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U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY.

J. R. Mohler, Chief Of Bureau.

SPECIAL REPORT

ON

DISEASES OF CATTLE.

BY

Drs. ATKINSON, DICKSON, EICHHORN, HICKMAN, LAW, LOWE, MARSH, MOHLER,
MURRAY, PEARSON, RANSOM, TRUMBOWER, and WOODWARD.

REVISED EDITION, 1923.

WASHINGTON:
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.
1923.

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Transcriber’s note: Minor typos have been corrected, tables
have been modified for web page display where necessary, and footnotes have
been moved to the ends of the sections. Inconsistencies in spelling (e.g.,
D’Arboval/D’Arborval) and hyphenation (e.g., postmortem/post-mortem) have
been resolved in all cases where it was possible to divine the author’s
intent with a reasonable degree of certainty. The occasional error which
could not be resolved was marked [sic].The plate images are thumbnails.
Click on them to see larger versions of the images.

[Extract from “An act making appropriations for the Department of
Agriculture for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1924, and for other purposes,”
approved February 26, 1923. Public—No. 446.]

For printing, binding, and distribution of the publications entitled
“Diseases of the Horse” and “Diseases of Cattle,” $200,000: Provided, That said
publications shall be deposited one-third in the folding room of the Senate and
two-thirds in the folding room of the House of Representatives, and said
documents shall be distributed by Members of the Senate and House of
Representatives.

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CONTENTS.

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ILLUSTRATIONS.

PLATES.

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TEXT FIGURES.

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SPECIAL REPORT

ON

DISEASES OF CATTLE

ADMINISTRATION OF MEDICINES.

By Leonard Pearson, B. S., V. M. D.

Medicines may be administered to cattle in many ways. The channel and method
of administration depend on whether a general or local effect is desired, the
condition of the animal, and the nature of the medicine that is to be given.
The easiest method, and therefore the most common, is to give ordinary remedies
by the mouth with the food, with drink, or separately. There, are, however,
some conditions in which medicines administered in this way will not act
promptly enough, or wherein a desired effect of the medicine on a distant part
of the body is wholly lacking unless it is applied in some other way.

The various methods of administering medicines to cattle will be considered
below.

By the mouth.—The simplest way to give
medicines by the mouth is to mix them with the food or water. This can be done
when the medicine is in the form of a powder or fluid, if but a small quantity
is to be given, if it does not have a taste that is disagreeable to the animal
and is not so irritant as to injure the lining membranes of the mouth and
throat.

The usual method of administering bulky or unpalatable doses is to mix them
with a fluid vehicle, such as water, milk, molasses, or broth, and give from a
bottle. A dose given in this way is known as a “drench.” In administering a
drench the head of the animal should be elevated a little by an assistant. This
is best accomplished when standing on the left side of the cow’s head and by
grasping the nose with the thumb and fingers of the right hand inserted in the
nostrils; with the left hand beneath the chin the head is further raised and
supported. If the animal is unruly, it may be tied in a stall or placed in a
stanchion. The medicine can now be poured into the mouth by inserting the neck
of the bottle between the lips on the right side. Care must be taken to avoid
getting the bottle between the back teeth.[Pg 8] The mouth of the bottle should be
inserted as far as the middle of the tongue and the contents poured slowly. If
the cow coughs, the head must at once be lowered to permit the fluid to escape
from the larynx. If medicine is given during coughing, some of the dose may
pass down the windpipe to the lungs and cause a severe or a fatal pneumonia.
This is especially to be guarded against when the throat is partly paralyzed or
insensitive, as in parturient paresis (milk fever). In this disease it has
often happened that drenches have been poured into the lungs, thus killing the
cow.

The quantity of fluid to be given in a drench depends upon the effect
desired and the nature of the medicine. In impactions of the stomach very large
quantities of fluid may be given—as much as a gallon or several gallons
at a time. Usually, however, it is not customary or desirable to give more than
from 1 to 2 quarts at a dose, and not more than a pint unless it is necessary
on account of the irritant quality of the drug that has to be shielded with a
large quantity of the vehicle.

Soluble medicines should be completely dissolved before they are given;
insoluble ones should be finely divided by powdering or by shaking, and should
be well agitated and mixed immediately before they are given. In the latter
case a menstruum with considerable body, such as molasses or flaxseed tea or
milk, will help to hold solids or oils in suspension until swallowed.

Balls are large pills adapted for the larger animals. Powders or gums are
sometimes mixed with an adhesive substance and rolled into balls for the
purpose of convenience of administration. Balls are not used so much and are
not so well adapted to the medication of cattle as of horses. The process of
solution is slower in the paunch of a cow than in the stomach of a horse; if
the cow is so sick as to have stopped ruminating, a ball may get covered up and
lost in the mass of material in the paunch and so lie for days, producing no
effect whatever.

Capsules are shells or envelopes made of soluble gelatin in which powders or
liquids may be inclosed. Capsules and balls are administered by being placed on
the tongue well back in the mouth while the tongue is drawn forward and the
mouth is held open by a block of wood between the back teeth. The ball should
be dropped, the tongue released, and the block removed as nearly simultaneously
as possible, so that the backward carriage of the tongue will throw the ball
into the throat and lead to its being swallowed. In introducing the ball care
must be taken to avoid having the hand cut or crushed. After a little
experience it is possible to do away with the block of wood.

By the stomach.—Medicines are introduced
directly into the first stomach by the use of an esophageal tube or through the
cannula of a [Pg
9] trocar passed into the paunch through the side. This method is
used in the treatment of diseases of digestion.

By the rectum.—Medicines are usually
administered by the rectum for the purpose of controlling the bowels and for
the treatment of local diseases. Sometimes, however, medicines that have a
general effect are given in this way when, for any reason, it is not possible
or convenient to give them through the mouth. Only drugs that are readily
absorbed should be given per rectum for a general effect and in somewhat larger
dose or more frequently than when given by the mouth. Such stimulants as ether,
alcohol, or the aromatic spirits of ammonia, diluted with from four to six
times their bulk of warm water, may be used in this way.

Rectal injections, or enemata, are used in the treatment of constipation. If
it is the purpose of the injection to soften hardened fecal masses, the water
should be comfortably warm and may have a little clean soap in it. If it is the
purpose of the injection to stimulate sluggish bowels to contraction, the water
may be cold.

In giving rectal injections a rectal syringe may be used, or, better, a
piece of one-half to three-quarter inch rubber hose 5 feet long with a tin
funnel attached to one end. The hose is soaped or oiled and introduced slowly
and gently into the rectum 2 or 3 feet. The fluid is then slowly poured into
the funnel and allowed to gravitate into the rectum. The same apparatus may be
used for feeding by the rectum.

By the vagina.—Medicines are inserted into
the vagina, and through the vagina into the womb, in a manner similar to that
of rectal administration. Most of the medication made use of in this way is for
the local treatment of these organs. Following calving, during outbreaks of
abortion, and in an infectious disease of the vagina, such injections become
necessary.

By the udder.—Injections into the udder are
now regularly made in the treatment of parturient paresis (milk fever). For
this purpose a 1 per cent solution of iodid of potassium is commonly employed,
although some other solutions and oxygen gas are also used. In making this
injection so many precautions are necessary in relation to the sterilization of
the apparatus and the teats and skin that this work should be left to a skilled
veterinarian. The introduction of even a minute quantity of infectious dirt may
cause the loss of the udder. For making this injection one may use one of the
prepared sets of apparatus or a milking tube and funnel connected by a piece of
small rubber hose. The apparatus should be boiled and kept wrapped in a clean
towel until needed. The udder and teats and the hands of the operator must be
well disinfected, and the solution must be freshly made with recently boiled
water kept in a sterile bottle. The udder should be emptied of milk before the
injection is made.[Pg
10] After all these precautions have been observed the milking tube
may be inserted and through it one-half pint of solution introduced by gravity
air pressure or by syringe. There is practically no danger in this mode of
treatment if it is properly carried out.

Injections into the udder are sometimes made in the treatment of garget, but
so far with indifferent success.

By the nostrils.—An animal may be caused to
inhale medicine in the form of gas or vapor or to snuff up a fine powder.
Sometimes, for the purpose of local treatment, fluids are injected into the
nose.

A medicine inhaled may have either a local or a general effect.

Medicated steam, carrying the volatile products of compound cresol solution,
carbolic acid, balsam of Peru, compound tincture of benzoin, tincture of iodin,
etc., may be liberated beneath the nostrils of a cow so that she must inhale
these soothing vapors; but such treatment is not so common for cattle as for
horses. In producing general anesthesia, or insensibility to pain, the vapor of
chloroform or ether is administered by the nostrils. As a preliminary to this
it is necessary to cast and confine the animal. Great care is necessary to
avoid complete stoppage of the heart or breathing.

By the trachea.—Medicines are injected into
the trachea, or windpipe, in the treatment of some forms of diseases of the
lungs, and especially in that form of bronchitis or pneumonia that is caused by
lungworms. For this injection a large hypodermic syringe, fitted with a very
thick, strong needle, is used. The needle is to be inserted about the middle of
the neck and between the cartilaginous rings of the trachea.

By the skin.—Although a number of drugs,
notably mercury, are so readily absorbed by the skin of cattle as to render
poisoning easy, medicines are not given in this way for their general or
constitutional but only for their local effect.

Diseases of the skin and superficial parasites are treated or destroyed by
applications in the forms of washes, ointments, dips, and powders. Liniments
and lotions are applied to the skin for the relief of some near-lying part,
such as a muscle, tendon, or joint. Blisters are applied to the skin for the
purpose of obtaining the effect of counterirritation upon a neighboring region
or organ. Cold water may be applied to the skin to reduce the temperature and
to diminish congestion or inflammation in a superficial area or to reduce the
temperature of the whole body. High fever and heat strokes are treated in this
way.

By the tissue beneath the skin.—Hypodermic
or subcutaneous injections are often made for the purpose of introducing a
drug, reagent, or vaccine directly into the connecting tissue beneath the skin.
Introduced in this way, the substance is quickly absorbed, [Pg 11] none of it is
lost, and its whole effect is obtained, often within a few minutes.

There are numerous precautions necessary in making a subcutaneous injection,
most of which have to do with cleansing and sterilization. It is also important
to select a proper site for the injection, so that blood vessels, joints, and
superficial nerves, organs, or cavities may all be avoided. With due regard for
the necessary precautions, there is practically no danger in such an injection,
but it should be attempted only by those who are able to carry it through in a
surgically clean way. Only certain drugs can be given subcutaneously, and
dosage must be accurately graduated.

By the veins.—Certain medicines act most
promptly and surely when introduced directly into the blood by injecting them
into a vein, usually the jugular. Some vaccines and antitoxins are administered
in this way. Intravenous injection should be practiced only by experienced
veterinarians.

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DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS.

By A. J. Murray, M. R. C. V. S.

[Revised by R.W. Hickman, V. M. D.]

CHARACTER OF FEEDS AND FEEDING.

Diseases of the digestive organs are very common among cattle, and may often
be traced to defects in feeding. The first three stomachs of the larger
ruminants hold the feed for a long time, during which period it is subjected to
macerating, mixing, and straining processes in preparation for entrance into
the fourth or true stomach. The straining is accomplished through the medium of
the manyplies or book, while the paunch, or rumen, with its adjunct, the
waterbag, is concerned in the macerating, kneading, and mixing, as well as in
regurgitation for rumination or the chewing of the cud. The action of the first
three stomachs is merely preparatory to digestion. Thus it would seem that as a
result of their complex anatomical and functional arrangement the feed of the
ox, when of good quality and wholesome, is in the most favorable condition
possible for the digestive process when it reaches the fourth stomach, where
true digestion first takes place. The location and arrangement of the stomachs
are shown in Plates I and II.

If the feed is of improper character, or is so given that it can not be
cared for by the animal in a normal way, false fermentations arise, causing
indigestion, and possibly, later, organic disease. In feeding cattle there are
a number of important considerations apart from the economy of the ration, and
some of these are noted below.

Feeds must not be damaged by exposure to the weather, by frost, by molds, or
by deleterious fermentations.

Damaged feeds retard or prevent digestion, and sometimes they contain or
cause to be generated substances that irritate the digestive tract, or are
distinctly poisonous to the animal. For example, hay that was rained on
severely during curing has not only lost a part of its nutritive value through
a washing-out process, but what remains is not so readily available as in good
hay. Roots that have been frozen are likely to irritate and injure the
digestive tract. Grass eaten with frost on it may cause severe indigestion. All
moldy feeds are not injurious, for some molds appear to have no influence on
the process of digestion, but those of other species may not only retard
digestion and cause local injury to the digestive organs, but may cause general
poisoning of a severe and fatal type.

[Pg 13] The
following molds have been shown (Dammann) to be dangerous in respect to the
production of the morbid conditions enumerated:

Tilletia caries grows chiefly in wheat and may be found with the grain, thus
appearing in the bran or meal. It causes paralysis of the throat and spinal
cord and irritation of the digestive tract. The rusts, such as Puccinia
graminis, P. straminis, P. Coronata, and P. arudinacea, cause colic and
diarrhea, and in some cases partial paralysis of the throat. The rusts that
occur on clovers, beans, and peas cause very severe irritation of the lining
membrane of the mouth and throat, resulting sometimes in gangrene of this
tissue.

Polydesmus exitans grows on the leaves of rape and turnips, appearing in
early summer. This fungus is very irritating to the mouths and feet of cattle,
causing severe inflammation and the formation of a false membrane. In some
instances this condition has been mistaken for foot-and-mouth disease, but it
can be differentiated by the absence of the blister that is characteristic of
that disease and by the further fact that it is nontransmissible.

Polytrincium trifolii, which grows on clover, causing it to become black,
causes severe irritation of the stomach and intestines of cattle feeding upon
it.

Feeds must not contain too large a proportion of woody fiber or of
indigestible substances. If the dry matter ingested or the bulk of the feed is
very great on account of the small proportion of digestible matter, it is
impossible for the great mass to be moistened properly with and attacked by the
digestive juices. In consequence of this, abnormal fermentations arise, causing
indigestion and irritation of the digestive organs. On the other hand, a ration
too concentrated, and especially too rich in protein, is not suitable, because,
after a meal, the animal must have a certain feeling of fullness in order to be
comfortable and quiet, and the digestive organs require a relatively large
volume of contents to fill them to the point where secretion is properly
stimulated and their activity is most efficient. If too much protein is in the
ration there is a waste of expensive feed, and the tendency is for the animal
to become thin. It is evident that a cow can not thrive on concentrated feeds
alone, even though these contain in assimilable form all the nutritive
materials needed for perfect support. It is because bulk is necessary that the
standard of about 25 pounds of dry matter per cow per day has been reached by
experimenters. There is no objection to feeding grain or meal separately to a
cow, provided enough bulky feed is fed at another time in the day to keep the
digestive tract sufficiently distended.

In changing the ration, and especially in making radical changes, as at the
beginning and the end of the pasturing season, the change [Pg 14] should be
made gradually, so that the digestive organs may accommodate themselves to it.
After the digestive organs and juices have from long practice become adjusted
to the digestion of a certain feed, which is then suddenly withheld and another
of quite different character and properties is substituted, the second feed is
not well digested; it may even irritate the digestive canal. It is often
observed that cattle lose from 25 to 100 pounds when turned on pasture from dry
stable feed. This loss can readily be prevented by not shocking the digestive
organs by a sudden change of diet.

Regularity in feeding has much to do with the utilization of the ration, and
gross irregularity may cause indigestion and serious disease.

Water for live stock should be as free from contamination and as nearly pure
as that used for household purposes. When practicable it is well to warm the
water in the winter to about 50° F. and allow cattle to drink often.

DISEASES OF THE MOUTH.

WOUNDS AND CONTUSIONS OF THE LIPS, AND SNAKE BITE.

The lips may become inflamed from contusions, which are sometimes produced
by a blow from the horns of another animal, or, in the case of working oxen, by
a blow from the driver. While cattle are grazing, more especially when they are
in woods, they may be bitten in the lips by insects or serpents.

Symptoms.—As a result of a contusion the lips become thick and
swollen, and if treatment is neglected the swelling may become hard and
indurated, or an abscess may form. This condition renders it difficult for the
animal to get food into its mouth, on account of the lips having lost their
natural flexibility. In such cases an ox will use his tongue more in the
prehension of food to make up for the incapacity of the lips. In cases of snake
bite the swelling is soft or puffy and its limits are not well defined.

Treatment.—When we have to deal with a bruise, the affected part
should be bathed with hot water two or three times daily. In recent cases no
other treatment will be required, but if the swelling is not recent and has
become hard or indurated, then the swollen part should be treated each day by
painting it with tincture of iodin. In snake bite a straight incision
penetrating into the flesh or muscle should be made across the center of the
swelling and in the direction of the long axis of the face. After this has been
done a small wad of cotton batting should be pressed against the wounds until
the bleeding has almost stopped. Afterwards the following lotion may be applied
to the wounds several times a day: Permanganate of potassium, half a dram;
distilled water, 1 pint. As snake bites are usually [Pg 15] attended with considerable
depression, which may terminate in stupor, it is advisable to give a stimulant.
One ounce of aromatic spirits of ammonia mixed with a pint of water should be
given, and the dose should be repeated in half an hour if the animal is sinking
into a stupefied and unconscious condition. The repetition of the dose must
depend on the symptoms which the animal shows. It must be borne in mind that
the object of treatment is to ward off the stupor, which is one of the results
of snake bite. The swelling from an insect bite should be bathed with ammonia
water as soon as noticed and then treated with frequent applications of hot
water.

SALIVATION.

Salivation is a symptom of some general or local disorder. It may be a
symptom of a general disease, such as rabies or foot-and-mouth disease, or it
may be a purely local trouble, as when copious secretion of the salivary glands
is produced by the eating of irritating plants, such as wild mustard. When
saliva is observed to dribble from the mouth, that part should be carefully
examined by introducing into the mouth an instrument like a balling iron, or,
if one is not at hand, by grasping the tongue and partially withdrawing it from
the mouth, and by placing a block of wood between the back teeth, while all
parts of the mouth are exposed to a good light, so that the presence of any
foreign substance may be detected. The cause is sometimes found to be a short
piece of wood becoming fixed on the palate, its two ends resting on the upper
molar teeth of each side; or it may be a needle, thorn, or splinter of wood
embedded in the tongue. Sometimes a sharp piece of tin or other metal may
become partially embedded in the inner surface of the cheek. Hay occasionally
possesses some quality, usually dependent upon its having heated in the mow or
having become moldy, which produces salivation. Second-crop clover and some
irritant weeds in the pasture or forage may cause salivation. Cattle rubbed
with mercurial ointment may swallow enough mercury in licking themselves to
bring about the same result. (See “Mercury poisoning,” p. 57.) Such cases, of
course, arise from the constitutional action of mercury, and, on account of the
common habit which the animals have of licking themselves, indicate the danger
of using such preparation externally. Mercury is also readily absorbed through
the skin, and as cattle are very susceptible to its action it is thus easy for
them to be poisoned by it even without licking it from the surface. Cases of
mercurial poisoning sometimes follow disinfection of cattle stables with the
usual 1 to 1,000 solution of mercuric chlorid.

[Pg 16]
Treatment.—If salivation depends on the irritation and inflammation set
up by the ingestion of acrid plants, or forage possessing some peculiar
stimulating property, the feed must be changed, and a lotion composed of an
ounce of powdered alum dissolved in a quart of water may be syringed into the
mouth twice a day, using half a pint of the solution each time. If, however,
the salivation is due to the presence of a thorn, splinter of wood, or any
other foreign substance embedded in the cheek or tongue, the offending object
should be removed and the mouth washed occasionally with a weak solution (2 per
cent) of carbolic acid and tepid water. When salivation is produced by
mercurial poisoning or by foot-and-mouth disease, the treatment appropriate to
those general conditions of the system, as well as the local treatment should
be applied. (For information about foot-and-mouth disease see p. 383.)

IRREGULARITIES OF THE TEETH.

Irregularities of the teeth may be occasioned by the unequal wearing of some
of the teeth or by some of the incisors being broken, which may happen when
cattle are pastured on sandy or gravelly soil. The molar teeth may also show
irregular wear from similar causes, or from a disease or malformation of the
jaw. Their edges may become sharp, or it may happen that a molar tooth has been
accidentally fractured. It may also occur that a supernumerary tooth has
developed in an unusual position, and that it interferes with the natural and
regular mastication of the feed.

Treatment.—The mouth may be examined by grasping the animal’s tongue
with one hand and partially withdrawing it from the mouth, so as to expose the
incisor and molar teeth to inspection. When it is desired, however, to examine
the molar teeth with the fingers, so as to obtain a better idea of their
condition, an instrument like the balling iron which is used for the horse
should be introduced into the mouth, so as to separate the jaws and keep them
apart while the examination is being made. Any sharp edges of the molars must
be removed by the tooth rasp, such as is used for horses. Any supernumerary
tooth which interferes with mastication or any tooth which is fractured or
loose should be extracted. In performing such operations it is desirable to
throw, or cast, the animal, and to have its head held securely, so as to enable
the operator to do what is necessary without difficulty.

CARIES OR DECAY OF THE TEETH.

The presence of caries may be suspected if the mouth exhales a bad odor and
if the animal during mastication occasionally stops as if it were in pain. The
existence of caries in a molar tooth may be ascertained by examining the mouth
in the manner already described. If [Pg 17]one of the molars is found to be carious, it
should be extracted. When the crown of the tooth has been destroyed and only
the stump or root is left, extraction is impracticable. In case the animal has
special value the root stumps may be removed by a veterinarian by the operation
of trephining; otherwise, it is best to sell the animal to the butcher.

ACTINOMYCOSIS OF THE JAWBONES (BIG JAW OR LUMPY JAW).

[See Actinomycosis, p. 440.]

INFLAMMATION OF MUCOUS MEMBRANE OF MOUTH (STOMATITIS).

The membrane of the mouth may become inflamed by eating some irritating
substance or plant, or little vesicles may form in the mouths of calves when
they are affected with indigestion, constituting what is termed aphtha.

Symptoms.—The saliva dribbles from the mouth, and when the mouth is
examined the surface of the tongue and other parts appear red and inflamed.
When young animals are affected with the form of disease termed aphtha, small
red elevations are observed on the tongue and other parts of the mouth, having
little white points on their centers, which consist of the epithelium of the
mucous membrane raised into vesicles. These white patches are succeeded by
ulcerated surfaces, which are caused by the shedding of the white patches of
epithelium.

Treatment.—When there is merely a reddened and inflamed condition of
the mucous membrane of the mouth, it will suffice to syringe it out several
times a day with 4 ounces of the following solution: Alum, 1 ounce; water, 2
pints. When the edges of the tongue and other parts of the mouth are studded
with ulcers, they should be painted over once a day with the following solution
until the affected surface is healed: Permanganate of potassium, 20 grains;
water, 1 ounce. When indigestion is associated with an ulcerated condition of
the mouth, separate treatment is required.

ULCERATIVE STOMATITIS (OR ULCERS IN THE MOUTHS OF YOUNG CALVES).

[See Necrotic stomatitis, p. 464.]

MYCOTIC STOMATITIS (SORE MOUTH).

[See p. 532.]

INDURATION OF THE TONGUE (ACTINOMYCOSIS).

[See Actinomycosis, p. 440.]

DISEASES OF THE PHARYNX AND GULLET.

PHARYNGITIS (SORE THROAT).

Pharyngitis is an inflammation of the mucous membrane lining the pharynx. It
is frequently associated with inflammatory diseases of the respiratory tract,
such as laryngitis and bronchitis or pleurisy.

[Pg 18]
Symptoms.—The muzzle is dry and the saliva dribbles from the corners of
the mouth; the animal swallows with difficulty or not at all, and holds its
neck in a stiff, straight position, moving it as little as possible. The
eyelids are half closed, the white of the eye is bloodshot, and the animal
occasionally grinds its teeth. After masticating the feed the animal drops it
out of its mouth as if to avoid the pain of swallowing, and also evinces pain
when pressure is applied externally on the pharynx and tries to prevent the
pressure from being applied.

Causes.—Pharyngitis may be produced by a sudden cooling of the surface
of the body, as when cattle are exposed to a cold wind or a cold rain; or by
swallowing irritant substances.

Treatment.—The throat should be syringed three times a day with an
ounce of the following solution: Nitrate of silver, 1½ drams; distilled
water, 1 pint. Bland and soothing drinks, such as linseed tea or oatmeal and
water should occasionally be offered. Diet should consist of soft food, such as
bran mashes with a little linseed meal mixed in them. Dry hay and fodder should
not be given. Fresh, green grass or sound ensilage may be fed in small
quantities. The upper part of the throat and the space between the jaws should
be well rubbed once a day with the following liniment: Liquor ammonia fortior,
4 ounces; oil of turpentine, 4 ounces; olive oil, 4 ounces; mix. When evidence
of blistering appears the application of the liniment should be stopped and the
skin anointed with vaseline. Under the treatment described above the
inflammation of the throat will gradually subside and the animal will be able
to swallow as usual in five or six days. We need hardly say that during its
treatment the sick animal should be kept in a comfortable stable.

PAROTITIS.

Inflammation of the parotid gland may arise from the inflammation extending
to it when an ox is affected with pharyngitis or laryngitis, or the
inflammation may commence in the salivary ducts and may depend on some
influence the nature of which is unknown. Parotitis sometimes arises from a
blow or contusion severe enough to set up inflammation in the structure of the
gland. Tuberculosis and actinomycosis may infrequently be characterized by the
lodgment of their parasitic causes in the parotid glands, in which case
parotitis may be a symptom of either of these diseases.

Symptoms.—There is an elongated, painful swelling, beginning at the
base of the ear and passing downward along the posterior margin of the lower
jaw. The swelling is sometimes limited to one side, and when both are swollen
it is generally larger on one side than on the other. The secretion of saliva
is increased, the appetite is poor, the neck is stiff, so that it is painful to
raise the head, and feed is swallowed with difficulty. In many cases the
swelling of the glands, [Pg 19]when submitted to proper treatment, disappears
in a comparatively short time. In other cases, however, they remain enlarged,
even after the animal recovers its appetite. In tuberculosis, lymphatic glands
beneath the parotid glands are sometimes enlarged, thus causing the appearance
of enlarged parotid glands.

Treatment.—A warm bran poltice, made by mixing bran with a hot 2 per
cent compound cresol solution in water, should be applied on the swollen gland
and kept in place by means of a bandage. Whenever the poultice has cooled it
should be replaced by a new one. This treatment should be continued until the
pain is less and the swelling is reduced or until there is evidence of pus
formation, which may be ascertained by examining the surface of the gland with
the fingers; and when, on pressing any part of the surface, it is found to
fluctuate or “give,” then we may conclude that there is a collection of pus at
that place. It is well not to open the abscess until the fluctuation is well
marked, as at this stage the pus or matter is near the surface and there is
less trouble in healing the wound than if the pus is deep seated. The abscess
should be opened with a clean, sharp knife. The poulticing should then be
continued for two or three days, but the form of the poultice should be
changed, by replacing the bran with absorbent cotton and pouring the compound
cresol solution on the cotton. At all times the wound should be kept clean and
the cavity injected once or twice daily with a solution of 1 dram of carbolic
acid in 8 ounces of water. Under this treatment the pus may cease and the wound
heal without complications. Saliva may issue from the orifice and result in the
formation of a salivary fistula. This requires operative treatment by a
qualified veterinarian. When poulticing fails to reduce the swelling or produce
softening, the inflamed area may be rubbed once daily with camphorated oil,
compound iodin ointment, or painted twice daily with Lugol’s solution of iodin.
The diet should be as recommended under Pharyngitis (p. 17).

PHARYNGEAL POLYPI.

Tumors form not infrequently in the pharynx, and may give rise to a train of
symptoms varying according to their size and location. The tumor may be so
situated that by shifting its position a little it may partially obstruct the
posterior nares (nostrils), when, of course, it will render nasal breathing
very noisy and labored. In another situation its partial displacement may
impede the entrance of air into the larynx. In almost any part of the pharynx,
but especially near the entrance of the gullet, tumors interfere with the act
of swallowing. As they are frequently attached to the wall of the pharynx by a
pedicel or stalk, it will be seen that they may readily be displaced in
different directions so as to produce the symptoms [Pg 20]before described. Enlarged
postpharyngeal lymphatic glands are not rare in tuberculosis, and by pressing
upon the wall of the pharynx and restricting the lumen of this organ they cause
difficulty in both breathing and swallowing. Such enlarged glands may be
differentiated from tumors by passing the hand into the cow’s throat after the
jaws are separated by a suitable speculum or gag.

Treatment.—The method of treatment in such cases is to separate the
animal’s jaws with an instrument termed a gag, and then, after drawing the
tongue partially forward, to pass the hand into the pharynx and to twist the
tumor gently from its attachment. One veterinarian who has had considerable
practice in treating this form of disease scrapes through the attachment of the
tumor gradually with his thumb nail. When the attachment is too strong to be
severed in this way an instrument like a thimble, but possessing a sharp edge
at the end, may be used to effect the same purpose, or the base of the tumor
may be severed by the use of a crushing instrument known as an écraseur.

CHOKING.

Choking usually happens from attempting to swallow too large an object, such
as a turnip, potato, beet, apple, or pear, though in rare cases it may occur
from bran, chaff, or some other finely divided feed lodging in and filling up a
portion of the gullet. This latter form of the accident is most likely to occur
in animals that are greedy feeders.

Symptoms.—The symptoms vary somewhat according to the part of the
gullet or throat in which the obstruction is. In most cases there is a
discharge of saliva from the mouth; the animal coughs frequently, and when it
drinks the water is soon ejected. The cow stops eating and stands back from the
trough, the expression is troubled, breathing is accelerated, and oftentimes
there is bloating as a result of the retention of gas in the paunch. These
symptoms, however, are not always present, for if the obstacle does not
completely close the throat or gullet, gas and water may pass, thus
ameliorating the discomfort. If the obstruction is in the neck portion of the
gullet, it may be felt as a lump in the left jugular gutter.

Treatment.—If the object is in the throat, it is advisable to put a
gag in the animal’s mouth, and, while the head is held in a horizontal
direction by two assistants, to pass the hand into the pharynx, grasp the
foreign body, and withdraw it gradually and steadily. When the substance is
lodged in the upper part of the gullet, pressure should be made by an assistant
in an upward direction against the object while the operator passes his hand
into the pharynx, and if the assistant can not by pressure dislodge the
substance from the gullet, the operator may by passing his middle finger above
and partly behind [Pg
21]the substance gradually slide it into the pharynx and then
withdraw it by the mouth.

The presence of an obstructing substance in the cervical (neck) portion of
the gullet may be ascertained by passing the hand along the left side of the
neck, when a hard and painless swelling will be found to indicate the presence
of the foreign body. In such cases we must endeavor by gentle and persevering
pressure with the thumb and next two fingers to slide the obstructing substance
gradually upward to the pharynx. To facilitate this it is well to give the
animal a half pint of raw linseed or olive oil before the manipulations
described are commenced. When the substance has been brought into or nearly
into the pharynx, then the mouth gag should be used, the tongue drawn partially
forward with the left hand, and the right should be passed backward into the
pharynx to withdraw the obstruction.

When bran or chaff causes the trouble it is best to give a small quantity of
oil to lubricate the walls of the gullet, and then by gentle and persevering
pressure, to endeavor to separate and divide the mass and to work it downward
toward the stomach. This will be assisted by pouring small quantities of oil
and water down the animal’s throat. It is not advisable to use the probang to
push down any soft material, such as oats or chaff, as this generally condenses
and renders firmer the obstructing substance by pressing its particles or
elements together, so that it forms a solid, resisting mass which can not be
moved.

In some cases the foreign body, either because it is in the chest portion of
the esophagus, and so beyond reach, or because too firmly seated, can not be
dislodged from the neck by pressing and manipulating that part externally. In
such event we must resort to the use of the probang. (Pl.
III, figs. 2 and 3.) A probang is a flexible instrument and adapts itself
to the natural curvature of the gullet, and if used cautiously there is not
much risk of injury. Before passing the probang, a gag which has an aperture at
each end, from which straps pass to be buckled at the back of the head below
the horns, is introduced into the mouth. (Pl. III, fig.
4.) The probang should then be oiled, and, the head and neck being held in
a straight line by two assistants, the tongue must be partly drawn out of the
mouth, the probang cautiously passed along the roof of the mouth into the
pharynx and thence into the gullet, through which it is passed down. If
resistance is met, gentle and continuous pressure must be used, under the
influence of which the object will generally in a short time pass into the
stomach. One must be careful not to pass the probang into the larynx and thence
into the windpipe, as an animal may readily be killed in this way. This
accident is indicated by efforts to cough and by violently disturbed breathing.
If such symptoms arise the probang must be withdrawn at once. To [Pg 22] avoid a wrong
passage, the end of the tube should be pressed very slowly through the throat
until its presence in the esophagus is assured. After it is once in the
esophagus care is still necessary, because the walls of this tube may easily be
torn.

Some writers have advised that when the obstruction is lodged in the
cervical (neck) portion of the gullet it should be struck with a mallet, to
crush it and thus alter its shape, so that it may easily slip down into the
stomach. If the obstructing substance is hard, this will be a dangerous
operation, but if soft—as in the case of a ripe pear, for
example—this procedure may be safely adopted.

In all cases, if pressure applied on the neck fails to move the obstruction
and the probang also fails to move it, it may be divided by a subcutaneous
operation, or the gullet may be opened and the obstructing substance removed
through the wound. In such cases the assistance of a veterinarian or a surgeon
must be obtained.

WOUNDS AND INJURIES OF THE GULLET.

Sometimes the walls of the gullet may be more or less lacerated or abraded
by the rash and too forcible use of the probang, and the animal consequently
swallows with pain and difficulty. In such cases dry feed must be withheld for
five or six days, so as to allow the injured parts to heal, and the diet must
be limited to linseed tea, hay tea, and thin oatmeal gruel and molasses. The
same kind of diet must be fed after the operation of cutting into the gullet
has been performed.

Sometimes the gullet is ruptured and lacerated to such an extent that
treatment of any kind is hopeless. This has been known to occur when the handle
of a pitchfork or buggy whip has been pushed down a cow’s throat to remove an
obstruction. When such treatment has been applied it is best to slaughter the
animal without delay, as the flesh may be utilized so long as there is no fever
or general disease, and remedial treatment would be hopeless. In this
connection it may be mentioned that whatever substitute may be used for a
probang, which sometimes is not at hand, it should be flexible and should
possess a smooth surface. A piece of new rope, with the end closely wrapped and
waxed and then oiled, or a piece of thin garden hose, or a well-wrapped twisted
wire may be used in emergencies.

DISEASES OF THE STOMACHS.

ACUTE TYMPANITES (HOVEN, OR BLOATING).

Tympanites is a distention of the rumen or paunch with gases of
fermentation, and is manifested outwardly by swelling in the region of the left
flank.

Causes.—Tympanites may be caused by any kind of feed which produces
indigestion. When cattle are first turned into young clover [Pg 23]they eat so
greedily of it that tympanites frequently results. Turnips, potatoes, cabbage,
or the discarded pulp from sugar-beet factories may also cause it. Middlings
and corn meal also frequently give rise to it.

Care is necessary in turning animals into fields of clover or stubble fields
in which there is a strong growth of volunteer grain. It is always better to
keep them from such pasturage while it is wet with dew, and they should be
taken out when they have eaten a moderate quantity. When cattle are fed upon
pulp from sugar beets, germinated malt, etc., they should be fed in moderate
amounts until they have become accustomed to it, as any of these feeds may give
rise to severe bloating.

An excessive quantity of any of the before-mentioned feeds may bring on this
disorder, or it may not be caused by excess, but to eating too hastily.
Sometimes the quality of the feed is at fault. Grass or clover when wet by dew
or rain frequently disorders digestion and brings on tympanites; frozen roots
or pastures covered with hoar frost should also be regarded as dangerous. When
feed has been eaten too hastily, or when it is cold and wet, the digestive
process is imperfectly performed, and the feed contained in the paunch
ferments, during which process large quantities of gas are formed. The same
result may follow when a cow is choked, as the obstruction in the gullet
prevents the eructation or passing up of gas from the stomach, so that the gas
continues to accumulate until tympanites results.

Symptoms.—The swelling of the left flank is very characteristic, as in
well-marked cases the flank at its upper part rises above the level of the
backbone, and when struck with the tips of the fingers emits a drum-like sound.
The animal has an anxious expression, moves uneasily, and is evidently
distressed. If relief is not obtained in time, it breathes with difficulty,
reels in walking or in standing, and in a short time falls and dies from
suffocation. The distention of the stomach may become so great as to prevent
the animal from breathing, and in some instances the case may be complicated by
rupture of the stomach.

Treatment.—If the case is not extreme, it may be sufficient to drive
the animal at a walk for a quarter or half an hour; or cold water by the
bucketful may be thrown against the cow’s sides. In some cases the following
simple treatment is successful: A rope or a twisted straw band is coated with
pine tar, wagon grease, or other unsavory substance and is placed in the cow’s
mouth as a bit, being secured by tying behind the horns. The efforts of the
animal to dislodge this object result in movements of the tongue, jaws, and
throat that stimulate the secretion of saliva and swallowing, thus opening
[Pg 24]the
esophagus, which permits the exit of gas and at the same time peristalsis is
stimulated reflexly.

In urgent cases the gas must be allowed to escape without delay, and this is
best accomplished by the use of the trocar. The trocar is a sharp-pointed
instrument incased in a cannula or sheath, which leaves the sharp point of the
trocar free. (See Pl. III, figs. 5a and 5b.)
In selecting the point for using the trocar a spot on the left side equally
distant from the last rib, the hip bone, and the transverse processes of the
lumbar vertebræ must be chosen. Here an incision about three-fourths of an inch
long should be made with a knife through the skin, and then the sharp point of
the trocar, being directed downward, inward, and slightly forward, is thrust
into the paunch. (Pl. I.) The cannula or sheath of the
trocar should be left in the paunch so long as any gas continues to issue from
it. If the cannula is removed while gas is still forming in the paunch and the
left flank becomes considerably swollen, it may be necessary to insert it
again. It is well, accordingly, to observe the cannula closely, and if gas is
found to be issuing from it it should not be removed. When gas issues from it
in c onsiderable quantities the sound accompanying its escape renders the exact
condition obvious. It is occasionally necessary to keep the cannula in the
stomach for several hours. When this is necessary a piece of stout cord should
be passed round the neck of the cannula immediately below the projecting rim
and then be passed round the animal’s body and tied in a secure knot, and a
careful attendant must remain with the cow during the entire period that the
instrument is in place. The rim surrounding the mouth of the cannula should be
in contact with the skin. Whenever the person in charge of the cow is convinced
that gas has ceased to issue from the cannula the instrument should be
removed.

The trocar is to be used only in extreme or urgent cases, though everyone
who has had experience in treating indigestion in cattle realizes that he has
saved the lives of many animals by its prompt application.

When the tympanitic animal is not distressed and the swelling of the flank
is not great, or when the most distressing condition has been removed by the
use of the trocar, it is best to use internal medicine. Two ounces of aromatic
spirits of ammonia should be given every half hour in a quart of cold water; or
half an ounce of chlorid of lime may be dissolved in a pint of tepid water and
the dose repeated every half hour until the bloating has subsided; or 1 ounce
of creolin in 2 quarts of tepid water may be given at one dose or carefully
injected through the cannula directly into the paunch to stop fermentation and
the consequent formation of gas. It is generally necessary to give a moderate
dose of purgative medi[Pg
25]cine after bloating has subsided, as animals frequently show
symptoms of constipation after attacks of indigestion. For this purpose 1 pound
of Glauber’s salt may be used.

The animal should be fed carefully upon easily digested food for several
days after the bloating has subsided, so that all fermenting matter may pass
out of the stomach.

CHRONIC TYMPANITES.

Cattle, especially those that have been kept in the stable all winter, are
liable to suffer from chronic tympanites. In this form they bloat up after
feeding, but seldom swell so much as to cause any alarm. The chronic form of
indigestion may also follow an acute attack like that previously described.
This is also a symptom of tuberculosis when the lymphatic glands lying between
the lungs are so enlarged as to press upon and partly occlude the esophagus. It
may develop in calves as a result of the formation of hair balls in the
stomach.

Treatment.—Treatment should be preceded by a moderate dose of
purgative medicine: 1 pound of sulphate of magnesia (Epsom salt) or sulphate of
soda (Glauber’s salt), half an ounce of powdered Barbados aloes, 1 ounce of
powdered ginger, 1 pint of molasses. The salts and aloes should be dissolved by
stirring for a few minutes in 2 quarts of lukewarm water, then the molasses
should be added, and after all the ingredients have been stirred together for
about 10 minutes the dose should be administered. After the operation of the
purgative it is generally necessary to give some tonic and antacid preparation
to promote digestion, which is imperfectly performed in such cases. The
following may be used: Powdered gentian, 3 ounces; powdered bicarbonate of
potash, 3 ounces; powdered ginger, 3 ounces; powdered capsicum, 1 ounce. Mix
and divide into 12 powders, one of which should be given three times a day
before feeding, shaken up with a pint and a half of water. It is also
advantageous in such cases to give two heaped teaspoonsfuls of wood charcoal,
mixed with the animal’s feed three times a day. The animal should also go out
during the day, as want of exercise favors the continuance of this form of
indigestion. If the dung is hard, the constipation should be overcome by
feeding a little flaxseed twice daily or by giving a handful of Glauber’s salt
in the feed once or twice daily, as may be necessary. Roots, silage, and other
succulent feeds are useful in this connection. If tuberculosis is suspected as
the cause of chronic bloating, a skilled veterinarian should make a diagnosis,
using the tuberculin test if necessary. Until it is settled that the cow has
not tuberculosis, she should be kept apart from the other members of the herd.
[Pg 26]

DISTENTION OF RUMEN OR PAUNCH WITH FEED.

