SKETCHES
OF THE
NATURAL HISTORY OF CEYLON
WITH
NARRATIVES AND ANECDOTES
Illustrative of the Habits and Instincts of the
MAMMALIA, BIRDS, REPTILES, FISHES, INSECTS, &c.
INCLUDING A MONOGRAPH OF
THE ELEPHANT
AND A DESCRIPTION OF THE MODES OF CAPTURING AND TRAINING
IT
WITH ENGRAVINGS FROM ORIGINAL DRAWINGS
BY
SIR J. EMERSON TENNENT, K.C.S. LL.D. &c.
1861
INTRODUCTION.
A considerable portion of the contents of the present volume
formed the zoological section of a much more comprehensive work
recently published, on the history and present condition of
Ceylon.1 But its inclusion there was a matter
of difficulty; for to have altogether omitted the chapters on
Natural History would have impaired the completeness of the plan on
which I had attempted to describe the island; whilst to insert them
as they here appear, without curtailment, would have encroached
unduly on the space required for other essential topics. In this
dilemma, I was obliged to adopt the alternative of so condensing
the matter as to bring the whole within the prescribed
proportions.
But this operation necessarily diminished the general interest
of the subjects treated, as well by the omission of incidents which
would otherwise have been retained, as by the exclusion of
anecdotes calculated to illustrate the habits and instincts of the
animals described.
A suggestion to re-publish these sections in an independent form
has afforded an opportunity for repairing some of these defects by
revising the entire, restoring omitted passages, and introducing
fresh materials collected in Ceylon; the additional matter
occupying a very large portion of the present volume.
I have been enabled, at the same time, to avail myself of the
corrections and communications of scientific friends; and thus to
compensate, in some degree for what is still incomplete, by
increased accuracy in minute particulars.
In the Introduction to the First Edition of the original work I
alluded, in the following terms, to that portion of it which is now
reproduced in an extended form:—
“Regarding the fauna of Ceylon, little has been published
in any collective form, with the exception of a volume by Dr.
KELAART entitled Prodromus Faunæ Zeilanicæ;
several valuable papers by Mr. EDGAR L. LAYARD in the Annals and
Magazine of Natural History for 1852 and 1853; and some very
imperfect lists appended to PRIDHAM’S compiled account of the
island.2 KNOX, in the charming narrative of
his captivity, published in the feign of Charles II., has devoted a
chapter to the animals of Ceylon, and Dr. DAVY has described some
of the reptiles: but with these exceptions the subject is almost
untouched in works relating to the colony. Yet a more than ordinary
interest attaches to the inquiry, since Ceylon, instead of
presenting, as is generally assumed, an identity between its
fauna and that of Southern India, exhibits a remarkable
diversity, taken in connection with the limited area over which the
animals included in it are distributed. The island, in fact, may be
regarded as the centre of a geographical circle, possessing within
itself forms, whose allied species radiate far into the temperate
regions of the north, as well as in to Africa, Australia, and the
isles of the Eastern Archipelago.
“In the chapters that I have devoted to its elucidation, I have
endeavoured to interest others in the subject, by describing my own
observations and impressions, with fidelity, and with as much
accuracy as may be expected from a person possessing, as I do, no
greater knowledge of zoology and the other physical sciences than
is ordinarily possessed by any educated gentleman. It was my good
fortune, however, in my journeys to have the companionship of
friends familiar with many branches of natural science: the late
Dr. GARDNER, Mr. EDGAR L. LAYARD, an accomplished zoologist, Dr.
TEMPLETON, and others; and I was thus enabled to collect on the
spot many interesting facts relative to the structure and habits of
the numerous tribes. These, chastened by the corrections of my
fellow-travellers, and established by the examination of
collections made in the colony, and by subsequent comparison with
specimens contained in museums at home, I have ventured to submit
as faithful outlines of the fauna of Ceylon.
“The sections descriptive of the several classes are accompanied
by lists, prepared with the assistance of scientific friends,
showing the extent to which each particular branch had been
investigated by naturalists, up to the period of my departure from
Ceylon at the close of 1849. These, besides their inherent
interest, will, I trust, stimulate others to engage in the same
pursuit, by exhibiting chasms, which it remains for future industry
and research to fill up;—and the study of the zoology of
Ceylon may thus serve as a preparative for that of Continental
India, embracing, as the former does, much that is common to both,
as well as possessing a fauna peculiar to the island, that
in itself will amply repay more extended scrutiny.
