought. Indeed, the absence
of interest in some branches of knowledge may greatly favour
the exclusive devotion to a single one. Peschell quotes the
weights of the brains of some Göttingen professors which
were considerably below the average: Gauss, Fuchs (pathologist),
Hermann (philologist), Haussmann (mineralogist).

Cuvier and Lord Byron are usually cited as having had
brains much heavier than the average, but there is some
uncertainty, especially as to the latter. None of his lordship’s
portraits suggest a large head.

Although there are considerable discrepancies in the statements
of those who have examined the matter, there can be
little or no doubt that the brain increases somewhat with the
advance of civilisation, and that it was smaller in the prehistoric
races of man than in the more advanced ones of the
present age. The differences are probably not so great as many
may expect, but they are real. The Australian natives stand
the lowest, and the Europeans the highest. The American
Indian had a larger brain than the Asiatic, and the Asiatic
than the African. The Chinese stand between the European
and the Negro. Two Irish skulls are perhaps the largest on
record.

The size of the skull may possibly not be always a safe
indication of the amount of useful brain matter contained
in it. It is said that the large-skulled Germans have brains
which are of lower specific gravity than those of others.

There are many sources of fallacy as regards the weight[40]
of the brain in different persons, different races, and in the
two sexes. We must not trust too implicitly to statistics or
to tabulated records. It is better to be content with general
results, and to state even these with great caution.

There can, however, be but little doubt that the brain of
woman weighs less than that of man, and that this difference
is greatest in highly civilised races. The brains of the broad-headed
are, as a rule, somewhat heavier than those of the
long-headed. This conclusion has been arrived at by comparing
the brains of different individuals of the same race,
not those of different races (Peschell, p. 70).

There are some observations which support the conclusion
that the brain attains its greatest weight before 30 years of
age, and then undergoes diminution. At the age of 80 this
diminution is supposed to reach 10 per cent. The diminution
concerns the brain proper and the cerebellum, but not their
connecting part, the pons, which increases up to the fiftieth
year. Whilst it is, however, difficult to imagine methods by
which, without risk of great fallacy, such conclusions could be
arrived at, we may safely believe that the advance of age is
attended by some reduction in the size of the skull cavity
and the weight of its contents.

It appears to be a constant law that with advance of civilisation
the differences between the sexes in general become
increased. This is seen in measurements of the skull and in
the weight of the brain. In the brains of negroes the woman
is but little below that of the man, 984 to 1,000, but in the
English it is only 860, and Germans 838. These figures
indicate, of course, proportions only, and like all other calculations
in this difficult subject, must be received with caution;
but they probably indicate, if they do not precisely express,
the fact.

The height of the skull is usually in inverse ratio to its
breadth. The variation in height is far less than is common
in breadth.

[41]

The brachycephalic have heavier brains than the dolichocephalic.

In Hottentots both indices, breadth and height, are low.

The following may be mentioned as examples of remarkably
broad heads (wide foreheads), in association with genius:
Shakespeare, Beranger, Mirabeau, Peacock (the novelist),
Miss Austen, Blackmore (“Lorna Doone”), Tennyson,
Erskine.

The following had heads both tall and broad: Scott,
Goethe, Cervantes, Ambrose Paré, John Foster, Father Paul,
Galileo, Michael Angelo, Machiavelli, Benjamin West.

We shall be indebted to any of our readers who may direct
our attention to other well-marked examples.

The following afford instances of remarkably tall heads:
Motley (the historian of the Netherlands), Remin (engineer),
Richard Roberts (engineer).

The following had remarkably long faces: Francis I., Inigo
Jones, George Eliot (Miss Evans), Savonorola.

THE EGG MARKET IN ENGLAND.

A wholesale dealer gives us the following items as to
the consumption of eggs in London: When eggs are 16 for
a shilling the sale amongst the working classes is enormous.
When they are 12 a shilling it falls at once 40 per cent., and
when only 8 it drops very low. The bulk of London eggs
are imported; Italy supplies many, France many, and some
even come from Turkey. They will travel from Trebizond
and be perfectly fresh when they arrive in London. We are
assured that most of the new-laid eggs consumed in Haslemere
come from Italy, and this at all periods of the year. Our
English housewives are not clever at preserving eggs, and the
witty classification of eggs into new-laid eggs, fresh eggs, and
eggs, is but too often illustrated.

[42]

ON OUTGROWTHS AND APPENDAGES.

(Part of a Museum Lecture.)

Let us draw a clear distinction between “Appendages” and
“Outgrowths.” The prickles which are formed on the branch
of a rose are appendages; they may be detached without
really breaking any part of the bush. The spines which grow
on the blackthorn are outgrowths, and cannot be so detached.
I wish that some better word than “appendages” could be
found, for it seems almost to imply insignificance, and many
of the appendages to plants are of the utmost importance.
Still, it is true of them all that they may be removed and yet
leave the plant, as a plant, complete, and many or most of
them have only a transitory life, which does not by any
means equal that of the plant itself. They are like the
luncheon basket at the summer day’s ramble, not absolutely
essential, but very conducive to perfection. Now most forms
of leaf, flower, fruit and prickle are in this sense merely
appendages. From the very earliest stages of their formation
arrangements exist for their separation, in whole or part,
from the plants on which they are produced. You will see
that I am cautious in my terms, and say in part or in whole,
for in truth some appendages never are detached as wholes,
and very great variety exists in the ways in which they are
dealt with. For the most part they are susceptible of death,
and have their fixed duration of life quite independently of
the plant which bears them. In many this independent
death is the cause of their being cast off. In some instances,
however, it is not death, nor even sickness, but the fulness
of life and the attainment of adult age which causes them to
leave the parental home. I hold in my hand an oak twig
with two empty acorn cups. The acorns having attained
maturity, have fallen out. Shall we say they have detached[43]
themselves, or that the tree has detached them? They have
not fallen by mere weight, for they were doubtless nearly, if
not quite, as heavy whilst still green, and they were then
firmly fixed. You see at the bottom of the empty cup the
large round scar which marks the site of former attachment.
It is brown and dry. It was by changes which took place
here that the acorn was loosened. The acorn had ripened
and ceased its growth. It no longer attracted sap through
its base of attachment, and the latter consequently became
dry and brittle. Possibly its feeding tubes were choked; at
any rate, it is certain that it underwent a sort of death and
was no longer able to keep the acorn in place. The process
was much like that which occurs in the shedding of leaves,
with, however, the very noteworthy difference that the acorn
itself was still alive.