This form of indigestion is caused by the animal gorging itself with feed,
and arises more from the animal’s voracious appetite than from any defect in
the quality of the feed supplied to it. The condition is, however, more severe
if the feed consumed is especially concentrated or difficult of digestion. In
cases of this kind there is comparatively no great formation of gas, and the
gas which is formed is diffused through the stomach instead of accumulating in
a layer in its upper part. On pressing the flank with the closed fist the
indent of the hand remains for a short time in the flank, as if the rumen were
filled with a soft, doughy mass.

This form of indigestion should be treated by stimulants, such as aromatic
spirits of ammonia.

If the formation of gas is not great and the distention with solid material
is somewhat limited, the animal may be drenched through a piece of ordinary
garden hose, one end inserted in the mouth, and the other end fitted with a
funnel, giving 1½ pounds of Epsom salt or Glauber’s salt dissolved in 2
gallons of water, at a single dose. Immediately after this treatment the left
side of the animal, extending below the median line of the abdomen, should be
powerfully kneaded with the fist, so that the impacted food mass will be
broken, allowing the water to separate it into small portions which can be
carried downward for the process of digestion. But if the treatment fails and
the impacted or overloaded condition of the rumen continues, it may become
necessary to make an incision with a sharp, long-bladed knife in the left
flank, commencing at the point where it is usual to puncture the stomach of an
ox, and prolong the incision in a downward direction until it is long enough to
admit the hand. When the point of the knife is thrust into the flank and the
blade cuts downward, the wall of the stomach, the muscle, and the skin should
all be cut through at the same time. Two assistants should hold the edges of
the wound together so as to prevent any food from slipping between the flank
and the wall of the stomach, and then the operator should remove two-third [sic] of
the contents of the rumen. This having been done, the edges of the wound should
be sponged with a little carbolized warm water, and, the lips of the wound in
the rumen being turned inward, they should be brought together with catgut
stitches. The wound penetrating the muscle and the skin may then be brought
together by silk stitches, which should pass through the entire thickness of
the muscle and should be about 1 inch apart. The wound should afterwards be
dressed once a day with a lotion and the animal covered with a tight linen
sheet, to protect the wound from insects and dirt. The lotion to be used in
such case is made up as follows: Sulphate of zinc, 1 dram; carbolic acid, 2
drams; glycerin, [Pg
27]2 ounces; water, 14 ounces; mix. It is clear that this operation
requires special skill and it should be attempted only by those who are
competent.

IMAGINARY DISEASES (HOLLOW HORN; LOSS OF CUD; WOLF IN THE TAIL).

It would appear quite in place here, in connection with the diseases of the
stomach and bowels of cattle, to consider the three old fallacies or
superstitions known by the above names, since these names, whenever and
wherever used, seem to be invariably applied to some form of digestive
derangement or disease having its origin in the stomach and bowels.

Hollow horn.—In the first place it should
be noted that the horns of all animals of the ox tribe are hollow. The horn
cores are elongations of the frontal bones of the skull, and the frontal
sinuses, which are the larger of the air spaces of the head, are prolonged into
the horn cores. When a cow is sick, if the horns are hot it is an evidence of
fever; if they are cold it indicates impaired circulation of the blood; but
these manifestations of sickness are to be regarded as symptoms of some
constitutional disorder and do not in themselves require treatment. The
treatment should be applied to the disease which causes the abnormal
temperature of the horns. The usual treatment for the supposed hollow horn,
which consists in boring the horns with a gimlet and pouring turpentine into
the openings thus made, is not only useless and cruel, but is liable to set up
an acute inflammation and result in an abscess of the sinus.

Loss of cud.—The so-called loss of cud is
simply a cessation of rumination, frequently one of the first indications of
some form of disease, since ruminants stop chewing the cud when they feel sick.
Loss of cud is a symptom of a great many diseases, and when it is detected it
should lead the observer to try to discover other symptoms upon which to base a
correct opinion as to the nature of the disease from which the animal suffers.
No local treatment is required.

Wolf in the tail.—This term also seems to
be vaguely applied to various disturbances of the digestive function, or to
some disease which is in reality in the stomach or bowels.

VOMITING.

Vomiting is not to be confounded with rumination, though some writers have
advanced the opinion that it is merely a disordered and irregular rumination.
It is not of common occurrence in cattle.

Symptoms.—Animals which vomit are frequently in poor condition. After
having eaten tranquilly for some time the animal suddenly becomes uneasy,
arches the back, stretches the neck and head, and then suddenly ejects 10 to 12
pounds of the contents of the rumen.[Pg 28] After having done this the uneasiness subsides
and in a short time the animal resumes eating as if nothing had happened.

Cause.—The cause of this disordered state of the digestive system in
cattle is usually obscure, but has in some cases been traced to a partial
closure of the opening into the second stomach or to a distention of the
esophagus. It has been found to occur when there was cancerous disease of the
fourth stomach, and experimentally it has been shown that a suspension of
digestion or great derangement of this stomach produces considerable nervous
disorder of the rumen and sometimes vomiting or attempts to vomit.

Treatment.—Easily digested feed and plenty
of water should be given. Fear and excitement, chasing, or hurrying animals
after they have eaten heartily are liable to bring on this result. In order to
overcome irritation which may produce vomiting the following draft should be
given: Hydrate of chloral, half an ounce; water, 1 pint. The dose must be
repeated when the condition of the animal seems to require it. As a rule,
treatment is not successful.

DEPRAVED APPETITE (PICA).

Cattle suffering from this disease have a capricious and variable appetite
as regards their ordinary feed but evince a strong desire to lick and eat
substances for which healthy cattle show no inclination. Alkaline and
saline-tasting substances are especially attractive to cattle having a depraved
appetite and they frequently lick lime, earth, coal, gravel, and even the dung
of other cattle. Cows in calf and young cattle are especially liable to develop
these symptoms. Animals affected in this way lose condition, their coat is
staring, gait slow, and small vesicles containing yellow liquid form under the
tongue; the milk given by such cows is thin and watery. Such animals become
restless and uneasy, as is indicated by frequent bellowing. The disease may
last for months, the animal ultimately dying emaciated and exhausted. Depraved
appetite frequently precedes the condition in which the bones of cattle become
brittle and fracture easily, which is known as osteomalacia.

Cause.—From the fact that this disease is largely one of regions, it
is generally believed that some condition of the soil and water and of the
local vegetation is responsible for it. It is more prevalent some years than
others, and is most common in old countries, where the soil is more or less
depleted. Cattle pastured on low, swampy land become predisposed to it. It
occasionally happens, however, that one individual in a herd suffers though all
are fed alike; in such cases the disease must arise from the affected animal’s
imperfect assimilation of the nutritive elements of the feed which is supplied
to it.

[Pg 29]
Treatment.—The aim in such cases must be to improve the process of
digestion and to supply the animal with a sufficiency of sound and wholesome
feed. The following should be given to the cow three times a day, a heaping
tablespoonful constituting a dose: Carbonate of iron, 4 ounces; finely ground
bone or “bone flour,” 1 pound; powdered gentian, 4 ounces; common salt, 8
ounces; powdered fenugreek, 4 ounces; mix. In addition to this, 3
tablespoonfuls of powdered charcoal may be mixed with the feed three times a
day, and a piece of rock salt should be placed where the animal can lick it at
will. German veterinarians have had brilliant results from the treatment of
this disease with subcutaneous injections of apomorphin in doses of 1½ to 5
grains for three or four days.

HAIR CONCRETIONS.

Hair concretions, or hair balls, result from the habit which some cattle
have of licking themselves or other animals. As a result the hairs which are
swallowed are carried around by the contractions of the stomach and gradually
assume the form of a small pellet or ball. This increases in size as fresh
quantities of hair are introduced into the stomach and adhere to the surface of
the ball. These balls are found most frequently in the reticulum or second
stomach (Pl. II, B), though sometimes in the rumen. In
calves hair balls are generally found in the fourth stomach. There are no
certain symptoms by which we can determine the presence of hair balls in the
stomach, and therefore no treatment can be recommended for such cases. In
making post-mortem examinations of cattle we have sometimes found the walls of
the reticulum transfixed with nails or pieces of wire, and yet the animal had
not shown any symptoms of indigestion, but had died from maladies not involving
the second stomach.

INDIGESTION (DYSPEPSIA, OR GASTROINTESTINAL CATARRH).

Tympanites, already described, is a form of indigestion in which the chief
symptom and most threatening condition is the collection of gas in the paunch.
This symptom does not always accompany indigestion, so it is well here to
consider other forms under a separate head. If indigestion is long continued,
the irritant abnormal products developed cause catarrh of the stomach and
intestines—gastrointestinal catarrh. On the other hand, however, irritant
substances ingested may cause gastrointestinal catarrh, which, in turn, will
cause indigestion; hence, it results that these several conditions are usually
found existing together.

Causes.—Irritant feed, damaged feed, overloading of the stomach, or
sudden changes of diet may cause this disease. Want of exercise
predisposes[Pg
30] to it, or feed which is coarse and indigestible may after a time
produce it. Feed which possesses astringent properties and tends to check
secretion may also act as an exciting cause. Feed in excessive quantity may
lead to disorder of digestion and to this disease. It is very likely to appear
toward the end of protracted seasons of drought; therefore a deficiency of
water must be regarded as one of the conditions which favor its development.

Symptoms.—Diminished appetite, rumination irregular, tongue coated,
mouth slimy, dung passed apparently not well digested and smelling bad,
dullness, and fullness of the flanks. The disease may in some cases assume a
chronic character, and in addition to the foregoing symptoms slight bloating or
tympanites of the left flank may be observed; the animal breathes with effort
and each respiration may be accompanied with a grunt, the ears and horns are
alternately hot and cold, rumination ceases, the usual rumbling sound in the
stomach is not audible, the passage of dung is almost entirely suspended, and
the animal passes only a little mucus occasionally. Sometimes there is
alternating constipation and diarrhea. There is low fever in many cases.

The disease continues a few days or a week in the mild cases, while the
severe cases may last several weeks. In the latter form the emaciation and loss
of strength may be very great. There is no appetite, no rumination, nor
peristalsis. The mouth is hot and sticky, the eyes have receded in their
sockets, and milk secretion has ceased. In such cases the outlook for recovery
is unfavorable. The patient falls away in flesh and becomes weaker, as is shown
by the fact that one frequently finds it lying down.

On examining animals which have died of this disease it is found that the
lining membrane of the fourth stomach and the intestines, particularly the
small intestine, is red, swollen, streaked with deeper red or bluish lines, or
spotted. The lining of the first three stomachs is more or less softened, and
may easily be peeled off. The third stomach (psalter) contains dry feed in hard
masses closely adherent to its walls.

In some cases the brain appears to become disordered, probably from the pain
and weakness and from the absorption of toxins generated in the digestive
canal. In such cases there is weakness and an unsteady gait, the animal does
not appear to take notice of and will consequently run against obstacles; after
a time it falls and gives up to violent and disordered movements. This
delirious condition is succeeded by coma or stupor, and death ensues.

Treatment.—Small quantities of roots, sweet silage, or selected grass
or hay should be offered several times daily. Very little feed should be
allowed. Aromatic and demulcent drafts may be given to produce a soothing
effect on the mucous lining of the stomachs and to promote digestion. Two[Pg 31] ounces of
camomile flowers should be boiled for 20 minutes in a quart of water and the
infusion on cooling should be given to the affected animal. This may be
repeated three or four times a day. When constipation is present the following
purgative may be administered: One pound of Glauber’s salt dissolved in a quart
of linseed tea and a pint of molasses. After this purgative has acted, if there
is a lack of appetite and the animal does not ruminate regularly, the powder
mentioned in remarks on the treatment of chronic tympanites may be given
according to directions. The diet must be rather laxative and of an easily
digestible character after an attack of this form of indigestion. Feed should
be given in moderate quantities, as excess by overtaxing the digestive
functions may bring on a relapse. Ice-cold water should be avoided.

INDIGESTION FROM DRINKING COLD WATER (COLIC).

This disorder is produced by drinking copiously of cold water, which arrests
digestion and produces cramp of the fourth stomach, probably of the other
stomachs, and also of the bowels.

Causes.—It is not customary for the ox to drink much water at once.
In fact, he usually drinks slowly and as if he were merely tasting the water,
letting some fall out at the corners of his mouth at every mouthful. It would
therefore seem to be contrary to the habits of the ox to drink copiously; but
we find that during hot weather, when he has been working and is consequently
very thirsty, if he drinks a large quantity of cold water he may be immediately
taken with a very severe colic. Cows which are fed largely on dry hay drink
copiously, like the working ox, and become affected in precisely the same
manner. In such cases they are seized with a chill or fit of trembling before
the cramps come on.

Symptoms.—There is some distension of the abdomen, but no accumulation
of gas. As the distension and pain occur immediately after the animal has drunk
the water, there can be no doubt as to the exciting cause.

Treatment.—Walk the animal about for 10 minutes before administering
medicine, and this allows time for a portion of the contents of the stomach to
pass into the bowel, and renders it safer to give medicine. In many cases the
walking exercise and the diarrhea bring about a spontaneous cure of this
disorder, but as in some instances the cramps and pains of the stomachs
persist, one may give 1 ounce of sulphuric ether and 1 ounce of tincture of
opium, shaken up with a pint of warm water, and repeat the dose in half an hour
if the animal is not relieved. In an emergency when the medicine is not to be
had, a tablespoonful of powdered ginger may be administered in a pint of warm
water.[Pg
32]

INDIGESTION IN CALVES (GASTROINTESTINAL CATARRH, DIARRHEA, OR SCOUR).

Calves are subject to a form of diarrhea to which the foregoing designations
have been applied.

Causes.—Calves that suck their dams are not frequently affected with
this disease, though it may be occasioned by their sucking at long intervals
and thus overloading the stomach and bringing on indigestion, or from improper
feeding of the dam on soft, watery, or damaged feeds. Suckling the calf at
irregular times may also cause it. Exposure to damp and cold is a potent
predisposing cause. Calves separated from their dams and fed considerable
quantities of cold milk at long intervals are liable to contract this form of
indigestion. Calves fed on artificial feed, used as a substitute for milk,
frequently contract it. Damaged feed, sour or rotten milk, milk from dirty
cans, skim milk from a dirty creamery skim-milk vat, skim milk hauled warm,
exposed to the sun and fed from unclean buckets may all cause this disease.

Symptoms.—The calf is depressed; appetite is poor; sometimes there is
fever; the extremities are cold. The dung becomes gradually softer and lighter
in color until it is cream colored and little thicker than milk. It has a most
offensive odor and may contain clumps of curd. Later it contains mucus and gas
bubbles. It sticks to the hair of the tail and buttocks, causing the hair to
drop off and the skin to become irritated. There may be pain on passing dung
and also abdominal or colicky pain. The calf stands about with the back arched
and belly contracted. There may be tympanites. Great weakness ensues in severe
cases, and without prompt and successful treatment death soon follows.

Treatment.—Remove the cause. Give appropriate feed of best quality in
small quantities. Make sure that the cow furnishing the milk is healthy and is
properly fed. Clean all milk vessels. Clean and disinfect the stalls. For the
diarrhea give two raw eggs or a cup of strong coffee. If the case is severe,
give 1 ounce of castor oil with a teaspoonful of creolin and 20 grains of
subnitrate of bismuth. Repeat the bismuth and creolin with flaxseed tea every
four hours. Tannopin may be used in doses of 15 to 30 grains.

Calves artificially fed on whole or skim milk should receive only such milk
as is sweet and has been handled in a sanitary manner. Milk should always be
warmed to the temperature of the body before feeding. When calves artificially
milk-fed develop diarrhea, the use of the following treatment has given
excellent results in many cases: Immediately after milking, or the separation
of the skim milk from the cream, formalin in the proportion of 1 to 4,000
should be added to the milk which is used for feeding; this may be closely
approximated by adding four drops of formalin to each quart[Pg 33] of milk. This
medicated milk should be fed to the calf in the usual quantity. When the
diarrhea is not controlled in three or four days by this treatment, the
additional use of some of the agents recommended above may assist in a
recovery.

INFECTIOUS DIARRHEA; WHITE SCOUR.

[See chapter on Diseases of young calves, p. 247.]

GASTROENTERITIS.

This consists of an inflammation of the walls of the stomachs and of the
bowel.

Gastroenteritis, or inflammation of the walls of the stomachs and
intestines, follows upon irritations more severe or longer continued than those
that produce gastrointestinal catarrh.

Causes.—Severe indigestion may be followed by gastroenteritis, or it
may be caused by swallowing irritant poisons, such as arsenic or corrosive
sublimate or irritant plants. Exposure to cold or inclement weather may produce
the disease, especially in debilitated animals or animals fed improperly. It is
asserted that if cattle feed on vegetation infested with some kinds of
caterpillars this disease may result.

Symptoms.—Dullness; drooping of the ears; dryness of the muzzle; dry
skin; staring coat; loins morbidly sensitive to pressure; fullness of the left
flank, which is caused by the distention of the fourth stomach by gas. The
pulse is small, the gait is feeble and staggering; each step taken is
accompanied with a grunt, and this symptom is especially marked if the animal
walks in a downward direction. There is loss of appetite, and rumination is
suspended. The passages at first are few in number, hard, and are sometimes
coated with mucus or with blood. Later a severe diarrhea sets in, when the
passages contain mucus and blood and have an offensive odor. There is evidence
of colicky pain, and the abdomen is sensitive to pressure. Pain may be
continuous. There is fever and acceleration of pulse rate and respirations.
Mental depression and even insensibility occur before death. The disease is
always severe and often fatal.

Post-mortem appearances.—The mucous membrane of the fourth stomach has
a well-marked red color and sometimes presents ulcerations. The wall is
thickened and softened, and similar conditions are found in the walls of the
intestines. The red discoloration extends in spots or large areas quite through
the wall, showing on the outside.

Treatment.—Very small quantities of carefully selected feed must be
given and the appetite must not be forced. Protect the animal well from cold
and dampness. Internally, give linseed tea, boiled milk, boiled oatmeal gruel,
or rice water. These protectives may carry the medicine. Tannopin in doses of
30 to 60 grains is good. Subnitrate of bismuth in[Pg 34] doses of 1 to 2 drams may be
given. Pulverized opium may be used, if the diarrhea is severe, in 1 to 2 dram
doses. If the bowel movements are not free, one may give from a pint to a quart
of castor or raw linseed oil.

TRAUMATIC INFLAMMATION OF THE STOMACH.

This disease results from the presence of a foreign body. This condition is
not rare in cattle, because these animals have the habit of swallowing their
feed without careful chewing, and so nails, screws, hairpins, ends of wire, and
other metal objects may be swallowed unconsciously. Such objects gravitate to
the second stomach, where they may be caught in the folds of the lining mucous
membrane, and in some instances the wall of this organ is perforated. From this
accident, chronic indigestion results. The symptoms, more or less
characteristic, are pain when getting up or lying down; grunting and pain upon
sudden motion, especially downhill; coughing; pain on pressure over the second
stomach, which lies immediately above the cartilaginous prolongation of the
sternum. If the presence of such a foreign body is recognized, it may be
removed by a difficult surgical operation, or, as is usually most economical,
the animal may be killed for beef, if there is no fever.

DISEASES OF THE BOWELS.

DIARRHEA AND DYSENTERY.

[See also Gastrointestinal catarrh, p. 32.]

The word “dysentery,” as it is commonly used in relation to the diseases of
animals, signifies a severe form of diarrhea.

Causes.—Diarrhea is a symptom of irritation of the intestines,
resulting in increased secretion or increased muscular contractions, or both.
The irritation is sometimes the result of chilling from exposure, improper
feeding, irritant feeds, indigestion, organic diseases of the intestines, or
parasites.

Symptoms.—Passages from the bowels are frequent, at first consisting
of thin dung, but as the disease continues they become watery and offensive
smelling, and may be even streaked with blood. At first the animal shows no
constitutional disturbance, but later it becomes weak and may exhibit evidence
of abdominal pain by looking around to the side, drawing the feet together,
lying down, or moving restlessly. Sometimes this malady is accompanied with
fever, great depression, loss of strength, rapid loss of flesh, and it may
terminate in death.

Treatment.—When the disease depends on irritating properties of the
feed which has been supplied to the animal, it is advisable to give a mild
purgative, such as a pint of castor or linseed oil. When the secretions of[Pg 35] the bowels
are irritating, an ounce of carbonate of magnesia and half an ounce of tincture
of opium should be shaken up in a quart of linseed tea and given to the animal
three times a day until the passages present a natural appearance. When there
is debility, want of appetite, no fever, but a continuance of the watery
discharges from the bowels, then an astringent may be given. For such cases the
following is serviceable: Tannic acid, 1 ounce; powdered gentian, 2 ounces; mix
and divide into 12 powders, one powder to be given three times a day until the
passages present a natural appearance. Each powder may be mixed with a pint and
a half of water. Tannopin is a new remedy that is most useful in such cases.
The dose is from 30 grains to 2 drams. Useful household remedies are raw eggs,
strong coffee, parched rye flour, or decoction of oak bark. In all cases the
food must be given sparingly, and it should be carefully selected to insure
good quality. Complete rest in a box stall is desirable. When diarrhea is a
symptom of a malady characterized by the presence of a blood poison, the
treatment appropriate to such disease must be applied.

SIMPLE ENTERITIS.

[See Gastroenteritis, p. 33.]

CROUPOUS ENTERITIS.

Under certain conditions, severe irritation of the digestive canal may, in
cattle, cause a form of inflammation of the intestines (enteritis) that is
characterized by the formation of a false membrane upon the surface of the
lining membrane of the intestines, particularly the large ones.

Symptoms.—There is fever, depression, loss of appetite, diarrhea, and
in the fecal masses shreds of leathery false membrane may be found. These
shreds are sometimes mistaken for parasites or for portions of the wall of the
intestine.

Treatment.—Give a pound of Glauber’s salt, followed by bicarbonate of
soda in doses of 2 ounces four times daily.

ENTERITIS (OBSTRUCTION RESULTING FROM INVAGINATION, OR INTUSSUSCEPTION,
TWISTING, AND KNOTTING OF THE BOWELS).

Inflammation may arise from a knot forming on some part of the small
intestine from the portion of the bowel becoming twisted on itself, or from one
part of the bowel slipping into another, which is termed invagination. This
form of enteritis occurs occasionally in animals of the bovine species.

Causes.—The small intestine, which in the ox rests on the right side
of the rumen, is, from the position which it occupies, predisposed to this
accident. It has been ascertained that animals which have shown symptoms of
this malady have trotted, galloped, or made other violent exertions in[Pg 36] coming from
drinking, or that they have been chased by dogs or by animals of their own
species while at pasture. The accident is most likely to occur among cattle on
very hilly pastures. The danger of jumping or running is greatest when the
rumen is distended with food.

Symptoms.—This form of enteritis or obstruction is manifested by
severe colicky pains; the ox scrapes and strikes the ground with his front and
hind feet alternately; keeps lying down and getting up again; he keeps his tail
constantly raised and turns his nose frequently to his right flank; he is
frequently bloated, or tympanitic, on that side. He refuses feed and does not
ruminate, and for some hours suffers severe pains. At first he frequently
passes thin dung, and also urinates frequently, but passes only a little urine
at a time. On the second day the pains have become less acute; the animal
remains lying down; moans occasionally; his pulse is small and quick; he still
refuses feed and does not ruminate. At this stage he does not pass any dung,
though sometimes a small quantity of bloody mucus may be passed. The animal
passes very little urine. This condition may continue for a considerable time,
as cattle so affected may live for 15 or even 20 days.

Post-mortem appearance.—At death the bowels are found to be misplaced
or obstructed, as mentioned above, and inflamed, the inflammation always
originating at the point where the intestine has been invaginated, twisted, or
knotted. Sometimes the part is gangrenous, the compression of the blood vessels
preventing circulation, and thus causing the death of the tissues.

Treatment.—Purgatives, anodynes, and other remedies are of no service
in such cases, and bleeding also fails to produce any benefit. Indeed, it is
usually true that in such cases treatment is useless. Some cases are recorded
in which an incision has been made in the flank, so as to enable the operator
to restore the intestine to its normal position or to remove the kink.

CONSTIPATION.

Constipation is to be regarded rather as a symptom of disease or of faults
in feeding than as a disease in itself. It occurs in almost all general fevers
unless the bowels are involved in local disease, in obstructions of all kinds,
from feeding on dry, bulky feed, etc. In order to remove the constipation the
treatment must be applied to remove the causes which give rise to it. Calves
sometimes suffer from constipation immediately after birth when the meconium
that accumulates in the bowels before birth is not passed. In such cases, give
a rectal injection of warm water and an ounce of castor oil shaken up with an
ounce of new milk. The mother’s milk is the best food to prevent constipation
in the new-born calf, as it contains a[Pg 37] large amount of fatty matter which renders it
laxative in its effects.

It is usually better to treat habitual constipation by a change of diet than
by medicine. Flaxseed is a good feed laxative. If the constipation has lasted
long, repeated small doses of purgatives are better than a single large
dose.

INTESTINAL WORMS.

[See chapter on “The animal parasites of cattle,” p. 502.]

RUPTURES (VENTRAL HERNIA).

Ventral hernia, or rupture, is an escape of some one of the abdominal organs
through a rupture in the abdominal muscles, the skin remaining intact. The
rumen, the small intestine, or part of the large intestine, and the fourth
stomach are the parts which usually form a ventral hernia in bovine animals.

Causes.—Hernia is frequently produced by blows of the horns, kicks,
and falls. In old cows hernia may sometimes occur without any direct injury.

Hernia of the rumen.—Hernia of the rumen is
generally situated on the left side of the abdomen, on account of the situation
of the rumen. In exceptional cases it may take place on the right side, and in
such cases it also generally happens that some folds of the intestine pass into
the hernial sac. Hernias have been classified into simple or complicated,
recent or old, traumatic (from mechanical injury) or spontaneous.

In recent traumatic hernia there is swelling on the left side of the lower
part of the abdomen. The swelling is greatest in the cases of hernia which are
situated on the lower part of the abdomen. Unless an examination is made
immediately after the injury has been inflicted it is difficult, and sometimes
impossible, to ascertain the exact extent of the rupture, owing to the swelling
which subsequently takes place. Frequently there is no loss of appetite, fever,
or other general symptoms attending the injury. From the twelfth to the
fifteenth day the swelling has generally subsided to such an extent that it is
possible by an examination to determine the extent of the rupture.

In old cows what is termed spontaneous hernia may sometimes take place
without any direct injury. The occurrence of this form of hernia is explained
by the increase in the size of the abdomen, which takes place in an advanced
stage of pregnancy, causing a thinning and stretching of the muscular fibers,
which at last may rupture, or give way. Such hernias frequently occur about the
end of the period of gestation, and in some instances have contained the right
sac of the rumen, the omentum, the small and large intestines, a portion of the
liver, and the pregnant uterus.

[Pg 38] In
old hernias the swelling is soft and elastic, and if they have not contracted
adhesions to the sides of the laceration, they can be made to disappear by
pressure carefully applied. Sometimes this accident is complicated by a rupture
of the rumen, constituting a complicated hernia. If a portion of the contents
of the rumen escape into the abdomen, the case will be aggravated by the
occurrence of peritonitis.

Hernia of the bowel.—When the intestines
(Pl. III, fig. 6) form the contents of the hernia, it
will be situated at the right side of the abdomen. In an intestinal hernia the
swelling is usually not painful, of a doughy consistence or elastic, according
as the intestine does or does not contain alimentary matter. This swelling can
generally be made to disappear by pressure, and when it has been reduced one
can easily recognize the direction and extent of the hernial opening. Hernias
of the bowel which are situated at the upper and right side of the abdomen are
usually formed by the small intestine. They are less easily reduced than a
hernia in a lower situation, but when reduction has been effected they are less
readily reproduced than those occurring lower. In hernias of the small
intestine, adhesion of the protruding parts to the walls of the opening, or
strangulation, are complications which sometimes take place. If adhesion has
taken place the hernia can not be reduced by pressure, and when strangulation
has occurred the animal shows symptoms of pain—is restless, turns its
nose to the painful part, and shows those symptoms which are usually
collectively designated under the term colic. If relief is not afforded, the
animal will die.

Hernia of the rennet, or fourth
stomach.—This disease occasionally occurs in calves and is usually
caused by a blow from a cow’s horn on the right flank of the calf. After such
an accident a swelling forms on the right flank near the last rib. This
swelling may be neither hot nor painful, even at first, and is soft to the
touch. It can be made to disappear by careful pressure, when the sides of the
aperture through which it has passed can be felt. The application of pressure
so as to cause the disappearance of the hernia is best made immediately after
the occurrence of the accident, or when the edema which accompanies the
swelling has disappeared.

Treatment.—When a hernia is reducible—that is, can be pushed
back into the abdomen—then, if it is of recent occurrence, it is
advisable to maintain the natural position of the parts by bandaging and to
allow the walls of the laceration to grow together. The bowels should be kept
reasonably empty by avoiding the use of bulky feed, and the animal must be kept
quiet.

The following method of bandaging is recommended by Bouley:

If the hernia is old and small it may be treated by injecting a strong
solution of common salt about the edges of the tear. This causes swelling and
inflammation, which, respectively, forces the protruded organ back and closes
the opening. There is some risk attached to this method of treatment.

In small, old, ventral hernias the method of compressing and sloughing off
the skin has been used successfully. If the hernia is large a radical operation
will be necessary, and this is also true when the symptoms indicate that a
hernia is strangulated. This operation is performed by cutting down on the
hernia, restoring the organ to the abdominal cavity, and then closing the wound
with two sets of stitches; the inner stitches, in the muscular wall, should be
made with catgut and the outer stitches, in the skin, may be made with silk or
silver wire. The strictest surgical cleanliness must be observed. Bleeding
vessels should be tied. Then a compress composed of ten or twelve folds of
cloth must be placed smoothly over the seat of injury and a bandage applied
around the body, the two ends being fastened at the back. In the smaller kinds
of hernia, nitric acid may sometimes be applied with success. This treatment
should not be applied until the swelling and inflammation attending the
appearance of the hernia have subsided; then, the contents of the hernia having
been returned, the surface of skin corresponding to it is sponged over with a
solution composed of 1 part of nitric acid to 2 of water. This treatment acts
by exciting considerable inflammation, which has the effect of causing
swelling, and thus frequently closing the hernial opening and preventing the
contents of the sac from returning. A second application should not be made
until the inflammation excited by the first has subsided. In what is termed
spontaneous hernia it is useless to apply any kind of treatment.

Umbilical hernia.—The umbilicus, or navel,
is the aperture through which the blood vessels pass from the mother to the
fetus, and naturally the sides of this aperture ought to adhere or unite after
birth. In very young animals, and sometimes in newborn calves, this aperture in
the abdominal muscles remains open and a part of the bowel or a portion of the
mesentery[Pg
40] may slip through the opening, constituting what is called
umbilical hernia. The wall of the sac is formed by the skin, which is covered
on the inner surface by a layer of cellular tissue, and within this there is
sometimes, but not always, a layer of peritoneum. The contents of the hernia
may be formed by a part of the bowel, by a portion of the peritoneum, or may
contain portions of both peritoneum and bowel. When the sac contains only the
peritoneum it has a doughy feel, but when it is formed by a portion of the
bowel it is more elastic on pressure.

Causes.—In the new-born animal the opening of the navel is generally
large, and may sometimes give way to the pressure of the bowel on account of
the weak and relaxed condition of the abdominal muscles. This defective and
abnormal condition of the umbilicus is frequently hereditary. It may be
occasioned by roughly pulling away the umbilical cord; through kicks or blows
on the belly; through any severe straining by which the sides of the navel are
stretched apart. We may mention in this connection that it is best in new-born
calves to tie the umbilical cord tightly about 2 inches from the navel, and
then to leave it alone, when in most cases it will drop off in a few days,
leaving the navel closed.

Treatment.—It is well to bear in mind that many, and especially the
smaller, umbilical hernias heal spontaneously; that is, nature effects a cure.
As the animal gets older the abdominal muscles get stronger and possess more
power of resistance to pressure, the bowels become larger and do not pass so
readily through a small opening, so that from a combination of causes there is
a gradual growing together or adhesion of the sides of the navel. In cases of
umbilical hernia in which there are no indications that a spontaneous cure will
take place, the calf should be laid on its back; immediately on this being done
the hernia will often disappear into the abdomen. If it does not, its reduction
may be brought about by gentle handling, endeavoring, if need be, to empty the
organs forming the hernia before returning them into the abdomen. After the
hernia has been returned, the hair should be clipped from the skin covering it
and a compress composed of 10 or 12 folds of linen or cotton should be applied,
first smearing the skin with pitch and then a bandage about 3 inches wide
should be passed round the body so as to retain the compress in position. The
lower part of the compress should be smeared with pitch, and also those
portions of the bandage which pass over it, so as to keep it solid and prevent
it from shifting. In some cases it will be found that the contents of the sac
can not be returned into the abdomen, and this generally arises from the fact
that some part of the contents of the sac has grown to or become adherent to
the edges of the umbilical opening. In such a case the skin must be carefully
laid open in the long direction, the adhesions of the protruding organs
carefully separated from the umbilicus, and after the[Pg 41] protruding parts have been
returned into the abdomen, the sides of the umbilicus must be freshened if
necessary by paring, and then the edges of the opening brought together by
catgut stitches; the wound in the skin must then also be brought together by
stitches. The wound must be carefully dressed every day and a bandage passed
round the body so as to cover and protect the part operated on.

In small hernias nitric acid has been used successfully in the same manner
as has been described in the treatment of ventral hernia. Sulphuric acid has
also been used for a similar purpose, diluting it to the extent of 1 part of
acid to 3 or 5 of water. In thin-skinned animals the weaker preparations ought
to be preferred, and caution must be exercised in using such preparations so as
not to destroy the tissues on which they are applied.

Another method of treatment is, after the contents of the sac have been
returned into the abdomen, to tie a piece of strong waxed cord round the
pendulous portion which formed the outer covering of the hernia. The string is
apt to slacken after two or three days, when a new piece of cord should be
applied above the first one. The constriction of the skin sets up inflammation,
which generally extends to the umbilicus and causes the edges to adhere
together, and by the time the portion of skin below the ligature has lost its
vitality and dropped off, the umbilicus is closed and there is no danger of the
abdominal organs protruding through it. This is what takes place when this
method has a favorable result, though if the umbilicus does not become adherent
and the skin sloughs, the bowels will protrude through the opening.

Gut-tie (peritoneal hernia).—In peritoneal
hernia of the ox a loop or knuckle of intestine enters from the abdomen into a
rent in that part of the peritoneum which is situated at the margin of the hip
bone or it passes under the remains of the spermatic cord, the end of which may
be grown fast to the inner inguinal ring. The onward pressure of the bowel, as
well as the occasional turning of the latter round the spermatic cord, is the
cause of the cord exercising considerable pressure on the bowel, which
occasions irritation, obstructs the passage of excrement, and excites
inflammation, which terminates in gangrene and death.

The rent in the peritoneum is situated at the upper and front part of the
pelvis, nearer to the sacrum than the pubes.

Causes.—Among the causes of peritoneal hernia considerable importance
is attached to a method of castration which is practiced in certain districts,
viz, the tearing or rupturing of the spermatic cord by main force instead of
dividing it at a proper distance above the testicle in a surgical manner. After
this violent and rough method of operating, the cord retracts into the abdomen
and its stump becomes adherent to some part of the peritoneum, or it may wind
around the bowel and then the stump becomes[Pg 42] adherent, so that strangulation
of the bowel results. The rough dragging on the cord may also cause a tear in
the peritoneum, the result of which need not be described. The severe exertion
of ascending hills and mountains, drawing heavy loads, or the straining which
oxen undergo while fighting each other may also give rise to peritoneal
hernia.

Symptoms.—The ox suddenly becomes very restless, stamps with his feet,
moves backward and forward, hurriedly lies down, rises, moves his tail
uneasily, and kicks at his belly with the foot of the affected side. The pain
evinced may diminish but soon returns again. In the early stage there are
frequent passages of dung, but after the lapse of 18 or 24 hours this ceases,
the bowel apparently being emptied to the point of strangulation, and the
passages now consist only of a little mucus mixed with blood. When injections
are given at this time the water passes out of the bowel without even being
colored. The animal lies down on the side where the hernia exists and stretches
out his hind feet in a backward direction. These two particular symptoms serve
to distinguish this affection from enteritis and invagination of the bowel. As
time passes the animal becomes quieter, but this cessation of pain may indicate
that gangrene of the bowel has set in, and may, therefore, under certain
circumstances, be considered a precursor of death. Gangrene may take place in
from four to six days, when perforation of the bowel may occur and death result
in a short time.

Treatment—In the first place the ox should be examined by passing the
oiled hand and arm into the rectum; the hand should be passed along the margin
of the pelvis, beginning at the sacrum and continuing downward toward the
inguinal ring, when a soft, painful swelling will be felt, which may vary from
the size of an apple to that of the two fists. This swelling will be felt to be
tightly compressed by the spermatic cord. It very rarely happens that there is
any similar swelling on the left side, though in such cases it is best to make
a thorough examination. The bowel has sometimes been released from its position
by driving the ox down a hill; by causing him to jump from a height of 2 feet
to the ground; the expedient of trotting him also has been resorted to with the
hope that the jolting movement might bring about a release of the bowel. If the
simple expedients mentioned have been tried and failed, then the hand being
passed into the rectum should be pressed gently on the swelling in an upward
and forward direction, so as to endeavor to push the imprisoned portion of the
bowel back into the abdomen. While this is being done the ox’s hind feet should
stand on higher ground than the front, so as to favor the slipping out of the
bowel by its own weight, and at the same time an assistant should squeeze the
animal’s loins, so as to cause it to bend downward and so relax the band formed
by the spermatic cord. If the imprisoned portion of gut is[Pg 43] freed, which
may be ascertained by the disappearance of the swelling, the usual sounds
produced by the bowels moving in the abdomen will be heard, and in a few hours
the feces and urine will be passed as usual. If the means mentioned fail to
release the imprisoned portion of the gut, then an incision about 4 inches long
must be made in the right flank in a downward direction, the hand introduced
into the abdomen, the situation and condition of swelling exactly ascertained,
and then a probe-pointed knife inserted between the imprisoned bowel and band
compressing it, and turned outward against the band, the latter being then
cautiously divided and the imprisoned gut allowed to escape, or, if necessary,
the bowel should be drawn gently from its position into the abdomen. The wound
in the flank must be brought together in the same way as in the case of the
wound made in operating for impaction of the rumen.

WOUNDS OF THE ABDOMEN.

A wound of the abdomen may merely penetrate the skin; but as such cases are
not attended with much danger, nor their treatment with much difficulty, we
will consider here merely those wounds which penetrate the entire thickness of
the abdominal walls and expose to a greater or less extent the organs contained
in that cavity.

Causes.—Such accidents may be occasioned by falling on fragments of
broken glass or other sharp objects. A blow from the horn of another animal may
penetrate the abdomen. Exposure and protrusion of some of the abdominal organs
may also be occasioned by the incautious use of caustics in the treatment of
umbilical or ventral hernia. The parts which generally escape through an
abdominal wound are the small intestine and floating colon.

Symptoms.—When the abdominal wound is small, the bowel exposed
presents the appearance of a small round tumor, but in a few moments a loop of
intestine may emerge from the opening. The animal then shows symptoms of severe
pain by pawing with his feet, which has the effect of accelerating the passage
of new loops of intestine through the wound, so that the mass which they form
may even touch the ground. The pain becomes so great that the ox now not only
paws but lies down and rolls, thus tearing and crushing his bowels. In such
cases it is best to slaughter the animal at once; but in the case of a valuable
animal in which tearing and crushing of the bowels has not taken place the
bowels should be washed with freshly boiled water reduced to the temperature of
the body and returned and the wounds in the muscle and skin brought together in
a manner somewhat similar to that described in speaking of ventral hernia.[Pg 44]

DISEASES OF THE LIVER AND SPLEEN.

JAUNDICE (THE YELLOWS, OR CONGESTION OF THE LIVER).