“From these lists have been excluded all species regarding the
authenticity of which reasonable doubts could be entertained3, and of some of them, a very few have
been printed in italics, in order to denote the desirability
of more minute comparison with well-determined specimens in the
great national depositories before finally incorporating them with
the Singhalese catalogues.
“In the labour of collecting and verifying the facts embodied in
these sections, I cannot too warmly express my thanks for the aid I
have received from gentlemen interested in similar studies in
Ceylon: from Dr. KELAART4 and Mr.
EDGAR L. LAYARD, as well as from officers of the Ceylon Civil
Service; the Hon. GERALD C. TALBOT, Mr. C.R. BULLER, Mr. MERCER,
Mr. MORRIS, Mr. WHITING, Major SKINNER, and Mr. MITFORD.
“Before venturing to commit these chapters of my work to the
press, I have had the advantage of having portions of them read by
Professor HUXLEY, Mr. MOORE, of the East India House Museum; Mr. R.
PATTERSON, F.R.S., author of the Introduction to Zoology;
and by Mr. ADAM WHITE, of the British Museum; to each of whom I am
exceedingly indebted for the care they have bestowed. In an
especial degree I have to acknowledge the kindness of Dr. J.E.
GRAY, F.R.S., for valuable additions and corrections in the list of
the Ceylon Reptilia; and to Professor FARADAY for some notes on the
nature and qualities of the “Serpent Stone,”5
submitted to him.
“The extent to which my observations on the Elephant have
been carried, requires some explanation. The existing notices of
this noble creature are chiefly devoted to its habits and
capabilities in captivity; and very few works, with which I
am acquainted, contain illustrations of its instincts and functions
when wild in its native woods. Opportunities for observing the
latter, and for collecting facts in connection with them, are
abundant in Ceylon; and from the moment of my arrival, I profited
by every occasion afforded to me for observing the elephant in a
state of nature, and obtaining from hunters and natives correct
information as to its oeconomy and disposition. Anecdotes in
connection with this subject, I received from some of the most
experienced residents in the island; amongst others, from Major
SKINNER, Captain PHILIP PAYNE GALLWEY, Mr. FAIRHOLME, Mr. CRIPPS,
and Mr. MORRIS. Nor can I omit to express my acknowledgments to
Professor OWEN, of the British Museum, to whom this portion of my
manuscript was submitted previous to its committal to the
press.”
To the foregoing observations I have little to add beyond my
acknowledgment to Dr. ALBERT G&ÜNTHER, of the British
Museum, for the communication of important facts in illustration of
the ichthyology of Ceylon, as well as of the reptiles of the
island.
Mr. BLYTH, of the Calcutta Museum, has carefully revised the
Catalogue of Birds, and supplied me with much useful information in
regard to their geographical distribution. To his experienced
scrutiny is due the perfected state in which the list is now
presented. It will be seen, however, from the italicised names
still retained, that inquiry is far from being exhausted.
Mr. THWAITES, the able Director of the Royal Botanic Gardens at
Peradenia, near Kandy, has forwarded to me many valuable
observations, not only in connection with the botany, but the
zoology of the mountain region. The latter I have here embodied in
their appropriate places, and those relating to plants and
vegetation will appear in a future edition of my large work.
To M. NIETNER, of Colombo, I am likewise indebted for many
particulars regarding Singhalese Entomology, a department to which
his attention has been given, with equal earnestness and
success.
Through the Hon. RICHARD MORGAN, acting Senior Puisne Judge of
the Supreme Court at Colombo, I have received from his Interpreter,
M.D. DE SILVA GOONERATNE MODLIAR, a Singhalese gentleman of
learning and observation, many important notes, of which I have
largely availed myself, in relation to the wild animals, and the
folk-lore and superstitions of the natives in connection with
them.
Of the latter I have inserted numerous examples; in the
conviction that, notwithstanding their obvious errors in many
instances, these popular legends and traditions occasionally embody
traces of actual observation, and may contain hints and materials
deserving of minuter inquiry.
I wish distinctly to disclaim offering the present volume as a
compendium of the Natural History of Ceylon. I present it merely as
a “mémoire pour servir,” materials to assist some future
inquirer in the formation of a more detailed and systematic account
of the fauna of the island. My design has been to point out
to others the extreme richness and variety of the field, the
facility of exploring it, and the charms and attractions of the
undertaking. I am eager to show how much remains to do by
exhibiting the little that has as yet been done.