We have not, however, done with our oak twig. The
acorns which it bore were only appendages to an appendage,
and it now becomes the turn of the cups themselves and the
whole of the long foot-stalk on which they are mounted to
become detached. These are no part of the tree, and are of
no use to it. They were developed in order to bear flowers
and fruit; that function they have now discharged, and they
must die. Life is preserved only by the discharge of function,
or at any rate the effort to discharge it. Utter inactivity
leads to death, and death leads to separation from the living
and to decay. You see that the whole foot-stalk is brown
and shrunken and evidently dead. This condition ends
abruptly where the foot-stalk joins the stem. At this spot,
if you look carefully, you will see that there is a ring of
constriction, marking definitely where detachment is in progress.
This was the spot at which the production of the
whole appendage began, and here a sort of joint was left at
which the final detachment was destined to occur. Just one
word of caution, that we must not carry our distinctions too
far. After all, they are to some extent matters of degree. The
joint which separates the appendage from the twig on which[44]
it is produced can hardly be termed a true joint, for certain
structures run in unbroken continuity from the stem to the
appendage. These are the fibro-vascular bundles by which
the appendage is fed and also fixed in place. These bundles
are usually quite visible in the scar-surface left when a leaf or
fruit is broken off. They are “the nails in the horse-shoe” of
the leaf-scar of the horse chestnut. Still, it is certain that a
sort of joint is present, and that the structures are continuous
in a very different sense from that of a stem or true branch.
You may observe this difference in my acorn-bearing twig, for
there are two acorn cups, and one has been produced by a
branching out from the stem of the other. This little branch
is smoothly continuous with the parent branch, and shows no
preparation for detachment whatever.

Thus we have seen that the arrangements under which
leaves are shed are exactly repeated in the case of fruits, and
that it is by no means needful that the object to be detached
should be dead or dying. It may perhaps surprise you to be
told that sometimes appendages are shed which have by no
means accomplished their prospective work. Some plants
shed their flowers and do this deliberately, having made their
arrangements for a step which is apparently suicidal. In
reality it is not suicidal, nor is it one of limitation of population,
but simply of preferential employment of capital. The
potato gives a good example of this. Every spring you may
see on the heads of this plant beautiful flowers produced,
which are destined in the course of another week to be only
flowerless foot-stalks. The flowers break off at a pre-existing
joint, just as leaves are shed. The influence which causes
them to fall is inability to attract sap, in consequence of
inability to proceed to the further stage of producing fruit.
The young tubers underground make such overpowering
demands upon the sap-furnishing capabilities of the roots that
the flowers cannot obtain sufficient for their seed forming.
Thus they at once die: if not obviously, at any rate practically,
and detachment follows as a natural result.

[45]

It is a case of competitive growth and the tubers win.
After a time the plant will in the course of inheritance learn
that it is useless to produce flowers, will give up the attempt;
indeed, many varieties have already done so to a considerable
extent.

No better instance could perhaps be given of the law
which goes through all animated Nature that activity is
almost essential to continuance of life, whether in individuals
or their parts.

The Oldest Fossils (Lingula).—It is a noteworthy fact that these,
the oldest fossil animals known, belong to species by no means low
in the scale. Yet every trace of the many millions which must have
preceded them, and have gradually led up to their development, have
perished. The period of time which must have elapsed subsequent
to the advent of life upon the planet and the development of the
lingula mollusc was probably quite as long as that which has passed
since the lingula left its shell in the mud of the Portmadoc slate.
The oldest fossils which are known are found in the lower Cambrian
rocks. They are small oval shells, which were, during life, the protection
of small soft-bodied sea animals of highly complex structure:
they had red blood. Their descendants are still found in great
numbers burrowing in sand on the shores of tropical oceans. They
have received the name of Lingula, and have in turn conferred that
name on certain hard rocks in which their shells occur in abundance,
the “Lingula flags” of Wales (Ray Lankester).

Huge Shark’s Teeth.—Ray Lankester figures, in his interesting
lectures on extinct animals from which we have quoted the above a
gigantic shark’s tooth. It is that of the Carharodon megalodon, and
is three times the length of the tooth of any living shark. Specimens
of this fossil tooth of smaller dimensions are common, and one should
be found in every museum. They are obtained from the bone bed
of the Red Crag at Felixstowe, but were not originally deposited in
it. Many of them have fragments of a yet older sandstone adhering
to them. Lankester calculates that his shark was 100 feet long.

[46]

THE GREAT FAMILY OF THE CAMELS AND DEER.

The Camel, the Camelopard, the Musk-deer and the Deer
are all more or less nearly related. They constitute a branch
of the great family of Ruminants, and all chew the cud.
With the Camel are associated the Bactrian or two-humped
Camel, the Alpaca, the Llama and the Vicuna. With the
Giraffe we have the Okapi, and several extinct animals.
The Musk-deer stands almost alone. Of Deer there are a
great many species. It is easy enough to distinguish these
various animals the one from the other when seen living
in a Zoological Garden or stuffed in a museum. Indeed, at
first sight, there might seem to be no great similarity between
a Camel, a Giraffe, and a Fallow-deer. To the student of
natural history, however, it becomes of great interest to
observe the essential peculiarities of each. These may be
grouped as those which prove relationship and those which
show differences. We will leave aside the very important
peculiarities in the stomach, because but few of our readers
will have opportunities for examining them, and will confine
our attention to the feet, horns, skull and teeth. All have
two hoofs or more, and the Camel group have behind their
hoofs a pad which covers the sole. None of them have
hollow horns, and in none are their weapons of offence—horns,
teeth, tusks, &c.—very effective. In all when adult
the cutting teeth (incisors) in the upper jaw are absent, and
in most the canines are either absent or much modified.