When jaundice exists, there is a yellow appearance of the white of the eyes
and of the mucous membrane of the mouth. A similar aspect of the skin may also
be observed in animals which are either partly or altogether covered with white
hair. Jaundice is then merely a symptom of disease and ought to direct
attention to ascertaining, if possible, the cause or causes which have given
rise to it. A swollen condition of the mucous membrane of that part of the
bowel called the duodenum may produce jaundice, as that mechanically closes the
orifice of the biliary duct. In constipation there is an inactive or torpid
condition of the bowel, and the bile which passes into the intestine may be
absorbed and cause the yellow staining of jaundice. Jaundice is one of the
symptoms of Texas fever. It may also arise from the presence of parasites or
gallstones in the ducts, forming a mechanical obstruction to the onward flow of
bile. The conditions under which jaundice most commonly calls for treatment are
when cattle have been highly fed and kept in a state of inactivity. At such
time there is an excess of nutritive elements carried into the blood, which is
associated with increased fullness of the portal vein and hepatic artery. When
continued high feeding has produced this congested state of the liver, the
functions of that organ become disordered, so that a considerable portion of
the bile, instead of being excreted and passing into the intestine, is absorbed
by the hepatic veins.

The structure of the liver is shown in Plate IV.

Symptoms.—This disease, although rare, occurs most frequently among
stall-fed cattle. Pressure along the margin of the short ribs on the right side
produces pain; the appetite is poor and the animal shows hardly any inclination
to drink; the mucous membranes of the eye and mouth are yellow, the urine has a
yellow or brown appearance, the animal lies down much and moves with
reluctance, moans occasionally, and has a tottering gait. The ears and horns
are alternately hot and cold; in cows the secretion of milk is much diminished,
and that which is secreted has a bitter taste; sometimes the animal has a dry,
painful cough and presents a dull, stupefied appearance.

Treatment.—In such cases it is advisable to produce a free action of
the bowels, so as to remove the usually congested condition of the portal vein
and liver. For this purpose the administration of the following dose is
recommended: Sulphate of soda, 16 ounces; molasses, 1 pint; warm water, 1
quart. The sulphate of soda is dissolved by stirring it up in tepid water.
Following this the animal should have a heaping tablespoonful of artificial
Carlsbad salt in the feed three times daily. This treatment may be assisted by
giving occasional injections of warm water and soap. The diet should be[Pg 45] laxative and
moderate in quantity and may consist of coarse bran mash, pulped roots, grass
in the season, and hay in moderate quantity.

HEPATITIS (INFLAMMATION OF THE LIVER).

Hepatitis is an inflammation of the liver and usually occurs as a
complication of some infectious disease. It may also occur as a complication of
gastrointestinal catarrh or in hot weather from overheating or damaged (putrid
or fermented) feeds.

Symptoms.—The symptoms are sometimes obscure and their real
significance is frequently overlooked. The most prominent symptoms are
yellowness of the white of the eye and of the membrane lining the mouth; the
appetite is poor, the body presents an emaciated appearance, the feces are
light colored, while the urine is likely to be unusually dark; there is thirst,
and pain is caused by pressing over the liver. The gait is weak and the animal
lies down more than usual, and while doing so frequently rests its head on the
side of its chest.

Treatment.—Give a purge of Glauber’s salt and after it has operated
give artificial Carlsbad salts in each feed, as advised under “Jaundice.” Give
green feed and plenty of water. Oil of turpentine should be rubbed in well once
a day over the region of the liver. The skin on which it should be applied
extends from the false ribs on the right side to 6 inches in front of the last
one, and from the backbone to 12 inches on the right side of it.

FLUKE DISEASE.

[See chapter on “The animal parasites of cattle,” p. 502.]

SPLENITIS (INFLAMMATION OF THE SPLEEN).

This disease occurs almost solely as a result of the existence of some
infectious disease, and the symptoms caused by it merge with the symptoms of
the accompanying causative disease. The spleen is seriously involved and
becomes enlarged and soft in Texas fever, anthrax, and blood poisoning.

DISEASES OF THE PERITONEUM.

PERITONITIS.

Peritonitis consists of an inflammation of the peritoneum, which is the
thin, delicate membrane that lines the abdomen and covers the abdominal
organs.

Causes.—Wounds are the usual cause in cattle. The wound may be of the
abdominal wall or of the intestines, stomach, or uterus; or inflammation may
extend from one of the organs of the abdominal cavity to the[Pg 46] peritoneum;
so this disease may complicate enteritis or inflamed womb. A sharp metal body
may perforate the second stomach and allow the gastric contents to escape,
irritating the peritoneum. This disease may follow castration or operation for
hernia.

Symptoms.—A continuous or occasional shivering; the animal lies down,
but appears uneasy; it frequently turns its head toward its belly and lows
plaintively; pressure on the flanks produces pain; has no appetite; muzzle is
dry and no rumination; while standing, its legs are placed well under its body;
pulse small and hard. The evacuations from the bowels are dry and hard. If this
disease is complicated by the presence of inflammation of the bowels, the pain
is more severe and the animal is more restless. The skin is cold and dry in the
early stage of this disease, but in a more advanced stage this condition may be
succeeded by heat of the skin and quick breathing. The fits of trembling,
uneasiness, small and hard pulse, and tension of the left flank are symptoms
the presence of which would enable one to reach the conclusion that peritonitis
exists.

Post-mortem appearance.—The membrane lining the abdomen and covering
the surface of the bowels is reddened to a greater or less extent, and there is
usually considerable serous, or watery, fluid collected in the abdomen.

Treatment.—When we have to do with the form of peritonitis resulting
from an injury, as when the horn of another animal has been thrust through the
abdominal walls, this lesion must be treated in accordance with directions
before given, but the general treatment must be similar to that which follows.
Peritonitis resulting from castration or from parturient fever must also be
treated in connection with the special conditions which give rise to it, as the
general treatment of this disease must be modified to some extent by the
exciting cause.

The aim must be to discover and remove the cause. The cause must be treated
according to its nature. Harms strongly recommends borax in the treatment of
peritonitis. He gives 6 ounces in the first 24 hours, divided into three doses,
and afterwards he gives 6 drams three times daily. Opium in doses of 2 to 3
drams may be given. To bring on evacuations of the bowels it is better to give
rectal injections than to administer purges. The strength may be sustained by
coffee or camphor.

The body should be warmly clothed, and it is advisable, when practicable, to
have a blanket which has been wrung out of hot water placed over the abdomen,
then covered by several dry blankets, which are maintained in position by
straps or ropes passing round the body. The wet blanket must be changed as it
cools—the object of treatment being to warm the surface of the body and
to determine as much blood to the skin as possible. The diet should consist of
laxative[Pg 47]
food and drinks, such as linseed tea. If peritonitis assumes chronic form the
diet should be nutritious, such as selected clover hay, linseed cake, grass,
etc., and iodid of potassium should be given three times a day in gram doses
dissolved in a pint of water.

DROPSY OF THE ABDOMEN (ASCITES).

In this disease there is a serous, or watery, effusion in the cavity of the
abdomen.

Causes.—When old animals are fed on innutritious feed or when reduced
by disease, they become anemic; in other words, their blood becomes
impoverished and dropsy may follow. An innutritious and insufficient diet
produces the same effect in young animals. It is one of the results of
peritonitis, and may also arise from acute or chronic inflammation of the
liver, such as is of common occurrence when flukes are present in the liver in
large numbers. Heart disease and chronic lung disease may be followed by
ascites. It is sometimes, in calves, a symptom of infestation with worms.

Symptoms.—A gradual increase in the size of the abdomen at its lower
part, while the flanks becomes hollow; pallor of the mucous membrane of the
mouth and eye; weak and sluggish gait; want of appetite, and irregularity in
ruminating. On percussion or tapping the surface of the abdomen with the
fingers, a dull sound is produced. If the hand and arm are oiled and passed
into the rectum as far as possible, on moving the hand from one side to the
other the fluctuation caused by the presence of fluid in the abdomen may be
felt.

Treatment.—If possible the cause must be discovered and removed. The
diet should be nutritious, and in those cases in which we have merely to deal
with anemia (the bloodless state) arising from insufficient diet, the use of
tonics and diuretics, at the same time keeping the skin warm, may bring about a
gradual absorption of the fluid contained in the abdomen. One of the following
powders may be mixed with the animal’s feed three times a day; or, if there is
any uncertainty as to its being taken in that way, it should be mixed with
sirup, so as to form a paste, and smeared well back on the animal’s tongue with
a flat wooden spoon: Carbonate of iron, 3 ounces; powdered gentian, 3 ounces;
powdered nitrate of potassium, 3 ounces; mix and divide into 12 powders. The
administration of purgatives which promote a watery discharge from the mucous
surface of the bowels also tends, by diminishing the serum of the blood, to
bring about absorption and a gradual removal of the fluid contained in the
abdomen. Large doses should not be given, but moderate ones should be
administered morning and night, so as to produce a laxative effect on the
bowels for several days. To attain this end the following may be used: Sulphate
of soda, 8 ounces; powdered ginger, half an ounce; to be mixed in 2 quarts of
tepid water and given at one dose.[Pg 48]

DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES.

PLATE I.
SHOWING THE POSITION OF THE RUMEN.
(Click to enlarge)

PLATE II.
STOMACH OF RUMINANTS.
(Click to enlarge)

PLATE
III.
INSTRUMENTS USED IN TREATING DISEASES OF DIGESTIVE ORGANS.
(Click to enlarge)

PLATE IV.
MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY OF THE LIVER.
(Click to enlarge)

PLATE V.
ERGOT IN HAY.
(Click to enlarge)

PLATE VI.
ERGOTISM.
(Click to enlarge)

[Pg 49]

[Pg 51]

POISONS AND
POISONING.

By V. T. Atkinson, V. S.

[Revised by C. Dwight Marsh, Ph. D.]

DEFINITION OF A POISON.

To define clearly the meaning of the word “poison” is somewhat difficult.
Even in law the word has never been defined, and when a definition is attempted
we are apt to include either too much or too little. The following definition
given by Husemann is perhaps the best: “Poisons are those substances, inorganic
or organic, existing in the organism or introduced from the outside, produced
artificially or formed as natural products, which, through their chemical
nature, under definite conditions, so affect some organ of a living organism
that the health or well-being of the organism is temporarily or chronically
injured.” The common conception of a poison is any substance which, in small
quantity, will destroy life, except such as act by purely mechanical means, as,
for example, powdered glass.

Some substances that are not usually looked upon as poisons may destroy life
if given in large doses, such as common salt. Other substances which are
perfectly harmless when taken into the body in the usual way are poisons if
injected into the circulation, such as distilled water, milk, or glycerin.
Living organisms are not “chemical substances,” and are not considered in this
connection.

SOURCES OF POISONING.

Poisoning may come from many causes, among the chief of which are the
following:

(1) Errors in medication.—By using the wrong substance or too large
dose an animal may be poisoned.

(2) The exposure of poisons used for horticultural, technical, or other
legitimate purposes.—Poisons used for spraying plants, disinfecting,
poisoning vermin, dipping cattle or sheep, painting, smelting, dyeing, or other
purposes may be so handled as to come within the reach of animals.

(3) Damaged food.—Food that has undergone putrefaction or certain
kinds of fermentation or heating, may have become poisonous, producing forage
poisoning, meat poisoning, cheese poisoning, etc.

(4) Poisonous plants in the pasture or forage.

(5) The bite or sting of a poisonous insect or the bite of an animal.

(6) Malicious poisoning.

[Pg 52]

THE ACTION OF POISONS.

The action of poisons may be either local, and exerted directly on the
tissues with which they come in contact, or remote, acting through the
circulation or the nervous system; or both local and remote action may be
exerted by the same drug. Poisons which act locally generally either destroy by
corrosion the tissues with which they come in contact or by inhalation set up
acute inflammation. When any corrosive agent is taken into the stomach in
poisonous quantities, a group of symptoms is developed which is common to all.
The tissues with which the agent comes in contact are destroyed, sloughing and
acute inflammation of the surrounding structures take place; intense pain in
the abdomen and death ensue. In a like manner, but with less rapidity, the same
result is reached if the agent used be not of a sufficiently corrosive nature
to destroy the tissues, but sufficiently irritating to set up acute
inflammation of the mucous membrane of the digestive tract. If the poison
exerts a remote influence alone, the action is quite different, little or no
local effect being produced upon the digestive organs.

To produce an effect on some part of the body distant from the channel of
entrance, a poison must have been absorbed and carried in the blood to the
central nervous system or other region involved. The poisonous effect of any
substance is modified by the quantity used; by its chemical combinations; by
the part of the animal structure with which it comes in contact; by the
physical condition of the subject; and also by the rapidity with which the
poison is excreted. As an illustration, opium may be given with safety in much
larger doses to an animal suffering from acute pain than to one free from pain,
and to an adult animal with greater safety than to a young one. The rapidity
with which the poison is absorbed, owing to the part of the body with which it
is brought in contact, is also an important factor. So marked is this quality
that some agents which have the power of destroying life with almost absolute
certainty when introduced beneath the skin, may be taken into the stomach
without causing inconvenience, as curara, the arrow poisons, or the venomous
secretion of snakes. Other agents in chemical combination may tend to
intensify, lessen, or wholly neutralize the poisonous effect. For example,
arsenic in itself has well-marked poisonous properties, but when brought in
contact with dialyzed iron it forms an insoluble compound and becomes
innocuous. Idiosyncrasies are not so noticeable in cattle practice as in
practice among human beings, but the uncertainty with which some drugs exert
their influence would lead us to believe that well-marked differences in
susceptibility exist. Even in some cases a tolerance for poison is engendered,
so that in a herd of [Pg
53]animals equally exposed injurious or fatal effects do
not appear with uniformity. For example, among cattle that are compelled to
drink water holding in solution a salt of lead the effects of the poisoning
will be found varying all the way from fatality to imperceptibility.

GENERAL SYMPTOMS OF POISONING.

It is not always easy to differentiate between poisoning and some disease.
Indeed, examination during the life of the animal is sometimes wholly
inadequate to the formation of an opinion as to whether the case is one of
poisoning or, if it is, as to what the poison may be. A chemical and physical
examination after the death of the animal may be necessary to clear up the
doubt. On the other hand, the symptoms may be of such a nature as to point
unmistakably to poisoning with a certain agent. In general, the following
classes of symptoms may be regarded as indicative of poisoning: Sudden onset of
the disease without visible cause, a number of animals being similarly affected
at once, with severe gastrointestinal disorder or derangement of the nervous
system, or both; sudden alteration of heart action in relation to frequency,
force, or rhythm; local irritation, dyspnea, or change in the urine or
urination.

After death, lesions of the greatest variety may be found, and it is
necessary for one to be skilled in anatomy and pathology in order to determine
their significance. Oftentimes the stomach and intestines are red, have thick
walls, and contain blood. This signifies a severe irritant, such as arsenic or
corrosive sublimate. Other alterations sometimes found are inflammation of the
kidneys or bladder, points of hemorrhage in various organs, changes in the
blood, congestion of the lungs, and certain microscopic changes.

GENERAL TREATMENT.

The treatment of animals suffering from poison must vary according to the
nature of the toxic agent. There are a few general plans of action, however,
which should be followed so far as possible. In man and in some of the smaller
animals it is possible to eliminate unabsorbed poison by the use of the stomach
pump or by causing vomiting. These proceedings are impracticable in cattle. It
is well, therefore, in many cases to endeavor to expel the unabsorbed poison by
emptying the digestive tract, so far as may be, with a nonirritating purge.
Castor oil in doses of 1 pint to 2 quarts is adapted to this purpose. If the
poison is known to be nonirritant—as a narcotic plant—from 10 to 20
drops of croton oil may be given with a quart of castor oil. When poisons are
somewhat prolonged in their effect, Epsom salt in doses of 1 pound can be given
[Pg 54]
advantageously. To protect the mucous membrane from the action of strong
irritants, one may give flaxseed tea, barley water, the whites of eggs, milk,
butter, olive oil, or fresh lard. Chemical antidotes may sometimes be used for
special poisons, as advised below. In general, if an acid has been taken it may
be neutralized with an alkali, such as chalk, magnesia, bicarbonate of soda
(baking soda), ammonia (diluted), or soap. If the poison is an alkali, such as
caustic soda or potash (lye), or ammonia, an acid, such as diluted (1 per cent)
sulphuric acid or vinegar, may be administered. Special treatments and
antidotes are considered below.

A poisonous agent may be so gradually introduced into the system as to
slowly develop the power of resistance against its own action. In other cases
where the poison is introduced slowly the poisonous action becomes
accumulative, and, although there is no increase in the quantity taken, violent
symptoms are suddenly developed, as if the whole amount, the consumption of
which may have extended over a considerable period, had been given in one dose.
Other agents, poisonous in their nature, tend to deteriorate some of the
important organs, and, interfering with their natural functions, are productive
of conditions of ill health which, although not necessarily fatal, are
important. Such might properly be called chronic poisons. Poisons of themselves
dangerous when administered in large doses are used medicinally for curative
purposes, and a very large percentage of the pharmaceutical preparations used
in the practice of medicine if given in excessive quantities may produce
serious results. In the administration of medicines, therefore, care should be
exercised not only that the animal is not poisoned by the administration of an
excessive dose but that injury is not done by continued treatment with
medicines the administration of which is not called for.

MINERAL POISONS.

ARSENIC POISONING.

Of the common irritant and corrosive poisons, arsenic, especially one of its
compounds (Paris green), is likely to be the most dangerous to our class of
patients. The common practice of using Paris green and other compounds of
arsenic as insecticides for the destruction of potato beetle and other insect
enemies of the farmer and fruit grower has had the effect of introducing it
into almost all farming establishments. White arsenic is also a principal
ingredient in some popular dipping preparations, and poisoning from this source
occasionally takes place when, after dipping, animals are allowed to run in a
yard in which there is loose fodder. The drippings from the animals falling on
[Pg 55]
the fodder render it poisonous and dangerous to animal life if eaten. Familiarity
with its use has in many instances tended to breed contempt for its potency as
a poison. Rat poisons often contain arsenic. The excessive use of arsenic as a
tonic, or of “condition powders” containing arsenic, has been the means of
poisoning many animals. This is the common poison used by malicious persons
with criminal intent. The poison may also be absorbed through wounds or through
the skin if used as a dip or bath.

If a large dose is given, at once acute poisoning is produced; if repeated
small doses are given, chronic poisoning may result. The poisonous dose for an
ox is from 3 drams to 1 ounce.

Symptoms.—The symptoms of acute poisoning first appear as those of
colic; the animal is restless, stamping with the feet, lying down and getting
up. There is tenderness on pressure over the abdomen. The acute symptoms
increase; in a few hours violent diarrhea is developed; in many cases blood and
shreds of detached mucous membrane are mixed with the evacuations. There is
irregular and feeble pulse and respiration, and death is likely to supervene
between the eighteenth hour and the third day. If the latter period is passed,
there is a reasonable hope of recovery.

In chronic poisoning the symptoms are similar to those of chronic
gastrointestinal catarrh, with indigestion, diarrhea, and general weakness and
loss of condition.

Treatment.—The antidote for arsenic is a solution of hydrated oxid of
iron in water. It should be prepared fresh by mixing a solution of sulphate of
iron, made by dissolving 4 ounces of sulphate of iron in one-half pint water,
with a suspension of 1 ounce of magnesia in one-half pint water. This quantity
is sufficient for one dose for a cow and may be repeated in an hour, if much
arsenic was taken. A solution of calcined magnesia or powdered iron or iron
filings or iron scale from a blacksmith’s forge may be given in the absence of
other remedies. Powdered sulphur is of some value as an antidote. One must also
administer protectives, such as linseed tea, barley water, whites of eggs,
etc.

LEAD POISONING.

Lead poisoning of cattle sometimes comes from their having licked freshly
painted surfaces and thus swallowed compounds containing white lead. In several
instances cattle have been poisoned by silage from a silo painted inside with
lead paint shortly before filling. Sometimes cattle eat dried paint scrapings
with apparent relish and are poisoned. Cattle grazing on rifle ranges have been
poisoned by lead from the bullets. Sugar of lead has been administered by mistake
[Pg 56]
for Glauber’s salt. Lead poisoning may be acute or chronic. The fatal dose of sugar
of lead is from 1 to 4 ounces. Water drawn from lead pipes or held in a
lead-lined tank may cause poisoning.

Symptoms.—The symptoms are generally dullness, lying down with the
head turned toward the flank, colic, rumbling in the abdomen, loss of control
of the limbs when walking, twitching, champing of the jaws, moving in a circle,
convulsions, delirium, violent bellowing, followed by stupor and death. The
symptoms generally extend over considerable time but may end in death after 24
hours.

Chronic lead poisoning occasionally occurs in districts where lead mining is
the principal industry. The waste products of the mine thrown into streams
contaminate the water supply, so that the mineral is taken into the system
gradually, and a very small per cent of any of the salts taken into the system
in this way is pernicious. Water which contains any salt of lead to the extent
of more than one-tenth of a grain to the gallon is unfit to drink. Such water
when used continually is likely to produce colic from the resulting intestinal
irritation, and in aggravated cases paralysis more or less severe is likely to
be developed. A blue line on the margin of the gums, the last symptom, is
regarded as diagnostic and its presence as conclusive evidence of the nature of
the disorder.

Treatment.—The treatment should first be directed toward removing the
cause. A large dose of purgative medicine should be given, and the brain
symptoms be relieved by giving bromid of potassium in half-ounce doses every 4
or 5 hours and by the application of cold water to the head. Dilute sulphuric
acid in half-ounce doses should be given with the purgative medicine. In this
case sulphate of magnesia (Epsom salt) is the best purgative, and it may be
given in doses of from 1 to 2 pounds dissolved in warm water. After the acute
symptoms have abated, iodid of potassium may be given, in doses of 2 drams
each, three times a day for a week.

No treatment is likely to be of avail until the cause is removed.

COPPER POISONING.

The soluble salts of copper, though used as a tonic in the medicinal
treatment of cattle, are poisonous when taken in large quantities. Like lead
and arsenic, they have an irritant effect upon the mucous membrane with which
they come in contact in a concentrated form. Cattle are not very likely to be
poisoned from this cause unless through carelessness. Sulphate of copper,
commonly called blue vitriol, is occasionally used for disinfecting and
cleansing stables, where it might inadvertently be mixed with the feed. It is
also used largely for making the Bordeaux mixture used in spraying fruit trees.
[Pg 57]
The general symptoms produced are those of intestinal irritation, short breathing,
stamping, and tender abdomen.

Treatment.—Give powdered iron, or iron reduced by hydrogen, or
calcined magnesia. Sulphur may be used. This should be followed by a liberal
supply of demulcents, linseed infusion, boiled starch, whites of eggs, etc.

ZINC POISONING.

Several of the soluble salts of zinc are irritant poisons. The chlorid and
sulphate are those in most common use. In animals which have power to vomit
they are emetic in their action. In others, when retained in the stomach, they
set up more or less irritation of the mucous membrane and abdominal pain,
producing symptoms already described in the action of other poisons which
produce the same result.

Treatment.—The treatment should be the same as for copper
poisoning.

PHOSPHORUS POISONING.

Only one of the forms of phosphorus in common use—the ordinary
yellow—is poisonous. Phosphorus in this form is used for the destruction
of rats and mice and other vermin, and has been largely used in the manufacture
of matches.

Symptoms.—The symptoms are loss of appetite, colic, diarrhea,
irritation of the mouth and throat, and paralysis of the throat. There is also
weakness, difficult breathing, and rapid pulse. The course of the poisoning is
usually rapid, terminating in either recovery or death within three days. The
toxic dose for cattle is from 5 to 30 grains. If taken in large quantities the
excreta are occasionally noticed to be luminous when examined in the dark.

Treatment.—Turpentine is given in an emulsion with flaxseed tea in a
single dose of from 2 to 8 ounces. Permanganate of potassium may be given in a
one-fourth of 1 per cent solution. Stimulants, such as alcohol and ether,
should be administered. Oils and milk must not be given.

MERCURY POISONING.

Mercury poisoning is not rare in cattle from the fact that these animals
have a special susceptibility to the action of this substance. Antiseptic
washes or injections containing the bichlorid of mercury (corrosive sublimate)
must be used on cattle with great care. Mercurial disinfecting solutions or
salves must be used cautiously. Calomel can not be given freely to cattle.

Symptoms.—The symptoms are salivation, sore mouth, indigestion,
diarrhea, skin eruption, paralysis of local groups of muscles, and
nephritis.

[Pg 58]

Treatment.—The treatment consists in administering sulphur in large
doses (2 to 4 ounces) or iron powder. Both make insoluble compounds with
mercury. Follow with the whites of eggs mixed with water and with linseed tea.
If the case does not terminate promptly, give iodid of potash in 1-dram doses
twice daily.

POISONING BY ACIDS.

Mineral acids.—The mineral
acids—nitric, sulphuric, hydrochloric, etc.— when used in a
concentrated form destroy the animal tissues with which they come in contact,
and in this respect differ from most of the poisons previously described. When
taken into the stomach the mucous membrane of the mouth, pharynx, esophagus,
and stomach is apt to be more or less completely destroyed. If taken in large
quantities death is likely to result so speedily that nothing can be done to
relieve the patient, and even if time is allowed and the action of the acid can
be arrested it can not be done until considerable and, perhaps, irreparable
damage has been done. The mucous membrane with which the acid has come in
contact in the esophagus may be destroyed by its corrosive action and carried
away, leaving the muscular tissues exposed. The raw surface heals irregularly,
the cicatrice contracting causes stricture, and an animal so injured is likely
to die of starvation. In the stomach even greater damage is likely to be done.
The peristaltic action of the esophagus carries the irritant along quickly, but
here it remains quiet in contact with one surface, destroying it. It is likely
to perforate the organ and, coming in contact with the abdominal lining or
other organs of digestion, soon sets up a condition that is beyond repair. In a
less concentrated form, when this is not sufficiently strong to be corrosive,
it exerts an irritant effect. In this form it may not do much harm unless taken
in considerable quantity. When thus the mucous membrane of the stomach and
intestines becomes inflamed pain and diarrhea are likely to result.

Treatment.—Any of the alkalies may be used as an antidote. Most
convenient of these are chalk, baking soda, marble dust, magnesia, lime, soap,
or plaster from a wall. Mucilaginous drinks should be given in large
quantities.

Vegetable acids.—Oxalic acid in particular
is corrosive in its action when taken in concentrated solution, losing its
corrosive effect and becoming irritant when more dilute. It also exerts a
specific effect on the heart, frequently causing death from syncope. Taken in
the form either of the crystals or solution it is likely to cause death in a
very short time. Failure of heart action and the attendant small pulse,
weakness, staggering, and convulsions are the more noticeable symptoms. Acetic
acid is irritant to the gastrointestinal tract, and may cause sudden paralysis
of the heart.

[Pg 59]

Treatment.—The action of the acid should be counteracted by the use of
alkalies, as advised above, by limewater or lime or plaster given promptly, by
protectives to the digestive tract, and by stimulants.

POISONING BY ALKALIES.

The carbonates of potash and soda and the alkalies themselves in
concentrated form cause symptoms of intestinal irritation similar to those
produced by mineral acids. Ammonia, caustic soda, and caustic potash (lye) are
those to which animals are most exposed. The degree of their caustic irritant
effects depends on their degree of concentration. When they reach the stomach
the symptoms are nearly as well marked as in the case of the acids. The
irritation is even more noticeable, and purgation is likely to be a more
prominent symptom. If death is not caused soon, the irritation of the
gastrointestinal tract and malnutrition will last for a long time.

Treatment.—Treatment consists in neutralizing the alkali by an acid,
such as dilute sulphuric acid (1 per cent) or strong vinegar. The
administration of such an antidote and its action must be carefully watched
during administration. In the chemical change which takes place when the acid
and alkali are combined, carbonic-acid gas is liberated, which may be to an
extent sufficient to cause considerable distention of the abdomen, and even to
produce asphyxia from pressure forward on the diaphragm. Should this danger
present itself, it may be averted by opening the flank, permitting the gas to
escape. (See “Acute tympanites, or Bloating,” p. 22.) Flaxseed or slippery-elm
decoction must be given to sooth the inflamed mucous surface. Opium may be used
to allay pain.

COAL-OIL POISONING.

Coal oil is sometimes administered empirically as a treatment for intestinal
parasites. If given in large doses it produces poisonous effects, which are
likely to be manifested some time after the administration. It acts as an
irritant to the digestive tract, causing dribbling of ropy saliva from the
mouth, diarrhea, tenesmus, and loss of appetite, with increased temperature and
cold extremities. Visible mucous membranes are injected, pupils of the eyes are
contracted, and there is a watery discharge from the eyes and nostrils.
Remotely it exerts a depressing influence on the functions of the brain and
slight coma, and occasionally convulsions, from which the animal is easily
aroused. The kidneys also suffer. The urine is dark colored and has the
characteristic odor of coal oil. Death may result from gastroenteritis or
convulsions.

Treatment.—The patient’s strength should be fostered by the frequent
administration of mild stimulants, of which aromatic spirits of ammonia is perhaps the
[Pg 60]
best. The animal should be encouraged to eat soft feed and given mucilaginous
drinks.

Crude coal oil is sometimes applied to the skin to kill parasites. If too
much is used, especially in hot weather, great weakness and depression may be
caused and in some cases death may result.

CARBOLIC-ACID POISONING.

Although one of the most valuable antiseptic remedies, carbolic acid in a
concentrated form, when taken internally or used over a large surface
externally, is likely to produce poisonous effects. It causes whitening,
shrinking, and numbness of the structures with which it comes in contact, and,
besides its irritant effect, exerts a powerful influence on the nervous system.
Being readily absorbed, it produces its effect whether swallowed, injected into
the rectum, inhaled, or applied to wounds, or even to a large tract of unbroken
skin. Used extensively as a dressing, it may produce nausea, dizziness, and
smoky or blackish colored urine. The last symptom is nearly always noticeable
where the poisonous effect is produced. In more concentrated form, or used in
larger quantities, convulsions, followed by fatal coma, are likely to take
place. Even in smaller quantities, dullness, trembling, and disinclination for
food often continue for several days. In a tolerably concentrated solution it
coagulates albumen and acts as an astringent.

Treatment.—As an antidote internally, a solution of sulphate of soda
or sulphate of magnesia (Glauber’s or Epsom salt) may be given. The white of
egg is also useful. Stimulants may be given if needed. When the poisoning
occurs through too extensive applications to wounds or the skin, as in
treatment of mange, cold water should be freely applied so as to wash off any
of the acid that may still remain unabsorbed. As a surgical dressing a 3 per
cent solution is strong enough for ordinary purposes. Water will not hold more
than 5 per cent in permanent solution. No preparation stronger than the
saturated solution should be used medicinally under any circumstances.

SALTPETER POISONING.

Both nitrate of soda and nitrate of potassium are poisonous to cattle. These
substances are used for manure and for preserving meats. They may be
administered in a drench by error in place of Glauber’s salt, or they may be
exposed within reach of cattle and thus be eaten. The toxic dose depends upon
the condition of fullness of the stomach. If in solution and given on an empty
stomach, as little as 3 ounces of saltpeter (nitrate of potassium) may be fatal
to a cow. More of the Chile saltpeter (nitrate of soda) is required to
cause serious trouble.

[Pg 61]

Symptoms.—Severe gastroenteritis, colic, tympanites, diarrhea,
excessive urination, weakness, trembling, convulsions, collapse.

Treatment.—Same as for poisoning by common salt.

POISONING BY COMMON SALT.

A few pounds (3 to 5) of common salt will produce well-marked signs of
poisoning in cattle. So much salt as this will not be taken by cattle except
under unusual conditions. If the feed is poor in salt, and if no salt has been
given for a long time, an intense “salt hunger” may occur that may lead an
animal to eat a poisonous quantity, or an overdose of salt may be given by
error as a drench. In order to prevent overeating of salt, it is doubtless
better in salting cattle to use rock salt rather than that in more or less
finely divided form.

Herring and mackerel brine and pork pickle are also poisonous, and are
especially dangerous for hogs. In these substances there are, in addition to
salt, certain products extracted from the fish or meat which undergo change and
add to the toxicity of the solution. Sometimes saltpeter is present in such
brines.

Symptoms.—The symptoms are great thirst, abdominal pain, diarrhea,
poor appetite, redness and dryness of the mouth, increased urination, paralysis
of the hind legs, weak pulse, general paralysis, coma, and death in from six to
eight hours.

Treatment.—Allow as much warm water as the animal will drink; give
protectives, such as linseed tea, etc. Linseed or olive oil may be given. To
keep up the heart action give ether, alcohol, camphor, digitalis, or coffee. To
allay pain, give opium.

VEGETABLE POISONS.

Vegetable poisons may be divided into two classes—those that are
likely to be administered to the animal as medicine, and such as may be taken
in the feed, either in the shape of poisonous plants or as plants or feeds of
vegetable origin that have been damaged by fungi or by bacteria which have
produced fermentation or putrefaction.

VEGETABLE POISONS USED AS MEDICINE.

OPIUM (MORPHIN, LAUDANUM) POISONING.

Opium and its alkaloid, morphia, are so commonly used in the practice of
medicine that the poisonous result of an overdose is not uncommon. The common
preparations are gum opium, the inspissated juice of the poppy; powdered opium,
made from the gum; tincture of opium, commonly called laudanum; and the
alkaloid or active principle, morphia. Laudanum has about one-eighth the
strength of the gum or powder. Morphia is present in good opium to the extent
of about 10 per cent. In medicine it is a most useful agent in allaying pain.
It first produces a stimulating action, [Pg 62] which is followed by drowsiness, a
disposition to sleep or complete anesthesia, depending on the quantity of the
drug used. In poisonous doses a state of exhilaration is well marked at first.
This is particularly noticeable in cattle and in horses. The animal becomes
much excited, and this stage does not pass into insensibility unless an
enormous dose has been given. If the dose is large enough, a second stage
sometimes supervenes, in which the symptoms are those of congestion of the
brain. The visible membranes have a bluish tint (cyanotic) from interference
with the air supply. The breathing is slow, labored, and later stertorous; the
pupils of the eyes are very much contracted; the skin dry and warm. Gas
accumulates in the stomach, so that tympanites is a prominent symptom. The
patient may be aroused by great noise or the infliction of sharp pain, when the
breathing becomes more natural. A lapse into the comatose condition takes place
when the excitement ceases. Later, there is perfect coma and the patient can no
longer be aroused from the insensible condition. The contraction of the pupil
becomes more marked, the breathing intermittent and slower, there is
perspiration, the pulse more feeble and rapid, till death takes place.
Poisoning of cattle with opium or its products rarely goes beyond the stage of
excitement, because the quantity of the drug required for the later effects is
so great. Seventy-five grains of morphia administered subcutaneously has
sufficed merely to excite for 12 hours.

Treatment.—Give strong coffee, 1 to 4 quarts, aromatic spirits of
ammonia or carbonate of ammonia. Atropia is the physiological antidote.

STRYCHNIN POISONING.

Strychnin is a very concentrated poison and produces its effect very
quickly, usually only a few minutes being necessary if given in sufficient dose
and in such a way that it will be at once absorbed. When employed as a
medicine, as a rule, minimum doses should be used, as cattle are quite
susceptible to its effects and may be killed by the maximum doses given in the
common manuals of veterinary medicine. The first noticeable symptom is evidence
of unrest or mental excitement; at the same time the muscles over the shoulder
and croup may be seen to quiver or twitch, and later there occurs a more or
less well-marked convulsion; the head is jerked back, the back arched and leg
extended, the eyes drawn. The spasm continues for only a few minutes, when it
relaxes and another occurs in a short time. The return is hastened by
excitement and in a short time again disappears, continuing to disappear and
reappear until death results. As the poisonous effect advances the intervals
between the spasms become shorter and less marked and the spasms more severe
until the animal dies in violent struggles.[Pg 63]

Treatment.—The best method is to put the patient under the influence
of chloral, chloroform, or ether, and keep it there continuously until the
effect of the poison has passed off. Alcohol may be given in large doses.

ACONITE POISONING.

In recent years tincture of aconite has become a popular stable remedy. If
an animal is ailing, aconite is given whether indicated or not. Fortunately the
dose used is generally small, and for this reason the damage done is much less
than it would otherwise be. Aconite is one of the most deadly poisons known. It
produces paralysis of motion and sensation, depresses the heart’s action, and
causes death by paralysis of respiration. In large doses it causes profuse
salivation, champing of the jaws, and attempts at swallowing. If not sufficient
to cause death, there is impaired appetite with more or less nausea for some
time after. In poisonous doses it causes the animal to tremble violently, to
lose power to support itself, and brings on slight convulsions, with
perspiration. The pulse is depressed, irregular, and afterwards
intermittent.

Treatment.—The chemical antidote is tannic acid, which forms an
insoluble compound with the aconitin. The depressing effect on the heart should
be counteracted by the use of ammonia, digitalis, alcohol, camphor, or other
diffusible stimulants, which have a physiological effect opposite to
aconite.

POISONOUS PLANTS.

An important group of poisons may be classed under this head. In most cases
it is poison naturally belonging in the plant; in other cases the poisonous
principle is developed in what would otherwise be harmless plants as a plant
disease, or as a fermentation or putrefaction due to bacterial growth and
observed in forage, grain, or meal that has become heated, damaged, or
“spoilt.”

The subject of poisonous plants is an important one and is of especial
interest to those using the western stock ranges, for it is probable that there
is no other single cause producing so many fatalities. In this article only a
few of the more important plants are treated in a brief way, for an extended
treatise would be necessary if the subject were to be handled adequately.
Further information should be sought in the more elaborate publications. Many
of the American poisonous plants have been treated in bulletins issued by the
United States Department of Agriculture.

Treatment for plant poisoning.—Remedies given by the mouth in most
cases fail to give relief to cattle affected by poisonous plants. The material
of the poisonous plants in the first stomach is not very largely affected by a
remedy given as a drench. If any beneficial result is effected, it must be[Pg 64] on the
material which has already passed into the fourth stomach, so that to get any
real antidotal result the remedy must be given repeatedly in order to meet the
alkaloid poisons as they are passing through the fourth stomach. While certain
substances like tannic acid and potassium permanganate are the logical
antidotes for plant poisons, in practical application they are very
disappointing in the treatment of ruminant animals. Reliance must be mainly on
prevention and upon such remedies as will increase elimination. A laxative or
purgative is always helpful, and for this purpose Epsom salt may be given in
pound doses, or linseed oil in doses of 1 or 2 pints. In some few cases special
remedies can be given as is indicated below.

It is well to bear in mind that cattle while grazing freely in good pasture
are not likely to eat poisonous plants to any extent. If these same plants are
gathered and thrown in a pile, the animals, through a kind of pernicious
curiosity, may eat them with disastrous results. This has frequently happened
when freshly cut branches of cherry, yew, oleander, and other plants have been
thrown where dairy cattle could get at them.

OAKS.

The foliage of oaks is a valuable constituent of the forage on many ranges
and pastures. It has been shown, however, that when this is eaten without some
admixture of other food, cattle frequently sicken and die. Many cases of the
poisoning of cattle by acorns have been reported in England and Germany, and
there have been some complaints in the United States. Harmful results from
eating acorns do not seem likely to occur except as they are eaten in
considerable quantities.

Symptoms.—The symptoms of oak poisoning are constipation, mucus and
blood in the feces, emaciation, and edema. The symptoms of acorn poisoning are
much the same.

Treatment.—Change of pasture or an addition of other food material.

HORSE CHESTNUT—BUCKEYE.

All the species of Æsculus, popularly known as horse chestnut or buckeye,
are considered poisonous. The bark, leaves, and fruit are injurious. It is said
that if the fruit is boiled or roasted and washed out it becomes harmless and
even is a desirable addition to the feed of cattle. The Indians in time of
scarcity of food have used the fruit after preparing it in this way. The
buckeyes are said to have a specific effect in producing abortion in cattle and
goats.[Pg 65]

DEATH CAMAS (SPECIES OF ZYGADENUS).

The death-camas plants, which are commonly known in the Pacific States as
“lobelia,” are especially destructive of sheep, but cattle sometimes eat them
and are poisoned. Cases of cattle poisoning are not likely to result
fatally.

Symptoms.—The symptoms are salivation, nausea accompanied by vomiting,
great weakness, and lowered temperature.

Treatment.—There is no effective treatment for death-camas
poisoning.

FLY POISON (CHROSPERMA MUSCÆTORIUM).

This plant, which is closely related to the death-camas plants, is sometimes
known as “stagger grass” and causes a considerable loss in the Southern States.
It grows earlier than the grasses, and on this account is more likely to be
eaten. Like death camas, it produces pronounced nausea, resulting in vomiting
and weakness, and in cases which recover the effects may continue for several
days. Apparently the injurious effects are more common in the case of cattle
than in other domestic animals. There is no known way of treating these
animals, though doubtless purgatives would be beneficial.

YEW (TAXUS BACCATA).

The European yew has long been known as a very poisonous plant. It is
cultivated in America, and while cases of poisoning have not been common, it is
well to recognize its dangerous character. A comparatively small dose is
poisonous and ordinarily acts with great rapidity. It causes respiratory
paralysis and the animal dies in convulsions.

LAUREL.

The laurels, including the broad-leafed laurel, Kalmia latifolia, the
narrow-leafed laurel, Kalmia angustifolia, the rhododendrons, and other closely
related plants are poisonous and cause considerable losses. It is dangerous to
let cattle graze where these plants are abundant at times when other forage is
scarce. The symptoms are salivation, nausea and vomiting, spasms, dizziness,
stupor, and death.

FERN.