The departments of Mammalia and Birds are the only
two which can be said to have as yet undergone tolerably close
investigation; although even in these it is probable that large
additions still remain to be made to the ascertained species. But,
independently of forms and specific characteristics, the more
interesting inquiry into habits and instincts is still open for
observation and remark; and for the investigation of these no
country can possibly afford more inviting opportunities than
Ceylon.
Concerning the Reptilia a considerable amount of
information has been amassed. The Batrachians and smaller Lizards
have, I apprehend, been imperfectly investigated; but the Tortoises
are well known, and the Serpents, from the fearful interest
attaching to the race, and stimulating their destruction, have been
so vigilantly pursued, that there is reason to believe that few, if
any, varieties exist which have not been carefully examined. In a
very large collection, made by Mr. CHARLES REGINALD BULLER during
many years’ residence in Kandy, and recently submitted by him to
Dr. Günther, only one single specimen proved to be new or
previously unknown to belong to the island.
Of the Ichthyology of Ceylon I am obliged to speak ill
very different terms; for although the materials are abundant
almost to profusion, little has yet been done to bring them under
thoroughly scientific scrutiny. In the following pages I have
alluded to the large collection of examples of Fishes sent home by
officers of the Medical Staff, and which still remain unopened, in
the Fort Pitt Museum at Chatham; but I am not without hope that
these may shortly undergo comparison with the drawings which exist
of each, and that this branch of the island fauna may at
last attract the attention to which its richness so eminently
entitles it.
In the department of Entomology much has already been achieved;
but an extended area still invites future explorers; and one which
the Notes of Mr. Walker prefixed to the List of Insects in this
volume, show to be of extraordinary interest, from the unexpected
convergence in Ceylon of characteristics heretofore supposed to
have been kept distinct by the broad lines of geographical
distribution.
Relative to the inferior classes of Invertebrata very
little has as yet been ascertained. The Mollusca, especially the
lacustrine and fluviatile, have been most imperfectly investigated;
and of the land-shells, a large proportion have yet to be submitted
to scientific examination.
The same may be said of the Arachnida and
Crustacea. The jungle is frequented by spiders,
phalangia6, and
acarids, of which nothing is known with certainty; and the
sea-shore and sands have been equally overlooked, so far as
concerns the infinite variety of lobsters, crayfish, crabs, and all
their minor congeners. The polypi, echini, asterias, and
other radiata of the coast, as well as the
acalephæ of the deeper waters, have shared the same
neglect: and literally nothing has been done to collect and
classify the infusoriæ and minuter zoophytes, the labours of
Dr. Kelaart amongst the Diatomaceæ being the solitary
exception.
Nothing is so likely to act as a stimulant to future research as
an accurate conception of what has already been achieved. With
equal terseness and truth Dr. Johnson has observed that the
traveller who would bring back knowledge from any country must
carry knowledge with him at setting out: and I am not without hope
that the demonstration I now venture to offer, of the little that
has already been done for zoology in Ceylon, may serve to inspire
others with a desire to resume and complete the inquiry.
J. EMERSON TENNENT
London: November 1st, 1861.
Footnote 1: (return)Ceylon: An Account of the Island, Physical, Historical, and
Typographical; with Notices of its Natural History, Antiquities,
and Productions. By Sir JAMES EMERSON TENNENT, K.C.S., LL.D.,
&c. Illustrated by Maps. Plans, and Drawings. 2 vols. 8vo.
Longman and Co., 1859.
Footnote 2: (return)An Historical, Political, and Statistical Account of Ceylon
and its Dependencies, by C. PRIDHAM, Esq. 2 vols. 8vo., London,
1849.
Footnote 3: (return)An exception occurs in the list of shells, prepared by Mr.
SYLVANUS HANLEY, in which some whose localities are doubtful have
been admitted for reasons adduced. (See p. 387.)
Footnote 4: (return)It is with deep regret that I have to record the death of this
accomplished gentleman, which occurred in 1860.
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I.
MAMMALIA.