The Camel tribe differ from Giraffes in possessing a pad,
and in having, when young, incisor teeth in the upper jaw,
and fewer lower incisors by two. They have also strong
canines in both jaws, no trace of horns, and nothing to be
called tusks.

The Giraffes have two, three, or even five abortive horns of
very peculiar development. They have very long necks, no
pads, no tusks. The canine teeth in the lower jaw, which look
like incisors, are much specialised in being cleft or notched.

[47]

The little Musk-deer has no sort of horn; but his upper
canine teeth are large and form tusks.

The true Deer have antlers (in the male), which they shed
every year. The males, and sometimes the females, have
canine teeth in the upper jaw. The antlers are dermal bones,
that is, are formed in the skin, and do not grow from the
skull. They have two rudimentary digits above the hoofs.

The whole of this group, which we may call the Camel and
Deer family, are almost wholly defenceless, the Giraffe the
most so of all, and, excepting those which are useful in
domestication, are threatened with extinction. The Camels
and the Llamas, although separated as distantly as Peru and
Arabia, have in common the very peculiar habit of snorting
most offensively at those who oppress or annoy them.

This large family of Camels and Deer stands between a
small one which comprises Pigs, and a very large one, to
which Cattle, Sheep, Goats and Antelopes are assigned.
Pigs are not ruminants, and have incisor teeth in the upper
jaws. Cattle, sheep, &c., like camels and deer, ruminate,
and have no cutting teeth in the upper jaw. Their distinctive
features are hollow horns (which are present in both sexes),
and the invariable absence of tusks.

The canine teeth in all members of the Giraffe group are
peculiar, in that they show a cleft in the free edge which
divides them into two lobes. These teeth look as if they
belonged to the incisors, but various facts prove them to be
really the canines. Those of the extinct Sivatherium, and
those of the recently discovered Okapi, have similar peculiarities,
and thus prove their relationship.

It is curious that our natural history authorities are not yet
agreed as to whether the Giraffe has his fore limbs longer than
the hind ones or not. Claus and Sedgwick say, “hind legs
much shorter, and therefore the back slopes backwards.”
Those who have measured the bones, however, say that there
is no difference, and that the slope depends entirely upon the
setting of the shoulder blade.

[48]

ENGLISH EDIBLE SNAILS.

“Wall-fish.”

The term “wall-fish” will be unknown to many of our
readers. It is applied by dealers in Covent Garden and other
markets to the common garden snail (Helix aspersa). This
mollusc is held in especial esteem by the poor in Bristol, and
in consequence is now very scarce in the environs of that
city. There are men who make a livelihood during the
winter by collecting these snails from their hybernating places.
In November, 1896, the writer met a “wall-fish” collector in a
remote village in Somerset, and had an interesting conversation
with him. He was collecting for a Bristol dealer, his home
being in Kent, where he worked as a carpenter in summer and
autumn. For many winters past he had regularly visited
Somerset to collect snails. According to his experience these
snails seldom hybernate in banks facing east or north, but
usually seek winter quarters in those facing south-west.

They generally congregate in some numbers, and appear
to have a predilection for certain spots. From an hybernaculum
near the village he had that morning taken a gallon and
a half of them, but this was very unusual; his “takings” as
a rule did not exceed a gallon per day.

Ash stumps, or crannies at the base of ash-trees, are very
favourite haunts. They seldom hybernate under oaks, and
although old walls are favourite places in summer, whence
they probably owe their name of “wall-fish,” they seldom
hybernate in them.

Our “wall fisherman” carried an iron rod about 2 feet
long, slightly crooked at one end for probing likely nooks and
corners. H. aspersa is quite the most nearly domesticated
of the snail tribe. It loves the haunts of man, and is seldom
found in any numbers in places remote from villages and
roadsides.

[49]

A conchologist should never miss an opportunity of
examining the bag of a wall-fish collector. Occasionally rare
varieties—scalariforme for instance—may be secured in this
way. I asked my friend to allow me to inspect his “catch,”
and he very obligingly turned out the contents of his creel.
I found nothing better than three or four examples of the
variety exalbida, which is greenish-white. It is, however,
widely distributed in the southern counties. It is stated
by Forbes and Hanley (“Hist. Brit. Moll.,” vol. iv., p. 46),
that “owing to its being an article of food in some countries,
or else a supposed remedy for pulmonary affections, H. aspersa
has been transported and distributed by the agency of man to
all parts of the world. It is especially abundant in the neighbourhood
of gardens.” In 1840, according to Turton, H.
aspersa was sold in Covent Garden and elsewhere as a cure
for diseases of the chest, and was sent to the United States
as a delicacy. “The glassmen at Newcastle once a year
have a snail feast; they generally collect the snails themselves
in the fields and hedges the Sunday before the feast
day.” This feast is, we believe, now given up.

Dormant Life.—The conditions under which vital activity may
become dormant obtained a curious illustration in the instance of a
beetle which was taken alive out of the wood of a desk which had
been in the office of the London Guildhall for twenty years. The
wood was deal from the Baltic, the beetle was the Buprestis splendens.
It was alive and in beautiful colour. The observation was confirmed
by Sir Joseph Banks. The description is given by Mr. Thos.
Wrenham in the tenth volume of Transactions of Linnæan Society,
1810.

Dodder and Ivy.—Ivy is a climber only, Dodder is a true parasite.
Ivy does not in any degree derive nourishment from the trees on which
it grows. It is obvious that it cannot get any from walls. It may
be plausibly disputed whether it does any injury to the trees to which
it clings, for it is often seen on very large ones. It is reputed to be
wholesome for sheep and deer in spite of its rank odour, and pheasants
are fond of its seed.

[50]

HOW TO FORM A TEMPORARY MUSEUM.