The common brake or bracken fern, Pteris aquilina, has been considered
responsible for the poisoning of many horses and cattle. Many cases have been
reported in England and Germany, and some well-authenticated cases in the
United States. Very little has been learned experimentally of fern poisoning,
but there seems to be little question that it has been the cause of many
deaths. The symptoms [Pg 66]
are said to be temperature higher than normal, loss of
appetite, bloody discharges from mouth, nose, and bowels, and great depression
followed by coma and death. Some authors say that the urine is colored by
blood. It is thought by some that the disease known as “red water” in the
northwestern United States and Canada is caused by eating ferns.

SORGHUM POISONING.

Under certain conditions sorghum contains enough hydrocyanic acid to make it
exceedingly dangerous to cattle. These cases of poisoning most commonly occur
when cattle are pastured upon the young plant or upon a field where the crop
has been cut and is making a second growth. Conditions of drought make the
sorghum especially dangerous. There is some reason to think that the frosted
second growth is particularly rich in hydrocyanic acid. The cases of poisoning
occur when animals are grazed upon the plant, but not from the harvested crop
or from silage. If cattle are grazed on sorghum or sorghum stubble they should
at first be under constant observation and should be removed as soon as any
signs of illness appear. Similar precautions should be used in grazing
kafir.

CORNSTALK DISEASE.

Considerable losses of cattle have occurred when they were turned upon
cornfields in the fall. Deaths come very suddenly and there is no opportunity
to apply remedies. It has been thought that these fatalities, like those from
sorghum, were caused by hydrocyanic acid, but there is good reason to think
that this is not true, and at the present time there is no accepted explanation
of this disease, although there seems to be no doubt that it is connected in
some way with the condition of the corn. Whether a given field is poisonous or
not can only be determined by experiment, and the wise farmer will keep his
cattle under close observation when they are first turned into a cornfield.

WATER HEMLOCK (CICUTA).

This plant, growing in wet places by ditches and along creeks, is the most
poisonous of North American plants. The root is the poisonous part, and cattle
generally get it when it is plowed up or washed out by high water. Sometimes
they pull it up, for the plant occasionally grows out into ditches so that the
whole plant will be taken in grazing. The most marked symptoms of Cicuta
poisoning are the violent convulsions, which remind one of the effect of
strychnin.[Pg
67]

Treatment.—Little can be done in the way of treatment. The logical
thing is to attempt to control the convulsions by means of morphia, but in view
of the fact that the stomach can not be emptied, the prognosis is not good, and
most cases die.

LARKSPURS.

The larkspurs are a source of heavy loss to cattle owners in the higher
ranges of the West. There are a number of species, growing at altitudes from
4,000 feet to timber line, and all are poisonous. A few cases of poisoning by
larkspurs have been reported in the eastern United States, but most of the
losses are confined to the West, both because larkspurs grow there in greater
profusion and because cattle are grazed in that region on the open ranges. The
losses are confined to cattle, for sheep and horses can graze on larkspur with
no resulting harm. Most of the larkspur losses occur in the spring and early
summer, as the plants lose their toxicity after maturing.

Symptoms.—Larkspur poisoning is accompanied by a definite line of
symptoms. In range animals the first symptom noted is generally the sudden
falling of the animal and consequent inability to rise. After a while it may
rise, only to fall again. This may happen repeatedly. In severe cases the
animal lies prone and exhibits nausea, accompanied by vomiting. It dies of
respiratory paralysis, death many times being hastened by the asphyxia
following the vomiting.

Treatment.—The animal, if found down, should be turned so that its
head is uphill in order to relieve the lungs. Many cases will recover with no
further treatment. Nearly all cases will recover if a hypodermic injection is
given immediately of physostigmin salicylate 1 grain, pilocarpin hydrochlorid 2
grains, strychnin sulphate ½ grain.

LOCO.

The loco plants have caused especially heavy losses of cattle, horses, and
sheep. They grow in the semiarid regions of the West and sometimes in great
luxuriance. The best known are the “blue loco,” the “woolly loco” or “purple
loco,” and the “white loco” or “rattle-weed.” The blue loco is common in parts
of New Mexico, Arizona, and Utah. It affects both horses and cattle. The purple
loco, Astragalus mollissimus, is common in Texas and the adjoining States and
extends north as far as Nebraska and Colorado. It is especially destructive to
horses. The white loco, Oxytropis lamberti, is still more widely distributed,
being found in the plains region from Alaska to Mexico and west of the Rocky
Mountains to central Utah. The white loco is much more important than the
purple loco, for it[Pg
68] affects not only horses but cattle and sheep. These plants
belong to the pea family, and there are a number of other species of this
family that are loco plants and produce the same symptoms.

Symptoms.—Loco poisoning is a chronic condition and symptoms are shown
only after somewhat prolonged feeding. The condition is one of cumulative
poisoning, and animals sometimes decline very rapidly after the first symptoms
appear. In many cases animals acquire a habit of eating loco and prefer it to
any other feed. The poison affects the central nervous system. There is a lack
of muscular coordination and the animal performs very erratic movements. In the
later stages the animal becomes emaciated and eventually dies of starvation.

Treatment.—Locoed animals are badly constipated, and it is important
that this condition should be remedied at the start. Any purgative can be used,
but Epsom salt has been found especially effective. If locoed animals can be
turned into a field of alfalfa, a large proportion of them will recover with no
further treatment. Recovery may be aided by giving cattle, hypodermically,
daily doses of three-twentieths to four-twentieths of a grain of strychnin. By
this treatment cattle can be cured and put in condition for market.

WHITE SNAKEROOT (EUPATORIUM URTICÆFOLIUM).

White snakeroot, frequently known as “rich weed,” is a plant growing in
great abundance in some of the eastern and central regions of the United
States. It is particularly abundant in parts of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois,
and in western North Carolina. It is responsible for most, if not all, of the
cases of a disease which is commonly known as “milk sickness.”

Symptoms.—The animals are constipated, sometimes have bloody feces,
become weak, and exhibit muscular trembling. This trembling is very
characteristic, so that the disease is sometimes known as “the trembles.”

Remedy.—There are no remedies which will work very efficiently. It is
desirable to give the animals purgatives like Epsom salt and, of course, to
remove them from fields where this plant is abundant.

RAYLESS GOLDENROD (ISOCOMA WRIGHTII).

The rayless goldenrod is a plant growing in especial abundance in parts of
the Pecos Valley in New Mexico and Arizona, and there produces a disease so
much like that produced in the East by white snakeroot that it is sometimes
called milk sickness. More generally this disease goes under the name of
“alkali disease.” The plant has produced heavy losses in the regions where it
grows abundantly.

Symptoms.—The symptoms are much like those produced by the white
snakeroot. The animals are constipated, sometimes have
[Pg 69]bloody feces, become
weak, and exhibit muscular trembling. There is good reason to think, too, that
the milk of cows eating this plant is more or less injurious.

Treatment.—A purgative like Epsom salt will aid an animal in
recovering, but most important is to remove the cattle from pastures where the
plant is abundant and give them an abundance of good forage. Under such
conditions they are almost certain to recover.

MILKWEEDS.

Many of the milkweeds have long been known to have more or less poisonous
properties. Within the last few years it has been discovered that certain of
the milkweeds going under the popular name of whorled milkweeds are especially
toxic. There are at least four species of whorled milkweeds, but two of them
are particularly important from the standpoint of people handling livestock.
One, known scientifically as Asclepias galioides, is harmful in Colorado, Utah,
Arizona, and New Mexico, while another, known as Asclepias mexicana, has
produced losses, especially in California and Nevada. These whorled milkweeds
are distasteful to all animals and are eaten only when the stock is closely
confined to pastures where there is little else in the way of forage.

Symptoms.—The most prominent symptoms are weakness, producing
staggering, and this is followed in acute cases by violent spasms.

Treatment.—There is no treatment which will effectively antidote the
effect of the poison. In practically all cases, however, poisoning may be
avoided if care is taken to prevent animals from being closely confined where
this plant is abundant, as they never eat the plant by choice.

CHERRY.

In the leaves of the cherries more or less hydrocyanic acid is produced, and
when these leaves are eaten in any considerable quantity cases of poisoning are
likely to arise. It is popularly supposed that these cases arise from eating
wilted cherry leaves, but there is every reason to think that the fresh leaves
will produce the same results. These cases are easily prevented, because no
harm results from eating a small quantity of the leaves, and if the fact is
recognized that poisoning may result from eating a large quantity, it is not
difficult to care for the animals so as to prevent poisoning.

ERGOTISM.

The poisonous effects of ergot
(Pls. V, VI)
appear chiefly in the winter and spring of the year and among cattle. It is
developed among grasses grown on rich soil in hot, damp seasons. Rye seems
more liable to ergot than any of our other crops. Of the grasses
[Pg 70]which enter into the
composition of hay, bluegrass is the most likely to become affected. Ergot
may also affect redtop, oats, grasses, and grains. On the plant the fungus
manifests itself on the seeds, where it is easily recognized when the hay is
examined in the mow. The ergotized seeds are several times larger than the
natural seeds—hard, black, and generally curved in shape.

The effect of the protracted use of ergot in the feed is pretty well
understood to be that of producing a degeneration and obstruction of the
smaller arterial branches. The result is to shut off the blood supply to the
distal parts of the body, where the circulation is weakest, and thus to produce
a mummification or dry gangrene of the extremities, as the ears, tail, feet,
etc. Cattle seem to be more susceptible than other animals to the influence of
ergot, possibly on account of the slowness of the heart’s action. When the
effect of the poison has become sufficient to entirely arrest the circulation
in any part, the structures soon die. The disorder manifests itself as lameness
in one or more limbs; swelling about the ankle which may result in only a small
slough or the loss of a toe, but it may circumscribe the limb at any point
below the knee or hock by an indented ring below which the tissues become dead.
The indentation soon changes to a crack, which extends completely around the
limb, forming the line of separation between the dead and living structures.
The crack deepens till the parts below drop off without loss of blood, and
frequently with very little pus. Ergot may cause serious irritation of the
digestive tract, or by acting upon the nervous system it may cause lethargy or
paralysis. It also operates to cause contraction of the uterus, and may thus
cause abortion.

Treatment.—Regarding the treatment, change of feed and local
antiseptics are, of course, indicated. The former may be useful as a
preventive, but when the symptoms have appeared the animal is necessarily so
completely saturated that recovery is likely to be tedious. Tannin may be given
internally in doses of one-half dram twice daily for a few days to neutralize
the unabsorbed alkaloids of the ergot. At the same time give castor oil. To
dilate the blood vessels give chloral hydrate. Bathe the affected parts with
hot water. If sloughing has gone far, amputation must be resorted to.

OTHER POISONOUS FUNGI.

Many other fungi poison herbivora. In some instances, however, where fungi
are blamed for causing disease their presence on the feedstuff or herbage is
but coincidental with some other and more potent disease-producing factor. For
example, if the conditions are favorable to the growth of fungi they are also
favorable to the growth of bacteria, and bacteria may produce poisons in feeds.
In general it may be said that any feed that is moldy, musty, or putrid
[Pg 71]is possibly
dangerous. Silage, properly cured, does not belong to this class, because the
curing of silage is not a bacterial process. But spoiled silage and silage
matted with mold is dangerous and should not be fed.

POISONING BY ANIMAL PRODUCTS.

SNAKE BITES.

The poison contained in the tooth glands of certain venomous reptiles,
particularly some of the snakes, which is injected into or under the skin of an
animal bitten by the reptile, is a very powerful agent. It is likely to produce
a serious local irritation, and in the case of the more poisonous snakes
serious constitutional disturbances, even to causing death, which it may do in
either of two ways: First, when very strong, by exerting a narcotic influence
similar to that of some of the powerful poisons, checking heart action. Second,
by diffused inflammation of the areolar tissue, gangrene, and extensive
sloughing.

Symptoms.—The symptoms of snake bite are a local swelling caused by an
intense local inflammation, pricks showing where the fangs penetrated,
depression, weakness, feeble pulse, difficult breathing, bluish discoloration
of the visible mucous membranes, stupor, or convulsions. If the poison is not
powerful or plentiful enough to produce death, it is, at any rate, likely to
cause severe local abscesses or sloughs.

Treatment.—The treatment may be divided into local and general.
Locally every effort should be made to prevent absorption of the poison. If
discovered at once the bitten part had better be excised. If that is
impracticable and a ligature can be applied, as in the case of a bite to one of
the limbs, no time should be lost in applying it above the injury. It should be
made sufficiently tight to so far as possible arrest circulation in the bitten
part. The wound should be freely incised, so that it will bleed freely, and the
poison should be extracted by cupping, or pressed out by squeezing with the
fingers. Permanganate of potassium in 5 per cent solution should be applied to
and injected into the wound. The depressing effect of the poison on the general
system should be counteracted by hypodermic injections of strychnin, or by
liberal drenching with stimulants, such as coffee, digitalis, or the aromatic
spirits or carbonate of ammonia. In animal practice the alcoholic stimulants
and local treatment above described are likely to meet with best success. A
special antitoxin for use in treating snake bite is now prepared and may be had
from the leading druggists. It is quite effective if used promptly.

WASP AND BEE STINGS.

Wasps and bees secrete a poisonous substance which they are able to insert
through the skin of an animal by the aid of their sharp
[Pg 72]stings. This poison
is a severe local irritant and may even cause local gangrene. It also has a
depressing effect upon the central nervous system and destroys the red-blood
corpuscles. To produce these general effects it must be introduced in very
large quantities, as when an animal is stung by a swarm of bees or wasps.

Treatment.—The treatment is to wash the parts with diluted ammonia or
permanganate of potassium solution and to give stimulants internally. If there
is so much swelling about the head and nostrils as to interfere with breathing,
tracheotomy may be necessary.

POISONING WITH SPANISH FLY.

Spanish fly, in the form of powdered cantharides, may be given in an
overdose, or when applied as a blister to too large a surface of skin enough
may be absorbed to poison. If given by the mouth, it causes severe irritation
of the gastrointestinal tract, shown by salivation, sore throat, colic, bloody
diarrhea, etc. It also produces, whether given by the mouth or absorbed through
the skin, irritation of the urinary tract, as shown by frequent and painful
urination. If death results, it is due to respiratory paralysis.

Treatment.—Give protectives and the white of egg, with opium. Do not
give oils or alcohol.

[Pg 73]

DISEASES OF THE HEART, BLOOD
VESSELS, AND LYMPHATICS.

By W. H. Harbaugh, V. S.

[Revised by Leonard Pearson, B. S., V. M. D.]

THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM.

In cattle, as in human beings, the heart, blood vessels, and lymphatics may
be described as the circulatory apparatus.

The heart is in the thoracic cavity (chest). It is conical in form, with the
base or large part uppermost, while the apex, or point, rests just above the
sternum (breastbone). It is situated between the right and left lungs, the apex
inclining to the left, and owing to this the heart beats are best felt on the
left side of the chest, behind the elbow. The heart may be considered as a
hollow muscle, containing four compartments, two on each side. The upper
compartments are called auricles and the lower ones ventricles. The right
auricle and ventricle are completely separated from the left auricle and
ventricle by a thick septum or wall, so that there is no communication between
the right and left sides of the organ.

At the bottom of each auricle is the auriculo-ventricular opening, each
provided with a valve to close it when the heart contracts to force the blood
into the arteries. In the interval between the contractions these valves hang
down into the ventricles.

The muscular tissue of the heart belongs to that class known as involuntary,
because its action is not controlled by the will.

The cavities of the heart are lined by a serous membrane, called the
endocardium, which may be considered as a continuation of the veins and the
arteries, forming their internal lining. The walls of the ventricles are
thicker than those of the auricles, and the walls of the left ventricle are
much thicker than those of the right.

The heart is enveloped by a fibrous sac (or bag), called the pericardium,
which assumes much of the general shape of the outer surface of the heart.

The action of the heart is similar to that of a pump and its function is to
keep the blood in circulation. The auricles may be considered as the reservoirs
or receivers of the blood and the ventricles as the pump chambers. During the
interval between contractions, the heart being in momentary repose, the blood
pours into the auricles from the
[Pg 74]veins; the auriculo-ventricular orifices being widely open,
the ventricles also receive blood; the auricles contract and the ventricles are
filled; contraction of the ventricles follows; the auriculo-ventricular valves
are forced up by the pressure of the blood and close the auriculo-ventricular
openings and prevent the return of blood into the auricles; the contraction
of the ventricles forces the blood from the right ventricle into the lungs
through the pulmonary artery and its branches, and from the left ventricle
into the aorta, thence through the arteries to all parts of the body. After
the contraction of the ventricles the heart is again in momentary repose and
is being filled with blood, while the valves in the aorta and pulmonary artery
close to prevent the return of blood into the ventricles.
(See Pl. VII.)

The average weight of the heart of an ox is said to be from 3½ to 5
pounds; but, of course, owing to the many breeds and sizes of cattle, it must
vary in different animals.

The vessels that convey the blood from the heart to all parts of the body
are called arteries; those which return the blood to the heart are called
veins. The arteries divide and subdivide (like the branches of a tree), become
smaller and smaller, and ultimately ramify into every part of the body. Between
the ultimate ramifications of the arteries and the beginning of the veins there
is an intermediate system of very minute vessels called capillaries, which
connect the arterial with the venous system of the circulation. The walls of
the arteries are possessed of a certain amount of rigidity, sufficient to keep
the tubes open when they are empty.

The blood leaves the left ventricle through a single vessel, the common
aorta, consisting of the anterior and posterior aortas, which give off the
large arteries.

The veins take the blood from the capillaries in all parts of the body. They
begin in very small tubes, which unite to become larger in size and less in
number as they approach the heart.

In its course an artery is usually accompanied with a vein and in many
situations with a nerve. The more important arteries are placed deep within the
body; when they are superficial, however, they are generally found where least
exposed to injury, as, for example, on the inner side of the legs. Arteries are
less numerous than veins, and their total capacity is much less than that of
the veins. A great number of veins are in the tissue immediately beneath the
skin and do not generally accompany arteries.

The blood, throughout its course in the heart, arteries, capillaries, and
veins, is inclosed within these vessels. Except where the large lymphatics
empty into the venous blood, there is no opening into the course of the
blood.

All the arteries except the pulmonary and its branches carry bright-red
blood, and all the veins, except the pulmonary veins,
[Pg 75]carry dark-red blood.
The impure dark-red blood is collected from the capillary vessels and carried
to the right auricle by the veins; it passes down into the right ventricle, and
thence into the pulmonary artery and through its branches to the capillaries of
the lungs, where the carbonic-acid gas and other impurities are given up to the
air in the air cells of the lungs (through the thin walls between the
capillaries and the air cells), and where it also absorbs from the air the
oxygen gas necessary to sustain life. This gas changes it to the bright-red,
pure blood. It passes from the capillaries to the branches of the pulmonary
veins, which convey it to the left auricle of the heart; it then passes through
the auriculo-ventricular opening into the left ventricle, the contraction of
which forces it through the common aorta into the posterior and anterior
aortas, and through all the arteries of the body into the capillaries, where it
parts with its oxygen and nutritive elements and where it absorbs carbonic-acid
gas and becomes dark colored. (See theoretical diagram of the circulation,
Pl. VII.)

The branches of certain arteries in different parts unite again after
subdividing. This reuniting is called anastomosing, and assures a quota of
blood to a part if one of the anastomosing arteries should be tied in case of
hemorrhage, or should be destroyed by accident or operation.

THE BLOOD.

The various kinds of food, after being digested in the alimentary canal, are
absorbed and carried into the blood by the lymphatics, and by the blood to the
places where nutrition is required. The blood takes from all parts of the body
all that is no longer required, and carries it to the different organs through
which it is eliminated from the body. It contains within itself all the
elements which nourish the body.

The blood may be considered as a fluid holding in solution certain inorganic
elements and having certain bodies suspended in it. To facilitate description,
the blood may be considered as made up of the corpuscles and the liquor
sanguinis. The corpuscles are of two kinds, the red and the white, the red
being the more numerous. The color of the blood is caused by the coloring
matter in the red corpuscles, which are the oxygen carriers. Both kinds are
very minute bodies, which require the aid of the microscope to recognize them.
The liquor sanguinis is composed of water containing in solution salts,
albumen, and the elements of fibrin.

The lymphatics, or absorbents, are the vessels which carry the lymph and
chyle in the blood. They begin as capillaries in all parts of the body,
gradually uniting to form larger trunks. Placed along the course of the
lymphatic vessels are glands, in some situations collected into groups; for
example, in the groin. These glands are [Pg 76]often involved in inflammation arising from
the absorption of deleterious matter.

Absorption is the function of the lymphatics. The liquor sanguinis passes
from the blood capillaries to supply nutrition to the tissues. All of the
liquor sanguinis that is not required is absorbed by the lymphatic vessels and
conveyed back to the blood by the lymphatic ducts. The lymphatics which proceed
from the intestines convey the chyle into the blood during digestion. As a
rule, the lymphatic vessels follow the course of the veins. All the absorbent
vessels convey their contents to the thoracic duct and right great lymphatic
vein, which empty into the anterior vena cava, where the lymph and chyle mix
with the venous blood, and thus maintain the supply of nutritive elements in
the blood.

THE PULSE.

As fully explained, the heart pumps the blood throughout the arterial
system. The arteries are always full and each contraction of the ventricle
pumps more blood into them; this distends their elastic walls and sends along
them a wave which gradually becomes less perceptible as it nears the very small
arteries. This wave constitutes the pulse, and is lost before the capillaries
are reached. The sensation or impression given to the finger when placed upon
the artery shows the force exerted by the heart and some important facts
concerning the condition of the circulation. In adult cattle the average number
of pulsations in a minute is from 50 to 60. The pulse is faster than normal
after exercise, excitement, on hot days, from pain, and as a result of fullness
of the stomach. In old animals it is slower than in the young and in males
slightly slower than in females. In fevers and inflammations and in local
diseases of the heart the pulse rate is increased. If the rate is greater than
100 or 110 to the minute the outlook for recovery is not good.

Other variations of the pulse are known as infrequent pulse, which means
that the number of pulsations in a given time is less than normal. The
irregular or the intermittent pulse is when the pulsations do not follow in
regular order. The large pulse and the small pulse refer to the volume of the
pulse, which may be larger or smaller than usual. The strong pulse and the
feeble pulse refer to the strength or weakness of the pulsation. The pulse is
said to be hard when the vessel feels hard and incompressible, the soft pulse
being the opposite. By dicrotic pulse is meant that kind of pulsation which
makes each beat seem double, and therefore it is generally called the double
pulse.

The venous or “jugular pulse” is the pulsation so frequently observed in the
jugular vein of cattle and is particularly noticeable while they are
ruminating—”chewing the cud.” It is not always
[Pg 77]associated with
disease, but may be a symptom of some disease of the heart; in such cases
the jugular pulse is continuous.

The place selected for feeling the pulse in cattle is where the submaxillary
artery winds around the lower jawbones, just at the lower edge of the flat
muscle on the side of the cheek; or, if the cow is lying down, the metacarpal
artery on the back part of the fore fetlock is very convenient for the
purpose.

THE EXAMINATION OF THE HEART.

Corresponding to the beats of the heart two sounds are emitted which are of
a definite type in healthy animals. The first is produced by the contraction of
the heart and the flow of blood out of it; the second is caused by the rebound
of blood in the aorta and the closure of the valves that prevent it from
flowing backward into the heart, whence it came. The first sound is the longer
and louder of the two, though of low pitch. The second sound is sharper and
shorter, and is not always easy to hear. There is a brief interval between
them.

To distinguish these sounds, the ear is placed against the left side of the
chest, a little above the point where the elbow rests when the animal is
standing in a natural position, and about opposite the sixth rib. Both heart
sounds are reduced in intensity when the animal is weak or when the heart is
forced away from the chest wall by collections of fluid or by tubercular or
other growths. Nonrhythmical heart sound is often caused by pericarditis or by
disease of the valves. It may also be attributable to overfilling of the heart
upon the right side, as occurs in severe congestion of the lungs and in some
febrile diseases.

In pericarditis, sounds like scraping, rubbing, or splashing may be heard,
entirely apart from the two normal sounds above described.

The impulse of the heart, as felt by placing the hand against the chest, is
of some consequence in reaching a conclusion in respect to disease of the
heart; but it must be remembered that the impulse may be very much increased by
diseases other than those of the heart, as, for example, inflammation of
various organs, severe pains, etc. The impulse may be increased also (when
disease does not exist) by work, exercise, fright, or any cause of excitement,
or, in general, by anything that causes acceleration of the pulse.

The impulse of the heart may be felt and the sounds may be heard fairly well
in lean cattle, but in fat ones it is difficult and often impossible to detect
either impulse or sound with any degree of satisfaction.

PALPITATION.

When the impulse of the heart is excessive—that is, when it beats more
or less tumultuously—the familiar expression “palpitation of
[Pg 78]the heart” is
applied; by many it is called “thumps.” The hand or ear placed against the
chest easily detects the unnatural beating. In some cases it is so violent that
the motion may be seen at a distance. Palpitation is but a symptom, and in many
instances not connected with disease of the structure of the heart or its
membranes. A badly frightened animal may have palpitation. When it comes on
suddenly and soon passes away, it depends on some cause other than diseases of
the heart; when it is gradually manifested, however, and becomes constant,
although more pronounced at one time than another, heart disease may be
suspected, especially if other symptoms of heart disease are present.

INJURY TO THE HEART BY FOREIGN BODIES.

Cattle are addicted to the habit of chewing and swallowing many objects not
intended as articles of food. Every veterinarian of experience has met with
instances to remind him of this, and it is well known to butchers. Among the
great variety of things that have thus found their way into the stomachs of
cattle the following have been noticed: Finger rings, knitting needles, old
shoes, table knives, wood, pieces of leather, pieces of wire, buttons,
hairpins, brushes, nails, coins, etc. The more sharply pointed objects
sometimes penetrate the wall of the stomach, in some cases causing gastric
irritation enough to produce indigestion, gradually work their way through the
diaphragm toward the heart, pierce the pericardium (bag inclosing the heart),
wound the heart, and thus prove fatal to the animal. Cases are recorded in
which the foreign body has actually worked its way into one of the cavities of
the heart. Instances are known, however, in which the object took a different
course, and finally worked its way toward the surface and was extracted from
the wall of the chest. While it is possible that the foreign body may pierce
the wall at different parts of the alimentary canal, as it frequently does that
of the rumen (paunch), it is thought that in most cases it passes through the
wall of the reticulum (smaller honeycombed compartment, or second stomach) and
is drawn toward the heart by the suctionlike action of the chest. Post-mortem
examinations have demonstrated the course it pursued, as adhesions and other
results of the inflammation it caused were plainly to be seen. All manner of
symptoms may precede those showing involvement of the heart, depending upon the
location of the foreign body and the extent of inflammation caused by it.
Severe indigestion may occur; stiffness and difficulty in moving about owing to
the prods of the sharp body following muscular contraction; pain on pressure
over the front, lower, or right side of the abdomen; coughing and difficult,
quick breathing. In most cases the foreign body does not penetrate to the
heart, nor even to the pericardium.

[Pg 79]

Symptoms.—The symptoms are as follows: The animal is disinclined to
move actively, the step is restricted and cautious, sudden motion causes
grunting, the attitude is constrained, the feet are drawn somewhat together,
the back is arched, the face has an anxious expression. If the disease is of
several days’ standing, there is likely to be soft swelling (edema) beneath the
neck, in the dewlap, and under the chest, between the fore legs. Breathing is
short and difficult; it may clearly be painful. The pulse is rapid, 80 to 120
per minute. The muscles quiver as though the animal were cold. Rumination and
appetite are depressed or checked. The dung is hard, and to void it appears to
cause pain. These symptoms usually develop gradually, and, of course, they vary
considerably in different animals, depending upon the size and location of the
foreign body and the irritation it causes.

As a matter of course, in such cases treatment is useless, but when it is
possible to diagnose correctly the animal could be turned over to the butcher
before the flesh becomes unfit for use; that is, before there is more than a
little suppuration and before there is fever. Knowing that cattle are prone to
swallow such objects, ordinary care may be taken in keeping their surroundings
as free of them as possible.

PERICARDITIS.

Inflammation of the pericardium (heart bag) is often associated with
pneumonia and pleurisy, rheumatism, and other constitutional diseases, or with
an injury. It also occurs as an independent affection, owing to causes similar
to those of other chest affections, as exposure to cold or dampness and changes
of the weather.

Symptoms.—It may be ushered in with a chill, followed by fever, of
more or less severity; the animal stands still and dull, with head hanging low,
and anxiety expressed in its countenance. The pulse may be large, perhaps hard;
there is also a venous pulse. The hand against the chest will feel the beating
of the heart, which is often irregular, sometimes violent, and in other
instances weak, depending in part upon the quantity of fluid that has transuded
into the pericardial sac. The legs are cold, the breathing quickened and
usually abdominal; if the left side of the chest is pressed on or struck, the
animal evinces pain. There may be spasms of the muscles in the region of the
breast, neck, or hind legs. After a variable time swelling may also appear in
the legs and under the chest and brisket.

In those animals in which the heart sounds may be heard somewhat distinctly,
the ear applied against the chest will detect a to-and-fro friction sound,
corresponding to the beats of the heart. This sound is produced by the rubbing
of the internal surface of the heart bag [Pg 80]against the external surface of the
heart. During the first stages of the inflammation these surfaces are dry, and
the rubbing of one against the other during the contraction and relaxation of
the heart produces this sound. The dry stage is followed by the exudation of
fluid into the heart sac, and the friction is not heard until the fluid is
absorbed sufficiently to allow the surfaces to come in contact again. But
during the time the friction sound is lost a sound which has been called a
“churning noise” may take its place.

The friction sound of pericarditis can not be mistaken for the friction
sound of pleurisy if the examination is a careful one, because in the heart
affection the sound is made in connection with the heart beats, while in the
pleuritic affection the sound is synchronous with each respiration or breath of
air taken in and expelled from the lungs.

Treatment.—When pericarditis is complicated with rheumatism or other
diseases the latter must be treated as directed in the description of them. The
animal must be kept in a quiet, comfortable place, where it will be free from
excitement. Warm clothing should be applied to the body, and the legs should be
hand-rubbed until the circulation in them is reestablished, and then they
should be snugly bandaged. The food should be nutritive and in moderate
quantity. Bleeding should not be performed unless the case is in the hands of
an expert.

At the beginning give as a purgative Epsom salt—1 pound to an
average-sized cow—dissolved in about a quart of warm water and
administered as a drench. When there is much pain 2 ounces of laudanum, diluted
with a pint of water, may be given every three hours until the animal is
better. Do not give the laudanum unless demanded by the severity of the pain,
as it tends to constipate. Give one-half ounce of nitrate of potassium
(saltpeter), dissolved in drinking water, four or five times a day. After the
attack has abated mustard mixed with water may be rubbed well over the left
side of the chest to stimulate the absorption of the fluid within the
pericardium. The other medicines may be discontinued and the following
administered: Sulphate of iron, 2 ounces; powdered gentian, 6 ounces; mix and
make 8 powders. Give one powder every day at noon, mixed with feed, if the
animal will eat it, or shaken up with water in a bottle as a drench. Also the
following: Iodid of potassium, 2 ounces; nitrate of potassium, 8 ounces; mix
and make 16 powders. Give one in drinking water or in drench every morning and
evening. The last two prescriptions may be continued for several weeks if
necessary.

[Pg 81]

In extreme cases tapping the pericardium with a trocar and cannula to draw
off the fluid is resorted to, but the operation requires exact anatomical
knowledge.

After death from pericarditis there is always more or less fluid found in
the pericardium; the surfaces are rough and covered with a yellow-colored
exudate. There are also in many cases adhesions to a greater or less extent
between the heart and pericardium.

MYOCARDITIS.

Inflammation of the muscular structure of the heart occurs in limited,
circumscribed areas, as evidenced by post-mortem examination, and it is
probably always somewhat involved in connection with pericarditis and
endocarditis. It may readily be inferred that if the whole organ were inflamed
death would ensue immediately. Usually myocarditis results from the
preexistence of blood poisoning or of some infectious febrile disease.

Symptoms.—The chief symptoms are those of heart weakness. The heart
beat is fast, weak, and often irregular. Respiration is difficult and rapid.
There is great general weakness and depression. Death comes suddenly.

Treatment.—Treatment consists in supporting the animal by the use of
stimulants, such as ammonia, coffee, digitalis, camphor, etc. Complete quiet
must be provided, and the general care should be as in pericarditis.

ENDOCARDITIS.

When the membrane which lines the cavities of the heart—the
endocardium— suffers inflammation, the disease is called endocarditis.
The cause is another disease, during which substances that irritate the lining
of the heart are produced and admitted into the circulation. These substances
are usually living organisms, or it is possible that in some cases they are
chemical irritants. Endocarditis occurs as a complication of or sequel to
pneumonia, blood poisoning, inflammation of the womb, rheumatism, or severe
wounds or abscesses. The symptoms are much the same as those of pericarditis,
and it is difficult to discriminate between the two affections. There is a
jugular pulse, the legs may become dropsical, and there is a tendency to faint
if the head is elevated suddenly. The bellowslike sound is more distinct than
it is in pericarditis. It is the most fatal of heart diseases, because of the
liability of the formation of clots, which may adhere to the valves, change in
the structure of the valves, and often a complication with an abnormal
condition of the blood.[Pg
82] Clots may be formed in the heart, and, being carried to other
parts, prove fatal by interrupting the circulation in some vital organ.

Treatment similar to that advised for myocarditis may be followed in this
disease.

VALVES OF THE HEART.

The valves are subject to abnormal growths and structural changes in chronic
endocarditis or as a result of acute endocarditis. Sometimes valves are torn by
sudden, extreme muscular effort or a congenital abnormality. Cases are also
reported in which they have been found ruptured.

Symptoms.—The general symptoms are those of heart weakness,
accompanied with edema and congestion of the lungs.

Treatment.—Relief is sometimes afforded, but usually only temporarily,
by the use of stimulants, especially digitalis.

RUPTURE OF THE HEART.

Sudden effort, blows, or disease may lead to rupture of the heart of the ox.
The first cause does not operate so often in cattle as in horses. Tuberculosis
or ulceration from other causes, such as a foreign body, is the most common
source of this accident. Rupture is shown by sudden fainting, followed very
shortly by death.

HYPERTROPHY AND DILATATION OF THE HEART.

This is an enlargement of the heart, and may consist of the thickening of
the walls alone, or at the same time the cavities may be either enlarged or
diminished. Dilatation of the cavities has been noticed as existing
independently of thickened walls. In hypertrophy the sounds of the heart are
loud and pronounced, may be heard on both sides of the chest distinctly, and
palpitation occurs to a greater or less extent. Fortunately both conditions are
very rare in cattle.

ATROPHY.

Atrophy is the technical term for wasting of the muscular tissue. Atrophy of
the heart is very rare among cattle, and is usually a result of other
diseases.

FATTY DEGENERATION OF THE HEART.

This condition of the heart is met with in some very fat cattle, but it must
be understood that the accumulation of fat around the heart is not referred to
by this designation. In fatty degeneration the elements of the muscular tissue
are replaced by fatty or oily granules. The muscle becomes weak, the heart
contractions are insufficient, and heart weakness is shown by general weakness,
shortness of breath, and weak, rapid pulse.[Pg 83]

CYANOSIS.

Owing to the most prominent symptoms, cyanosis is also called “blue
disease,” and is seen occasionally in new-born calves. It is recognized by the
blue color of the mucous membrane (easily seen by looking within the mouth and
nostrils), the coldness of the surface of the body, and rapid, labored
breathing. It is caused by non-closure of the foramen ovale, connecting the
right with the left side of the heart, and the consequent mixing of the venous
with the arterial blood. Calves so affected live but a short time.

MISPLACEMENT OF THE HEART.

Cases are recorded in which the heart has been found out of its natural
position, sometimes even outside the chest. This is a congenital condition for
which there is no remedy. A heifer calf with the heart entirely outside the
thoracic cavity and beneath the skin in the lower part of the neck was kept for
two years at the veterinary hospital of the University of Pennsylvania, during
which time it grew to be a well-developed cow.

WOUNDS OF ARTERIES AND VEINS.

When a blood vessel is opened a glance will tell whether it is an artery or
a vein by simply remembering that bright-red blood comes from arteries and
dark-red from veins. When a vein or a very small artery is severed the blood
flows from the vessel in a continuous and even stream, but when one of the
larger arteries is severed the blood comes in intermitting jets or spurts
corresponding to the beats of the heart. It is well to call attention to the
fact that the dark-red blood which flows or oozes from a wound soon becomes
bright red, because it gives up its carbonic-acid gas to the air, and absorbs
oxygen gas from the air, which is exactly the change it undergoes in the
capillaries of the lungs.

The general treatment of wounds will be found in another section; here it is
necessary only to refer briefly to some of the most practical methods used to
arrest hemorrhages, as instances occur in which an animal may lose much
strength from the loss of blood, or even bleed to death unless action is
prompt.

BLEEDING (HEMORRHAGE).

The severity of a hemorrhage depends upon the size of the vessel from which
the blood escapes, though it may be stated that it is more serious when
arteries are severed. If the wound in an artery is in the direction of its
length, the blood escapes more freely than if the vessel is completely severed,
because in the latter instance the severed ends retract, curl in, and may aid
very much in arresting the flow. When [Pg 84]the blood merely oozes from the
wound, and even when it flows in a small stream, the forming of the clot
arrests the hemorrhage in a comparatively short time.

Slight hemorrhages may be checked by the continuous application of cold
water, ice, or snow, to the wound, as cold causes contraction of the small
vessels. Water from a hose may be thrown on a wound, or dashed on it from the
hand or a cup, or folds of cotton cloths may be held on it and kept wet. Ice or
snow may be held against the wound, or they may be put into a bag and
conveniently secured in position.

Hot water of an average temperature of 115° to 120° F. injected into the
vagina or womb is often efficient in arresting hemorrhages from those organs.
Tow, raw cotton, lint, or sponges may be forced into a wound and held or bound
there with bandages. This is an excellent method of checking the flow of blood
until the arrival of an expert. If the flow persists, these articles may be
saturated with tincture of iron, but it is not advisable to use it unless
necessary, as it is a caustic and retards healing by causing a slough. In cases
of necessity, the articles may be saturated with vinegar, or tannic acid or
alum dissolved in water may be used instead. Whatever article is used should be
left in the wound sufficiently long to make sure that its removal will not be
followed by a renewal of the hemorrhage. Sometimes it must remain there one or
two days.

An iron heated white and then pressed on the bleeding vessel for three or
four seconds is occasionally used. It should not be applied longer, or else the
charred tissue will come away with the iron and thus defeat the purpose of its
application.

Compression may be applied in different ways, but only the most convenient
will be mentioned. To many wounds bandages may easily be applied. The bandages
may be made of linen, muslin, etc., sufficiently wide and long, according to
the nature of the wound and the region to be bandaged. Bed sheets torn in
strips the full length make excellent bandages for this purpose. Cotton
batting, tow, or a piece of sponge may be placed on the wound and firmly bound
there with the bandages.

Many cases require ligating, which is almost entirely confined to arteries.
A ligature is a piece of thread or string tied around the vessel. Veins are not
ligated unless very large (and even then only when other means are not
available) on account of the danger of causing phlebitis, or inflammation of a
vein. The ligature is tied around the end of the artery, but in some instances
this is difficult and it is necessary to include some of the adjacent tissue,
although care should be taken not to include a nerve. To apply a ligature, it
is necessary to have artery forceps (tweezers or small pincers may suffice) by
which to draw out the artery in order to tie the string around it. To grasp the
vessel it may be necessary to sponge the blood from
[Pg 85]the wound so that the end
will be exposed. In case the end of the bleeding artery has retracted, a
sharp-pointed hook, called a tenaculum, is used to draw it out far enough to
tie. The ligature should be drawn tightly, so that the middle and internal
coats will be cut through.

Another method of checking hemorrhage is called torsion. It consists in
catching the end of the bleeding vessel, drawing it out a little, and then
twisting it around a few times with the forceps, which lacerates the internal
coats so that a check is effected. This is very effectual in small vessels, and
is to be preferred to ligatures, because it leaves no foreign body in the
wound. A needle or pin may be stuck through the edges of the wound and a string
passed around between the free ends and the skin (Pl.
XXVII, fig. 10), or it may be passed around in the form of a figure 8, as
is often done in the operation of bleeding from the jugular vein.

ANEURISM.

A circumscribed dilatation of an artery, constituting a tumor which pulsates
synchronously with the beats of the heart, is called aneurism. It is caused by
disease and rupture of one or two of the arterial coats. The true aneurism
communicates with the interior of the artery and contains coagulated blood. It
is so deeply seated in cattle that treatment is out of the question. Such
abnormalities are ascribable to severe exertion, to old age, to fatty or
calcareous degeneration, or to parasites in the blood vessels. Death is sudden
when caused by the rupture of an aneurism of a large artery, owing to internal
hemorrhage. Sometimes spontaneous recovery occurs. As a rule no symptoms are
caused in cattle by the presence of deep-seated aneurisms, and their presence
is not known until after death.

A false aneurism results from blood escaping from a wounded artery into the
adjacent tissue, where it clots, and the wound, remaining open in the artery,
causes pulsation in the tumor.