- Neglect of zoology in Ceylon 3
- Labours of Dr. Davy3
- Followed by Dr. Templeton and others 4
- Dr. Kelaart and Mr. E.L. Layard 4
- Monkeys 5
- The Rilawa, Macacus pileatus 5
- Wanderoos5
- Knox’s account of them 5
- Error regarding the Silenus Veter (note) 6
- Presbytes Cephalopterus 7
- Fond of eating flowers 7
- A white monkey 8
- Method of the flight of monkeys 9
- P. Ursinus in the Hills 9
- P. Thersites in the Wanny 10
- P. Priamus, Jaffna and Trincomalie 10
- No dead monkey ever found 11
- Loris 12
- Bats 13
- Carnivora.—Bears 22
- Their ferocity 23
- Singhalese belief in the efficacy of charms (note)
24 - Leopards 25
- Palm-cat 32
- Civet 32
- Dogs 33
- Jackal 34
- Mungoos 37
- Squirrels 41
- Flying squirrel 41
- Tree-rat 42
- Story of a rat and a snake 43
- Coffee-rat 43
- Bandicoot 44
- Porcupine 45
- Pengolin 46
- Ruminantia.—The Gaur 49
- Deer 57
- Meminna 57
- Elk 59
- Wild-boar 59
- Elephants 60
- Recent discovery of a new species 60
- Geological speculations as to the island of Ceylon 61
- Ancient tradition 61
- Opinion of Professor Ansted 61
- Peculiarities in Ceylon mammalia 63
- The same in Ceylon birds and insects 63
- Temminck’s discovery of a new species of elephant in Sumatra
64 - Points of distinction between it and the elephant of India
65 - Professor Schlegel’s description 66
- Cetacea 68
- Testimony of Valentyn 71
- List of Ceylon mammalia 73
CHAP. II
THE ELEPHANT
Its Structure.
- Vast numbers in Ceylon 75
- Derivation of the word “elephant” (note) 76
- Antiquity of the trade in elephants 77
- Numbers now diminishing 77
- Mischief done by them to crops 77
- Ivory scarce in Ceylon 78
- Conjectures as to the absence of tusks 79
- Elephant a harmless animal 81
- Alleged antipathies to other animals 82
- Fights with each other 86
- The foot its chief weapon 87
- Use of the tusks in a wild state doubtful 88
- Anecdote of sagacity in an elephant at Kandy 89
- Difference between African and Indian species 90
- Native ideas of perfection in an elephant 91
- Blotches on the skin 92
- White elephants not unknown in Ceylon 93
CHAP. III.
THE ELEPHANT
Its Habits.
- Water, but not heat, essential to elephants 94
- Sight limited 95
- Smell acute 96
- Caution 96
- Hearing, good 96
- Cries of the elephant 97
- Trumpeting 97
- Booming noise 98
- Height, exaggerated 99
- Facility of stealthy motion 100
- Ancient delusion as to the joints of the leg 100
- Its exposure by Sir Thos. Browne 100
- Its perpetuation by poets and others 102
- Position of the elephant in sleep 105
- An elephant killed on its feet 107
- Mode of lying down 107
- Its gait a shuffle 108
- Power of climbing mountains 109
- Facilitated by the joint of the knee 110
- Mode of descending declivities 111
- A “herd” is a family 112
- Attachment to their young 113
- Suckled indifferently by the females 113
- A “rogue” elephant 114
- Their cunning and vice 115
- Injuries done by them 115
- The leader of a herd a tusker 117
- Bathing and nocturnal gambols, description of a scene by Major
Skinner 118 - Method of swimming 121
- Internal anatomy imperfectly known 122
- Faculty of storing water 124
- Peculiarity of the stomach 125
- The food of the elephant 129
- Sagacity in search of it 130
- Unexplained dread of fences 131
- Its spirit of inquisitiveness 132
- Anecdotes illustrative of its curiosity 132
- Estimate of sagacity 133
- Singular conduct of a herd during thunder 134
- An elephant feigning death 135
- Appendix.—Narratives of natives, as to encounters
with rogue elephants 136
CHAP. IV.
THE ELEPHANT
Elephant Shooting.
- Vast numbers shot in Ceylon 142
- Revolting details of elephant killing in Africa 142
- Fatal spots at which to aim 143
- Structure of the bones of the head 144
- Wounds which are certain to kill 145
- Attitudes when surprised 148
- Peculiar movements when reposing 148
- Habits when attacked 150
- Sagacity of native trackers 150
- Courage and agility of the elephants in escape 151
- Worthlessness of the carcass 153
- Singular recovery from a wound (note) 154
CHAP. V.
THE ELEPHANT.
An Elephant Corral.