A temporary museum will, in all probability, be a Vacation-
or Summer-museum; there will, therefore, be no need for
stoves or fires, and scarcely any for artificial light. The sun
rises in summer as early as any members of the museum
committee are likely to be stirring, and by sunset it will be
time to close. We will suppose, then, that the season is
summer and the place a small town in the country. In the
first place a small local committee of those interested in the
scheme should be formed, and a small sum of money
guaranteed. The next step should be to borrow a set of
school premises, or hire for a couple of months an empty
house. If only a small cottage were obtainable it should
have a back garden in which a large wooden shed could be
put up. The essentials are plenty of room, plenty of light,
and good protection from weather. If the premises secured
be those of a school, the next thing will be to arrange with
some carpenter for the hire of a quantity of boards which,
laid across the desks, will make tables. It may be possible,
on similar terms, to obtain from a draper a quantity of baize,
or its very cheapest equivalent, but this would not be absolutely
necessary. Having secured plenty of table-space, the next
point is to prepare the walls. It will be required to display
on these, Portraits, Maps, Illustrations, &c., &c., and for
pinning these up some sort of framework is desirable. The
carpenter will soon put this together and cover it with baize
or flannel.

The rooms being made ready, the next step is to fill
them, and about this there will be no difficulty. As a preliminary
measure a circular will have been sent out, inviting
all residents to contribute their curiosities on loan. It will
be strange if this be not bountifully responded to by cases[51]
of stuffed animals and birds, collections of eggs and of
shells, and boxes of minerals. Ammonites, elephants’ teeth,
mammalian skulls, butterflies, wasps’ nests, flint implements,
and Missionaries’ curios will be brought in great abundance.
All these, properly arranged, with descriptive labels, may be
made most interesting and instructive. A certain number
of glass-covered display-cases, with locks, will now be
required in order that fragile or valuable specimens, and
especially those on loan, may be properly taken care of.
Such cases may be made inexpensively, and our Haslemere
Museum will be glad to supply patterns, or even, if wished,
to loan the cases themselves.

At this stage the Committee should remember that a museum
has been well defined as “a collection of labels illustrated by
specimens,” and should obtain, if it has not already done so, a
set of our printed labels, and ascertain for how many of them
illustrative specimens can be produced. Steps should next be
taken to obtain elsewhere any specially desirable exhibits
which may not be forthcoming. Some Horns, Antlers, Skulls,
&c., are sure to be wanted, and no doubt the Geological series
and the Flint implements will need to be supplemented.
These deficiencies may be supplied in some instances by
borrowing from other adjacent museums, or they may be
purchased at various dealers.

A very important and attractive department of the temporary
museum will be the display of Pictures, Maps and Portraits.
These, like those just mentioned, may be hired, if they cannot
be begged or borrowed. A diligent ladies’ sub-committee,
well supplied with bundles of old unbound copies of The Illustrated
London News, Graphic, Vanity Fair and Punch would soon
construct an attractive portrait gallery, as well as sundry
most interesting series in illustration of social history, scenery,
geography and natural science. There is not anywhere a
small town in which material of this kind may not be brought
to light from the cupboards in which it is uselessly stowed
away. The best way of dealing with it would be to procure[52]
some false-backed frames, such as we have in use at Haslemere.
In many instances portraits, maps, &c., will not need to be
put into frames, but may be at once pinned up in well-classified
series on the walls.

We have said nothing as yet as to a department which
ought to be made one of the most important, especially at a
sea-side resort. A Vivarium for the display of local specimens
in their fresh and living states should be arranged either in
an ante-room or hall, or in a shed, or under a verandah outside
the building. In this should be a stand for flowers (all
named), and bell glasses and large saucers for the reception
of shell-fish, sea anemones, sponges au naturel, sea-weeds
and corallines. Illustrations and explanatory labels for most
of these our Haslemere press can supply.

The charges for admission to the show should be: before its
completion, sixpence each person; when complete and in good
order, threepence for adults, half-price for children; and on
Saturdays a penny all round. Books of tickets, making a
very liberal reduction, should be available. The result would
be, if circumstances were favourable and zeal abounded, that
the guarantors would lose nothing and might possibly carry
forward a modest balance to begin next year with. Meanwhile
the prosperity and reputation of the sea-side resort
would have been helped and a large number of persons would
have been entertained and instructed.

The following paragraph appeared a short time ago in one
of the daily papers:—

The Brooklyn experiment is not a new one. It has been
practised for many years past in our museum (vide Museums’
Journal, vol. ii., 1902).

[53]

BRITISH SNAKES.

The Viper. The Common Snake.

We have in Great Britain only three representatives of
the class Reptilia which come under the name of Snake.
They are the Common Snake, the Smooth Snake and the
Viper. In Ireland there are—as the result of events to
which we referred in our previous number—none at all. Of
the three British Snakes, one, the Smooth Snake,[1] is so rare
that it is of interest only to the naturalist. It is met with in
Hampshire and Dorset, and perhaps in Scotland, but it is
nowhere frequent. It is more nearly allied to the Common
Snake than to the Viper, and is quite harmless. It is much
smaller than the others. We will concern ourselves for the
present only with the other two. The Common Snake[2] is
quite harmless and should never be injured by any humane
person. The Viper[3] is venomous, and should be destroyed
without mercy. It is easy enough to distinguish between the
two even when in movement. The Common Snake is always,
when full grown, much longer than the Viper. It may
measure 4 feet and is usually 3, whilst the Viper is never
more than 2. The Common Snake tapers off very gradually
at its tail, whilst the Viper has a short tail, which is abruptly
constricted at its base. The Viper is usually brown, often
deeply coloured, whilst the Snake is much lighter coloured,
of a light grey-brown tinged with green. The Common
Snake has only spots of black, whilst the Viper is marked
down the whole of its back with large zig-zag black lozenges.
This is a most important feature, is characteristic at all
ages of the animal, and is easily seen under all conditions.

[54]

We have named the characters which are most easily seen
when the animal is gliding about on the sward or path, there
are others which are available when the animal is dead or
in captivity. Under such conditions it will be seen that the
scales which clothe the Viper are much smaller in size than
those of the Snake, more especially on the head, and further,
that the head of the Viper is marked with black, somewhat
in the form of the letter V.

Snakes, as well as Vipers, have sharp teeth, but they use
them only for seizing their prey, and they have no poison
fangs.

The venom apparatus of the Viper consists of a gland
which secretes the poison, a receptacle which stores it, and
a long, sharp fang, which can be extruded and through
a groove in which the poison is conveyed. The animal
darts open-mouthed at its enemy rather than bites. Its fang
being in its upper jaw it becomes well exposed when the
mouth is agape. As there is a fang on each side there
will usually be two punctures in the skin about a third of
an inch apart.