THROMBOSIS (OBSTRUCTION) OF THE ARTERIES.

Arteries become obstructed as a result of wounds and other injuries to them,
as those caused by the formation of an abscess or the extension of inflammation
from surrounding structures to the coats of an artery. Arteries are also
obstructed by the breaking off of particles of a plug or clot, partly
obstructing the aorta or other large artery. These small pieces (emboli) are
floated to an artery that is too small to permit them to pass and are there
securely held, producing obstruction. These obstructions are shown by loss of
power in the muscles supplied by the obstructed artery and by excitation of the
heart and by respiration after exercise. The loss of power may not come into
evidence until after exercise.[Pg 86]

Symptoms.—While standing still or when walking slowly the animal may
appear to be normal, but after more active exercise a group of muscles, a leg,
or both hind legs, may be handled with difficulty, causing lameness, and later
there is practically a local paralysis. These symptoms disappear with rest. In
some cases the collateral circulation develops in time, so that the parts
receive sufficient blood and the symptoms disappear.

INFLAMMATION OF VEINS (PHLEBITIS).

When bleeding is performed without proper care or with an unclean lancet,
inflammation of the vein may result, or it may be caused by the animal rubbing
the wound against some object. When inflammation follows the operation, the
coats of the vein become so much enlarged that the vessel may be felt hard and
knotted beneath the skin, and pressure produces pain. A thin, watery discharge,
tinged with blood, issues from the wound. The blood becomes coagulated in the
vessel. In inflammation of the jugular the coagulation extends from the wound
upward to the first large branch. Abscesses may form along the course of the
vein. The inflammation is followed by obliteration of that part in which
coagulation exists. This is of small import, as cattle have an accessory
jugular vein which gradually enlarges and accommodates itself to the increased
quantity of blood it must carry.

Treatment.—The treatment for inflammation of the vein is to clip the
hair from along the course of the affected vessel and apply a blister, the
cerate of cantharides. Abscesses should be opened as soon as they form, because
there is a possibility of the pus getting into the circulation.

In the operation of bleeding the instruments should be clean and free from
rust. If the skin is not sufficiently opened, or when closing the wound the
skin is drawn out too much, blood may accumulate in the tissue, and if it does
it should be removed by pressing absorbent cotton or a sponge on the part. Care
should also be used in opening the vein, so that the instrument may not pass
entirely through both sides of the vein and open the artery beneath it.

DISEASES OF THE HEART, BLOOD VESSELS, AND LYMPHATICS.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE.

Plate VII.
DIAGRAM OF THE CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD.
(Click to enlarge)

[Pg 87]

NONCONTAGIOUS DISEASES OF THE
ORGANS OF RESPIRATION.

By William Herbert Lowe, D. V. S.

DIAGNOSIS.

In the determination of disease in the human being the physician, in making
his diagnosis, is aided by both subjective and objective symptoms, but the
veterinary physician, in a very large majority of cases, is obliged to rely
almost solely upon objective symptoms, and perhaps in no class of diseases is
this more true than in the exploration of those under consideration. This
condition of affairs has a strong tendency to develop observation and
discernment in the veterinarian, and not infrequently do we find that the
successful veterinary practitioner is a very accurate diagnostician. In order
to make a differential diagnosis, however, it is not only necessary to know the
structure and functions of the organs in health, but to adopt a rigid system of
details of examination, without which successful results can not be reached.

History.—The history of a case should always be ascertained so far as
possible. The information obtained is sometimes unsatisfactory and not to be
depended upon, but even when this is the case it is advisable to weigh the
evidence from every point of view.

In connection with the history of every case it is always of primary
importance to ascertain the cause of illness. A knowledge of the origin and
development of a disease is important, both in making a diagnosis and in
formulating the treatment. Exposure to cold and dampness is frequently the
exciting cause of affections of the organs of respiration.

The experienced practitioner is always sure to ascertain whether the
particular animal he is called on to attend is the only one in the stable or on
the premises that is similarly affected. If several animals are similarly
affected, the disease may have a common cause, which may or may not be of an
infectious nature.

Another thing that the experienced practitioner ascertains is what previous
treatment, if any, the animal has had. Medicine given in excessive doses
sometimes produces symptoms resembling those of disease.

The hygienic and sanitary conditions must always be considered in connection
with the cause as well as the treatment of disease.
[Pg 88]Much of the disease which
occurs in large dairies and elsewhere could be prevented if owners and those in
charge of animals had proper regard for the fundamental laws of animal hygiene
and modern sanitation. Disregard for these laws is the cause of most of the
diseases under consideration in this chapter.

Attitude and general condition.—The feeling of pain in animals
suffering from serious affections of the organs of respiration is expressed to
the close observer in no uncertain language—by their flinching when the
painful part is touched; by the care with which they move or lie down; by
walking or standing to “favor” the part; by the general attitude and expression
of the eye; by the distress and suffering apparent in the face; and by other
evidences.

The general physical condition and attitude of the sick animal tell the
careful observer much that aids him in making a diagnosis and prognosis. Cows
suffering from affections of the organs of respiration usually assume a
position or attitude that is characteristic, well known to experienced
stockmen, as well as to veterinarians. When an animal has a fever or is
suffering from an inflammation, the skin is one of the first parts to undergo a
change that is apparent to the average observer, for it soon loses its
elasticity and tone, and the hair becomes dry and staring.

From the general condition or state of nutrition one is able to judge the
effect that the disease has already had upon the animal and to estimate the
strength remaining available for its restoration to health; from the degree of
emaciation one can approximate the length of time the animal has been ill. The
age and breed of the animal, as well as its constitution and temperament, are
among the things that have to be taken into account in making a diagnosis and
in overcoming the disease.

The mucous membrane.—The mucous membrane should in all cases be
examined. It can be readily seen by everting the eyelids or by an inspection of
the lining membrane of the nostrils.

Paleness of the mucous membrane indicates weak circulation or poor blood and
may result from disease, hemorrhage, or from inappropriate feed.

In healthy animals increased redness of the mucous membrane occurs from
pain, excitement, or severe exertion, and in such instances is always
transitory. In certain pathological conditions, such as fevers and
inflammation, this condition of the mucous membrane will also be found. The
increased redness of the mucous membrane lasts during the duration of the fever
or inflammation.

A bluish or blue mucous membrane indicates that the blood is imperfectly
oxidized and contains an excess of carbon dioxid, and is seen in serious
diseases of the respiratory tract, such as pneumonia, and in heart
failure.[Pg
89]

The secretions.—The secretions may be diminished, increased, or
perverted. In the early stage of an inflammation of a secretory organ its
secretion is diminished. In the early stage of pleurisy the serous membrane is
dry, and as the disease advances the membrane becomes unnaturally moist. The
products of secretion are sometimes greatly changed in character from the
secretion in health, becoming excessively irritant and yielding evidence of
chemical and other alterations in the character of the secretion.

Cough.—Cough depends upon a reflex nervous action and may be primary
when the irritation exists in the lungs or air passages, or secondary when
caused by irritation of the stomach, intestines, or other parts having nervous
communications with the respiratory apparatus. A cough is said to be dry,
moist, harsh, hollow, difficult, paroxysmal, suppressed, sympathetic, etc.,
according to its character. It is a very important symptom, often being
diagnostic in diseases of the respiratory organs, but this is a subject,
however, which can be more satisfactorily treated in connection with the
special diseases of the organs in question.

Respiration.—In making an examination of an animal observe the depth,
frequency, quickness, facility, and the nature of the respiratory movements.
They may be quick or slow, frequent or infrequent, deep or imperfect, labored,
unequal, irregular, etc., each of which indications has its significance to the
experienced veterinarian.

Sleep, rumination, pregnancy in cows, etc., modify the respiratory movements
even in health. Respiration consists of two acts—inspiration and
expiration. The function of respiration is to take in oxygen from the
atmospheric air, which is essential for the maintenance of life, and to exhale
the deleterious gas known as “carbon dioxid.”

The frequency of the respiratory movements is determined by observing the
motions of the nostrils or of the flanks. The normal rate of respiration for a
healthy animal of the bovine species is from 15 to 18 times a minute. The
extent of the respiratory system renders it liable to become affected by
contiguity to many parts and its nervous connections are very important.

Rapid, irregular, or difficult breathing is known as dyspnea, and in all
such cases the animal has difficulty in obtaining as much oxygen as it
requires. Among the conditions that give rise to dyspnea may be mentioned
restricted area of active lung tissue, owing to the filling of portions of the
lungs with inflammatory exudate, as in pneumonia; painful movements of the
chest, as in rheumatism or pleurisy; fluid in the chest cavity, as in
hydrothorax; adhesions between the lungs and chest walls; compression of the
lungs or loss of elasticity; excess of carbon dioxid in the blood; weakness of
the respiratory passages; tumors of the nose and paralysis
[Pg 90]of the throat; swellings of
the throat; foreign bodies and constriction of the air passages leading to
the lungs; fevers, etc.

As already stated, it is only the careful and constant examination of
animals in health that will enable one properly to appreciate abnormal
conditions. One must become familiar with the frequency and character of the
pulse and of the respirations and know the temperature of the animal in health,
before changes in abnormal conditions can be properly appreciated.

Temperature.—The temperature should be taken in all cases of sickness.
Experienced practitioners can approximate the patient’s temperature with
remarkable accuracy, but I strongly recommend the use of the self-registering
clinical thermometer, which is a most valuable instrument in diagnosing
diseases. (See Pl. III, fig. 1.) It is advisable to
get a tested instrument, as some thermometers in the market are inaccurate and
misleading. The proper place to insert the thermometer is in the rectum, where
the instrument should be rested against the walls of the cavity for about three
minutes. The normal temperature of the bovine is 101° to 102° F., which is
higher than that of the horse. A cow breathes faster, her heart beats faster,
and her internal temperature is higher than that of the horse. Ordinary
physiological influences—such as exercise, digestion, etc.—give
rise to slight variations of internal temperature; but if the temperature rises
two or three degrees above the normal some diseased condition is indicated.

Pulse.—The pulse in a grown animal of the bovine species in a state of
good health beats from 45 to 55 times a minute. Exercise, fright, fear,
excitement, overfeeding, pregnancy, and other conditions aside from disease may
affect the frequency and character of the pulse. It assumes various characters
according to its rapidity of beat, frequency of occurrence, resistance to
pressure, regularity, and perceptibility. Thus we have the quick or slow,
frequent or infrequent, hard or soft, full or imperceptible, large or small
pulse, the character of each of which may be determined from its name; also
that known as the intermittent, either regular or irregular. We may have a
dicrotic, or double, pulse; a thready pulse, which is extremely small and
scarcely perceptible; the venous, or jugular, pulse; the “running down” pulse,
and so on. (See p. 76.)

In cattle the pulse is conveniently felt over the submaxillary artery where
it winds around the lower jawbone, just at the lower edge of the flat muscle on
the side of the cheek. If the cow is lying down the pulse may be taken from the
metacarpal artery on the back part of the fore fetlock. The pulsations can be
felt from any superficial artery, but in order to ascertain the peculiarities
it is necessary to select an artery that may be pressed against a bone.

PLATE VIII.
POSITION OF THE LUNG.
(Click to enlarge)

There is a [Pg 91]
marked difference in the normal or physiological pulse of the horse
and that of the cow, that of the horse being full and rather tense, while in
the cow it is soft and rolling. The pulse is faster in young or old cattle than
it is in those of middle age.

Auscultation.—Auscultation and percussion are the chief methods used
to determine the various pathological changes that occur in the respiratory
organs. Auscultation is the act of listening, and may be either mediate or
immediate. Mediate auscultation is accomplished by aid of an instrument known
as the stethoscope, one extremity of which is applied to the ear and the other
to the chest of the animal. In immediate auscultation the ear is applied
directly to the part. Immediate auscultation will answer in a large majority of
cases. Auscultation is resorted to in cardiac and certain abdominal diseases,
but it is mainly employed for determining the condition of the lungs and air
passages. Animals can not give the various phases of respiration, as can the
patients of the human practitioner. The organs themselves are less accessible
than in man, owing to the greater bulk of tissue surrounding them and the
pectoral position of the fore extremities, all of which render it more
difficult in determining pathological conditions. (See Pl. VIII.)

The air going in and out of the lungs makes a certain soft, rustling sound,
known as the vesicular murmur, which can be heard distinctly in a healthy state
of the animal, especially upon inspiration. Exercise accelerates the rate of
respiration and intensifies this sound. The vesicular murmur is heard only
where the lung contains air and its function is active. The vesicular murmur is
weakened as inflammatory infiltration takes place and when the lungs are
compressed by fluids in the thoracic cavity, and disappears when the lung
becomes solidified in pneumonia or the chest cavity filled with fluid as in
hydrothorax. The bronchial murmur is a harsh, blowing sound, heard in normal
conditions by applying the ear over the lower part of the trachea, and may be
heard to a limited extent in the anterior portions of the lungs after severe
exercise. The bronchial murmur when heard over other portions of the lungs
generally signifies that the lung tissue has become more or less solidified or
that fluid has collected in the chest cavity.

Other sounds, known as mucous râles, are heard in the lungs in pneumonia
after the solidified parts begin to break down at the end of the disease and in
bronchitis where there is an excess of secretion, as well as in other
conditions. Mucous râles are of a gargling or bubbling nature. They are caused
by air rushing through tubes containing secretions or pus. They are said to be
large or small as they are distinct or indistinct, depending upon the quantity
of fluid that is present and the size of the tubes in which the sound is
produced. [Pg 92]
According to their character they are divided into dry and moist. The friction
sound is produced by the rubbing together of roughened surfaces and is
characteristic of pleurisy.

Percussion.—Percussion is that mode of examination by which we elicit
sounds by striking or tapping over the part. It may be direct or indirect. If
the middle finger of the left hand is placed firmly on the chest and smartly
tapped or struck with the ends of the first three fingers of the right hand,
the sound will be noticed to be more resonant and clear than when the same
procedure is practiced on a solid part of the body. This is because the lungs
are not solid, but are always, in health, well expanded with air. In certain
pulmonary diseases, however, as in pneumonia, they fill up and become solid,
when percussion produces a dull sound, like that on any other solid part of the
animal. When fluid has collected in the lower part of the chest cavity the
sound will also be dull on percussion. Where there is an excess of air in the
chest cavity, as in emphysema or in pneumothorax, the percussion sound becomes
abnormally loud and clear. By practice on healthy animals the character and
boundaries of the sounds can be so well determined that any variation from them
will be readily detected, and will sometimes disclose the presence of a
diseased condition when nothing else will.

Percussion is sometimes practiced with the aid of a special percussion
hammer and an object known as a pleximeter to strike upon. A percussion hammer
is made of rubber or has a rubber tip, so that when the pleximeter, which is
placed against the side of the animal, is struck the impact will not be
accompanied with a noise. A percussion hammer and pleximeter may be purchased
from any veterinary instrument maker.

CATARRH (COLD IN THE HEAD).

Nasal catarrh is an inflammation of the mucous membranes of the nostrils and
upper air passages. Simple catarrh is not a serious disease in itself, but if
neglected is liable to be complicated with laryngitis, bronchitis, pneumonia,
plurisy, or other serious and sometimes fatal diseases of the respiratory
organs. Catarrh is a common disease among cattle. It is often caused by sudden
exposure to wet and cold after they have been accustomed to shelter. It may
arise from inhalation of irritating gases. It is also sometimes produced by
certain specific atmospheric conditions, and may assume an enzoötic form. It is
very debilitating, and requires prompt and judicious treatment.

Symptoms.—Redness of the mucous membranes of the nose and redness and
watering of the eyes are symptoms of nasal catarrh. The mucous membrane first
becomes dry; afterwards a watery discharge appears, and later, in severe cases,
the discharge becomes mucopurulent. In mild cases there is little or no
fever, but in severe ones it may run high. The animal becomes dull, languid,
and is not inclined to move about, and the appetite may become impaired; there
is also variable temperature of the horns and ears. If in a cow giving milk the
secretion diminishes, the mucus from the eyes and nose becomes thicker and
yellower. Afterwards, as the symptoms increase in severity, the discharge
becomes [Pg 93]
mucopurulent.

Treatment.—The animal should be housed in a well-ventilated place,
with good hygienic surroundings. In cold and damp weather it should be kept
warm with blanketing, and, in severe cases, hot, medicated inhalations given.
If the fever is high, it may be reduced by giving nitrate of potassium, from 1
to 2 ounces, in the drinking water, three times daily. Diffusible stimulants
are beneficial in most cases. Too much importance can not be attached to good
nursing. There is no necessity to resort to the old system of bleeding,
purging, or the use of powerful sedatives.

EPISTAXIS (BLEEDING FROM THE NOSE).

Bleeding from the nostrils is rather rare in cattle. It may arise from any
one of a variety of causes, but usually results from disease or injury to the
mucous membranes or to violent exertions in coughing and sneezing. It is seldom
serious. It generally occurs in drops from one nostril only, accompanied with
sneezing, and without frothing. Bleeding from the lungs comes from both
nostrils, is bright red, frothy, and accompanied with a cough.

Treatment.—In many cases the bleeding will cease spontaneously and all
that is necessary is to keep the animal quiet and bathe the head and nostrils
with cold water. The cause of the bleeding should be learned and governed
accordingly in the treatment. In severe and exceptional cases, when the
hemorrhage is persistent and long continued, the animal’s head should be tied
to a high rack or beam and cold water or ice applied, or recourse to styptic
injections taken. If the hemorrhage is profuse and persistent, either a drench
composed of 1½ drams of acetate of lead dissolved in a pint of water or
1½ drams of gallic acid dissolved in a pint of water should be given.

LARYNGITIS (SORE THROAT).

An inflammation of the mucous membrane lining the larynx is known as
laryngitis. It may be either a primary or a secondary disease, complicated or
uncomplicated. In the majority of cases it is attributable to some form of
exposure, a sudden change from warm to cold surroundings, or exposure to cold
storms. It may also result from inhaling irritating gases or from external
violence. In an acute attack of laryngitis there is an elevation of
temperature, pain on pressure over the region of the larynx, violent paroxysms of
[Pg 94]
coughing, difficult and noisy respiration. The nostrils are dilated, the nose
extended, and the animal has a frightened expression. There is marked
difficulty in swallowing.

Treatment.—Treatment consists of fomentations and hot applications
over the throat. Stimulating liniments, mustard mixed with cold water and well
rubbed in with a stiff brush, or other forms of counterirritation may be
applied in severe cases. Hot inhalations should be frequently resorted to, and
often afford much relief to the suffering animal. In this disease medicines
should be given so far as possible in the form of electuaries (soft solid) on
account of the difficulty of deglutition. Large drafts of medicines have a
tendency to produce violent spells of coughing, and in this way retard
recovery. The subjoined formula for an electuary will be found to answer the
purpose in ordinary cases: Chlorate of potassium, pulverized, 8 ounces; fluid
extract of belladonna, 2 ounces; powdered opium, 1 ounce; powdered licorice
root, 8 ounces; sirup, sufficient quantity; mix. Place a small tablespoonful of
the mixture frequently on the tongue or back teeth. Or the following may be
used instead: Aloes, powdered opium, and gum camphor in equal parts; mix. Rub
an ounce on the molar teeth every four or five hours. The bowels should be kept
open and the diet should be such as the patient can easily swallow. Warm,
sloppy mashes, boiled oatmeal gruel, linseed tea, and the like are the most
suitable substances. If suffocation be threatened during the course of the
disease, tracheotomy should be performed without delay. The details of the
operation are fully described under the head of “Surgical operations.” (See p.
289.)

When the disease assumes a chronic form, strong counterirritation is
indicated. A cantharides blister may be applied, or the following ointment
used: Biniodid of mercury 1 part, lard 6 parts; mix. In some cases it will be
found necessary to repeat the application.

BRONCHITIS.

Bronchitis is an inflammation of the mucous membrane of the bronchial tubes.
When a primary disease, it is generally the result of what is commonly known as
“catching cold.” It may be secondary to or complicated with many of the
diseases of the respiratory system. It may also be caused by breathing
irritating gases, or by the introduction of foreign bodies into the bronchial
tubes, which sometimes results from injudicious and careless drenching when the
larynx is temporarily relaxed. It may be acute or chronic, and is divided,
according to the seat of the inflammation, into bronchitis proper when the
large tubes are affected, or capillary bronchitis when the trouble is in the
smaller ones.

Symptoms.—Loss of appetite, elevation of temperature, generally 104°
or 105° F. The inspiration is incomplete, short, and painful,
[Pg 95]and the expiration is
prolonged. The pulse is increased in frequency and is hard. A characteristic,
painful cough is present, but it is paroxysmal and incomplete. Auscultation and
percussion greatly aid us in a diagnosis. A normal sound is given on
percussion. On auscultation, in the early stages, rhonchus râles are detected
if the larger tubes are affected, and sibilant râles if the smaller ones are
affected. Later mucous râles are noted, and sometimes all sounds in certain
parts are absent, owing to the plugging up of the tubes. This plugging, if
extensive enough, is sometimes the cause of death, or death may result from
extension of the disease to the lungs or pleura.

Treatment.—The animal should be placed in a light, well-ventilated
box, and the bowels kept in a soft condition by enemas, etc. Violent purgatives
should not be used. The body should be kept warm by blanketing. In the early
stages a draft composed as follows should be given three times daily: Extract
of belladonna, 2 drams; solution of acetate of ammonium, 4 fluid ounces; water,
one-half pint. In the later stage of the disease the following formula may be
substituted and given twice daily: Carbonate of ammonium, 3 drams; liquor
hydrochlorate of strychnin, 2 fluid drams; spirits of nitrous ether, 1 fluid
ounce; water, one-half pint.

In some cases the following is preferable to either of the above, and may be
given in a pint of linseed tea every four hours: Spirits of nitrous ether,
1½ ounces; aromatic spirits of ammonia, 2 ounces; powdered camphor, 2 drams.
The feed should be light and nutritious.

Bronchitis is liable to become chronic if not properly treated in the
earliest stage. In this case remedial treatment is of little value.

PLEURISY.

Pleurisy is an inflammation of the serous membrane lining the chest cavity
and enveloping the lungs. It is somewhat rare as an independent disease, but it
often complicates pneumonia; indeed, it is often caused by the same germ that
causes pneumonia—pneumococcus. It may arise from exposure to cold or wet
or from external violence, and is usually present in some degree in cases in
which the ribs have been fractured with or without a penetrated wound.

Symptoms.—In the first stage there is great pain aggravated by
movement, and the animal is usually stiff as though foundered, the pulse is
quick and hard, the breathing abdominal, the chest being fixed so far as
possible, the inspiration short and jerky, the expiration longer. The pain is
caused by the friction of the dry, inflamed pleural surfaces of the lung and
chest on each other. At this stage the ear detects a dry friction murmur,
resembling somewhat the sound made by rubbing two pieces of sole leather
together. Pres[Pg 96]
sure between the ribs gives pain and usually causes the animal to
flinch and grunt. The muzzle is hot and dry, the mouth slimy, and the
secretions scanty. After a day or two the severity of the symptoms is much
lessened, the temperature, which during the first days may have been as high as
106° F., falls to 103° or 104°, the pain decreases, the stiffness disappears,
and the patient eats a little. The pulse softens, but remains quicker than
normal. Now, day by day the patient loses a little strength, the friction sound
disappears as the exudation moistens the pleural surfaces; percussion now shows
a horizontal line of dullness, which day by day rises higher in the chest, the
respiration grows more frequent and labored, the countenance is anxious and
haggard, the eyes sink somewhat in their sockets, and in unfavorable cases
death occurs during the second or third week, from either asphyxia or heart
failure.

In pleurisy, as in pneumonia, the elbows are usually turned outward. Care
must be taken to differentiate pleurisy from traumatic pericarditis (which
see). In the latter condition the area of dullness of the heart is much
increased, and usually a splashing sound is heard at each beat of the heart.
Another diagnostic symptom of value is that in traumatic pericarditis
respiration is painful, not difficult, and the respiratory rate is very much
increased on movement. In both conditions a considerable swelling of the dewlap
may be noticed in the later stages.

Treatment.—Give the same general care as recommended in bronchitis or
pneumonia. In the early stages give a febrifuge to reduce the fever, as
directed for pneumonia. For relief of the cough give electuary formula, which
will be found in the treatment of laryngitis. The bowels must be kept relaxed
and the kidneys secreting freely. In the stage of effusion the following should
be given three times daily: Digitalis tincture, 1 ounce; iodid of potassium, 30
to 60 grains; mix. Apply strong counterirritant to chest and put seton in
dewlap. (See “Setoning,” p. 293.) If collapse of the lung is threatened, a
surgical operation, termed paracentesis thoracis, is sometimes performed; this
consists in puncturing the chest cavity and drawing off a part of the fluid.
The instruments used are a small trocar and cannula, which are introduced
between the eighth and ninth ribs. The skin should be drawn forward so that the
external wound may not correspond to the puncture of the chest, to prevent the
entrance of air. Only a portion of the fluid should be removed. The animal gets
immediate relief, but it is generally only temporary, as the fluid has a
tendency to accumulate again.

PNEUMONIA.

Pneumonia is an inflammation of the lung substance, and is divided into
three forms, viz, croupous, catarrhal, and interstitial. These [Pg 97]various forms,
however, can be differentiated only by the expert, and it is therefore deemed
necessary for the purpose of the present work to treat the subject under the
general head of pneumonia.

The causes of pneumonia in general are the same as those of the various
other inflammatory diseases of the respiratory tract. The germ is known as a
pneumococcus. The disease mostly follows congestion of the lungs, but may in
rare cases have a parasitic origin.

Symptoms.—In the first stage, that of congestion, the disease is
usually ushered in by a chill, although this may not always be observed by the
attendant. This is followed by an elevation of temperature, usually 105° to
106° F., or it may be even higher. The respirations are quick and shallow; the
nostrils are dilated; the pulse is full and hard. Cough may or may not appear
in this stage. The nose is hot and dry; the tongue sometimes protrudes and is
slimy; the coat is staring, and the skin dry and harsh. The urine is usually
diminished in quantity, high colored, and the bowels constipated. The animal
stands with the forelegs wide apart to facilitate respiration. On auscultation
crepitation will be observed over the portion of the lung affected. The sounds
elicited on percussion are practically normal in this stage.

In the second stage the temperature generally drops one or two degrees, and
respiration is performed with much difficulty. The cough is frequent and
painful. The animal still stands with the forelegs wide apart and the elbows
turned outward. If it assumes the recumbent position it rests on the sternum.
All secretions are more or less suspended, particularly the milk in cows. The
animal has a haggard appearance, and the pulse becomes small and wiry at this
period. The extremities are hot and cold alternately; the crepitation which was
present in the first stage is now absent, and no sound on auscultation is
heard, unless it is a slight wheezing or whistling noise. On percussion
dullness over the diseased lung is manifested, indicating consolidation. The
lung has now assumed a characteristic liverlike appearance.

In the third stage, if the disease is to terminate favorably, the cough
becomes loose, the animal improves, the appetite returns, and the symptoms
above detailed rapidly subside; if, on the other hand, resolution is not
progressing, the lung substance degenerates, becomes clogged up, and ceases to
function. In fatal cases the breath has a peculiar, fetid, cadaverous odor, and
is taken in short gasps; the horns, ears, and extremities become cold and
clammy, and the pulse is imperceptible. On auscultation, when suppuration is
taking place and the lung structure is breaking down, a bubbling or gurgling
crepitation, caused by the passage of air through pus, is heard.

Treatment.—Good hygienic surroundings and good nursing are essential
in connection with the medical treatment. The probability
[Pg 98]of recovery depends
largely on the extent of the lung tissue involved, as well as on the intensity
of the inflammatory process. In the early stage, when the fever is high,
febrifuges should be given. If the pulse be strong and full, aconite (Fleming’s
tincture, 1 to 2 drams, every four or five hours) may be given for a short
time, but should be discontinued as soon as the fever begins to abate. Aconite
is a valuable drug in the hands of the intelligent practitioner, but my
experience leads me to believe that not infrequently animals are lost by its
injudicious use, for in many febrile conditions it is positively
contraindicated, owing to its action upon the heart. In a plethoric animal,
with a strong, bounding pulse, bleeding may be resorted to instead of
administering aconite. If the bowels are constipated, calomel, 1 to 3 drams,
which acts as a cathartic and a febrifuge, is advisable. In the second stage
diffusible stimulants are required, viz: Spirits of nitrous ether, 2 ounces;
aromatic spirits of ammonia, 1 ounce; mix, and give in gruel three times daily.
In some cases carbonate of ammonia, 2 to 5 drams, has been found beneficial.
Most practitioners apply counterirritants, such as mustard plasters,
turpentine, and ammonia liniment, or cantharides.

EMPHYSEMA (HEAVES).

Emphysema is a rupture of the minute air vesicles of the lung substance, and
may be either interlobular or vesicular. There is an extreme interference with
respiration, inspiration being short and expiration prolonged. It is a
nonfebrile condition, in which the appetite is not decreased and the milk
secretion is kept up. It may be caused by an attack of asthma or may result
from chronic bronchitis. The disease can be diagnosed by the marked
interference with respiration. The animal, as a rule, is emaciated, has a
staring coat, and is hidebound. If percussion is resorted to, the animal’s
chest will give a tympanic, drumlike sound. The normal resonant sound is
exaggerated.

Treatment.—The disease is incurable, and only a palliative form of
treatment can be carried out. The destruction of the animal is often advisable,
from a humane as well as from a financial point of view.

PULMONARY CONGESTION.

Cattle that are overdriven or overworked are liable to pulmonary congestion
in an acute form, and sometimes to pulmonary apoplexy. In such cases they
should be allowed to rest, and if the weather is hot, they should be put in a
shady place. Give stimulants internally, unload the venous side of the heart by
bleeding, and apply stimulating applications to the legs, and bandage.
[Pg 99]

HEMOPTYSIS.

Hemoptysis is a term used to signify bleeding from the lungs. The trouble
may result from a previous congestion of the lungs or from a breaking down of
the lung substance, or from specific disorders.

Bleeding from the lungs comes from both nostrils and from the mouth. The
blood is bright red, frothy, and accompanied with a cough, the flow being
somewhat profuse and intermingled with mucus. It may cease of its own accord.
Internally hemostatics are indicated, and locally over the sides cold
applications have a tendency to check the hemorrhage. A drench of 1½ drams
of gallic acid dissolved in a pint of water should be given.

ABSCESS OF THE LUNG.

Abscesses of the lung sometimes form during the course of or subsequent to
tuberculosis or other diseases. An animal affected with abscess of the lung
usually has a protracted, feeble cough and a general appearance of emaciation
and anemia. The pulse is feeble and the breath foul. An offensive discharge
from the lungs frequently occurs. Percussion and auscultation aid in making a
diagnosis in this condition. The appetite is poor. Such animals go from bad to
worse, and their prompt destruction would, as a rule, be to the interest of the
owner.

HYDROTHORAX.

Hydrothorax, or dropsy of the chest, is not a disease in itself, but is
simply a condition in which an effusion takes place in the chest cavity, and is
the result or effect of some disease, mostly pleurisy. It can be easily
diagnosed by physical signs. A loss of the respiratory murmur will be noticed
on auscultation, and on percussion dullness or flatness on a line as high as
the effusion has taken place. When a large amount of effusion is present,
tapping with the trocar and cannula is generally resorted to. The proper method
of performing this operation will be found under the head of “Pleurisy.”

PNEUMOTHORAX.

An accumulation of gas in the pleural sac is known as pneumothorax. The
presence of air may result from either an injury of the lung or a wound
communicating from the exterior. The indications for treatment are to remove
any foreign body that may have penetrated, to exclude the further entrance of
the air into the cavity by the closure of the external opening, and to employ
antiseptics and adhesive dressings. The air already in the cavity will in most
cases be absorbed.
[Pg 100]

VERMINOUS BRONCHITIS.

This is a disease that sometimes attacks young cattle when pastured in
low-lying meadows near rivers subject to flood. It is caused by a small worm,
Strongylus micrurus, which lodges in large numbers in the trachea and bronchial
tubes, giving rise to considerable irritation of the air passages and
inflammation. Sometimes the strongyles lodge in large numbers in the windpipe,
forming themselves into a ball, and thus choke the animal to death.

Symptoms.—It is liable to attack a number of animals at once, and the
weakest are the first to give way. The animal has a remarkably forcible cough,
distressing, and of a special hacking and paroxysmal character. A stringy mucus
is sometimes expelled during the spells of coughing. This mucus contains the
Strongylus micrurus, which can be detected, or their ova observed, under a low
power of the microscope. The attack has a subacute character and is very
exhausting. The parasites, by becoming entwined in balls, seriously impede
respiration, which is always remarkably labored in this disease.

Treatment.—The affected calves should be placed in a dry stable,
protected from dampness, and subjected to fumigations of sulphurous anhydrid or
chlorin gas. The liberation of chlorin gas is brought about by the action of
sulphuric acid, either on a mixture of chlorid of sodium and black oxid of
manganese or on bleaching powder. Sulphurous anhydrid may be procured by
burning sulphur. Some practitioners prescribe small doses of spirits of
turpentine in linseed oil. The system requires good support, and the diet
should therefore be liberal and nutritious. Equal parts of sulphate of iron,
gentian, and ginger make an excellent tonic.

Prevention.—Avoid pastures notorious for generating verminous
bronchitis.

PLEURODYNIA.

Pleurodynia is a term applied to rheumatism of the intercostal muscles, the
apparent symptoms being very similar to those of pleurisy. The animal is stiff,
is not inclined to turn around, and the ribs are kept in a fixed state as much
as possible. Pleurodynia may be distinguished from pleurisy by the coexistence
of rheumatism in other parts and by the comparative absence of fever, cough,
the friction sound, and the effusion into the chest. The treatment for this
affection is the same as that for rheumatism affecting other parts.

[Pg 101]

DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.

By W. H. Harbaugh, V. S.

[Revised by John E. Mohler, V. M. D.]

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.

The nervous system is the distinguishing feature of animal life. Without it
there can be no intelligence, no instinct, no sensibility, no perception; in
fact, existence would be nothing more than vegetable life.

The senses—touch, taste, sight, hearing, smell—all depend on the
nervous system. Motion depends on it. A muscle can not contract without
receiving the stimulus from the nervous system. For example, if a nerve passing
from a nerve center to a muscle is severed, the particular muscle that is
supplied by the cut nerve is paralyzed.

The nervous system is often studied in two divisions—the cerebrospinal
division and the sympathetic division.

The cerebrospinal division consists of the brain and spinal cord, nerves,
and ganglia. The nerves of this division convey the impulses of motion and
sensation and supply all parts which are under the control of the will. For
example, the voluntary muscular tissue includes all the muscles which act as
the will directs. Another example: If anything comes in contact with any part
of the skin, the impression is immediately perceived. All the special senses
belong to this division.

The sympathetic division consists of nerves and ganglia. The muscular
tissue, which acts independently of the will—as, for example, the
stomach, intestines, womb, blood vessels, ducts, etc.—is called
involuntary muscular tissue, and receives nervous stimulus from the sympathetic
division.

The brain, spinal cord, and the ganglia are the central organs of the
nervous system. The nerves conduct the nervous influence. The nerves terminate
differently according to their function. The terminations are called end
organs. The terminal end organs in the skin and other parts endowed with
sensation receive the impressions, which are conveyed to the brain, where they
are appreciated. They are so sensitive that the most gentle zephyr is
perceived. They are so abundant that the point of the finest needle can not
pierce the skin without coming in contact with them, and the sensation of pain
is [Pg 102]
instantly conveyed to the brain. The terminal end organs of the nerves that
supply the muscles are different, as they give the impulse which is conveyed by
the motor nerves to the elements which constitute the muscle, and this impulse
is the excitation which causes the muscle to contract. The terminal end organs
of the special senses of taste, smell, etc., receive their special impressions,
and their respective nerves carry the impressions to the brain.

There are two divisions of nerves, the afferent and efferent.

The afferent nerves are those which convey the impression to the nerve
centers. All the sensory nerves belong to this division.

The efferent nerves are those which convey the nervous impulse outward from
the nerve centers, and they are further classified according to the function of
their respective centers. For example: Motor fibers carry the impulse from the
nerve center to a muscle to cause contraction. Vasomotor fibers carry the
impulse to the muscular tissue in the blood vessels, which regulates their
caliber. The secretory fibers convey the impulse to the cells of the glands and
excite the activity of the gland, and its particular product is secreted or
evolved, as, for instance, milk in the mammary gland. Inhibitory fibers control
or inhibit the action of the organ to which they are distributed, as, for
instance, the heart.

Nerve centers may be considered as a collection or group of nerve cells.
Both the cerebrospinal and the sympathetic divisions have nerve centers. The
centers derive their special names from their functions. The brain is the great
center of the nervous system, as it is the center of intelligence and
perception. The centers of all the special senses, as well as the centers of
various functions, are located in different parts of the brain. Nerve centers
also exist in the spinal cord and in connection with the sympathetic system.

A nerve is a cord consisting of a certain number of fibers of nerve tissue,
inclosed in a sheath of connective tissue. Nerves divide and subdivide, sending
off branches, which ramify in all parts of the body, and, as they near their
terminations, they contain but one or two fibers.

The brain and spinal cord are contained within a bony canal, which forms a
protective covering for them.

The spinal cord, or spinal marrow, lodged within the spinal canal, or hollow
of the backbone, is continuous with the brain anteriorly, and terminates in a
point in the sacrum (that part of the spinal column which immediately precedes
the tail). The spinal cord gives off branches at each of the spaces between the
segments of the backbone. These branches form nerve trunks which carry both
sensory and motor impressions and impulses. The spinal cord is a grand nerve
trunk to carry messages to or from the brain and to and from the reflex centers
contained within itself.

[Pg 103]

The brain is contained within the cavity of the skull and is continuous with
the spinal cord; there is nothing to mark the place where one leaves off and
the other begins. The brain is the seat of reason and intelligence. Voluntary
effort originates from the brain. Coordination, or harmony of movement, is
controlled by the rear portion of the brain, known as the cerebellum.

The meninges are the membranes, three in number, which envelop the brain and
spinal cord, and separate them from the bones which form the walls of the
cranial cavity and spinal canal.

The sympathetic, also called the ganglionic, division of the nervous system
consists of two chains of ganglia, reaching from the head to the tail, situated
beneath the spinal column, one on either side. The presence of the ganglia or
enlargements on the cords give them their chainlike appearance.

The sympathetic nerves are closely connected with the cerebrospinal nerves,
but are not under the control of the will.

INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN AND ITS MEMBRANES (STAGGERS).

Inflammation of the brain is technically termed encephalitis and of its
membranes cerebral-meningitis, but as both conditions usually occur together,
and since it is practically impossible to distinguish one from the other by the
symptoms shown by the diseased animal, they may as well be considered together
here as varieties of the same disease. Staggers, coma, frenzy, etc., are terms
that are sometimes applied to this disease in its different forms or stages.

Causes.—Severe blows on the head with a hard object, or the head
coming violently in contact with the ground or other hard substance in a fall,
may be followed by encephalitis. Irritation caused by tumors in the brain may
produce inflammation. Feed containing deleterious matters—for example,
ergot (see Pl. V) and other fungi which contain a
narcotic principle—is the most frequent cause of this affection, and
hence it is often called “grass staggers” and “stomach staggers.” Highly
nitrogenous feeds are blamed for causing this disease. Parasites, mineral and
narcotic poisons, hot weather, and severe exertion or excessive excitement may
cause this condition. Inflammation of the brain may occur as a complication of
some infectious disease or may follow some forms of indigestion. In many
localities certain plants have the reputation of causing staggers.

Symptoms.—The symptoms vary much, but a careful observer will detect a
trouble connected with the nervous system without much uncertainty. The first
signs may be those of frenzy, but generally at the start the animal is dull and
sleepy, with little or no inclination to move about; the head may be pressed
against the wall or fence and the legs kept moving, as if the animal were
endeavoring to walk through the obstruction; the body, especially the hind
part, may be [Pg 104]
leaned against the side of the stall or stable, as if for support.
The bowels are constipated; the urine, when passed, is small in quantity and
darker in color than natural. There may be trembling and even spasms of muscles
in different parts. In the dull stage the animal may breathe less frequently
than is natural, and each breath may be accompanied with a snoring-like sound.
The pulse may be large and less frequent than normal. If suddenly aroused from
the drowsy state, the animal appears startled and stares wildly. When moving
about it may stagger, the hind quarters swaying from side to side.

If delirium ensues, the cow is commonly said to be mad. She may bellow,
stamp her feet, run about wildly, grate the teeth, froth at the mouth. If she
is confined in the stable, she rears and plunges; the convulsions are so
violent in many instances that it is really dangerous for one to attempt to
render aid. The body may be covered with perspiration. She may fall; the
muscles twitch and jerk; often the head is raised and then dashed against the
ground until blood issues from the nose and mouth; the eyes may be bloodshot
and sightless; the limbs stiff and outstretched, or they may be kicked about
recklessly; the head may be drawn back and the tail drawn up; the urine may be
squirted out in spurts; often the “washer” (membrane nictitans) is forced over
the eye. When the convulsions cease they may be followed by a period of quiet
unconsciousness (coma) which is more or less prolonged, when the animal may
gradually regain consciousness, get up on its feet, and perhaps quietly partake
of food, if there be any within reach, while at other times it arises with much
difficulty and staggers blindly about the stall or field.