- Early method of catching elephants 156
- Capture in pit-falls 156
- By means of decoys 157
- Panickeas—their courage and address 158
- Their sagacity in following the elephant 159
- Mode of capture by the noose 160
- Mode of taming 161
- Method of leading the elephants to the coast 162
- Process of embarking them at Manaar 162
- Method of capturing a whole herd 163
- The “keddah” in Bengal described 164
- Process of enclosing a herd 165
- Process of capture in Ceylon 165
- An elephant corral and its construction 166
- An elephant hunt in Ceylon, 1847 167
- The town and district of Kornegalle 167
- The rock of Ætagalla 168
- Forced labour of the corral in former times 170
- Now given voluntarily 171
- Form of the enclosure 172
- Method of securing a wild herd 173
- Scene when driving them into the corral 174
- A failure 176
- An elephant drove by night 177
- Singular scene in the corral 178
- Excitement of the tame elephants (note) 178
CHAP. VI.
THE ELEPHANT.
The Captives.
- A night scene 180
- Morning in the corral 181
- Preparations for securing the captives 181
- The “cooroowe,” or noosers 181
- The tame decoys 182
- First captive tied up 183
- Singular conduct of the wild elephants 184
- Furious attempts of the herd to escape 186
- Courageous conduct of the natives 187
- Variety of disposition exhibited by the herd 189
- Extraordinary contortions of the captives 190
- Water withdrawn from the stomach 191
- Instinct of the decoys 191
- Conduct of the noosers 194
- The young ones and their actions 194
- Noosing a “rogue.” and his death 196
- Instinct of flies in search of carrion (note) 196
- Strange scene 197
- A second herd captured 199
- Their treatment of a solitary elephant 200
- A magnificent female elephant 201
- Her extraordinary attitudes 201
- Wonderful contortions 203
- Taking the captives out of the corral 204
- Their subsequent treatment and training 205
- Grandeur of the scene 205
- Story of young pet elephant 6
CHAP. VII.
THE ELEPHANT.
Conduct in Captivity.
- Alleged superiority of the Indian to the African
elephant—not true 207 - Ditto of Ceylon elephant to Indian 209
- Process of training in Ceylon 211
- Allowed to bathe 213
- Difference of disposition 214
- Sudden death of “broken heart” 216
- First employment treading clay 217
- Drawing a waggon 217
- Dragging timber 218
- Sagacity in labour 218
- Mode of raising stones 218
- Strength in throwing down trees exaggerated 219
- Piling timber 219
- Not uniform in habits of work 220
- Lazy if not watched 220
- Obedience to keeper from affection, not fear 221
- Change of keeper—story of child 222
- Ear for sounds and music 223
- Hurra! (note) 223
- Endurance of pain 224
- Docility 225
- Working elephants, delicate 225
- Deaths in government stud 226
- Diseases 227
- Subject to tooth-ache 227
- Question of the value of labour of an elephant 229
- Food in captivity, and cost 230
- Breed in captivity 231
- Age 232
- Theory of M. Fleurens 232
- No dead elephants found 234
- Sindbad’s story 236
- Passage from Ælian 237
CHAP. VIII.
BIRDS.
- Their numbers 241
- Songsters 241
- Hornbills, the “bird with two heads” 242
- Pea fowl 244
- Sea birds, their number 245
- I. Accipitres.—Eagles 245
- II. Passeres.—Swallows 248
- III. Scansores.—Parroquets 256
- IV. Columbidæ.—Pigeons 257
- V. Gallinæ.—Jungle-fowl 259
- VI. Grallæ.—Ibis, stork, &c. 260
- VII. Anseres.—Flamingoes 261
- List of Ceylon birds 265
- List of birds peculiar to Ceylon 269
CHAP. IX.
REPTILES.
- Lizards.—Iguana 271
- Crocodiles 282
- Tortoises.—Curious parasite 289x
- Serpents.—Venomous species rare 294
- Tic polonga and carawala 296
- Cobra de capello 297
- Tame snakes (note) 298
- Anecdotes of the cobra de capello 298
- Legends concerning it 299
- Instance of land snakes found at sea 300
- Singular tradition regarding the robra de capello 300
- Uropeltidæ.—New species discovered in Ceylon
302 - Buddhist veneration for the cobra de capello 303
- The Python 303
- Tree snakes 305
- Water snakes 306
- Sea snakes 306
- Snake stones 312
- Analysis of one 315
- Cæcilia 317
- Frogs 317
- Tree frogs 320
- List of Ceylon reptiles 321
CHAP. X.
FISHES.