No doubt there occur every year in England a good many
instances of viper-bites in men and boys. There are, however,
exceedingly few deaths, and many persons of considerable
experience have doubted whether the bite is ever actually
fatal. A very urgent and severe illness is almost invariably
the result; but the patient just pulls through.

In a case in which the writer was, in boyhood, a particeps,
two fine vipers were captured in mistake. They were put
into a botanical box and were repeatedly inspected, and their
tongues freely touched. It was only when on arrival at
home that one of them, during an attempt to transfer it to
a cage, made a dart and struck the finger of a boy of fourteen.
The accident was concealed until, about a quarter of an hour
later in attempting to cross the floor, the victim fell down in
a deadly faint. He became very sick and having been got
to bed remained in collapse, apparently near death for several
hours. Brandy was of course freely given.

[55]

The medical adviser who had been summoned, arrived in
hot haste with a big volume under his arm, in order to make
reference to “snake-bite” and its treatment. It was, however,
too late to do anything more than give stimulants, and
happily these were successful. A fortnight’s illness ensued,
during the early part of which the whole arm was enormously
swollen, and later partly covered with boils.

This case affords, we believe, a very fair example of what
usually follows the incautious capture of the English adder.
The reptile does not attack willingly, but only after much
provocation, and he cannot, as a rule, destroy the life of his
human enemy. His poison fangs are designed for other
purposes, and for much smaller animals.

Within the last few weeks a case at Folkestone has
attracted much attention, in which two school-boys in pursuit
of what is called “Nature Study,” were bitten by a
viper, with the result that one of them died. Several other
well-authenticated instances of death have been recorded.
We repeat, however, that they are very rare.

The early summer is the best time for killing vipers, since
the males, which at other seasons hide themselves, may now
often be found. Warm heaths and banks exposed to the
sun are the places which they frequent. The common snake,
on the other hand, loves water, or may be found in a hay-field
or near an old barn or on a dung-heap. The snake lays
eggs and leaves them to be hatched by the heat of the dung or
the rays of the sun, taking no care whatever for her progeny.
The viper, on the contrary, brings forth her young alive and
tends them carefully, even allowing them, according to fairly
well-accredited narratives, to retreat in case of danger into her
mouth and gullet.

The first aid in case of viper-bite should consist in placing
a tight ligature (string or a boot-lace) around the limb above
the punctures. This should be as tight as possible so as to
prevent the circulation of the blood and passage of the venom
towards the heart. Next, incisions should be made across[56]
the punctures, or if circumstances are favourable, the bit of
skin comprising the two punctures may be cut out. The
wound thus made should be sucked or well bathed so as to
favour bleeding, and to remove as much of the poison as can
be got away. If ammonia or potash, or Jeye’s fluid or Condy’s
fluid be at hand the wound should be continuously bathed with
a weak solution of it. The ligature, if tight, should not be
kept on for more than an hour, but by this time medical
advice will probably have been obtained. To combat the
faintness, &c., brandy, or still better ammonia (that is, sal
volatile or hartshorn well diluted), should be given.

THE VIVARIUM. (Haslemere Museum.)

During June and July the botany of a district may be very
fully illustrated in the Museum-vivarium. Mr. Douglas
Taylor, who has charge of that department in our Museum,
experiences no difficulty in exhibiting one hundred species
simultaneously. No very rare species are exhibited. At the
present time the only plants in our collection to which the term
“uncommon” may be applied are herb Paris, bird’s nest orchis,
Solomon’s seal, and climbing corydalis. The flowers are
arranged, in zinc cylinders, on an ordinary florist’s stand. For
the printed labels now in use we are indebted to the generosity
of E. E. Lowe, Esq., F.L.S., of the Plymouth Museum.

Vipers and grass snakes are not difficult to obtain (see
page 53). The former, when discovered, should be carefully
pinned with a stick, whilst a vasculum (or large bottle) containing
leaves and heather is placed before it. Upon release the
viper, judiciously guided by the stick, will take refuge in the receptacle
prepared for it. Grass-snakes thrive well in captivity,
their chief food being frogs and mice. On the other hand, the
English viper nearly always refuses food under such conditions.

[57]

Our vivarium contains, in addition to the above, two of the
three British newts, viz., Lophinus punctatus and L. palmatus.
The former, though usually spoken of as the “common newt”
is in many districts (as at Haslemere) not so common as the
palmate newt. The latter is smaller, and the tail terminates
abruptly in a threadlike filament, instead of gradually tapering
to a point.

An ants’ nest contained between sheets of glass, on the plan
devised by Sir John Lubbock (Lord Avebury) and described
in his “Ants, Bees, and Wasps” (p. 2), always proves a
source of attraction to visitors in the winter, as well as summer
months. We have had for two seasons past a nest of the
amber-coloured meadow ant (Formica flava) displayed under
these conditions. It is probably the most intelligent of European
species, forming the grassy hillocks from 9 to 18 inches high,
so commonly seen in some districts. The queen, which is
much larger than either workers or males, requires very
careful searching for upon opening a nest; but the peculiar
little white woodlice (which delights in the long name of
Platyarthous hoffmanseggii, they are a sort of guest of the ants)
may be always easily discerned.

Every spring we take out of the Museum and arrange in this
department a series of our summer migrants, accompanied
with general notes on bird migration. The following may be
seen now: Swallow, martin, swift, sand martin, cuckoo,
corncrake, nightingale, wryneck, nightjar, redstart, yellow
wagtail, garden warbler, wheatear, chiffchaff and whinchat.

Kept under a bell glass and fed with lettuce and cabbage
leaves are some half a dozen examples of the large edible or
vine snail (Helix pomatia), the largest of our native land
molluscs. This species occurs chiefly on the chalk in the
southern counties. At one time it was supposed to have been
introduced by the Romans, but of late years the opinion has
gained ground that it was indigenous. In the same quarters is[58]
an example of a shell-slug, the Testacella haliotidea, sent from
Torquay. The shell-slugs differ from ordinary slugs in having
a shell on the tail. They are carnivorous and feed upon earth-worms,
which they pursue in their burrows; hence may be
considered as gardeners’ friends.