It must be remembered that all the foregoing symptoms are not always seen in
the same case. In those cases usually designated “sleepy staggers” the general
symptoms of drowsiness are presented, while in other cases the symptoms of
frenzy cause the affection to be called “mad staggers.” In other cases there
are symptoms of paralysis, swaying of the hind quarters, inability to rise,
etc., and sometimes these symptoms of paralysis are the most striking
manifestations and continue until death. Acute cases are accompanied by
fever.

It is well to remark that when the disease follows injuries to the head the
symptoms may not be manifested until two or three days (or longer) after the
accident.

Treatment.—Recoveries are rare in spite of careful attention. To be of
any service whatever the treatment must be prompt and begin with the disease.
In the early stage, when the pulse is large, most cases will admit of bleeding.
Eight or 9 quarts of blood should be taken from the jugular vein. This should
be followed immediately by a purgative, the following for a cow of average
size: Epsom salt, 24 ounces; pulverized gamboge, one-half ounce; croton oil, 20
drops; warm water, 3 quarts; mix all together and give at once as a drench.
[Pg 105]
About 2 quarts of warm water or warm soapsuds should be injected with a
syringe into the rectum every three or four hours. It is best to keep the
animal in a quiet, sheltered place, where it will be free from noise or other
cause of excitement. All the cold water the animal will drink should be
allowed, but feed must be withheld, except bran slops occasionally in small
quantities, or grass, if in season, which may be cut and carried fresh to the
patient.

The skull must be examined, and if sign of injury is found, appropriate
surgical treatment should be given.

During the convulsions all possible efforts should be made to prevent the
animal injuring itself. The head should be held down on the ground and straw
kept under it. Cold water may be continuously poured on the head, or bags
filled with ice broken in small pieces may be applied to the head. Different
authors recommend different remedies to allay the convulsions, but for two
reasons it will be found extremely difficult to administer medicines during the
convulsions: (1) While the animal is unconscious the power to swallow is lost,
and therefore the medicine is more liable to go down the windpipe to the lungs
than it is to go to the paunch; (2) the convulsions are often so violent that
it would be utterly useless to attempt to drench the animal; and furthermore it
must be borne in mind that during this stage the functions of digestion and
absorption are suspended, and as a consequence the medicine (provided it finds
its way to the paunch) is likely to remain there unabsorbed and therefore
useless.

A blistering compound, composed of mustard, 1 ounce; pulverized cantharides,
one-half ounce; hot water, 4 ounces, well mixed together, may be rubbed in over
the loins, along the spine, and back of the head on each side of the neck. This
is occasionally attended with beneficial effect, and especially so in those
cases when paralysis is present.

If the purgative acts and the animal shows signs of improvement in the
course of two or three days, 2 drams of iodid of potassium may be given every
night and morning, dissolved in a half bucketful of drinking water, if the
animal will drink it, or it may be dissolved in a half pint of water and given
as a drench. Great care must be observed in regard to the food, which should be
nutritive, but not coarse, and at first in small quantities, gradually
increased as the patient improves. After some progress is made toward recovery
1½ drams of pulverized nux vomica may be given twice a day, added to the
iodid of potassium drench. This should be administered so long as a staggering
gait continues.

In those rare cases when recovery takes place it is only partial as a rule,
as there is generally a sequel which remains, such as partial paralysis.
However, this is but a slight drawback in cattle, because
[Pg 106]when it is seen to persist
the medicine should be stopped and the animal fattened for butchering.

Post-mortem examinations discover congestion of the brain and its membranes.
In those cases which have exhibited much paralysis of the hind legs before
death the cord may be congested in the lumbar region (loins). When the disease
has been caused by injury to the head, the congestion and extravasated blood
may be found inside of the cavity in the location corresponding to the place
where the injury was inflicted externally. In some cases pus is also
discovered. It remains to be said that in all animals that have died from this
affection the lungs are found very much congested. This may lead the
superficial observer to suppose that the disease was a lung affection, but in
fact it is only a natural consequence when death ensues from brain disease.

APOPLEXY.

That form of congestion of the brain known as parturient apoplexy, or
parturient paresis, which is so frequently associated with the period of
calving is described in another part of this work. (See “Milk fever,” p.
226.)

Cerebral apoplexy, not connected with parturition, is a rare disease among
cattle. However, it may be due to degeneration and consequent rupture of a
blood vessel in the brain.

The attack is sudden, the animal in most cases falling as if it had received
a blow on the head. It may stagger and reel some time before going down. After
falling, there are convulsive movements of the legs or the animal sinks into
insensibility. There may be remissions in the severity of the symptoms, but the
pressure from the continued escape of blood soon causes death. Rest, quiet,
friction to the legs and surface, frequent turning of the animal and cold to
the head are to be practiced, if treatment is attempted.

CONGESTION OF THE BRAIN.

There is a form of congestive apoplexy affecting cattle which are in a
plethoric condition. The congestion, or overfilling with blood, causes pressure
on the brain substance and disorganizes its function. It occurs mostly in hot
weather. In this disease the symptoms are somewhat similar to those exhibited
when the animal has encephalitis, but the onset is more sudden, the duration is
shorter, and there is less fever. There may be frenzy or coma, or alternations
one with the other. The intelligence is diminished, staring eyes, bracing with
the legs, pressing against the stall partition or manger, red mucous membranes.
This condition usually terminates in recovery.

In such cases bleeding should be resorted to immediately, and when the power
of swallowing is not lost purgatives should be ad
[Pg 107]ministered. Cold
applications to the head and the general treatment recommended for encephalitis
are indicated.

CONCUSSION OF THE BRAIN.

Severe blows on the head, striking the head against some hard object while
running, or falling on the head may cause concussion of the brain. The injury
may fracture bones of the cranium and produce compression of the brain.

Symptoms and treatment.—The symptoms and the treatment that is
indicated differ very little from what has been said under congestion of the
brain and under encephalitis. In some cases it may be necessary to operate to
remove a piece of bone that is pressing on the brain or to remove a clot of
blood under the area which received the blow.

EPILEPSY.

This affection is characterized by the occurrence of sudden convulsions. The
animal may appear to be in a fair state of health usually, but at any time, in
the stable or in the field, it may have a convulsion in which it will fall and
lose consciousness. Epilepsy must not be confounded with vertigo—the
fainting which is an effect of heart troubles.

The exact cause of epilepsy in the majority of cases is unknown. Post-mortem
examinations in many instances have failed to discover any lesion in connection
with the brain or nervous system, while in other instances disease of the brain
has been found in the form of thickening of the membranes, abscesses, and
tumors, and in some cases the affection has been manifested in connection with
a diseased condition of the blood. The cause has also been traced to reflex
irritation, due to teething, worms, and chronic indigestion.

Treatment.—When the affection is due to the last-named causes
treatment may be successful if the cause is removed. If there are symptoms of
worms or of indigestion, follow the general treatment advised for those
troubles under their proper heads. If due to irritation caused by teething, the
inflamed gums must be lanced. Examination of the mouth often develops the fact
that one of the temporary teeth causes much irritation by remaining unshed, and
thereby interfering with the growth of a permanent tooth. The offending tooth
should be extracted. When the cause of epilepsy can not be discovered, it must
be confessed that there is no prospect of a cure. However, some benefit may be
expected from the occasional administration of a purgative dose of medicine. A
pound of Epsom salt dissolved in a quart of warm water, for a cow of average
size, may be given as a drench once or twice a month. In addition to the
purgative, 4 drams of bromid of potassium, dissolved in the drinking water,
three times a day, has proved very beneficial in some cases.
[Pg 108]

SUNSTROKE (PROSTRATION FROM HEAT).

Owing to the fact that cattle are seldom put to work at which they would
have to undergo severe exertion, especially in collars, they are not frequently
prostrated by the extreme heat of the summer months. When at pasture they
select the coolest places in the shade of trees, in water, etc., when the heat
becomes oppressive, and thereby avoid, as much as possible, the effects of
it.

It does happen, however, that cattle that have been kept up for the purpose
of fattening, when driven some distance in very hot weather, are sometimes
prostrated, but it must be remembered that it is not really necessary for the
animal to be exposed to the rays of the sun, as those confined in hot, close
places may suffer. This often happens in shipping, when they are crowded
together in cars.

Symptoms.—The premonitory signs are those of
exhaustion—dullness, panting, frothing at the mouth, tongue hanging out,
irregular gait, uneasiness, palpitation—when, if the circumstances which
tend to the prostration are not mitigated, the animal staggers or sways from
side to side, falls, struggles for a while, and then gradually becomes quiet,
or the struggles may continue, with repeated but ineffectual efforts to regain
a standing position. In serious cases the attack may be very sudden,
unconsciousness occurring without continued or distressing premonitory
symptoms.

Treatment.—At first, when not very serious, removal to a quiet,
sheltered place, with a few days on a reduced diet, is all that need be done.
When the animal has fallen, apply cold water or ice to the head; rub the body
and limbs with cloths or wisps of straw and continue the rubbing for a
considerable time. If the power of swallowing is not lost (which may be
ascertained by pouring a little cold water into the mouth), give 3 drams of
stronger liquor ammonia, diluted with a quart of cold water. Be very careful in
drenching the animal when lying down. Repeat the drench in a half hour and an
hour after the first one has been given. Instead of the ammonia, a drench
composed of 3 ounces of spirits of nitrous ether in a pint of water may be
given, if more convenient, but the ammonia drench is preferable. If
unconsciousness continues, so that a drench can not be administered, the same
quantity of ammonia and water may be injected with a syringe into the rectum.
The popular aqua ammonia, commonly called “hartshorn,” will do as well as the
stronger liquor ammonia, but as it is weaker than the latter the dose for a cow
is about 1½ ounces, which should be diluted with a quart of water before it
is given to the animal, either as a drench or an enema. When ammonia can not be
obtained, an ounce of tincture of digitalis may be given.
[Pg 109]

As soon as the animal is able to rise it should be assisted and moved to the
nearest shelter. All the cold water it will drink should be allowed. The
ammonia or spirits of nitrous ether drench should be administered every three
hours so long as there is much failure of strength. The diet should be limited
for several days—bran slops and a little grass. When signs of returning
strength are presented, 12 ounces of Epsom salt dissolved in a quart of warm
water may be given in those cases which have been down and unconscious, but do
not give it while much weakness remains, which may be for several days after
the attack. The flesh of an animal that is suffering from heat stroke should
not be prepared for use as food. On account of the fever with which the animal
suffers, the flesh contains toxins that may render it poisonous to the
consumer.

INJURIES TO THE SPINAL CORD.

The spinal cord is liable to concussion from blows and falls, and paralysis,
to a greater or less extent, may be the result. Fracture, with displacement of
the bones (vertebræ) which form the spinal column, by compressing the spinal
cord, produces paralysis, which varies in its effect according to the part of
the cord that is compressed. If the fracture is above the middle of the neck,
death soon follows, as communication between the brain and diaphragm (the
essential muscle of inspiration) is stopped. When the fracture is farther down
in the neck, posterior to the origin of the phrenic nerve, the breathing
continues, but there is paralysis in all parts posterior to the fracture,
including the fore and hind legs. When the fracture is in the region of the
loins the hind legs are paralyzed, but the fore legs are not. If the fracture
is in the sacrum (the division of the spinal column between the loins and the
tail), the tail alone is paralyzed.

As a matter of course, when the back is broken there is no remedy; the
animal should be killed at once.

PARALYSIS.

Paralysis, or loss of motion in a part, may be due to a lesion of the brain,
of the spinal cord, or of a nerve. It may also be caused by reflex irritation.
When the paralysis affects both sides of the body, posterior to a point, it is
further designated by the name paraplegia. When one side of the body (a lateral
half) is paralyzed, the term hemiplegia is applied to the affection. When
paralysis is caused by a lesion of a nerve, the paralysis is confined to the
particular part supplied by the affected nerve.

As already pointed out, paralysis may be due to concussion of the spine,
fracture of a bone of the spinal column with consequent com
[Pg 110]pression of the spinal
cord, concussion of the brain, or compression of the brain. An injury to one
side of the brain may produce paralysis of the same side of the head and of the
opposite side of the body (hemiplegia). Paralysis may occur in connection with
parturient apoplexy, lead poisoning, ergotism, etc.

CONGESTION OF THE SPINAL CORD.

Paraplegia, or paralysis of the rear part of the body, is the dominant
symptom in congestion or inflammation of the spinal cord. The cause is not
known, but the disease is probably due to chilling. It is thought by some that
some toxic influence (poison) may be responsible for its development.

Symptoms.—The symptoms usually appear suddenly and consist in
inability to stand. Sometimes this is preceded by a period of excitement. The
animal usually lies quietly, but sometimes it groans and tosses its head about
in a way that indicates pain. Cows heavy with calf are sometimes affected with
a form of paraplegia, which usually attacks them from about a month to a few
days before calving. Apparently they are in good health in every respect except
the inability to stand up on account of the paralysis of the hind quarters.
This form is generally attributed to feeding on feeds containing insufficient
protein and ash. It is most likely to occur in cows that are weak and thin.
With good care and feed recovery usually occurs.

Treatment.—The animal must be given a soft, dry bed under shelter and
in a quiet, airy place. It is well to apply mustard along the spine. The action
of the mustard may be intensified by rubbing the skin with ammonia or
turpentine. Internally give a purge of Glauber’s salt. Nux vomica or strychnia
(1 to 2 grain doses) may be given. Turn the cow two to four times daily and rub
the legs well each time.

There are instances when cows will persist in lying down (in spite of all
efforts that are made to compel them to stand up), when it can not really be
said that they are paralyzed. They have sensation in all parts; they can move
all their feet; they can change their position; and in fact every function
seems to be normally performed, but they obstinately refuse to rise or even
make an effort to do so. Cases of this kind have been killed, as it was an
utter impossibility to get the animal on its feet. However, there are instances
when a cow, after refusing to rise when all other means had been tried, quickly
jumped to her feet and showed fright upon the appearance of a dog or other
terrifying object.
[Pg 111]

RABIES (HYDROPHOBIA).

[See discussion of this disease in chapter on “Infectious diseases,” p.
358.]

LIGHTNING STROKE (ASPHYXIA ELECTRICA).

When an animal is struck by lightning the shock is instantaneously expended
on the nervous system, and as a rule death occurs immediately; but when the
shock is not fatal animation is suspended to a greater or less extent, as
evidenced by prostration, unconsciousness, and paralysis.

Symptoms.—When not fatal, the symptoms vary much, according to the
severity of the shock. The animal usually falls, as from an apoplectic attack,
and, as a matter of course, the symptoms are such as are generally manifested
in connection with concussion of the brain. The muscular system may be
completely relaxed; the legs limber; the muscles flabby and soft to the touch;
or there may be convulsions, spasms, and twitching of the muscles. The
breathing is generally labored, irregular, or interrupted, and slower than
normal. In most instances the electrical fluid leaves its mark by singeing the
hair, or by inflicting wounds, burns, or blisters.

Treatment.—So long as the beating of the heart is perceptible the
endeavor to resuscitate the animal should be continued. Dash cold water over
the head and body; rub the body and legs; smartly whip the body with wet towels
or switches. Mustard, mixed with water, should be well rubbed over the legs and
back of the head on each side of the neck. Inject into the rectum 4 drams of
stronger liquor ammonia, or 1½ ounces of hartshorn diluted with a quart of
warm water. Cautiously hold an uncorked bottle of hartshorn to the nostrils, so
that some of it is inhaled, but care should be taken that too much is not
suddenly inhaled. If the animal is unconscious, hypodermic injections of
stimulants are indicated, such as 6 drams of camphorated oil in one dose,
subcutaneously, or 20 grains of caffein or ½ grain of strychnin, also
subcutaneously.

When the animal revives sufficiently to be able to swallow, 4 drams of the
stronger liquor ammonia, diluted with a quart of cold water, should be given as
a drench, and the dose should be repeated in an hour. One and one-half ounces
of ordinary hartshorn may be used instead of the stronger liquor ammonia, but,
like the latter, it should be diluted with a quart or more of water, and even
then care should be exercised in drenching.

In cases where the shock has not caused complete insensibility recovery may
be hastened by the ammonia and water drench, or 4 ounces of brandy diluted with
a quart of water, or 8 ounces of whisky diluted with a quart of water. These
doses may be given every three or four hours if necessary. After recovery from
the more serious symptoms 2 drams of sulphate of quinin should be given twice a
[Pg 112]
day until health is restored. If any paralysis remains 1½ drams of
pulverized nux vomica should be given twice a day with the quinin.

The foregoing treatment is also applicable when the electrical shock is
given by telephone, electric car, or electric-light wires, etc. The wounds,
burns, or blisters should be treated according to the antiseptic method of
treating wounds.

TUMORS IN THE BRAIN, ETC.

Tumors of different kinds have been found within the cranial cavity, and in
many cases there have been no well-marked symptoms exhibited during the life of
the animal to lead one to suspect their existence. Cases are recorded where
bony tumors have been found in the brain of cattle that died suddenly, but
during life no signs of disease were manifested. Post-mortem examinations have
disclosed tubercles in the membranes of the brain. (See “Tuberculosis,” p.
407.) Abscesses, usually the result of inflammation of the brain, have been
found post-mortem. For the description of hydrocephalus, or dropsy of the
brain, of calves the reader is referred to the section on parturition. (See
“Water in the head,” p. 179.)

Chorea, constant twitching and irregular spasmodic movements of the muscles,
has been noticed in connection with or as a sequel to other affections, as, for
example, parturient apoplexy.

Various diseases, the description of which will be found in other sections
of this work, affect the nervous system to a greater or less extent—for
example, ergotism, lead poisoning, uremia, parturient apoplexy, colic, and
other affections associated with cramps, or spasms, etc. Disease of the ovaries
or of the spinal cord, by reflex irritation, may cause estromania (see “Excess
of venereal desire,” p. 148, constant desire for the bull).

[Pg 113]

DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS.

By James Law, F. R. C. V. S.,

Formerly Professor of Veterinary Science, etc., in Cornell University.

Of the materials that have served their purpose in building up the animal
body or in sustaining the body temperature, and that are now to be thrown out
as waste, the greater part is expelled from the system through the lungs and
the kidneys, but the agents that pass out by either of these two channels
differ in the main from those passing by the other. Thus from the lungs in the
form of dioxid of carbon—the same gas that comes from burning of coal or
oil—there escapes most of the waste material resulting from the
destruction in the system of fats, sugars, starch, and such other foods as are
wanting in the element nitrogen, and do not form fibrous tissues, but go mainly
to support animal heat or maintain functional activity. From the kidneys, on
the other hand, are thrown out the waste products resulting from the
destruction of the foods and tissues containing nitrogen—of, for
instance, albumin, fibrin, gluten, casein, gelatin, woody tissue, etc. While
much of the waste material containing nitrogen leaves the body by the bowels,
this is virtually only such of the albuminoid food as has failed to be fully
digested and absorbed; this has never formed a true constituent part of the
body itself or of the blood, but is so much waste food, like that which has
come to the table and again carried away unused. If the albuminoid food element
has entered the blood, whether or not it has been built up into a constituent
part of the structure of the body, its waste products, which contain nitrogen,
are in the main expelled through the kidneys, so that the latter become the
principal channels for the expulsion of all nitrogen-containing waste.

It would be an error, however, to infer that all nitrogenous food, when once
digested and absorbed into the blood, must necessarily leave the system in the
urine. On the contrary, in the young and growing animal, all increase of the
fibrous structures of the body is gained through the building up of those
flesh-forming constituents into their substance; in the pregnant animal the
growth of the offspring and its envelopes has a similar origin, and in the
dairy cow the casein or curd of the milk is a means of constant elimination of
these nitrogen-containing agents. Thus, in the breeding cow and, above all, in
the milking cow, the womb or udder carries on a work in one sense equivalent to
that otherwise performed by the kidneys.[Pg 114] Not only are these organs alike
channels for the excretion of albuminous products, but they are also
related to each other structurally and by nervous sympathy, so that suffering
in the one is liable to induce some measure of disorder in the other.

As in the case of other mammals, this nitrogenous waste matter is mainly
present in the urine of cattle in the form of urea, but also, to some extent,
as hippuric acid, a derivative of vegetable food which, in the herbivora,
replaces the uric acid found in the urine of man and carnivora. Uric acid is,
however, found in the urine of sucking calves which have practically an animal
diet, and it may also appear in the adult in case of absolute, prolonged
starvation, and in diseases attended with complete loss of appetite and rapid
wasting of the body. In such cases the animal lives on its own substance, and
the product is that of the wasting flesh.

The other products containing nitrogen are present in only small quantities
and need not be specially referred to. The urine of cattle contains much less
of carbonates than that of the horse, and effervesces less on the addition of
an acid. As the carbonates form a large proportion of the solid deposits
(gravel, stone) from the horse’s urine, the ox may thus be held less liable,
yet even in the ox the carbonates become abundant or scanty, according to the
nature of the feed, and therefore gravel, formed by carbonate of lime, is not
infrequent in cattle. When fed on beets, clover hay, or bean straw carbonates
are present in large quantities, these aliments being rich in organic acids and
alkaline carbonates; whereas upon oat straw, barley straw, and, above all,
wheat straw, they are in small amount. In calves fed on milk alone no
carbonates are found in the urine.

Phosphates, usually in combination with lime, are, as a rule, present only
in traces in the urine of cattle; however, on a dietary of wheat, bran, or
other aliment rich in phosphates, these may be present in large amount, so that
they render the liquid cloudy or are deposited in solid crystals. The liquid is
rendered transparent by nitric acid.

The cow’s urine, on a diet of hay and potatoes, contained:

[Pg 115]

The following table after Tereg[1] gives
the different conditions of the urine, and especially the amount of urea and
hippuric acid under different rations. The subjects were two oxen, weighing,
respectively, 1,260 pounds and 1,060 pounds:

The varying quantity of urea (from 1.6 to 15.4 ounces) is most suggestive as
to the action of the more or less nitrogenous feed and the resulting
concentration of the urine and blood. Hippuric acid, on the other hand, is most
abundant when the animal is fed on hay and straw.

The specific gravity of the urine of cattle varies from 1,030 to 1,060 in
health, water being 1,000. It is transparent, with a yellowish tinge, and has a
characteristic, musky smell. The chemical reaction is alkaline, turning red
litmus paper blue. The quantity passed in twenty-four hours varies greatly,
increasing not only with the water drunk, but with the albuminoids taken in
with the feed and the urea produced. If a solution of urea is injected into the
veins the secretion of urine is greatly augmented. Similarly the excess of
salts like carbonate of potash in the feed, or of sugar, increases the action
of the kidneys. Only about 20 per cent of the water swallowed escapes in [Pg 116] the urine, the remaining 80 per cent passing
mostly from the lungs, and to a slight extent by the bowels. The skin of the
ox does not perspire so readily nor so freely as that of the horse; hence the
kidneys and lungs are called upon for extra work. The influence of an excess
of water in the feed is most remarkable in swill-fed distillery cattle, which
urinate profusely and frequently, yet thrive and fatten rapidly.

Among the other conditions that increase the flow of urine is overfilling of
(internal pressure in) the blood vessels of the kidneys; hence the contraction
of the blood vessels of the skin by cold drives the blood inward, tends to
dilate the blood vessels of the kidneys, and to increase the secretion of
urine. Nervous disorders, such as excitement, fear, congestions, or structural
injuries to the back part of the base of the brain, have a similar result,
hence, doubtless, the action of certain fungi growing in musty hay or oats in
producing profuse flow of urine, whereas other forms of musty fodder cause
stupor, delirium, or paralysis. Bacteria and their products are mainly expelled
by the kidneys, and become sources of local infection, irritation, and
disease.

The quantity of urine passed daily by an ox on dry feeding averages 7 to 12
pints, but this may be increased enormously on a watery diet.

The mutual influence of the kidneys and other important organs tends to
explain the way in which disease in one part supervenes on preexisting disorder
in another. The introduction of albuminoids in excess into the blood means the
formation of an excess of urea, and a more profuse secretion of urine, of a
higher specific gravity, and with a greater tendency to deposit its solid
constituents, as gravel, in the kidneys or bladder. A torpid action of the
liver, leaving the albuminoids in transition forms, less soluble than the urea
into which they should have been changed, favors the onset of rheumatism or of
nervous disorder, the deposit of such albuminoid products in the kidneys, the
formation of a deep-brown or reddish urine, and congestion of the kidneys. Any
abnormal activity of the liver in the production of sugar—more than can
be burned up in the circulation—overstimulates the kidneys and produces
increased flow of a heavy urine with a sweetish taste. This increased
production of sugar may be primarily due to disease of the brain, which, in its
turn, determines the disorder of the liver. Disease of the right side of the
heart or of the lungs, by obstructing the onward flow of blood from the
veins, increases the blood pressure in the kidneys and produces disorder and
excessive secretion. Inactivity of the kidneys determines an increase in the
blood of waste products, which become irritating to different parts, producing
skin eruptions, itching, dropsies, and nervous disorders. Sprains of the loins
produce bleeding from the ki[Pg
117]dneys and disease of the spinal cord, and sometimes
determine albuminous or milky looking urine.

The kidney of the ox (Pl. IX, fig. 1) is a compound
organ made up of 15 to 25 separate lobules like so many separate kidneys, but
all pouring their secretion into one common pouch (pelvis) situated in an
excavation in the center of the lower surface. While the ox is the only
domesticated quadruped which maintains this divided condition of the kidney
after birth, this condition is common to all while at an early stage of
development in the womb. The cluster of lobules making up a single kidney forms
an ovoid mass flattened from above downward, and extending from the last rib
backward beneath the loins and to one side of the solid chain of the backbone.
The right is more firmly attached to the loins and extends farther backward
than the left. Deeply covered in a mass of suet, each kidney has a strong
outer, white, fibrous covering, and inside this two successive layers of kidney
substance, of which the outer is that in which the urine is mainly separated
from the blood and poured into the fine, microscopic urinary ducts.
(Pl. X, fig. 1) These latter, together with blood vessels,
lymph vessels, and nerves, make up the second, or internal, layer. The outer
layer is mainly composed of minute globular clusters of microscopic,
intercommunicating blood vessels (Malpighian bodies), each of which is
furnished with a fibrous capsule that is nothing else than the dilated
commencement of a urine tube. These practically microscopic tubes follow at
first a winding course through the outer layer (Ferrein’s tubes), then form a
long loop (doubling on itself) in the inner layer (Henle’s loop), and finally
pass back through the inner layer (Bellini’s tubes) to open through a conical
process into the common pouch (pelvis) on the lower surface of the organ.
(Pl. X, figs. 1, 2, 3.)

The tube that conveys the urine from the kidney to the bladder is
like a white, round cord, about the size of a goose quill, prolonged from the
pouch on the lower surface of the kidney backward beneath the loins, then
inward, supported by a fold of thin membrane, to open into the bladder just in
front of its neck. The canal passes first through the middle (muscular) coat of
the bladder, and then advances perceptibly between that and the internal
(mucous) coat, through which it finally opens. By this arrangement in
overfilling the bladder this opening is closed like a valve by the pressure of
the urine, and the return of liquid to the kidney is prevented. The bladder
(Pl. IX, fig. 2) is a dilatable, egg-shaped pouch, closed
behind by a strong ring of muscular fibers encircling its neck, and enveloped
by looped, muscular fibers extending on all sides around its body and closed
anterior end. Stimulated by the presence of urine, these last contract and
expel contents through the neck into the urethra. This last is the tube leading
backward along the floor of the pelvic [Pg 118]bones and downward through the penis. In
the bull this canal of the urethra is remarkable for its small caliber and for
the S-shaped bend which it describes in the space between the thighs and just
above the scrotum. This bend is attributable to the fact that the retractor
muscles are attached to the penis at this point, and in withdrawing that organ
within its sheath they double it upon itself. The small size of the canal and
this S-shaped bend are serious obstacles to the passing of a catheter to draw
the urine, yet by extending the penis out of its sheath the bend is effaced,
and a small, gum-elastic catheter, not more than one-fourth of an inch in
diameter, may with care be passed into the bladder. In the cow the urethra is
very short, opening in the median line on the floor of the vulva about 4 inches
in front of its external orifice. Even in her, however, the passing of a
catheter is a matter of no little difficulty, the opening of the urethra being
very narrow and encircled by the projecting membranous and rigid margins, and
on each side of the opening is a blind pouch (canal of Gärtner) into which the
catheter will almost invariably find its way. In both male and female,
therefore, the passing of a catheter is an operation which demands special
skill.

General symptoms of urinary disorders.—These are not so prominent in
cattle as in horses, yet they are of a similar kind. There is a stiff or
straddling gait with the hind legs and some difficulty in turning or in lying
down and rising, the act causing a groan. The frequent passage of urine in
driblets, its continuous escape in drops, the sudden arrest of the flow when in
full stream, the rhythmic contraction of the muscles under the anus without any
flow resulting, the swelling of the sheath, the collection of hard, gritty
masses on the hair surrounding the orifice of the sheath, the occurrence of
dropsies in the limbs under the chest or belly, or in either of these cavities,
and finally the appearance of nervous stupor, may indicate serious disorder of
the urinary organs. The condition of the urine passed may likewise lead to
suspicion. It may be white, from crystallized carbonate of lime; brown, red, or
even black, from the presence of blood or blood-coloring matter; yellow, from
biliary coloring matter; frothy, from contained albumin; cloudy, from
phosphates; glairy, from pus; it may also show gritty masses from gravel. In
many cases of urinary disorder in the ox, however, the symptoms are by no means
prominent, and unless special examination is made of the loins, the bladder,
and the urine the true nature of the malady may be overlooked.

DIURESIS (POLYURIA, DIABETES INSIPIDUS, EXCESSIVE SECRETION OF URINE).

A secretion of urine in excess of the normal amount may be looked on as
disease, even if the result does not lead to immediate loss of condition.
Cattle fed on distillery swill are striking examples of such
[Pg 119]excess caused by
the enormous consumption of a liquid feed, which nourishes and fattens in spite
of the diuresis; the condition is unwholesome, and cattle that have passed four
or five months in a swill stable have fatty livers and kidneys, and never again
do well on ordinary feed. Diuresis may further occur from increase of blood
pressure in the kidneys (diseases of the heart or lungs which hinder the onward
passage of the blood, the eating of digitalis, English broom, the contraction
of the blood vessels on the surface of the body in cold weather, etc.); also
from acrid or diuretic plants taken with the feed (dandelion, burdock,
colchicum, digitalis, savin, resinous shoots, etc.); from excess of sugar in
the feed (beets, turnips, ripe sorghum); also from the use of frozen feed
(frosted turnip tops and other vegetables), and from the growths of certain
molds in fodder (musty hay, mow-burnt hay, moldy oats, moldy bread, etc.).
Finally, alkaline waters and alkaline incrustations on the soil may be active
causes. In some of these cases the result is beneficial rather than injurious,
as when cattle affected with gravel in the kidneys are entirely freed from this
condition by a run at grass, or by an exclusive diet of roots or swill. In
other cases, however, the health and condition suffer, and even inflammation of
the kidneys may occur.

Treatment.—The treatment is mainly in the change of diet to a more
solid aliment destitute of the special, offensive ingredient. Boiled flaxseed
is often the best diet or addition to the wholesome dry food, and, by way of
medicine, doses of 2 drams each of sulphate of iron and iodid of potassium may
be given twice daily. In obstinate cases 2 drams ergot of rye or of catechu may
be added.

BLOODY URINE (RED WATER, MOOR ILL, WOOD ILL, HEMATURIA,
HEMAGLOBINURIA).

This is a common affection among cattle in certain localities, above all on
damp, undrained lands and under a backward agriculture. It is simply bloody
urine or hematuria when the blood is found in clots, or when under the
microscope the blood globules can be detected as distinctly rounded, flattened
disks. It is smoky urine—hemaglobinuria—when neither such distinct
clots nor blood disks can be found, but merely a general browning, reddening,
or blackening of the urine by the presence of dissolved, blood-coloring matter.
The bloody urine is the more direct result of structural disease of the kidneys
or urinary passages (inflammation, stone, gravel, tumors, hydatids, kidney
worms, sprains of the loins), while the stained urine (hemaglobinuria) is
usually the result of some general or more distinct disorder in which the
globules are destroyed in the circulating blood and the coloring matter
dissolved in and diffused through the whole mass of the blood and of the urine
secreted from it. As in the two forms, blood and the elements of blood escape
into the urine, albumin is
[Pg 120]always present, so that there is albuminuria with
blood-coloring matter superadded. If from stone or gravel, gritty particles are
usually passed, and may be detected in the bottom of a dish in which the liquid
is caught. If from fracture or severe sprain of the loins, it is liable to be
associated not only with some loss of control of the hind limbs and with
staggering behind but also with a more or less perfect paralysis of the tail.
The bloodstained urine without red globules results from specific
diseases—Texas fever (Pl. XLVII, fig. 3),
anthrax, spirillosis, and from eating irritant plants (broom, savin, mercury,
hellebore, ranunculus, convolvulus, colchicum, oak shoots, ash privet, hazel,
hornbeam, and other astringent, acrid, or resinous plants, etc.). The Maybug or
Spanish fly taken with the feed or spread over a great extent of skin as a
blister has a similar action. Frosted turnips or other roots will bring on the
affection in some subjects. Among conditions which act by the direct
destruction of the globules in the circulating blood may be named an excess of
water in that fluid; the use of water from soils rich in decomposing vegetable
matter and containing alkaline salts, particularly nitrites; and the presence
in the water and feed of the ptomaines of bacteria growth; hence the prevalence
of “red water” in marshy districts and on clayey and other impervious soils,
and the occurrence of bloody urine in the advanced stages of several contagious
diseases. Some mineral poisons—such as iodin, arsenic, and phosphorus
taken to excess—may cause hematuria, and finally the symptoms may be
merely the result of a constitutional predisposition of the individual or
family to bleeding. In some predisposed subjects, exposure of the body to cold
or wet will cause the affection.

The specific symptom of bloody or smoky water is a very patent one. It may
or may not be associated with fever, with the presence or absence of abdominal
tenderness on pressure, with a very frothy state of the milk or even a reddish
tinge, with or without marked paleness of the mucous membranes, and general
weakness. When direct injury to the kidneys is the immediate cause of the
disease the urine will be passed often, in small quantity at a time, and with
much straining. When there is bloodlessness (a watery blood) from insufficient
nourishment, fever is absent and the red water is at first the only symptom.
When the active cause has been irritant plants, abdominal tenderness, colics,
and other signs of bowel inflammation are marked features.

Treatment.—Treatment varies according as the cause has been a direct
irritant operating on a subject in vigorous health or a microbian poison acting
on an animal deficient in blood and vigor. In the first form of red water a
smart purgative (1 pound to 1½ pounds Glauber’s salt) will clear away the
irritants from the bowels and allay the coexistent high fever. It will also
serve to divert to the
[Pg 121]bowels much of the irritant products already absorbed
into the blood and will thus protect the kidneys. In many such cases a liberal
supply of wholesome, easily digestible feed will be all the additional
treatment required. In this connection demulcent feed (boiled flaxseed, wheat
bran) is especially good. If much blood has been lost, bitters (gentian,
one-half ounce) and iron (sulphate of iron, 2 drams) should be given for a
week.

For cases in which excess of diuretic plants has been taken, it may be well
to replace the salts by 1 to 2 pints of olive oil, adding 1 ounce of laudanum
and 2 drams of gum camphor; also to apply fomentations or a fresh sheepskin
over the loins. Buttermilk or vinegar, one-half pint, or sulphuric acid, 60
drops in a pint of water, may also be used frequently as injections. In cases
caused by sprained or fractured loins, inflamed kidneys, stone or gravel, the
treatment will be as for the particular disease in question.

In hematuria from anemia (watery blood), whether from insufficient or badly
adjusted rations or from the poisonous products of fermentations in impervious
or marshy soils, the treatment must be essentially tonic and stimulating. Rich,
abundant, and easily digestible feed must be furnished. The different grains
(oats, barley, wheat, bran, rye) and seeds (rape, linseed, cotton seed) are
especially called for and may be given either ground or boiled. As a bitter,
sulphate of quinin, one-half dram, and tincture of chlorid of iron, 2 drams,
may be given in a pint of water thrice a day. In some cases 1 or 2 teaspoonfuls
of oil of turpentine twice daily in milk will act favorably.

In this anemic variety prevention is the great need. The drainage and
cultivation of the dangerous soils is the main object. Until this can be
accomplished young and newly purchased cattle not yet inured to the poisons
must be kept from the dangerous fields and turned on only those which are
already drained naturally or artificially. Further, they should have an
abundant ration in which the local product of grass, hay, etc., is supplemented
by grain or other seeds. Another point to be guarded against is the supply of
water that has drained from marshes or impervious soils, rich in organic
matter, as such water is charged with nitrites, ptomaines, etc., which directly
conduce to the disorder. Fence out from all such waters and supply from living
springs or deep wells only.

ALBUMIN IN THE URINE (ALBUMINURIA).

In bloody urine albumin is always present as an important constituent of the
blood, and in congested and inflamed kidneys it is present as a part of the
inflammatory exudate. Apart from these, albumin in the urine represents in
different cases a variety of diseased conditions of the kidneys or of distant
organs. Among the [Pg 122]
additional causes of albuminuria may be named: (1) An excess
of albumin in the blood (after easy calving with little loss of blood and
before the secretion of milk has been established, or in cases of sudden
suppression of the secretion of milk); (2) under increase of blood pressure
(after deep drinking, after doses of digitalis or broom, after transfusion of
blood from one animal to another, or in disease of the heart or lungs causing
obstruction to the flow of blood from the veins); (3) after cutting (or
disease) of the motor nerves of the vessels going to the kidneys, causing
congestion of these organs; (4) violent exertion, hence long drives; the same
happens with violent, muscular spasms, as from strychnia poisoning, lockjaw,
epilepsy, and convulsions; (5) in most fevers and extensive inflammations of
important organs, like the lungs or liver, the escape of the albumin being
variously attributed to the high temperature of the body and disorder of the
nerves, and to resulting congestion and disorder of the secreting cells of the
kidneys; (6) in burns and some other congested states of the skin; (7) under
the action of certain poisons (strong acids, phosphorous, arsenic, Spanish
flies, carbolic acid, and those inducing bloody urine); (8) in certain
conditions of weakness or congestion of the secreting cells of the kidneys, so
that they allow this element of the blood to escape; (9) when the feed is
entirely wanting in common salt, albumin may appear in the urine
temporarily after a full meal containing an excess of albumin. It can also be
produced experimentally by puncturing the back part of the base of the brain
(the floor of the fourth ventricle close to the point the injury to which
causes sugary urine). In abscess, tumor, or inflammation of the bladder,
ureter, or urethra the urine is albuminous.

It follows, therefore, that albumin in the urine does not indicate the
existence of any one specific disease, and except when from weakness or loss of
function of the kidney cells, it must be looked on as an attendant on another
disease, the true nature of which we must try to find out. These affections we
must exclude one by one until we are left to assume the noninflammatory
disorder of the secreting cells of the kidney. It is especially important to
exclude inflammation of the kidney, and to do this may require a microscopic
examination of the sediment of the urine and the demonstration of the entire
absence of casts of the uriniferous tubes. (See “Nephritis,” p. 123.)

To detect albumin in the urine, the suspected and frothy liquid must be
rendered sour by adding a few drops of nitric acid and then boiled in a test
tube. If a solid precipitate forms, then a few more drops of nitric acid should
be added, and if the liquid does not clear it up it is albumin. A precipitate
thrown down by boiling and redissolved by nitric acid is probably phosphate of
lime.

[Pg 123]

Treatment.—Treatment is usually directed to the disease on which it is
dependent. In the absence of any other recognizable disease, mucilaginous
drinks of boiled flaxseed, slippery elm, or gum may be given, tannic acid,
one-half dram twice daily, and fomentations or even mustard poultices over the
loins. When the disease is chronic and there is no attendant fever (elevation
of temperature), tonics (hydrochloric acid, 6 drops in a pint of water;
phosphate of iron, 2 drams, or sulphate of quinin, 2 drams, repeated twice
daily) may be used. In all cases the patient should be kept carefully from cold
and wet, a warm, dry shed, or in warm weather a dry, sunny yard or pasture
being especially desirable.

SUGAR IN URINE (DIABETES MELLITUS).

This is a frequent condition of the urine in parturition fever, but as a
specific disease, associated with deranged liver or brain, it is
practically unknown in cattle. As a mere attendant on another disease it
demands no special notice here.

INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS (NEPHRITIS).

This has been divided according as it affects the different parts of the
kidneys, as: (1) Its fibrous covering (perinephritis); (2) the secreting tissue
of its outer portion (parenchymatous); (3) the connective tissue
(interstitial); (4) the lining membrane of its ducts (catarrhal); and (5) its
pelvis or sac receiving the urine (pyelitis). It has also been distinguished
according to the changes that take place in the kidney, especially as seen
after death, according to the quantity of albumin in the urine, and according
as the affection is acute or chronic. For the purpose of this work it will be
convenient to consider these as one inflammatory disease, making a distinction
merely between the acute and the chronic or of long standing.