- Ichthyology of Ceylon, little known 323
- Fish for table, seir fish 324
- Sardines, poisonous? 324
- Sharks 325
- Saw-fish 325
- Fish of brilliant colours 326
- The ray 326
- The sword-fish 328
- Curious fish described by Ælian 330
- Salarias alticus 332
- Beautifully coloured fishes 332
- Fresh-water fish, little known,—not much eaten 335
- Fresh-water fish in Colombo Lake 336
- Perches 336
- Eels 337
- Immense profusion of fish in the rivers and lakes 339
- Their re-appearance after rain 340
- Mode of fishing in the ponds 340
- Showers of fish 341
- Conjecture that the ova are preserved, not tenable 342
- Fish moving on dry land 344
- Fishes burying themselves daring the dry season 351
- The protopterus of the Gambia 352
- Instances in the fish of the Nile 352
- Instances in the fish of South America 353
- Living fish dug out of the ground in the dry tanks in Ceylon
354 - Molluscs that bury themselves 355
- The animals that so bury themselves in India 357
- Analogous case of 8
- Theory of æstivation and hybernation 358
- Fish in hot water in Ceylon 358
- List of Ceylon fishes 359
- Instances of fishes falling from the clouds 362
- Note on Ceylon fishes by Professor Huxley 364
- Comparative note by Dr. Gray, Brit. Mus. 366
- Note on the Bora-chung 367
CHAP. XI.
MOLLUSCA, RADIATA, AND ACALEPHÆ.
- I. Conchology.—General character of Ceylon shells
369- Confusion regarding them in scientific works and collections
369 - Ancient export of shells from Ceylon 370
- Special forms confined to particular localities 372
- The pearl fishery of Aripo 373
- Frequent suspensions of 374
- Experiment to create beds of the pearl oyster 375
- Process of diving for pearls 377
- Danger from sharks 379
- The transparent pearl oyster (Placuna placenta) 380
- The “musical fish” at Ballicaloa 381
- A similar phenomenon at other places 383
- Faculty of uttering sounds in fishes 384
- Instance in the Tritonia arborescens 385
- Difficulty in forming a list of Ceylon shells 386
- List of Ceylon shells 388
- Confusion regarding them in scientific works and collections
- II. Radiata.—Star fish 395
- III. Acalephæ, abundant 398
CHAP. XII.
INSECTS.
- Profusion of insects in Ceylon 403
- Imperfect knowledge of 404
- I. Coleoptera.—Beetles 405
- II. Orthoptera.—Mantis and leaf-insects 408
- Stick-insects 410
- III. Neuroptera.—Dragon flies 411
- IV. Hymenoptera.—Mason wasps 416
- V. Lepidoptera.—Butterflies 424
- VI. Homoptera 432
- Cicada 432
- VII. Hemiptera 433
- Bugs 433
- VIII. Aphaniptera 433
- IX. Diptera.—Mosquitoes 434
- General character of Ceylon insects 442
- List of insects in Ceylon 442
CHAP. XIII.
ARACHNIDÆ, MYRIOPODA, CRUSTACÆ, ETC.
- Spiders 464
- Myriapods.—Centipedes 472
- Millipeds.—Julus 476
- Crustacæ 477
- Annelidæ, Leeches.—The land leech 479
- List of Articulata, &c. 485
- Note.—On the revivification of the Rotifera and
Paste-eels 486
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
- View of an Elephant Corral Frontispiece
- Group of Ceylon Monkeys to face 5
- The Loris (Loris gracilis) 12
- Group of Flying Foxes (Pteropus Edwardsii) to face
14 - Head of the Horse-shoe Bat (Rhynulophus) 19
- Nycteribia 21
- Indian Bear (Prochylus labiatus) 23
- Ceylon Leopard and Indian Cheetah 26
- Jackal’s Skull and “Horn” 36
- Mongoos of Neura-ellia (Herpestes vitticollis) 38
- Flying Squirrel (Pteromys oral) 41
- Coffee Rat (Golunda Elliotti) 44
- Bandicoot Rat (Mus bandicota) 45
- Pengolin (Manis pentadactylus) 47
- Skeleton of the Pengolin 48
- Moose-deer (Moschus meminna) 59
- The Dugong (Halicore dugung) 69
- The Mermaid, from Valentyn 72
- Brain of the Elephant 95n
- Bones of the Fore-leg 108
- Elephant descending a Hill 110n
- Elephant’s Well 122
- Elephant’s Stomach, showing the Water-cells 125
- Elephant’s Trachea 126
- Water-cells in the Stomach of the Camel 128
- Section of the Elephant’s Skull 145
- Fence and Ground-plan of a Corral 172
- Mode of tying an Elephant 184
- His Struggles for Freedom 185
- Impotent Fury 188
- Obstinate Resistance 189
- Attitude for Defence 203
- Singular Contortions of an Elephant 204