A GILBERT WHITE PAGE.

(Continued from p. 27.)

The curious effect of insect attacks in stimulating the
growth of certain parts of the plant which they have
damaged may be found illustrated in hundreds of instances.
We have just mentioned the pine-apples on the spruce fir, but
the currant gall on the male catkin of the oak is yet more
striking. In this case a structure which is naturally very
shortlived has its vigour enhanced and its life prolonged by
the presence of the parasite. In this instance the fly attacks
the pollen-bearing flowers and deposits its eggs. These
flowers would, in the ordinary course, wither and fall as soon
as the pollen has ripened and been blown away. Under the
stimulating influence of the larvæ, however, sap is attracted,
their stems thicken and become fleshy, and instead of
withering, they produce what looks like a handsome bunch
of currants.

Another instructive instance of parasitism stimulating
growth may be observed at this season in any patch of the
common field thistle. Some of the plants are almost sure to
be affected by a parasitic fungus. It is present in the stole
of the plant, and its influence will cause the affected plants
to put forth leaves earlier than the healthy ones. They will
also grow faster, and in the course of a month be twice the
height of their fellows. The fungus grows in the stem, and
finally it will flower out on the surface of the leaves. When
this happens the plant will die, but up to that period its[59]
growth has been notably vigorous. The fungus is the Puccinia
suaveoleus (see Plowright, p. 183.) In some plants it is visible
even in early spring, and if abundant will dwarf the plant so
affected instead of stimulating its growth.

SEASONAL NOTES. JUNE.

It is scarcely too much to say that “leafy June” is the
month in the year least favourable to natural history observation.
Its glorious beauty is distracting and the profusion
of objects of interest hinders attention to any. We hope,
however, that our last month’s Notes may have directed the
attention of some of our readers to certain special topics and
particularly to the wonders of Gall-formation now in progress.
The pine-apple galls on the spruce firs are now in full growth.
Two varieties will be abundantly found. Some are small,
not bigger than large peas, and remain green. These are
covered with spines rather than scales. Others much larger
have scales, which at their margins are beautifully tinged
with various shades of red and crimson. These are the
“pine-apples” and these alone simulate true cones. Their
changes will advance rapidly and already their valves may
have opened and allowed the aphis larva, which has escaped
from its egg at their base, to crawl up and enter. This
most remarkable process may be verified by any one who
will watch carefully.

Those objects of universal disgust, the Cuckoo-spits, may
be shown to have features of interest which will to some
extent counteract the repugnance of all juvenile naturalists.
Hidden in a mass of iridescent spume there will be found
a little greenish insect revelling in the double luxury of
warmth and moisture, to which perhaps is added a paradise[60]
of many-coloured light. The observer’s attention may be
attracted to the fact that the insect has chosen chiefly thistles
and nettles as its hosts, these not being likely to be eaten
by cattle. Later in the season it will be less careful. The
insect here concerned, although a relative of the “plant lice,”
is not a true aphis.

June is the month for the Orchis tribe. The Bee must be
looked for in its earliest weeks or never. So also of the
Spider and the Frog. Others continue in flower much longer,
but almost all are in their perfection in June.

Rhododendrons are now plentiful, and the very interesting
arrangement by which their anthers open at their points to
discharge their pollen may easily be observed. It is characteristic
of the whole family of heaths, but as the anthers
of rhododendrons are far larger than those of our English
heaths, it is best seen in them.

Those who have never observed it before will be amused
to be shown the jack-in-the-box manner in which the curled
up stamens of the Broom spring out when the bee touches the
shoulders of the petals. June is the month for Broom and
both will soon be past.

Amongst our summer visitants the pretty little Turtle-dove
is one of the last to arrive. It waits until the season is well
settled and rarely comes to us before the middle of May.
As perhaps a result of this caution its numbers remain each
year much the same. We have now plenty of turtle-doves
at Haslemere, whilst all representatives of the Swallow tribe
are scarce. Some observers think that Nightingales also have
been less frequently heard this spring than usual. Their
song, which ceases when the young are hatched and the
business of feeding begins, will soon be over for 1906.

Speaking of Birds of Passage, we may say that we shall
be glad to receive from any readers in different parts of the
kingdom, estimates of the year’s abundance of the various
species. The spring was remarkably variable, and much of
it cold, and this may have had the result of much diminishing[61]
the supply of food which would await our guests. So far as
our enquiries have gone we believe that there is a general
impression that the early spring migrants are this year somewhat
defective in number.

Peach and Almond trees, with their leaves curled, distorted
and thickened, some yellowish-green, others rosy or purplish,
are infested with a fungus, scientifically known as Exoascus
deformans. It is one of the ascomycetes; in the same genus
is included the fungus responsible for the “witches’ besoms”
of our birch-trees. At maturity the fungus bursts through
the cuticle of the leaf, coming to the surface to disperse its
spores or seeds. The part of the leaf with the ripe spores
upon it, is minutely velvety; the whitish bloom may be easily
seen with the unaided eye, but of course individual spores
could not be seen without the aid of a powerful microscope.

It is said that this disease is very rarely seen in seasons
following an uniformly mild spring.

At the moment of writing we have not observed many oaks
defoliated by caterpillars. The following note is taken from
the Museum Record Book, June 1, 1899: “Oak-trees badly
attacked by the larvæ of the green leaf-roller (Tortrix viridana),
which cause much damage to the foliage. The continuous
falling of the excreta of these small caterpillars sounds like
paper being pricked by a fine pin, and is very noticeable in a
quiet wood.” In 1902 these larvæ were again equally troublesome
in this district.

The ingenious work of the leaf-rolling Beetles (Genera
apoderus, Attelabus and Rhynchites) may be observed at this time
of the year. The female, in some species, rolls a leaf into
a tube, in others she makes a compact little thimble of the
upper half of the leaf, in the centre of which she puts an egg.
Hazel, oak and chestnut leaves so folded are not uncommonly
seen in this district. Specimens may be usually seen in the
vivarium towards the end of the month.