The Causes are in the main like those causing bloody urine, such as irritant
and diuretic plants, Spanish flies applied as a blister or otherwise, exposure
to cold and wet, the presence of stone or gravel in the kidneys, injuries to
the back or loins, as by riding one another, the drinking of alkaline or
selenitic water, the use of putrid, stagnant water, of that containing bacteria
and their products, the consumption of musty fodder, etc.
(See “Hematuria,” p. 119.)

The length of the loins in cattle predisposes these parts to mechanical
injury, and in the lean and especially in the thin, working ox the kidney is
very liable to suffer. In the absence of an abundance of loose, connective
tissue and of fat, the kidneys lie in close contact with the muscles of the
loins, and any injury to them may tend to stretch the kidney and its vessels,
or to cause its inflammation by direct extension of the disease from the
injured muscle to the adjacent kidney. Thus, under unusually heavy draft, under
slips or [Pg 124]
falls on slippery ground, under sudden unexpected drooping or twisting
of the loins from missteps or from the feet sinking into holes, under the
loading and jarring of the loins when animals ride one another in cases of
“heat,” the kidneys are subject to injury and inflammation. A hard run, as when
chased by a dog, may be the occasion of such an attack. A fodder rich in
nitrogenous or flesh-forming elements (beans, peas, vetches (Vicia sativa), and
other leguminous plants) has been charged with irritating the kidneys through
the excess of urea, hippuric acid, and allied products eliminated through these
organs and the tendency to the formation of gravel. It seems, however, that
these feeds are most dangerous when partially ripened and yet not fully
matured, a stage of growth at which they are liable to contain ingredients
irritating to the stomach and poisonous to the brain, as seen in their inducing
so-called “stomach staggers.” Even in the poisoning by the seeds of ripened but
only partially cured rye grass (Lolium perenne), and darnel (Lolium
temulentum), the kidneys are found violently congested with black blood; also, in
the indigestions that result from the eating of partially ripened corn or
millet some congestion of the kidneys is an attendant phenomenon.

Cruzel says that the disease as occurring locally is usually not alone from
the acrid and resinous plants charged with inducing hematuria, but also from
stinking camomile (Anthemis cotula) and field poppy when used in the fresh,
succulent condition; also from the great prevalence of dead caterpillars on the
pasture, or from dead Spanish flies in the stagnant pools of water. The fresh
plants are believed to be injurious only by reason of a volatile oil which is
dissipated in drying. In the case of the stagnant water it may be questioned
whether the chemical products of the contained ferments (bacteria) are not more
frequently the cause of the evil than the alleged Spanish flies, though the
latter are hurtful enough when present.

Inflammation of the kidneys may further be a form or an extension of a
specific contagious disease, such as erysipelas, rinderpest, septicemia, or
even of poisoning by the spores of fungi. Rivolta reports the case of a cow
with spots of local congestion and blood staining in the kidney, the affected
parts being loaded with bacteria. Unfortunately he neither cultivated the
bacteria nor inoculated them, and thus the case stands without positive
demonstration that they were the cause of disease.

In certain cases the Symptoms of nephritis are very manifest, and in others
so hidden that the existence of the affection can be certainly recognized only
by a microscopic examination of the urine. In violent cases there is high
fever, increase of the body temperature to 103° F. and upward; hurried
breathing, with a catching inspiration; [Pg 125]accelerated pulse; dry, hot muzzle;
burning of the roots of the horns and ears; loss of appetite; suspended
rumination; and indications of extreme sensitiveness in the loins. The patient
stands with back arched and hind legs extended backward and outward, and passes
water frequently, in driblets, of a high color and specific gravity, containing
albumin and microscopic casts. (Pl. XI, fig. 5.) When
made to move, the patient does so with hesitation and groaning, especially if
turned in a narrow circle; when pinched on the flank just beneath the lateral
bony processes of the loins, especially on that side on which the disease
predominates, it flinches and groans. If the examination is made with oiled
hand introduced through the last gut (rectum), the pressure upward on the
kidneys gives rise to great pain and to efforts to escape by moving away and by
active contractions of the rectum for the expulsion of the hand. Sometimes
there is a distinct swelling over the loins or quarter on one or both sides. In
uncastrated males the testicle on the affected side is drawn up, or is
alternately raised and dropped. In all there is a liability to tremors of the
thigh on the side affected.

In some severe cases colicky pains are as violent as in the worst forms of
indigestion and spasms of the bowels. The animal frequently shifts from one
hind foot to the other, stamps, kicks at the belly, frequently looks anxiously
at its flank, moans plaintively, lies down and quickly gets up again, grinds
its teeth, twists its tail, and keeps the back habitually arched and rigid and
the hind feet advanced under the belly. The bowels may be costive and the feces
glistening with a coat of mucus, or they may be loose and irritable, and the
paunch or even the bowels may become distended with gas (bloating) as the
result of indigestion and fermentation. In some animals, male and female alike,
the rigid, arched condition of the back will give way to such undulating
movements as are sometimes seen in the act of coition.

The disease does not always appear in its full severity; for a day, or even
two, however, there may be merely loss of appetite, impaired rumination, a
disposition to remain lying down, yet when the patient is raised it manifests
suffering by anxiously looking at the flanks, shifting or stamping of the hind
feet, shaking of the tail, and attempts to urinate, which are either fruitless
or lead to the discharge of a small quantity of high-colored or perhaps bloody
urine.

In some recent slight cases, and in many chronic ones, these symptoms may be
absent or unobserved, and an examination of the urine is necessary to reach a
safe conclusion. The urine may contain blood, or it may be cloudy from
contained albumin, which coagulates on heating with nitric acid (see
“Albuminuria,” p. 121); it may be slightly glairy
from pus, or gritty particles may be detected in it. In seeking for casts of
the uriniferous tubes, a drop may be taken with
[Pg 126]a fine tube from the
bottom of the liquid after standing, and examined under a power magnifying
50 diameters. If the fine, cylindroid filaments are seen they may then be
examined with a power of 200 or 250 diameters. (Pl. XI,
fig. 5.) The appearance of the casts gives some clue to the condition of the
kidneys. If made up of large, rounded or slightly columnar cells, with a
single nucleus in each cell (epithelial), they imply comparatively slight and
recent disease of the kidney tubes, the detachment of the epithelium being
like what is seen in any inflamed mucous surface. If made up largely of the
small, disk-shaped and nonnucleated red blood globules, they imply escape of
blood, and usually a recent injury or congestion of the kidney—it may
be from sprains, blows, or the ingestion of acrid or diuretic poisons. If
the casts are made of a clear, waxy, homogeneous substance (hyaline), without
any admixture of opaque particles, they imply an inflammation of longer
standing, in which the inflamed kidney tubules have been already stripped
of their cellular (epithelial) lining. If the casts are rendered opaque by
the presence of minute, spherical granular cells, like white blood globules,
it betokens active suppuration of the kidney tubes. In other cases the casts
are rendered opaque by entangled earthy granules (carbonate of lime), or
crystals of some other urinary salts. In still other cases the casts entangle
clear, refrangent globules of oil or fat, which may imply fatty degeneration
of the kidneys or injury to the spinal cord. The presence of free pus giving
a glairy, flocculent appearance to the urine is suggestive of inflammation of
the urinary pouch at the commencement of the excretory duct (pelvis of kidney)
(Pl. IX, fig. 1), especially if complicated with
gritty particles of earthy salts. This condition is known as pyelitis. In the
chronic cases swelling of the legs or along the lower surface of chest or
abdomen, or within these respective cavities, is a common symptom. So, also,
stupor or coma, or even convulsions, may supervene from the poisonous action
of urea and other waste or morbid products retained in the blood.

Treatment.—In the treatment of acute nephritis the first consideration
is the removal of the cause. Acrid or diuretic plants in the feed must be
removed, and what of this kind is present in the stomach or bowels may be
cleared away by a moderate dose of castor or olive oil; extensive surfaces of
inflammation that have been blistered by Spanish flies must be washed clean
with soapsuds; sprains of the back or loins must be treated by soothing
fomentations or poultices or by a fresh sheepskin with its fleshy side applied
on the loins, and the patient must be kept in a narrow stall in which it can
not turn even its head. The patient must be kept in a warm, dry building, so
that the skin may be kept active rather than the kidneys. Warm blanketing is
equally important, or even mustard poultices over the loins will be useful.
Blisters of Spanish flies, turpentine, or other [Pg 127]agent which may be absorbed and irritate
the kidneys must be avoided. The active fever may be checked by 15 drops
tincture of aconite every four hours or by one-third ounce of acetanilid.
If pain is very acute, 1 ounce of laudanum or 2 drams of solid extract of
belladonna will serve to relieve. When the severity of the disease has passed,
a course of tonics (quinin, 2 drams, or gentian powder, 4 drams, daily) may be
given. Diuretics, too, may be given cautiously at this advanced stage to
relieve dropsy and give tone to the kidneys and general system (oil of
turpentine, 2 teaspoonfuls; bicarbonate of soda, 1 teaspoonful, repeated twice
a day). Pure water is essential, and it should not be given chilled; warm
drinks are preferable.

In the chronic forms of kidney inflammation the same protection against cold
and similar general treatment are demanded. Tonics, however, are important to
improve the general health (phosphate of iron, 2 drams; powdered nux vomica, 20
grains; powdered gentian root, 4 drams, daily). In some instances the mineral
acids (nitric acid, 60 drops, or nitrohydrochloric acid, 60 drops, daily) may
be used with the bitters. Mustard applied to the loins in the form of a thin
pulp made with water and covered for an hour with paper or other impervious
envelope, or water hotter than the hand can bear, or cupping, may be resorted
to as a counterirritant. In cupping, shave the loins, smear them with lard,
then take a narrow-mouthed glass, expand the air within by smearing its
interior with a few drops of alcohol, setting it on fire and instantly pressing
the mouth of the vessel to the oiled portion of the skin. As the air within the
vessel cools it contracts, tending to form a partial vacuum, and the skin,
charged with blood, is strongly drawn up within it. Several of these being
applied at once, a strong derivation from the affected kidneys is
obtained. In no case of inflamed or irritable kidney should Spanish flies or
oil of turpentine be used upon the skin.

PARASITES OF THE KIDNEY.

As the kidney is the visual channel by which the bacteria leave the system,
this organ is liable to be implicated when microphytes exist in the blood, and
congestions and blood extravasions are produced. In anthrax, southern cattle
fever (Texas fever), and other such affections bloody urine is the consequence.
Of the larger parasites attacking the kidney may be specially named the cystic
form of the echinococcus tapeworm of the dog, the cystic form of the unarmed or
beef tapeworm of man, the diving bladderworm—the cystic form of the
marginate tapeworm of the dog, and the giant strongyle— the largest of
the roundworms. These give rise to general symptoms of kidney disease, but the
true source of the trouble is likely to be detected only if the heads or
hooklets of the tapeworm or the eggs of the roundworm are found on
microscopical examination of the urine.

[Pg 128]

TUMORS OF THE KIDNEY (HYPERTROPHY OR ATROPHY).

The kidney may be the seat of cancerous or simple tumors, and it may be
unnaturally enlarged or reduced in size, but though there may be signs of
urinary disorder the true nature of the disease is seldom manifest until after
death. The passing of blood and of large multi-nucleated cells in the urine (to
be detected under the microscope) may betray the existence of an ulcerated
cancer of the kidney. The presence of cancerous enlargement of (superficial)
lymphatic glands may further assist and confirm the decision.

RETENTION OF URINE.

Inability to pass urine may come from any one of three
conditions—first, spasm of the neck of the bladder; second, paralysis of
the body of the bladder; third, obstruction of the channel of outlet by a stone
(calculus) (see Pl. XI) or other obstacle.

In spasm of the neck of the bladder the male animal may stand with the tail
slightly raised and making rhythmical contractions of the muscle beneath the
anus (accelerator urinæ) (see Pl. IX, fig. 2), but
without passing a drop of liquid. In the female the hind legs are extended,
widely parted, and the back is arched as if to urinate, but the effort is vain.
If the oiled hand is introduced into the rectum or vagina in the early stages
of the affection, the bladder may be felt beneath partially filled, but not
overdistended with liquid, and its neck or mouth firm and rigid. In the more
advanced stages of the affection the organ is felt as a great, tense,
elastic bag, extending forward into the abdomen. In this condition the
overdistended muscular coat of the bladder has lost its power of contraction,
so that true paralysis has set in, the muscle closing the mouth of the sac
alone retaining its contractile power.

In paralysis of the body of the bladder attention is rarely drawn to the
urinary disorder until the bladder has been distended to full repletion and is
almost ready to give way by rupture and to allow the escape of the contained
liquid into the abdomen. Overdistention is the most common cause of the
paralysis, yet it may occur from inflammation of the muscular wall of the
bladder, or even from injury to the terminal part of the spinal marrow. In this
last condition, however, the tail is liable to be powerless, and the neck of
the bladder may also be paralyzed, so that the urine dribbles away
continuously.

Causes.—Among the causes of spasm of the neck of the bladder may be
named the lodgment of small stones or gravel, the feeding on irritant diuretics
(see “Bloody urine,” p. 119, or “Nephritis,”
p. 123), the enforced retention of
urine while at work or during a painful or difficult parturition. The
irritation attendant on inflammation of the [Pg 129]mucous membrane of the bladder may
be a further cause of spasms of the neck, as may also be inflammation of the
channel (urethra) back of the neck. Extensive applications of Spanish flies to
the skin, the abuse of diuretics, and the occurrence of indigestion and spasms
of the bowels are further causes. So long as spasmodic colic is unrelieved,
retention of water from spasm of the neck of the bladder usually persists.

Treatment.—Treatment depends largely on the cause. In indigestion the
irritant contents of the bowels must be got rid of by laxatives and injections
of warm water; Spanish-fly blisters must be washed from the surface; a
prolonged and too active exertion must be intermitted. The spasm may be relaxed
by injecting one-half ounce of solid extract of belladonna in water into the
rectum or by a solution of tobacco. Chloroform or ether may be given by
inhalation, or chloral hydrate (1 ounce) may be given in water by the mouth.
Fomentations of warm water may be made over the loins and between the thighs,
and the oiled hand inserted into the rectum may press moderately on the
anterior part of the bladder, which can be felt as an elastic fluctuating bag
of an oval shape just beneath.

All other measures failing, the liquid must be drawn off through a tube
(catheter). This is, however, exceedingly difficult, alike in male and female,
and we can not expect an amateur to succeed in accomplishing it. In the cow the
opening into the bladder is found in the median line of the floor of the
generative entrance, about 4 inches in front of the external opening, but it is
flanked on either side by a blind pouch, into which the catheter will pass, in
ninety-nine cases out of a hundred, in the hands of any but the most skilled
operator. In the bull or steer the penis, when retracted into its sheath, is
bent upon itself like the letter S, just above the scrotum and testicles (see
Pl. IX, fig. 2), and unless this bend is effaced by
extending the organ forward out of its sheath it is quite impossible to pass a
catheter beyond this point. When, however, by the presentation of a female, the
animal can be tempted to protrude the penis, so that it can be seized and
extended, or when it can be manipulated forward out of the sheath, it becomes
possible to pass a catheter of small caliber (one-third inch or under) onward
into the bladder. Youatt advised laying open the sheath so as to reach and
extend the penis, and others have advocated opening the urethra in the space
between the thighs or just beneath the anus, but such formidable operations are
beyond the stock owner. The incision of the narrow urethra through the great
thickness of muscular and erectile bleeding tissue just beneath the anus is
especially an operation of extreme delicacy and difficulty. Drawing the liquid
through the tube of an aspirator is another possible resort for the
professional man. The delicate needle of the aspirator is inserted in such
cases through the floor of the vagina and [Pg 130]upper wall of the bladder in the female, or
through the floor of the rectum (last gut) and roof of the bladder in the male,
or finally through the lower and back part of the abdominal wall, just in front
of the bones of the pelvis (pubic bones), thence through the lower and anterior
part of the bladder near its blind anterior end. After relief has been obtained
the administration of belladonna in 2-dram doses daily for several days will
tend to prevent a recurrence of the retention.

When the body of the bladder has become benumbed or paralyzed by
overdistention, we may seek to restore its tone by doses of one-half a dram of
powdered nux vomica repeated daily, and by mustard plaster applied over the
loins, on the back part of the belly inferiorly, or between the thighs. Small
doses (2 drams) of balsam of copaiba are sometimes useful in imparting tone to
the partly paralyzed organ.

INCONTINENCE OF URINE (PALSY OF THE NECK OF THE BLADDER).

This may occur from disease or injury to the posterior part of the spinal
cord or from broken back, and in these cases the tail, and perhaps the hind
limbs, are liable to be paralyzed. In this case the urine dribbles away
constantly, and the oiled hand in the vagina or rectum will feel the
half-filled and flaccid bladder beneath and may easily empty it by pressure.

Treatment.—Treatment is only successful when the cause of the trouble
can be remedied. After these (sprains of the back, etc.) have recovered,
blisters (mustard) on the loins, the lower part of the abdomen, or between the
thighs may be resorted to with success. Two drams of copaiba or of solid
extract of belladonna or 2 grains Spanish flies daily may serve to restore the
lost tone. These failing, the use of electric currents may still prove
successful.

URINARY CALCULI (STONE OR GRAVEL).

Stone or gravel consists of hard bodies mainly made up of the solid earthy
constituents of the urine which have crystallized out of that liquid at some
part of the urinary passage, and have remained as small particles (gravel), or
have concreted into large masses (stone, calculus). (See Pl. XI, figs. 1, 2, 3.) In cattle it is no uncommon thing
to find them distending the practically microscopic tubes in the red substance
of the kidney, having been deposited from the urine in the solid form almost as
soon as that liquid has been separated from the blood. These stones appear as
white objects on the red ground formed by cutting sections of the kidney, and
are essentially products of the dry feed of winter, and are most [Pg 131]common in working oxen, which are called upon
to exhale more water from the lungs and skin than are the slop-fed and inactive
cows. Little water being introduced into the body with the feed and considerable
being expelled with the breath and perspiration in connection with the active
life, the urine becomes small in amount, but having to carry out all waste
material from the tissues and the tissue-forming feed it becomes so charged
with solids that it is ready to deposit them on the slightest disturbance.
If, therefore, a little of the water of such concentrated urine is reabsorbed
at any point of the urinary passages the remainder is no longer able to hold
the solids in solution, and they are at once precipitated in the solid form
as gravel or commencing stone. In cattle, on the other hand, which are kept
at pasture in summer, or which are fed liberally on roots, potatoes, pumpkins,
apples, or ensilage in winter, this concentrated condition of the urine is
not induced, and under such circumstances, therefore, the formation of stone
is practically unknown. Nothing more need be said to show the controlling
influence of dry feeding in producing gravel and of a watery ration in preventing
it. Calculus in cattle is essentially a disease of winter and of such cattle
as are denied succulent feed and are confined to dry fodder as their exclusive
ration. While there are exceptions, they are so rare that they do not invalidate
this general rule. It is true that stone in the kidney or bladder is often found
in the summer or in animals feeding at the time on a more or less succulent
ration, yet such masses usually date back to a former period when the animals
were restricted to a dry ration.

In this connection is should be noted that a great drain of water from the
system by any other channel than the kidneys predisposes to the production of
gravel or stone. In case of profuse diarrhea, for example, or of excessive
secretion of milk, there is a corresponding diminution of the water of the
blood, and as the whole quantity of the blood is thus decreased and as the
urine secreted is largely influenced by the fullness of the blood vessels and
the pressure exerted upon their walls from within, it follows that with this
decrease of the mass of the blood and the lessening of its pressure outward
there will be a corresponding decrease of urine. The waste of the tissues,
however, goes on as before, and if the waste matter is passed out through the
kidneys it must be in a more concentrated solution, and the more concentrated
the urine the greater the danger that the solids will be deposited as small
crystals or calculi.

Again, the concentrated condition of the urine which predisposes to such
deposits is favored by the quantity of lime salts that may be present in the
water drunk by the animal. Water that contains 20 or 30 grains of carbonate or
sulphate of lime to the gallon must con[Pg 132]tribute a large addition of solids to
the blood and urine as compared with soft waters from which lime is absent. In
this connection it is a remarkable fact that stone and gravel in the
domesticated herbivora are notoriously prevalent on many limestone soils, as on
the limestone formations of central and western New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio,
and Michigan; on the calcareous formations of Norfolk, Suffolk, Derbyshire,
Shropshire, and Gloucestershire, in England; in Landes in France, and around
Munich in Bavaria. It does not follow that the abundance of lime in the water
and fodder is the main cause of the calculi, as other poisons which are
operative in the same districts in causing goiter in both man and animal
probably contribute to the trouble, yet the excess of earthy salts in the
drinking water can hardly fail to add to the saturation of both blood and
urine, and thereby to favor the precipitation of the urinary solids from their
state of solution.

The known results of feeding cattle a generous or forcing ration in which
phosphate of lime is present to excess adds additional force to the view just
advanced. In the writer’s experience, the Second Duke of Oneida, a magnificent
product of his world-famed family, died as the result of a too liberal
allowance of wheat bran, fed with the view of still further improving the bone
and general form of the Duchess strain of Shorthorns. Lithotomy was performed
and a number of stones removed from the bladder and urethra, but the patient
succumbed to an inflammation of the bowels, induced by the violent purgatives
given before the writer arrived, under the mistaken idea that the straining had
been caused by intestinal impaction. In this case not only the Second Duke of
Oneida, but the other males of the herd as well, had the tufts of hairs at the
outlet of the sheath encased in hard, cylindroid sheaths of urinary salts,
precipitated from the liquid as it ran over them. The tufts were in reality
resolved into a series of hard, rollerlike bodies, more or less constricted at
intervals, as if beaded.

When it is stated that the ash of the whole grain of wheat is but 3 per
cent, while the ash of wheat bran is 7.3 per cent, and that in the case of the
former 46.38 per cent of the ash is phosphoric acid, and in that of the latter
50 per cent, it can easily be understood how a too liberal use of wheat bran
should prove dangerous if fed dry. The following table shows the relative
proportion of ash and phosphoric acid in wheat bran and in some common farm
seeds:

[Pg 133]

Wheat bran, it will be observed, contains three times as much phosphoric
acid as is found in any of the other grains, and four times as much as oats,
beans, peas, or rye; so that if fed in excess it will readily overcharge the
urine with phosphates.

There is another point to be considered, however, in estimating this danger.
Wheat bran contains a far greater quantity of albuminoids and other
nitrogen-containing constituents than the common grains (these being made up
mainly of starch, which contains no nitrogen); and, all nitrogen-bearing
products contained in the blood and tissues being expelled from the body mainly
through the kidneys in the form of urea and (in cattle) hippuric acid, it
follows that the excess of urea formed when such feed is consumed must load the
urine with solids and bring it constantly nearer to the point of saturation,
when such solids (or the least soluble of them) must be deposited.

The following table will show the relative amounts of the nitrogen-bearing
products in wheat bran and some of our common grains:

It will be observed that, with the exception of oats, none of the grains
contain more than two-thirds of the nitrogenous material
[Pg 134]present in the wheat
bran, while in the case of rye and maize there is practically but one-half.
Even in the case of oats the albuminoids, which are the more digestible
principles, and therefore those that are the most easily and speedily converted
into urea, are present only to the amount of two-thirds of that which exists in
the wheat bran. With such an excess of ash, of phosphates, and of nitrogenous
(urea-forming) constituents in wheat bran, its tendency to favor the formation
of calculi is fully explained. It must not, however, be inferred that wheat
bran is not a valuable feedstuff. The inference is only that it should be fed
with an abundance of water, as a sloppy mash, or in combination with an
abundance of roots, potatoes, pumpkins, or other succulent aliment.

In this connection the presence of magnesia in the feed or water must be
named as favoring calculous formations in the urinary passages. The explanation
is that while the phosphate of magnesia thrown out in the urine is soluble in
water, the compound phosphate of ammonia and magnesia is insoluble, and,
accordingly, if at any time ammonia is introduced into urine containing the
phosphate of magnesia there is instantly formed the ammonio-magnesium
phosphate, which is as promptly deposited in the solid form. The common source
of ammonia in such cases is from decomposition of the urea in fermenting urine.
In order to produce this a ferment is necessary, however, and therefore, as an
additional prerequisite, the presence of bacteria, or fungi, in the urine is
essential. These ferments may make their way from without along the urinary
passage (urethra), and their propagation in the bladder is greatly favored by
the prolonged retention of urine, as in case of spasm of the neck of the
bladder or obstruction by an already existing stone. Another mode of entrance
of the ferment is an unclean catheter used to draw the urine. Still another is
the elimination through the kidneys of the bacteria of infectious diseases, or
of such as, without producing a general infection, yet determine fermentation
in the urine. The precipitation is favored not only by the production of
ammonia, but also by the formation of viscid (colloid) products of
fermentation. In this sense bacteria are most important factors in causing
gritty deposits in the urine.

Another insoluble salt which enters largely into the composition of many
urinary calculi of the ox is carbonate of lime. This is derived mainly from the
lime in the feed and water and from the carbon dioxid formed by the oxidation
of the organic acids in the fodder. These organic acids, being composed of
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (without nitrogen), are resolved by the addition
of oxygen into carbon dioxid (CO₂) and water (H₂O). The
carbon dioxid unites with the lime in the blood to form carbonate of lime, and
in this state passes into the urine. Now, carbonate of lime is soluble in
[Pg 135]water
containing free or uncombined carbon dioxid, but is precipitated whenever the
latter is withdrawn. It is only necessary, therefore, to have in the urine
sufficient lime or other available base to unite with all the free carbon
dioxid in order to bring about the precipitation of the dissolved carbonate of
lime in the solid, crystallized form; hence it is that, of all
sediments in the urine of herbivora, this is the most frequent and usually the
most abundant.

A less common constituent of urinary calculi is the insoluble oxalate of
lime. In this case the lime is derived as before from the feed or water, or
both, while the oxalic acid is a product of the oxidation of organic acids of
the feed, less oxygen having been used than in the formation of carbon dioxid.
The final product of the complete oxidation of these acids is carbon dioxid,
but when less oxygen is furnished, owing to some disease of the lungs or a
disease of the nerve centers, which lessens the activity of the breathing, then
oxalic acid may be produced. If this oxalic acid comes into contact with lime,
it is instantly precipitated as crystals of oxalate of lime.

Another inorganic substance at times found in urinary calculi is silica
(SiO₂). This contributes largely to giving stiffness to the stems of
growing plants, and in most of our cereals and grasses makes up a large
proportion of the ashes of the burned plant. It is found in the soluble form in
combination as silicate of potash, but at times is displaced by oxalic or other
acid and then appears as gritty, sandy particles in the stem. This gritty,
insoluble silica is especially noticeable among the horsetails (Equisetacæceæ),
bamboos, and sedges. The per cent of silica in the ash of several common fodder
plants is given below:

It is only soluble silica that is taken up into the system, and it is in
this form (usually as silicate of potash or soda) that it enters the urine, but
all that is wanted to precipitate it in crystalline form as a gritty sand is
the presence of oxalic or other acid having a stronger affinity for its base
(potash or soda).

Other conditions, however, enter largely into the causation of stone, or
gravel. A high density of urine resulting from a highly saturated condition is
often present for a length of time without [Pg 136]any precipitation of solid materials. Urea
and carbonates may be present in excess, the feed may be given dry, and
drinking water may be deficient in quantity without any deposition of
stone or gravel. In such cases, the presence of noncrystalline organic matter
in the urine becomes an exciting cause. Rainey and Ord have shown
experimentally that colloid (noncrystallizable) bodies like mucus, epithelial
cells, albumin, pus, blood, hyaline casts of the kidney tubes, etc., not only
determine the precipitation of crystallizable salts from a strong solution, but
they determine the precipitation in the form of globular masses, or minute
spheres, which, by further similar accessions, become stones, or calculi, of
various sizes. The salts that are deposited by mere chemical reaction without
the intervention of colloids appear in the form of sharply defined angular
crystals, and hence the rough, jagged crystals of oxalate of lime or
ammonia-magnesium phosphate. Heat intensifies the action of the colloids in
causing precipitation of the dissolved salts, so that the temperatures of the
kidneys and bladder constitute favorable conditions. Colloids that are
undergoing decomposition are also specially powerful, so that the presence of
bacteria or fungi causing fermentation is an important factor.

In looking, therefore, for the immediate causes of urinary calculi we must
accord a high place to all those conditions which determine the presence of
excess of mucus, albumin, pus, blood, kidney casts, blood-coloring matter,
etc., in the urine. A catarrhal inflammation of the pelvis of the kidney, of
the ureter, or of the bladder, generating excess of mucus or pus; inflammation
of the kidneys, causing the discharge of blood, albumin, or hyaline casts into
the urinary passages; inflammation of the liver, lungs, or other distant organ,
resulting in the escape of albumin in the urine; disorders of the liver or of
the blood-forming functions, resulting in hematuria or hemoglobinuria; sprains
or other injuries to the back, or disease of the spinal marrow, which cause the
escape of blood with the urine; the presence in the bladder of a bacterial
ferment, which determines the decomposition of the mucus and urea, the
evolution of ammonia and the consequent destruction of the protecting cellular
(epithelia) lining of the bladder, or the irritation caused by the presence of
an already formed calculus, may produce the colloid or uncrystallizable body
that proves so effective in the precipitation of stone or gravel. It has long
been known that calculi almost invariably form around any foreign body
introduced into the kidney or bladder, and I have seen a large, calculous mass
surrounding a splinter of an arrow that had penetrated and broken off in the
body of a deer. The explanation is now satisfactory—the foreign body
carries in with it bacteria, which act as ferments upon the urine [Pg 137]and mucus in
addition to the mechanical injury caused by its presence. If such a body has
been introduced through the solid tissues, there is, in addition, the presence
of the blood and lymph derived from the wounded structures.

CLASSIFICATION OF URINARY CALCULI.

Urinary calculi are most conveniently divided according to the locality in
which they are found. Thus we find first renal calculi, formed in the kidney (Pl. XI, fig. 1), and which for cattle must be again
divided into calculi of the uriniferous tubes and calculi of the pelvis. The
second class are named ureteral calculi because they are found in the duct
leading from the kidney to the bladder (ureter). The third class are the
vesical calculi, from the bladder or vesicle in which they are found. The
fourth class are the urethral calculi, and are found in the duct leading
outward from the bladder through the penis (urethra). The fifth and last class
are the preputial calculi, since they are found within the sheath of the penis
(prepuce).

Calculi may also be classed according to their chemical composition and this
has the advantage of suggesting the special cause of each as found in the feed,
water, soil, or general conditions of health. This classification affords no
guide to their location or symptoms, as calculi of the same chemical
composition may be formed at any part of the urinary passages, as those formed
in the kidney may pass on through all the various passages outward, unless it
is found at any point of their progress that they have grown so large that the
passage will not admit them. The following are among the concretions found in
the various parts:

(1) Coralline calculi.—These are of a dull-white color and irregular
surface, like coral. They are made up of hard and resistant layers evenly
deposited around a central nucleus. (Pl. XI, fig. 3.)
Their specific gravity is 1,760, water being 1,000, and they contain 74 per
cent of carbonate of lime with some carbonate of magnesia, organic matter, and
a trace of carbonate of iron. Yellowish-white, smooth, round calculi of the
same chemical composition are met with.

(2) Pearly calculi.—These are more frequent than the first-named
variety. They are very hard and smooth on the surface, reflecting a play of
various colors after the fashion of a pearl. This peculiarity appears to be
caused by the thinness and semitransparency of the supposed layers. They have a
specific gravity of 2,109 to 2,351, and nearly the same chemical composition as
the coralline variety. Golding Bird found a specimen of this kind formed of
carbonate of lime and organic matter only.

(3) Green calculi (metalloid calculi).—These are usually small and
numerous, as they are exceedingly common. They are of a very hard
[Pg 138]consistency,
and have a clear-polished, greenish surface of almost metallic brilliancy. They
have a specific gravity of 2.301 and a composition almost identical with the
second variety.

(4) White calculi.—Pure white, smooth, lustrous calculi are rare. They
have a specific gravity of 2.307, and contain as much as 92 per cent of
carbonate of lime with carbonate of magnesia and organic matter.

(5) Ammonio-magnesium calculi.—These are of a grayish color and a very
rough, crystalline surface, which proves very irritating to the mucous
membrane. They have a specific gravity of 1.109 to 1.637, and are composed
chiefly of ammonio-magnesium phosphate, oxalate of lime, and organic matter,
with a little carbonate of lime and magnesia.

(6) Siliceous calculi.—These are clear, smooth, and hard, and usually
spherical. They have a specific gravity of 1.265 to 1.376, and contain 57 per
cent of silica with carbonates of iron and magnesia, organic matter, and traces
of iron. In other specimens of siliceous calculi there was a specific gravity
of 3.122, and there was 79 to 85 per cent of carbonate of lime together with
carbonate of magnesia, and iron, silica, and organic matter. Others are almost
exclusively made of silica.

(7) Oxalate of lime calculi (mulberry calculi)
(Pl. XI, fig. 2).— These are characterized by their
extremely rough, angular surface, formed by the octahedral crystals of oxalate of
lime. Their specific gravity may be 3.441, and they contain oxalate of lime to the
extent of 81 per cent, together with carbonates of lime and magnesia and organic
matter.

(8) Gravel (pultaceous deposits).—Simple crystals may be
met with at any point from the kidneys to the external opening at the end of the
prepuce (sheath), and they may appear singly, as crystals, or they may accumulate
in masses of fine spherical crystals almost like dirty powdered chalk suspended in
water. In the ox this is especially common as a collection in the sheath, distending
that into a soft, doughy swelling.

FORMS OF CALCULI IN DIFFERENT SITUATIONS.

Apart from the rough crystalline surfaces of the calculi of oxalate of lime
and ammonio-magnesium phosphate, the general tendency is to a smooth, round
outline. At times, however, they show more or less flattening with rounded
angular edges, caused by the contact and mutual friction of two calculi.
Sometimes two or more stones lying together become united into one by a new
external deposit, and the resulting mass then shows rounded swellings on
opposite sides. The large calculi occupying the pelvis of the kidneys usually
show a central part having the outline of the main cavity of the [Pg 139]pelvis and
two or more projections that have been molded into the corresponding branches
or channels which lead to corresponding lobes of the kidney. In winter and
spring small concretions in the form of plates are often met with in the
branches of the pelvis, having been formed and molded in the confined space
between the projecting papilla and the surrounding cuplike branch of the
pelvis. Finally, the pulplike deposits in the sheath and elsewhere are made up
of globular masses, individually so small as to be often practically
microscopic.

STONE IN THE KIDNEY (RENAL CALCULI).

[Pl. XI, fig. 1.]

In an animal leading the quiet, uneventful life of the ox, stones of large
size may be present in the kidney without producing any disorder appreciable to
the people about him. In cattle fattened on dry feed in winter, on the
magnesian limestone of New York, it is exceptional to find the substance of the
kidney free from calculi about the size of a grain of wheat or less, and
standing out as white objects in the general red of the cut surface of the
organ. Similarly around the papillæ in the cuplike arms of the pelvis we find
minute, flattened or more or less rounded, yellowish-white concretions. Even
the large concretions may prove apparently harmless. I have a calculus several
ounces in weight which filled the entire pelvis of the kidney, that was found
by accident in a fat carcass while being dressed. In work oxen, however, such
concretions may give rise to symptoms of kidney disease, such as stiffness of
the loins, shown especially in the acts of rising or turning, weakness of the
hind parts when set to pull a heavy load, an irritability of the kidneys, shown
by the frequent passage of urine in small quantity, tenderness of the loins,
shown when they are pinched or lightly struck, and it may be the passage of
blood or minute gritty masses with the urine. If the attack is severe, what is
called “renal colic” (kidney colic) may be shown by frequent uneasy shifting of
the hind limbs, shaking or twisting of the tail, looking around at the flanks,
and lying down and rising again at short intervals without apparent cause. The
frequent passage of urine, the blood or gritty masses contained in it, and
perhaps the hard, stony cylinders around the tufts of hair of the sheath, show
that the source of the suffering is the urinary organs. In bad cases active
inflammation of the kidneys may set in. (See “Nephritis,” p. 123.)

URETERAL CALCULI.

These are small stones which have passed from the pelvis of the kidney into
the canal (ureter) leading from the kidney to the bladder, but, being too large
to pass on easily, have blocked that canal and
[Pg 140]forced the urine back upon the
kidney. The result is the production of symptoms more violent than in renal
calculi, though not varying, save in intensity, from those of renal colic. In
case of complete and unrelieved obstruction, the secretion of the kidney on
that side is entirely abolished, and it becomes the seat of passive congestion,
and it may even be absorbed in greater part or as a whole, leaving only a
fibrous sac containing fluid with a urinous odor. In small cattle, in which the
oiled hand introduced into the last gut may reach the affected part, the
distended ureter may be felt as a tense, elastic cord, extending forward from
the point of obstruction on the lateral wall of the pelvis and beneath the
loins toward the kidney. If relief is obtained by the onward passage of the
stone a free flow of urine usually follows, in the midst of which may often be
found gritty masses. If the outlets from both kidneys are similarly blocked the
animal becomes poisoned by the retention in the blood of the elements of the
urine, and by their reabsorption after secretion.

Treatment of renal and ureteral calculi.—Treatment is not very
successful, as only the smallest calculi can pass through the ureter and enter
the bladder, and even if they should do so they are liable to a progressive
increase there, so that later they may cause the symptoms of stone in the
bladder. Fortunately, ordinary dairy, growing, or fattening cattle rarely show
evident symptoms of illness, and even though they do so they can usually be
fattened and slaughtered before the health is seriously impaired. In work oxen
the case is different, and acute symptoms may develop, but even then the animal
may often be fitted for the butcher. When treatment is demanded it is primarily
soothing and antispasmodic. Fomentations with warm water over the loins should
be persisted in without intermission until relief has been secured. The
soothing effect on the kidney will often relieve inflammation and irritation,
should the stone be in that situation, while if in the ureter the warm
fomentations will at once soothe irritation, relax spasm of the muscular coat
of the canal, and favor an abundant secretion from the kidney, which, pressing
on the obstructing stone, may slowly push it on into the bladder. Large doses
of laudanum (2 ounces) or of solid extract of belladonna (2 drams) will not
only soothe the pain but relax the spasm and favor the onward passage of the
calculus. The animal should be encouraged to drink large quantities of cool
water to favor the free secretion of a very watery urine, which will not only
serve to obviate irritation and continued deposit caused by a highly
concentrated urine, but will press the stone onward toward the bladder, and
even in certain cases will tend to disintegrate it by solution of some of its
elements, and thus to favor its crumbling and expulsion. This is a principle
which must never be lost sight of in the treatment of calculi. The immersion of
the stone in a liquid of a lower specific gravity than that in which it
[Pg 141]has
formed and grown tends to dissolve out the more soluble of its component parts,
and thus to destroy its density and cohesion at all points, and thereby to
favor its complete disintegration and expulsion. This explains why cattle taken
from a herd on magnesian limestone in spring, after the long, dry feeding of
winter, usually have renal calculi, while cattle from the same herd in the
fall, after a summer’s run on a succulent pasture, are almost always free from
concretions. The abundance of liquid taken in the green feed and expelled
through the kidneys and the low density or watery nature of the urine have so
opened the texture and destroyed the density of the smaller stones and gravel
that they have all been disintegrated and removed. This, too, is the main
reason why benefit is derived from a prolonged stay at mineral springs by the
human victims of gravel. If they had swallowed the same number of quarts of
pure water at home and distributed it at suitable times each day, they would
have benefited largely without a visit to the springs.

It follows from what has been just said that a succulent diet, including a
large quantity of water (gruels, sloppy mashes, turnips, beets, potatoes,
apples, pumpkins, ensilage, succulent grasses), is an important factor in the
relief of the milder forms of stone and gravel.

Prevention.—Prevention of calculus especially demands this supply of
water and watery rations on all soils and in all conditions in which there is a
predisposition to the disease. It must also be sought by attempts to obviate
all those conditions mentioned above as causative of the malady. Sometimes good
rain water can be furnished in limestone districts, but putrid or bad-smelling
rain water is to be avoided as probably more injurious than that from the
limestone. Unsuccessful attempts have been made to dissolve calculi by alkaline
salts and mineral acids, respectively, but their failure as a remedy does not
necessarily condemn them as preventives. One dram of caustic potash or of
hydrochloric acid may be given daily in the drinking water. In diametrically
opposite ways these attack and decompose the less soluble salts and form new
ones which are more soluble and therefore little disposed to precipitate in the
solid form. Both are beneficial as increasing the secretion of urine. In cases
in which the diet has been too highly charged with phosphates (wheat bran,
etc.), these aliments must be restricted and water allowed ad libitum. If the
crystals passed with the urine are the sharp angular (octahedral) ones of
oxalate of lime, then the breathing should be made more active by exercise, and
any disease of the lungs subjected to appropriate treatment. If the crystals
are triangular prisms of ammonia-magnesium phosphate or starlike forms with
feathery rays, the indications are to withhold the feed or water that abounds
in magnesia and check the fermentation in the urine by attempts to destroy its
bacteria. In the latter direction plenty of [Pg 142]pure-water diuretics, and a daily dose of oil
of turpentine in milk, or a dose thrice a day of a solution containing one-tenth
grain each of biniodid of mercury and iodid of potassium would be indicated.