- Figures of the African and Indian Elephants on Greek and Roman
Coins 207n- Medal of Numidia 212n
- Modern “Hendoo” 212n
- The Horn-bill (Buceros pica) 243
- The “Devil-bird” (Syrnium Indranec) 246
- The “Cotton-thief” (Tchitrea paradisi) 250
- Layard Mountain Jay (Cissa puella) 251
- The “Double-spur” (Gallo-perdix bicalcaratus) 260
- The Flamingo (Phoenicopterus roseus) 261
- The Kabara-goya Lizard (Hydrosaurus salvator) 274
- The Green Calotes (Calotes ophiomachus) 276
- Tongue of the Chameleon 278
- Ceratophora to face 280
- Skulls of the Crocodile and Alligator 283
- Terrapin (Emys trijuga) 290
- Shield-tailed Serpent (Uropeltis grandis) 303
- Tree Snake (Passerita fusca) to face 307
- Sea Snake (Hydrophis subloevisis) to face
311 - Saw of the Saw-fish (Pristis antiquorum) to face
326 - Ray (Aëtobates narinari) 327
- Sword-fish (Histiophorus immaculatus) 330
- Cheironectes 331
- Pterois volitans 334
- Scarus harid 335
- Perch (Therapon quadrilineatus) 337
- Eel (Mastacembelus armatus) 338
- Mode of Fishing, after Rain 340
- Plan of a Fish Decoy 342
- The Anabas of the dry Tanks 354
- The Violet Ianthina and its Shell 370
- Bullia vittata 370
- Pearl Oysters, in various Stages of Growth to face
381 - Pearl Oyster, full grown to face 381
- Cerithium palustre 381
- The Portuguese Man-of-war (Physalus urticulus) 399
- Longicorn Beetle (Batocera rubus) 405
- Leaf Insects, &c 409
- Eggs of the Leaf Insect (Phyllium siccifolium) 410
- The Carpenter Bee (Xylocapa tenniscapa) 419
- Wood-carrying Moths 431
- The “Knife, grinder” (Cicada) 432
- Flata (Elidiptera Emersoniana and Poeciloptera
Tennentii) 433 - The “Coffee-bug” (Lecanium caffeæ) to face
438 - Spider (Mygate fasciata) to face 465
- Cermatia 473
- The Calling Crab (Gelusimus) 477
- Eyes and Teeth of the Leech 479n
- Land Leeches preparing to attack 479
- Medicinal Leech of Ceylon 483n
CHAPTER I.
MAMMALIA.
With the exception of the Mammalia and Birds, the fauna of
Ceylon has, up to the present, failed to receive that systematic
attention to which its richness and variety most amply entitle it.
The Singhalese themselves, habitually indolent, and singularly
unobservant of nature and her operations, are at the same time
restrained from the study of natural history by the tenet of their
religion which forbids the taking of life under any circumstances.
From the nature of their avocations, the majority of the European
residents, engaged in planting and commerce, are discouraged by
want of leisure from cultivating the taste; and it is to be
regretted that, with few exceptions, the civil servants of the
government, whose position and duties would have afforded them
influence and extended opportunities for successful investigation,
have never seen the importance of encouraging such studies.
The first effective impulse to the cultivation of natural
science in Ceylon, was communicated by Dr. Davy when connected with
the medical staff31 of the
army from 1816 to 1820, and his example stimulated some of the
assistant-surgeons of Her Majesty’s forces to make collections
[pg 4]
in illustration of the productions of the colony. Of these the late
Dr. Kinnis was one of the most energetic and successful. He was
seconded by Dr. Templeton of the Royal Artillery, who engaged
assiduously in the investigation of various orders, and commenced
an interchange of specimens with Mr. Blyth41,
the distinguished naturalist and curator of the Calcutta Museum.
The birds and rarer vertebrata of the island were thus compared
with their peninsular congeners, and a tolerable knowledge of those
belonging to the island, so far as regards the higher classes of
animals, has been the result. The example so set was perseveringly
followed by Mr. E.L. Layard and the late Dr. Kelaart, and infinite
credit is due to Mr. Blyth for the zealous and untiring energy with
which he has devoted his attention and leisure to the
identification of the specimens forwarded from Ceylon, and to their
description in the Calcutta Journal. To him, and to the gentlemen I
have named, we are mainly indebted for whatever accurate knowledge
we now possess of the zoology of the colony.