June is a good month for the observation of what are[62]
termed Social Flowers. The veronica, in many meadows,
especially those in which the grass is kept short by grazing,
now exhibits round patches of several yards in diameter,
which are beautifully blue. The little mouse ear (Myosotis)
makes similar patches, but in much less conspicuous tints.
These plants appear to have the power not only of spreading
themselves, but of excluding intruders, and their territories
sometimes show no other form of vegetation. The common
daisy is also a social flower, but much less able to keep others
at a distance. So also the wild strawberry.

QUESTIONS FOR ANSWERS.

(Continued from p. 31, which see.)

(14) Give the meanings of the following prefixes: (1) sub,
(2) pseudo, (3) ob, (4) hypo, (5) hyper, (6) para, (7) ab,
(8) aero, (9) con, (10) amphi, (11) ana, (12) pro.

(15) The late Mr. Holyoake tells us that as the result of
a street accident in which he was much bruised he remembers
“squalling for a fortnight on being taken out of bed.” In
another place we read respecting an accident that “a huge
dog had loitered behind, and suddenly discovered his master
had driven ahead, and he, like a Leming rat, made straight
for his master, quite regardless of our being in his way.”
Explain the reference to the Leming rat, and rewrite both
quotations so as to make them express what you think that
the author intended that they should.

(16) What is meant by “a rootless tooth”?

(17) When the number of digits differs on the front and
hinder feet of a quadruped, which has usually the most?

(18) Amongst the principal divisions of the mammalian
kingdom are Rodentia, Carnivora, Insectivora, Cheiroptera,
Primates and Ungulata. Name an English representative
of each.

(19) Why are Bees named Anthophila?

(20) Was Captain Cook killed at Owhyhee or in Hawaii?

(21) What do the figures 2123 mean when applied to the
teeth, and how many teeth would the animal possess to which
that formula would be suitable?

[63]

(22) At what time in the morning do Daisies open their
flowers?

(23) In the Times of September 13, we read, respecting
the Sakhalin coast, “The number of walruses and sea-beavers
have been greatly reduced by the destructive methods of
the American fishers.” What animals are meant by the term
“sea-beavers,” and is the name a suitable one?

(24) If you have watched a stableman washing the wheels
of a carriage, you will have seen him use an implement for
lifting the vehicle from the ground. Why does he use it?
What is its name? Explain its mechanism.

(25) If you pour hot water upon a dry sponge it will sink
down to half its size, whereas if the water were cold it would
swell up. Try the experiment and explain the different results.

(26) When a man’s hands are cold he will swing his arms
so as to strike the hands violently against the sides of his
shoulders. What is this action called, and why is it
practised?

NOTICES OF BOOKS RECEIVED.

Ornithology.—Messrs. West, Newman and Co., have recently
published a very handy and useful “Pocket Book of
British Birds,” which we have much pleasure in recommending
to field ornithologists. The arrangement followed is that
given in Howard Saunders’ well-known “Manual of British
Birds.” Species “of which only a few specimens have been
observed or obtained in this country” are omitted. The
notes are arranged under the heads of localities, haunts,
observation, plumage, language, habits, food, nest, site,
material, eggs. The size is very convenient for the pocket.
Price, 2s. 6d.

The Transactions of the British Mycological Society
for the season 1905 (published, May 19, 1906) contain a
full account of the Fungus Foray held at Haslemere during
the week ending September 30, 1905.

The specimens collected were exhibited in the Museum.
The exhibition was a record one as regards the number of
species, as no less than four hundred and eighty-five were[64]
identified during the foray, including twenty-five mycetozoa.
Four plates, three coloured, accompany the Transactions.

Amongst the species depicted we may mention Polystictus
montagnei, a new British species found near Haslemere in
1898, and Sparassis laminosa (also a new British record) found
by Mr. Douglas Taylor on the occasion of the Society’s visit
to Woolmer Forest on September 26, last.

Full particulars respecting the Society may be obtained of
the Hon. Secretary, Carelton Rea, Esq., B.C.L., M.A., at
34, Foregate Street, Worcester.

DESCRIPTIONS OF MUSEUM SPECIMENS.

[These descriptions are adapted for Museum Labels, and they may
be had separately.]

SKULL OF MONTJAC, OR BARKING DEER.

The skull of the little Montjac, or Barking deer, is of
interest as showing better than any other the relation of the
antler to its pedestal. The pedestal is very long and the
antler very small. The latter usually possesses only two
tines, the main one and a short stout one which grows near
its base. From the front of the pedestal there runs a strong
bony ridge down the outer border of the frontal bone as far as
the junction with the nasal. This evidently gives strength to
the prolonged and rather slender pedestal.

SKULL OF A LLAMA (Camel of America).

The skull of the Llama resembles that of the Camel, and
both differ from those of the other ruminants in having incisor
teeth in the upper jaw. “These teeth are placed at the
side of the intermaxillary bone close to the canines, and agree
with them in form” (Van der Hoven, vol. ii., 644).

“There are six incisors only in the lower jaw, and this
jaw is undivided.”

The camels and llamas form transition species between
horses and oxen (ruminants and solid-ungulates).

[65]

THE HORNS OF A GNU.

The Gnu’s horns are alike in both species and may be known
at a glance by their hook-like curves. They pass outwards and
downwards and then suddenly curve upwards and forwards.
They resemble those of buffaloes and perhaps most closely
those of the American bison. They are never very large, and
always black. They are of fibrous structure and of large girth
at their bases, emulating those of the buffaloes. The Gnu
in some of its features resembles a little horse, possessing a
mane and having its face, tail, and hindquarters much like
those of a pony. It has, however, a cleft hoof and a beard
which, as well as its horns, distinguish it from the horse family.

One of the gnus has a brindled neck and forequarters, pale
streaks on a dark ground, and a black and tufted tail; another
has a white tail covered with long hair from its base, and
shows no brindling. The latter has an almost straight back,
whilst the former stands higher in its forequarters like the
bison. The horns of the brindled black-tailed gnu do not
pass forwards nearly so much as those of the other.

All the Gnus are South African and would appear to bear
the same relation to the buffaloes of that continent that the
North American bison does to the American buffalo.

They are active but rather awkward animals, and their
self-important airs are sometimes amusing.

THE SKULL OF THE DUGONG, OR HALICORE.