In considering the subject of prevention, it must never be forgotten that
any disease of a distant organ which determines the passage from the blood into
the urine of albumin or any other colloid (uncrystallizable) body is strongly
provocative of calculus, and should, if possible, be corrected. Apart from
cases from geological formation, faulty feeding, and other causes, the grand
preventive of calculus is a long, summer’s pasturage of succulent grasses, or
in winter a diet of ensilage or other succulent feed.

The calculi formed in part of silica demand special notice. This agent is
secreted in the urine in the form of silicate of potash and is thrown down as
insoluble silica when a stronger acid displaces it by combining with the potash
to its exclusion. In cases of siliceous calculi, accordingly, the appropriate
chemical prevention is caustic potash, which being present in the free state
would attract to itself any free acid and leave the silica in its soluble
condition as silicate of potash.

STONE IN THE BLADDER (VESICAL CALCULUS, OR URETHRAL CALCULUS).

Stone in the bladder may be of any size, but in the ox does not usually
exceed half an inch in diameter. There may, however, be a number of small
calculi; indeed, they are sometimes so small and numerous as to form a
small, pulpy magma by which the bladder is considerably distended.

Symptoms.—The symptoms of stone in the bladder may be absent until one
of the masses escapes into the urethra, but when this occurs the escape of
urine is prevented, or it is allowed to pass in drops or driblets only, and the
effect of such obstruction becomes manifest. The point of obstruction is not
always the same, but it is most frequently at the S-shaped curve of the penis,
just above the testicles or scrotum. In cows and heifers the urethra is so
short and becomes so widely dilated during the urination that the calculi
easily escape in the flow of liquid and dangerous symptoms practically never
appear.

Even in the male the signs of illness are at first very slight. A close
observer may notice the cylinders of hard, earthy materials encircling the
tufts of hair at the opening of the prepuce. It may further be observed that
the stall remains dry and that the animal has not been seen to pass water when
out of doors. The tail may at times be gently raised and contractions of the
muscle (accelerator urinæ) beneath the anus (Pl. IX, fig.
2) may take place in a rhythmical or pulsating manner. As a rule, however,
no symptom is noticed for two days, only the animal is lacking in his usual
spirits. By this time the constantly accumulating urine has distended the
blad[Pg 143]der
beyond its power of resistance and a rupture occurs, allowing the urine
to escape into the cavity of the abdomen. Then dullness increases; the animal
lies down most of his time; he becomes stupid and sometimes drowsy, with
reddish-brown congestion of the lining membrane of the eyelids; pressure on the
abdomen causes pain, flinching, and perhaps groaning, and the lowest part of
the belly fluctuates more and more as the escaping urine accumulates in greater
and greater amount. If at this stage the oiled hand is introduced into the
rectum (last gut), the animal flinches when pressure is made downward on the
floor of the pelvis, and no round, distended bladder is felt. If the same
examination is made prior to the rupture, the rounded, tense, elastic bladder
is felt extending forward into the abdomen, containing one or two gallons of
liquid. There may be uneasy shifting of the hind limbs and twisting of the
tail, also frequent lying down and rising, but these symptoms are
exceptional.

When the obstruction is low down between the thighs (at the S-shaped
flexure), the line of the pulsating urethra from the anus downward may be felt
distended with liquid, and though, by the hard swelling of the urethra, it is
seldom easy to distinguish the exact seat of the stone, yet there is usually
tenderness at the point of obstruction, and from this it may be accurately
located.

Treatment.—The treatment of stone in the bladder or urethra consists
in the removal of the stone by incision and the use of forceps. (Pl. XI, fig.
4.) When the stone has been arrested at the S-shaped flexure just above the
scrotum, the patient being lean, the thickened tender part of the penis may be
seized between the fingers and thumb of the left hand, while the calculus is
exposed by a free incision with the knife held in the right. If there is no
other obstruction between this point and the bladder, and if the latter has not
yet ruptured, a flow of urine should take place from the opening. If there is
no escape of liquid, a catheter or sound, one-fourth of an inch in diameter,
must be passed up through the canal (urethra) until it is arrested by the next
stone, on which a similar incision should then be made to effect its
extraction. In case the stone has been arrested in the portion of the urethra
which is in front of the arch of the hip bone and inside the pelvis, it can be
reached only by making an opening into the urethra beneath the anus and over
the arch of the hip bone, and from this orifice exploring the urethra with fine
forceps to the neck of the bladder or until the stone has been reached and
extracted. Owing to the small size of the canal (urethra) to be opened and the
great thickness of erectile tissue to be cut through, the operation requires a
very accurate knowledge of the parts, while the free flow of blood is blinding
to the operator. A staff should always be passed up through the urethra from
the lower wound, if such has been made, or, in case of its absence, through the
whole length of the penis, that [Pg 144]organ having been drawn out of its sheath until
the S-shaped curve has been effaced and the course of the canal rendered
straight. Upon the end of this staff the incision can be made with far more
confidence and certainty. The operation can be undertaken only by a skilled
veterinary anatomist, but the hints given above may be valuable in showing the
stock owner when he is being properly served in such a case.

In outlying districts, where no skilled operator can be had, a transverse
incision may be made with a clean, sharp knife through the root of the penis,
just over the arch of the hip bone, when the urine will flow out in a full
stream. The attendant bleeding may be ignored, or if profuse it may be checked
by packing the wound firmly with cotton wool for several hours. The urine will
continue to escape by the wound, and the ox should be fattened for the
butcher.

The immediate relief is not to be looked upon as a permanent cure, as the
calculi in the affected ox are usually numerous, and later attacks are
therefore to be looked for. Hence it is desirable to fatten and kill such cases
after a successful operation. If a breeding animal is too valuable to be
killed, he should be subjected to preventive measures, as laid down under
“Stone in the kidney,” page 139.

It should be added that when the bladder is filled with a soft magma a
catheter may be introduced through the whole length of the urethra to be used
in pumping water into the bladder. This water is extracted through the same
channel when it has been charged with the suspended solids by manipulations of
the bladder with the oiled hand introduced through the rectum.

CALCULI, OR GRAVEL, IN THE PREPUCE, OR SHEATH.

This is usually a collection of gravel, or a soft, puttylike material which
causes distinct swelling of the sheath and gives it a soft, doughy feeling when
handled. It may be removed in part by the oiled fingers introduced into the
cavity, assisted by manipulation from without, or a tube may be inserted until
the end extends behind the collection and water pumped in until the whole mass
has been evacuated. Should even this fail of success, the sheath may be slit
open from its orifice back in the median line below until the offending matter
can be reached and removed. In all such cases the interior of the sheath should
be finally lubricated with sweet oil or vaseline. It is unnecessary to stitch
up the wound made in the sheath. (See “Inflammation of the sheath,”
p. 155.)

PLATE IX.
KIDNEY AND MALE GENERATIVE AND URINARY ORGANS.
(Click to enlarge)

PLATE
X.
MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY OF THE KIDNEY.
(Click to enlarge)

[Pg 145]

DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES.

PLATE XI.
CALCULI OF KIDNEY AND BLADDER.
(Click to enlarge)

[Pg 147]

DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE
ORGANS.

By James Law, F. R. C. V. S.,

Formerly Professor of Veterinary Science, etc., in Cornell University.

[Revised by Adolph Eichhorn, D. V. S.]

GENERAL DISCUSSION.

Diseases of the generative organs are practically confined to animals which
are kept for reproduction and the dairy. The castration of the bull condemns
these organs to inactivity and protects them from the many causes of injury
attendant on the engorged blood vessels in the frequent periods of sexual
excitement, on the exposure to mechanical violence, and on the exposure to
infective inoculation. In three respects the castrated male is especially
subject to disease: (1) To inflammation and tumefaction of the cut end of the
cord that supported the testicle and of the loose connective tissue of the
scrotum; (2) to inflammation of the sheath and penis from the accumulation of
gravel in the former, from which the penis is not usually protruded in passing
water; and (3) to bruising, abrasion, and inflammation of the sheath and penis
during suspension in the stocks for the purpose of shoeing. Apart from these
the ox is practically almost exempt from the inflammations and injuries of the
genital organs. The same applies to the castrated heifer. Inflammation may
occur in the broad ligament of the womb whence the ovary has been removed or
infective inflammation in the abdominal cavity (peritonitis) in case the
operation has been performed through the flank, as it usually is in the young
heifer. Apart from these, the castrated heifer is practically immune
from any trouble of the generative apparatus. Even the virgin heifer is little
subject to such troubles, though she is not exempt from inflammations, and
above all, from morbid growths in the ovaries which are well developed and
functionally very active after the first year, or in precocious animals after
the first few months of life. The breeding cow, on the other hand, is subjected
to all the disturbances attendant on the gradual enlargement of the womb, the
diversion of a large mass of blood to its walls, the constant drain of nutrient
materials of all kinds for the nourishment of the fetus, the risks attendant
and consequent on abortion and parturition, the dangers of infection from the
bull, the risks of sympathetic disturbance in case of serious diseases of other
organs, [Pg 148]
but preeminently of the urinary organs and the udder, and finally the
sudden extreme derangements of the circulation and of the nervous functions
which attend on the sudden revulsion of a great mass of blood from the walls of
the contracting womb into the body at large immediately after calving.

In reviewing this class of diseases, therefore, we have to note, first, that
they are almost exclusively restricted to breeding animals, and secondly that
in keeping with the absolute difference of the organs in the male and female we
find two essentially distinct lists of diseases affecting the two sexes.

EXCESS OF VENEREAL DESIRE (SATYRIASIS IN MALE, OR NYMPHOMANIA IN
FEMALE).

This may occur in the male from too frequent sexual intercourse, or from
injury and congestion of the base of the brain (vasodilator center in the
medulla), or of the posterior end of the spinal cord, or it may be kept up by
congestion or inflammation of the testicles or of the mucous membrane covering
the penis. It may be manifested by a constant or frequent erection, by attempts
at sexual connection, and sometimes by the discharge of semen without
connection. In bad cases the feverishness and restlessness lead to loss of
flesh, emaciation, and physical weakness.

It is, however, in the female especially that this morbid desire is most
noticeable and injurious. It may be excited by the stimulating quality of the
blood in cows fed to excess on highly nitrogenous feed, as the seeds of the
bean, pea, vetch, and tare, and as wheat bran, middlings, cotton seed, gluten
meal, etc., especially in the case of such as have no free exercise in the
fields, and are subject to constant association with a vigorous young bull. A
more frequent cause is the excitation or congestion of some part of the genital
organs. Disease of the ovaries is preeminently the cause, and this may be by
the formation of cysts (sacs containing liquid) or of solid tumors or
degenerations, or, more commonly than all, the formation of tubercle. Indeed,
in case of tuberculosis attacking the abdominal organs of cows, the ovaries or
the serous membranes that support and cover them (the broad ligaments of the
womb) are peculiarly subject to attack, and the animal has constant
sexual excitement, incessantly riding or being ridden by other cattle, having
no leisure to eat or chew the cud, but moving restlessly, wearing the flesh off
its bones, and gradually wasting. In some localities these cows are known as
“bullers,” because they are nearly always disposed to take the bull, but they
do not conceive, or, if they do, they are subject to early abortions. They are,
therefore, useless alike for the dairy and for the feeder, unless the removal
of the ovaries subdues the sexual ex[Pg 149]citement, when, in the absence of
tuberculous disease elsewhere, they may be fattened for the butcher.

Among the other sources of irritation charged with causing nymphomania are
tumors and cancers of the womb, rigid closure of the neck of the womb so that
conception can not occur and the frequent services by the male which stimulate
the unsatisfied appetite, inflammation, and a purulent discharge from the womb
or vagina.

Treatment.—The treatment in each case will vary with the
cause and is most satisfactory when that cause is a removable one. Overfeeding
on richly nitrogenous feed can be stopped, exercise in the open field given,
diseased ovaries may be removed (see “Castration,” p. 299),
catarrhs of the womb and passages overcome by antiseptic, astringent injections
(see “Leucorrhea,” p. 224), and tumors of the womb
may often be detached and extracted, the mouth of that organ having been first
dilated by sponge tents or otherwise. The rubber dilator (impregnator),
sometimes helpful in the mare, is rarely available for the cow, owing to the
different condition of the mouth of the womb.

DIMINUTION OR LOSS OF VENEREAL DESIRE (ANAPHRODISIA).

This occurs in either sex from low condition and ill health. Longstanding,
chronic diseases of important internal organs, leading to emaciation and
weakness, or a prolonged semistarvation in winter may be sufficient cause. It
is, however, much more common as the result of degeneration or extensive and
destructive disease of the secreting organs (testicles, ovaries) which
elaborate the male and female sexual products, respectively. Such diseases are,
therefore, a common cause of sterility in both sexes. The old bull, fat and
lazy, becomes sluggish and unreliable in serving, and finally gets to be
useless for breeding purposes. This is not attributable to his weight and
clumsiness alone, but largely to the fatty degeneration of his testicles and
their excretory ducts, which prevents the due formation and maturation of the
semen. If he has been kept in extra high condition for exhibition in the show
ring, this disqualification comes upon him sooner and becomes more
irremediable.

Similarly the overfed, inactive cow, and above all the show cow, fails to
come in heat at the usual times, shows little disposition to take the bull, and
fails to conceive when served. Her trouble is the same in kind, namely, fatty
degeneration of the ovaries and of their excretory ducts (Fallopian tubes),
which prevents the formation or maturation of the ovum or, when it has formed,
hinders its passage into the womb. Another common defect in such
old, fat cows is a rigid closure of the mouth of the womb, which prevents
conception, even if the ovum reaches the interior of that organ and even if the
semen is discharged into the vagina.

[Pg 150]
Preventive—The true preventive of such conditions is to be found in a
sound hygiene. The breeding animal should be of adult age, neither overfed nor
underfed, but well fed and moderately exercised; in other words, the most
vigorous health should be sought, not only that a strong race may be
propagated, but that the whole herd, or nearly so, may breed with certainty.
Fleming gives 79 per cent as the general average of cows that are found to
breed in one year. Here more than a fifth of the progeny is sacrificed and a
fifth of the product of the dairy. With careful management the proportion of
breeders should approach 100 per cent. The various local and general obstacles
to conception should be carefully investigated and removed. The vigorous health
which comes from a sufficiently liberal diet and abundant exercise should be
solicited, and the comparative bloodlessness and weakness which advance with
undue fattening should be sedulously avoided. In bull or cow which is becoming
unduly fat and showing indications of sexual indifference, the treatment must
be active. Turning out on a short pasture where it must work hard for a living
will often suffice. The bull which can not be turned out to pasture may
sometimes be utilized in the yoke or tread power, or he may be kept a part of
his time in a field or paddock chained by the ring in his nose to a strong wire
extending from one side of the lot to the other and attached securely to two
trees or posts. The wire should be higher than the back of the bull, which will
move frequently from end to end. If he is indisposed to take sufficient
exercise in this way he may be safely driven. An instance of the value of the
exercise in these incipient cases of fatty degeneration is often quoted. The
cow Dodona, condemned as barren at Earl Spencer’s, was sold cheap to Jonas
Webb, who had her driven by a road a distance of 120 miles to his farm at
Wilbraham, soon after which she became pregnant. In advanced cases, however, in
which the fatty degeneration is complete, recovery is impossible.

In case of rigid closure of the mouth of the womb the only resort is
dilatation. This is far more difficult and uncertain in the cow than in the
mare. The neck of the womb is longer, is often tortuous in its course, and its
walls so approximated to each other and so rigid that it may be all but
impossible to follow it, and there is always danger of perforating its walls
and opening into the cavity of the abdomen, or, short of that, of causing
inflammation and a new, rigid, fibrous formation which on healing leaves
matters worse than before. The opening must be carefully made with the finger,
and when that has entered the womb further dilatation may be effected by
inserting a sponge tent or by careful stretching with a mechanical dilator.
(Pl. XX, fig. 6.)

[Pg 151]

STERILITY FROM OTHER CAUSES.

The questions as to whether a bull is a sure stock getter and whether a cow
is a breeder are so important that it would be wrong to pass over other
prominent causes of sterility. Breeding at too early an age is a common source
of increasing weakness of constitution which has existed in certain breeds.
Jerseys have especially been made the victims of this mistake, the object being
to establish the highest milking powers in the smallest obtainable body which
will demand the least material and outlay for its constant repair of waste.
With success in this line there has been the counterbalancing disadvantage of
impaired vigor, with too often lessened fertility as well as increased
predisposition to disease. When the heifers of the race have for generation
after generation been bred under a year old, the demand for the nourishment of
the fetus is too great a drain on the immature animal, which accordingly
remains small and stunted. As it fails to develop in size, so every organ fails
to be nourished to perfection. Similarly with the immature bull put to too many
cows; he fails to develop his full size, vigor, or stamina, and transfers his
acquired weakness to his progeny. An increasing number of barren females and an
increasing proclivity to abortions are the necessary results of both courses.
When this early breeding has occurred accidentally it is well to dry up the dam
just after calving, and to avoid having her served again until full grown.

Some highly fed and plethoric females seem to escape conception by the very
intensity of the generative ardor. The frequent passage of urine, accompanied
by contractions of the womb and vagina and a profuse secretion from their
surfaces, leads to the expulsion of the semen after it has been lodged in the
genital passages. This may be remedied somewhat by giving 1½ pounds of Epsom
salt a day or two before she comes in heat, and subjecting her at the same time
to a spare diet. Should the excessive ardor of the cow not be controllable in
this way, she may be shut up for a day or two, until the heat is passing off,
when under the lessened excitement the semen is more likely to be retained.

The various diseases of the ovaries, their tubes, the womb, the testicles
and their excretory ducts, as referred to under “Excess of venereal desire,”
are causes of barrenness. In this connection it may be said that the discharges
consequent on calving are fatal to the vitality of semen introduced before
these have ceased to flow; hence service too soon after calving, or that of a
cow which has had the womb or genital passages injured so as to keep up a
mucopurulent flow until the animal comes in heat, is liable to fail of
[Pg 152]
conception. Any such discharge should be first arrested by repeated injections
as for leucorrhea, after which the male may be admitted.

Feeding on a very saccharine diet, which greatly favors the deposition of
fat, seems to have an even more direct effect in preventing conception during
such regimen. Among other causes of barrenness are all those that favor
abortion, ergoted grasses, smutty wheat or corn, laxative or diuretic drinking
water, and any improper or musty feed that causes indigestions, colics, and
diseases of the urinary organs, notably gravel; also savin, rue,
cantharides, and all other irritants of the bowels or kidneys.

Hermaphrodites are barren, of course, as their sexual organs are not
distinctively either male or female. The heifer born as a twin with a bull is
usually hermaphrodite and barren, but the animals of either sex in which
development of the organs is arrested before they are fully matured remain as
in the male or female prior to puberty, and are barren. Bulls with both
testicles retained within the abdomen may go through the form of serving a cow,
but the service is unfruitful; the spermatozoa are not fully elaborated. So I
have examined a heifer with a properly formed but very small womb and an
extremely narrow vagina and vulva, the walls of which were very muscular, that
could never be made to conceive. A post-mortem examination would probably have
disclosed an imperfectly formed ovary incapable of bringing ova to maturity.

A bull and cow that have been too closely inbred in the same line for
generations may prove sexually incompatible and unable to generate together,
though both are abundantly prolific when coupled with animals of other
strains.

Finally, a bull may prove unable to get stock, not from any lack of sexual
development, but from disease of other organs (back, loins, hind limbs), which
renders him unable to mount with the energy requisite to the perfect
service.

CONGESTION AND INFLAMMATION OF THE TESTICLES (ORCHITIS).

This visually results from blows or other direct injuries, but may be the
result of excessive service or of the formation of some new growth (tumor) in
the gland tissue. The bull moves stiffly, with straddling gait, and the right
or left half of the scrotum in which the affected testicle lies is swollen,
red, and tender, and the gland is drawn up within the sac and dropped again at
frequent intervals. It may be treated by rest; by 1½ pounds Epsom salt given
in 4 quarts of water; by a restricted diet of some succulent feed; by continued
fomentations with warm water by means of sponges or rags sustained by a sling
passed around the loins and back between the hind legs. The pain may be allayed
by smearing with a solution of opium or of [Pg 153]extract of belladonna. Should a soft
point appear, indicating the formation of matter, it may be opened with a sharp
lancet and the wound treated daily with a solution of a teaspoonful of carbolic
acid in a half pint of water. Usually, however, when the inflammation has
proceeded to this extent, the gland will be ruined for purposes of procreation
and must be cut out. (See “Castration,” p. 299.)

INFLAMMATION OF THE SHEATH.

While this may occur in bulls from infection during copulation and from
bruises, blows, and other mechanical injuries, the condition is more common in
the ox in connection with the comparative inactivity of the parts. The sheath
has a very small external opening, the mucous membrane of which is studded with
sebaceous glands secreting a thick, unctuous matter of a strong, heavy odor.
Behind this orifice is a distinct pouch, in which this unctuous matter is
liable to accumulate when the penis is habitually drawn back. Moreover, the
sheath has two muscles (protractors) which lengthen it, passing into it from
the region of the navel, and two (retractors) that shorten it, passing into it
from the lower surface of the pelvic bones above. (Pl. IX, fig.
2.) The protractors keep the sheath stretched, so that it habitually covers
the penis, while the retractors shorten it up in the act of service, so that
the penis can project to its full extent. In stud bulls the frequent protrusion
of the erect and enlarged penis and the retraction and dilation of the opening
of the sheath serve to empty the pouch and prevent any accumulation of
sebaceous matter or urine. In the ox, on the other hand, the undeveloped and
inactive penis is usually drawn back so as to leave the anterior preputial
pouch empty, so that the sebaceous matter has space to accumulate and is never
expelled by the active retraction of the sheath and protrusion of the erect
penis in service. Again, the ox rarely protrudes the tip of the penis in
urination, the urine is discharged into the preputial pouch and lodges and
decomposes there, so that there is a great liability to the precipitation of
its earthy salts in the form of gravel. The decomposing ammoniacal urine, the
gritty crystals precipitated from it, and the fetid, rancid, sebaceous matter
set up inflammation in the delicate mucous membrane lining the passage. The
membrane is thickened, reddened, rendered friable, and ultimately ulcerated,
and the now narrowed sheath is blocked by the increasing mass of sebaceous and
urinous material and the decomposing mucus and pus. The penis can no longer be
protruded, the urine escapes in a small stream through the narrowing sheath,
and finally the outlet is completely blocked and the urine distends the back
part of the sheath. This will fluctuate on being handled, and soon the
unhealthy inflammation extends on each side of it, causing
[Pg 154]a thick, doughy,
tender swelling under the belly and between the thighs. The next step in the
morbid course is overdistention of the bladder, with the occurrence of colicky
pains, looking at the flanks, uneasy movements of the hind limbs, raising or
twisting of the tail, pulsatory contractions of the urethra under the anus, and
finally a false appearance of relief, which is caused by rupture of the
bladder. Before rupture takes place the distended bladder may press on the
rectum and obstruct the passage of the bowel dejections. Two mistakes are
therefore probable—first, that the bowels alone are to be relieved, and,
second, that the trouble is obstruction of the urethra by a stone. Hence
the need of examining the sheath and pushing the finger into its opening to see that
there is no obstruction there, in all cases of retention of urine,
overdistended bladder, or blocked rectum in the ox. The disease may be acute or
chronic—the first by reason of acute, adhesive inflammation blocking the
outlet, the second by gradual thickening and ulceration of the sheath and
blocking by the sebaceous and calculous accretion.

Treatment.—The treatment of this affection depends on the stage. If
recent and without instant danger of rupture of the bladder, the narrow opening
of the sheath should be freely cut open in the median line below, and the sac
emptied out with a finger or spoon, after which it should be thoroughly washed
with tepid water. To make the cleansing more thorough a catheter or a small,
rubber tube may be inserted well back into the sheath, and water may be forced
through it from a syringe or a funnel inserted into the other end of the tube
and considerably elevated. A fountain syringe, which should be in every house,
answers admirably. The sheath may be daily washed out with tepid water, with a
suds made with Castile soap, or with a weak solution of sulphate of zinc
(one-half dram to a quart of water). If these attentions are impossible, most
cases, after cleansing, will do well if merely driven through clean water up to
the belly once a day.

In case the disease has progressed to absolute obstruction, with the bladder
ready to rupture any moment, no time must be lost in opening into the urethra
with a sharp knife over the bony arch under the anus, where the pulsations are
seen in urinating. This incision is best made in the median line from above
downward, but in the absence of a skillful operator a transverse incision with
a sharp knife over the bone in the median line until the urine flows with a
gush is better than to let the patient die. Considerable blood will be lost and
the wound will heal tardily, but the ox will be preserved. Then the slitting
and cleansing of the sheath can be done at leisure, as described above. If the
bladder is ruptured, the case is hopeless.

[Pg 155]

INFLAMMATION OF THE SHEATH AND PENIS FROM BRUISING.

This also is an affection of work oxen, caused by the pressure and friction
of the sling when the animals are held in stocks for shoeing. This crushing of
both sheath and penis for half an hour or more leads to the development, some
hours later, of a hard, hot, and painful swelling, extending from the scrotum
as far as the opening of the sheath. Fever sets in, with dry muzzle, red eyes,
hard, full, rapid pulse, accelerated breathing, and elevated temperature. The
ox stands obstinately with his hind legs drawn apart and urine falling drop by
drop from the sheath. Appetite and rumination are suspended. In twenty-four
hours there may be indications of advancing gangrene (mortification), the
swelling becomes cold, soft, and doughy; it may even crack slightly from
the presence of gas; a reddish brown, fetid liquid oozes from the swelling,
especially around the edges, and if the animal survives it is only with a great
loss of substance of the sheath and penis.

Prevention.—The prevention of such an injury is easy. It is only
necessary to see that the slings do not press upon the posterior part of the
abdomen. They must be kept in front of the sheath.

Treatment.—Treatment, to be effective, must be prompt and judicious.
Put around the patient a strap with soft pads in contact with the affected
parts, constantly soaked in cold water for at least 24 hours. A pound or two of
Epsom salt in 4 quarts of hot water should also be given. The second day the
parts may be washed with 1 quart of witch-hazel (extract), 2 drams sugar of
lead, and 1 ounce laudanum, or the cold-water irrigations may be continued if
the active inflammation persists. In case the swelling continues hard and
resistant, it may be pricked at the most prominent points to the depth of
one-third of an inch with a lancet first dipped in dilute carbolic acid, and
the whole surface should be washed frequently with some antiseptic solution.

When softening occurs in the center of a hard mass and fluctuation can be
felt between two fingers pressed on different parts of such softening, it
should be freely opened to let out the putrid pus, and the cavity should be
syringed often with antiseptic solution.

In bad cases extensive sloughs of dead skin, of the whole wall of the
sheath, and even of the penis, may take place, which will require careful
antiseptic treatment. The soaking of the urine into the inflamed and softened
tissue and the setting up of putrefactive action not only endanger great
destruction of the tissues from putrid inflammation, but even threaten life
itself from a general blood poisoning (septicemia). Every case should have
skillful treatment to meet its various phases, but in the severe ones this is
most urgently demanded.

[Pg 156]

INFLAMMATION OF THE URETHRA.

Like other males, the bull sometimes suffers from inflammation of the canal
which conveys the urine through the penis, and a whitish mucopurulent discharge
forms in consequence. It may have originated in gravel, the excitement of too
frequent service, infection from a cow with leucorrhea, or from extension of
inflammation from the sheath. Besides the oozing of the whitish liquid from the
end of the penis and sheath, there is tenderness and pain when handled, and
while there is no actual arrest of the urine, its flow is subject to frequent
voluntary checks, as the scalding liquid irritates the tender surface.

Treatment.—If recognized before the discharge sets in, a dose of
1½ pounds of Epsom salt and local, warm fomentations would be appropriate. After
the onset of the whitish discharge a daily injection of a solution of 20 grains
of permanganate of potassium in a pint of water into the penis will be
beneficial.

WARTS AND PAPILLARY GROWTHS ON THE PENIS.

These are not frequent in bull or ox. They may interfere with the protrusion
of the organ from its sheath or with service, and always give rise to a
bad-smelling discharge.

Treatment.—They may be twisted off with a pair of small tweezers or
cut off with a pair of scissors, and the seat burned with a pencil of lunar
caustic. To get hold of the penis in the bull, bring him up to a cow. In the ox
it will be necessary to push it out by manipulation through the sheath. In
difficult cases the narrow opening of the sheath may be slit open.

WOUNDS OF THE PENIS.

The most common wounds are those sustained by blows of horns, sticks, etc.
The blood vessels and sacs are ruptured to a greater or less extent and
considerable swellings filled with coagulated blood and inflammatory products
occur, leading to distortion of the organ, and it may be to the impossibility
of protruding it.

Treatment.—A lotion of a dram of alum in a quart of water may be
applied (injected into the sheath, if necessary), and a large sponge constantly
irrigated by a stream of cold water may be kept applied by means of a surcingle
to the outer side of the sheath. Incisions are rarely applicable to an organ of
this kind, but in case of the existence of an extensive clot which is unlikely
to be absorbed the lancet may be resorted to. If the injury leads to paralysis
of the penis and hanging out of its sheath, it should be supported in a sling
and astringents used freely until inflammation subsides. Then the restoration
of power may be sought by a blister between [Pg 157]the thighs, by the use of electricity, or by
the careful use of nerve stimulants, such as strychnin, 1 grain twice daily.

ULCERS ON THE PENIS.

Sores on the penis of the bull may result from gravel or sebaceous masses in
the sheath or from having served a cow having leucorrhea.

Treatment.—These may be treated by frequent injections into the sheath
of a lotion made with 1 dram sugar of lead, 60 drops carbolic acid, and 1 quart
water.

POLYPUS OF THE VAGINA OR UTERUS.

A polypus is a tumor growing from the mucous membrane, and often connected
to it by a narrow neck. A definite cause can not always be assigned. If growing
in the vagina, a polypus may project as a reddish, rounded tumor from the
vulva, especially during the act of passing water. It can be distinguished from
descent of the womb by the absence of the orifice of that cavity, which can be
felt by the oiled hand beyond the tumor in the depth of the vagina. From a
vaginal hernia caused by the protrusion of some abdominal organ enveloped by
the relaxed wall of the vagina it may be distinguished by its persistence, its
firm substance, and the impossibility of returning it into the abdomen by
pressure. A hernia containing a portion of bowel gurgles when handled and can
be completely effaced by pressure, the gut passing into the abdomen.

A polypus in the womb is less easily recognized. At the time of calving it
may be felt through the open mouth of the womb and recognized by the educated
touch (it must be carefully distinguished from the mushroom-formed cotyledons
(Pl. XIII, fig. 2), to which in ruminants the fetal
membranes are attached). At other times, unless the womb is opened in the
effort to expel it, the polypus can be detected only by examining the womb with
the oiled hand introduced through the rectum.

Polypi may cause a mucopurulent discharge or they may only be suspected when
they prove an obstacle to parturition. The best way to remove them is to put
the chain of an écraseur around the neck, or pedicle, of the tumor and tear it
through; or the narrow neck may be torn through by the emasculator, or in an
emergency it may be twisted through by rotating the tumor on its axis. The
removal of the tumor will allow calving to proceed; after this the sore may be
treated by a daily injection of one-half dram sulphate of zinc, 1 dram carbolic
acid, and 1 quart milk-warm water.

SIGNS OF PREGNANCY.

If a cow remains for three or four weeks after service without showing signs
of heat (bulling), she is probably pregnant. There
[Pg 158]are very exceptional cases
in which the well-fed cow will accept the bull weeks or months after actual
conception, and others equally exceptional in which the well-thriven but
unimpregnated female will refuse the male persistently, but these in no way
invalidate the general rule.

The bull, no matter how vigorous or how ardent his sexual instinct, can not
be made to pay any attention to a cow which is not in heat; hence indications of
pregnancy can be had from both the male and female side. When she has
conceived, the cow usually becomes more quiet and docile, and lays on flesh and
fat more rapidly, especially during the first four months of gestation. The
stimulus to digestion and nutrition created by the demands of the growing
fetus, added to the quieter and more uneventful life, contributes to this
result. Some feeders avail themselves of this disposition to prepare heifers
and cows speedily for the butcher.

The enlargement of the abdomen, and its dropping so that it bulges below and
to each side, while it falls in at the flank, between the outer angle of the
hip bone and the last rib, are significant features which, though they may be
caused by abdominal tumor or dropsy, are usually marks of pregnancy. From the
same increasing weight of the abdomen the spine in the region of the loins
sinks so that the bones of the croup seem to rise, especially back toward the
root of the tail. In the early stages of pregnancy the udder develops slowly,
and toward its completion quite rapidly. For a long time there is merely a
sense of greater fullness when handled; the wrinkles in the skin become
shallower and are effaced, and the teats are materially enlarged. Beginning a
few weeks after conception, this tends to a steady development, though slight
alternations in the sense of successive growth and shrinkage are not uncommon.
In milking cows this does not hold, as the milk usually tends to a steady
diminution and the udder shrinks slowly until near the completion of the
period, when it undergoes its sudden, remarkable development, and yields at
first a serous liquid and then the yellow colostrum, which coagulates when
heated. As pregnancy advances the mucous membrane lining the vulva becomes
swollen and of a darker, bluish-red hue; the mucous secretion also increases,
becoming very abundant just before calving. When the feeding has not been
altered or restricted, a steady diminution of the salts of lime excreted in the
urine is an attendant on pregnancy, the lime being demanded for the growing
body of the fetus.

After the fifth month the movements of the calf may often be observed in the
right flank, nearly in front of the stifle, when the cow is drinking cold
water. The sensation of cold on the side of the first stomach, which lies to
the left and directly below the womb (Pl. I), stimulates
the calf to active movements, which are detected on the
[Pg 159]sudden jerking outward
of the abdominal wall as if from blows delivered from within. In a loose,
pendent abdomen in the latter months of gestation the skin may often be seen
pushed out at a sharp angle, irrespective of the period of drinking.

Another mode of examination through the flank is by touch. The palm of the
hand is pressed strongly inward, about 8 inches in front of the stifle and a
little below, several times in succession, and is then brought to rest with the
pressure maintained. Presently there are felt distinct and characteristic
movements of the fetus, which has been disturbed and roused to action. Another
mode is to press the closed fist strongly inward in the same situation and hold
it so, forming a deep indentation in the abdominal wall. Presently the knuckles
are felt to be struck by a solid body, which is no other than the fetus that
has been displaced to the left by the push of the hand, and now floats back in
its liquid covering (amniotic fluid; see Pl. XII)
downward and to the right.

Of all the modes of examination by touch, that done through the rectum gives
the earliest satisfactory indications. The hand and arm, well oiled, are
introduced, and the excrement having been removed if necessary, the palm of the
hand is turned downward and the floor of the pelvis carefully examined. There
will be felt in the median line the pear-shaped outline of the bladder, more or
less full, rounded or tense, according to the quantity of urine it contains.
Between this and the hand will be felt a soft, somewhat rounded tubular body,
which divides in front into two smaller tubes or branches, extending to the
right and left into the abdomen. This is the womb, which in its virgin, or
unimpregnated, condition is of nearly uniform size from before backward, the
main part or body being from 1½ to 2 inches across, and the two anterior
branches or horns being individually little over an inch wide. Immediately
after conception the body and one of the horns begin to enlarge, the vacant
horn remaining disproportionately small, and the enlargement will be most
marked at one point, where a solid, rounded mass indicates the presence of the
growing embryo. In case of twins, both horns are enlarged. At a more advanced
stage, when the embryo begins to assume the form of the future animal, the
rounded form gives place to a more or less irregular nodular mass, while later
still the head, limbs, and body of the fetus may be distinctly made out. The
chief source of fallacy is found in the very pendent abdomen of certain cows,
into which in advanced gestation the fetus has dropped so low that it can not
be felt by the hand in the rectum. The absence of the distinct outline of the
vacant womb, however, and the clear indications obtained on external
examination through the right flank will serve to prevent any mistake. The
fetus may still be felt through [Pg 160]the rectum if the abdomen is raised by a sheet
passed from side to side beneath it.

Still another sign is the beating of the fetal heart, which may be heard in
the latter half of pregnancy when the ear is pressed on the flank in front of
the right stifle or from that downward to the udder. The beats, which are best
heard in the absence of rumbling, are about 120 a minute and easily
distinguished from any bowel sounds by their perfect regularity.

DURATION OF PREGNANCY.

From extended statistics it is found that the average duration of pregnancy
in the cow is 285 days. A calf born at the two hundred and fortieth day may
live, and Dietrichs reported a case of a calf born on the three hundred and
thirty-fifth day, and another was reported by the American Journal of Medical
Science as having been born on the three hundred and thirty-sixth day. It is
the general observation that in most cases of prolonged pregnancies the
offspring are males. Lord Spencer found a preponderance of males between the
two hundred and ninetieth and the three hundredth days, but strangely enough
all born after the three hundredth day under his observation were females. It
may be reasonably inferred that while the prevailing tendency is to carry the
males overtime, yet that the smaller and comparatively much less developed
female sometimes fails to stimulate the womb to contraction until very far
beyond the regular date.

HYGIENE OF THE PREGNANT COW.

Among domestic animals considerations of hygiene must be made subservient to
profit, and therefore the first consideration is not to obtain the most robust
health, but such a measure of vigor and stamina as is compatible with the most
profitable utilization of the animal. The breeding cow must carry a calf every
year, and this notwithstanding that she is at the same time suckling another
large, growing calf. The dairy cow must breed every year, and at the same time
must furnish a generous flow of milk from nine to eleven months yearly. If her
health is lowered thereby or her life shortened, the question of profit must
still hold sway, and, when disqualified, she must yield her place to another.
There are exceptions, of course, but this rule generally holds.

There are certain points, however, in which the interests of hygiene may be
considered. The pregnant cow should have exercise, and as
[Pg 161]regards both exercise
and feed, nothing is better than a run on a smooth pasture. She should be
withheld from all violent excitement, hunting with dogs, riding or being ridden
by cows in heat, driving in herd rapidly through narrow gateways, causing to
jump ditches or fences, subjecting to blows with the horns of pugnacious
cattle, driving on icy or otherwise slippery ground, carrying in railroad cars,
kicking by vicious attendants, and fastening or throwing down for operations.
The diet should be good, not of a kind to fatten, but with a generous quantity
of nitrogenous constituents which will favor both the yield of milk and the
nourishment of the fetus. Aliments like wheat bran, middlings, etc., which are
rich in lime and phosphates, can be used to advantage, as there is a constant
drain of earthy salts for the building of the body of the calf, and thereby the
danger of undue concentration of the urine is lessened. Hard, innutritious, and
indigestible aliments, musty grain or hay, partially ripened rye grass, millet,
Hungarian grass, vetches, peas, or maize are objectionable, as they are liable
to cause indigestion or even paralysis; and corn or hay affected by smut or
ergot, or that has been spoiled by wet, overripened, and rendered fibrous and
innutritious, is equally objectionable. In the main the feed should be
laxative, as costiveness and straining are liable to cause abortion. Roots and
green feed that have been frosted are objectionable, as being liable to cause
indigestion, though in their fresh condition most wholesome and desirable.
Ice-cold water should be avoided, as calculated to check the flow of
milk, to derange digestion, and to cause abortion. A good temperature for the
drink of the dairy cow is 55° F.

In the case of plethoric and heavy-milking cows of mature age and in the
prime of life, the hitherto liberal diet must be changed at the last week for
the scantiest possible fare, and the bowels must be kept open by laxatives, if
need be, if the owner would avoid milk fever. Her stall should not incline
downward from shoulder to croup, lest the pressure of the abdominal organs
should produce protrusion or abortion. She should be kept aloof from all causes
of acute diseases, and all existing diseases should be remedied speedily and
with as little excitement of the abdominal organs as possible. Strong
purgatives and diuretics are to be especially avoided, unless it is in the very
last days of gestation in very plethoric cows.

[Pg 162]

PROTRUSION OF THE VAGINA (PROLAPSUS VAGINÆ).

During pregnancy this is common from chronic relaxation of the vaginal walls
and from lying in stalls that are lower behind than in front. The protrusion is
of a rounded form and smooth, and if it embraces both sides of the canal it is
double, with a passage between. It may sometimes be remedied by raising the
hind part of the stall higher than the front part. This failing, a truss may be
applied as for eversion of the womb, and worn until the period of calving
approaches. (Pls. XXII, XXIII.)

HERNIA (BREACH) OF THE UTERUS.

In advanced pregnancy this occurs usually from a gradual relaxation and
distention of the lower wall of the abdomen in the region of the udder, so that
the latter is displaced downward, and in the sac above and in front of it may
be felt the form and movements of the fetus. In other cases the womb escapes
through a great laceration of the abdominal muscles to one side of the udder,
and the hernial mass extends down to one side of that organ. However unsightly,
this often allows the animal to complete its pregnancy naturally, and a broad,
supporting bandage placed around the abdomen is about all that can be
recommended. After calving it is best to fatten the cow.

CRAMPS OF THE HIND LIMBS.