This animal is allied to the Manati, both belonging to
the order Sirenia. They are water-living mammals. The
dugong occurs only in Eastern and Australian seas, the
manati on the coasts of South America and Africa. The
grotesquely misshapen aspect of the skull of the dugong is due
to the enormous development of the bones in its upper jaw
which carry the cutting teeth (premaxillary bones and incisor
teeth), and its clumsy lower jaw. The former bear a tusk
in the male, which in the female is present but is never cut.[66]
There are no canine teeth, and in the massive lower jaw no
incisor teeth are ever cut. The rudiment of one is, however,
present in the jaw. It may be noted that the bones carrying
the upper incisors do not become united to those of the upper
jaw. The back teeth (chewing teeth), are only four, five, or
six in number in the dugong, whereas in the manati there
may be twenty. A remarkable tendency to vary in their
dentition is characteristic of this group of animals, and is no
doubt in relation with differences in food. A recently extinct
member of the family (Steller’s sea-cow) had no teeth at all,
but masticated the soft sea-weeds on which it fed by the aid
of a horny palate (Rhytina Stelleri).

HEAD OF THE WART HOG (Phacochœrus Æthiopicus).

The Wart Hog is a native of Africa. His name makes
reference to a pair of wart-like excrescences, which are formed,
one under each eye. These may be an inch and a half in
length.

There is an enormous development of the base of the
zygoma. The incisor teeth in the upper jaw are often wanting,
and sometimes those in the lower also. The snout is
short and square. The so-called warts are fleshy skin-growths
and may be large enough to look like ears.

There is another Wart Hog (Œliani), met with in Abyssinia.
It differs from the Cape Wart Hog in that its incisor teeth in
both jaws are more persistent. It has two “warts.”

THE SKULL OF A PIG (Sus scrofa).

The skulls of most of the swine family may be recognised
by the long face, and the large size, in both jaws, of their
dog-teeth or tusks. These are especially large in the male
sex, and are often curiously curved, those of the upper jaw
upwards, and those of the lower outwards and upwards. The
incisor, or biting, teeth vary very much in different species
and at different ages. They are often shed early, especially
those of the upper jaw. In some pigs the lower incisors are[67]
strong and slope directly forwards, as if for digging. The incisor
teeth are of less service in the pig than in most animals, and
are only exceptionally used for biting or grazing. The pig
makes great use of the snout, and the nasal bones are strong
and prominent. The molar teeth are well adapted for
chewing, and are usually worn flat on their surfaces. Pigs
champ but do not ruminate. They are, for the most part,
root-eaters. The rim of the orbit is always imperfect. The
normal dentition is three incisors, one canine, and seven
molars in each jaw. If the upper canine is extracted the
lower one will grow into a complete circle and reach the gum
close to the root of the tooth. When thus curved it forms
an ornament much valued in Fiji.

SKULL OF THE BABIRUSSA.

Note especially that the tusk of the upper jaw grows upward
from the first. No part of it is directed into the mouth.
This tusk is of extraordinary size, and it curves upwards so
as to touch, and sometimes even to pierce, the skull. They
are, as compared with those of other swine, slender tusks, more
especially the under ones. The upper tusk grows through
the skin of the upper lip. In old animals, when it is well
curved, it must be useless as a weapon. It may serve to
protect the eyes when the animal rushes through brushwood.
In the female the tusks are small.

ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTS, &c.

Conchologist.—Your shells are Helix nemoralis (immature),
Hyalinia (Vitrea) pura, and Buliminus obscurus. Vitrea pura is a
much smaller shell than V. nitidula, the latter may be distinguished
from V. radiatula by the striæ not being continued from whorl to
whorl. B. obscurus is much smaller than any member of the genus
Clausilia. If you examine in May the trunks of beech trees growing
on calcareous soils you will find B. obscurus and Clausilia laminata
ascending them in large numbers to spend the summer aloft, coming
down again in October to go into hybernation at the base of the trees[68]
during the winter months. You will find C. rugosa (in modern terminology,
C. bidentata) equally common on the trees, it is smaller and
thinner than C. laminata. B. obscurus is a short, stout little shell,
seldom exceeding 9 millimetres in height.

Gardener. Diseases of the Cultivated Chrysanthemum.—At the
present time three diseases are recorded for this country, viz., sclerotium
disease (Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, Massee); corticium disease
(Peniophora chrysanthemi, C. B. Plowright), and the only too familiar
Rust (Puccinia hieracii, Mart). The sclerotium, which first appears
as a white mould on the stem just above the ground, forms black
lumps within the stem. The stem becomes very brittle and falls.
From the black nodules in the following spring, small funnel-shaped
brownish fungi with long, weak, dark stems appear. The spores
from these settle upon dead organic matter, forming an abundant
mycelium which ultimately attacks the base of the stems of chrysanthemums.
It is said that fresh stable manure favours the spread of
the disease. Diseased stems should be carefully collected and
burnt.

The corticium disease also appears on the lower part of the stem,
forming a white growth in autumn; Dr. Plowright, who first discovered
it, says it resembles a splash of whitewash. It is not confined
to the stems but extends into the adjacent soil. Diseased
plants are shorter in height and thinner in the stem than healthy;
they always die within the year. This disease has hitherto been
observed only at King’s Lynn in Norfolk, but it is very possible it
occurs in other parts of the country. Dr. Plowright remarks that the
only treatment is burning the diseased plant. It is useless to
separate the apparently healthy shoots.

The well-known chrysanthemum rust first appeared in 1897, and
spread with great rapidity in the very dry summer of 1898. The
snuff-coloured uredo spores (summer form) are familiar to all cultivators
of chrysanthemums. This fungus occurs on many wild plants
of the order Compositæ, notably the hawk-weeds (Hieracium). All
diseased plants should be burnt. The disease may be prevented by
spraying the new leaves with potassium sulphide solution.

It is to be hoped that the chrysanthemum leaf blight (Cylindrosporium
chrysanthemi), which has caused so much damage to cultivated
plants in Ontario, Canada, will not find its way into this
country. It forms large dark patches on the leaves, which turn yellow
and hang down; the flower buds do not expand. It is stated that
fungicides are useless.