The mammalia, birds, and reptiles received their first
scientific description in an able work published in 1852 by Dr.
Kelaart of the army medical staff42, which
is by far the most valuable that has yet appeared on the Singhalese
fauna. Co-operating with him, Mr. Layard has supplied a fund of
information especially in ornithology and conchology. The zoophytes
and Crustacea have I believe been partially investigated by
Professor Harvey, who visited Ceylon in 1852, and more
recently[pg
5] by Professor Schmarda, of the University of Prague. From
the united labours of these gentlemen and others interested in the
same pursuits, we may hope at an early day to obtain such a
knowledge of the zoology of Ceylon as will to some extent
compensate for the long indifference of the government
officers.
CEYLON MONKEYS.
1. Presbytes cephalopterus.
2. P. thersites
3. P. Priamus
4. Macacus pileatus
I. QUADRUMANA. 1. Monkeys.—To a stranger in the
tropics, among the most attractive creatures in the forests are the
troops of monkeys that career in ceaseless chase among the
loftiest trees. In Ceylon there are five species, four of which
belong to one group, the Wanderoos, and the other is the little
graceful grimacing rilawa51, which
is the universal pet and favourite of both natives and Europeans.
The Tamil conjurors teach it to dance, and in their wanderings
carry it from village to village, clad in a grotesque dress, to
exhibit its lively performances. It does not object to smoke
tobacco. The Wanderoo is too grave and melancholy to be trained to
these drolleries.
KNOX, in his captivating account of the island, gives an
accurate description of both; the Rilawas, with “no beards, white
faces, and long hair on the top of their heads, which parteth and
hangeth down like a man’s, and which do a deal of mischief to the
corn, and are so impudent that they will come into their gardens
and eat such fruit as grows there. And the Wanderoos, some
[pg 6]
as large as our English spaniel dogs, of a darkish grey colour, and
black faces with great white beards round from ear to ear, which
makes them show just like old men. This sort does but little
mischief, keeping in the woods, eating only leaves and buds of
trees, but when they are catched they will eat anything.”61
KNOX, whose experience during his long captivity was confined
almost exclusively to the hill country around Kandy, spoke in all
probability of one large and comparatively powerful species,
Presbytes ursinus, which inhabits the lofty forests, and
which, as well as another of the same group, P. Thersites,
was, till recently, unknown to European naturalists. The Singhalese
word Ouandura has a generic sense, and being in every
respect the equivalent for our own term of “monkey” it necessarily
comprehends the low country species, as well as those which inhabit
other parts of the island. In point of fact, there are no less than
four animals in the island, each of which is entitled to the name
of “wanderoo.”62 Each
separate species has appropriated [pg 7] to itself a different district
of the wooded country, and seldom encroaches on the domain of its
neighbours.
1. Of the four species found in Ceylon, the most numerous in the
island, and the one best known in Europe, is the Wanderoo of the
low country, the P. cephalopterus of Zimmerman.71 Although common in the southern and
western provinces, it is never found at a higher elevation than
1300 feet. It is an active and intelligent creature, little larger
than the common bonneted Macaque, and far from being so mischievous
as others of the monkeys in the island. In captivity it is
remarkable for the gravity of its demeanour and for an air of
melancholy in its expression and movements which are completely in
character with its snowy beard and venerable aspect. In disposition
it is gentle and confiding, sensible in the highest degree of
kindness, and eager for endearing attention, uttering a low
plaintive cry when its sympathies are excited. It is particularly
cleanly in its habits when domesticated, and spends much of its
time in trimming its fur, and carefully divesting its hair of
particles of dust.
Those which I kept at my house near Colombo were chiefly fed
upon plantains and bananas, but for nothing did they evince a
greater partiality than the rose-coloured flowers of the red
hibiscus (H. rosa-sinensis). [pg 8] These they devoured with
unequivocal gusto; they likewise relished the leaves of many other
trees, and even the bark of a few of the more succulent ones. A
hint might possibly be taken from this circumstance for improving
the regimen of monkeys in menageries, by the occasional admixture
of a few fresh leaves and flowers with their solid and substantial
dietary.
A white monkey, taken between Ambepusse and Kornegalle, where
they are said to be numerous, was brought to me to Colombo. Except
in colour, it had all the characteristics of Presbytes
cephalopterus. So striking was its whiteness that it might have
been conjectured to be an albino, but for the circumstance that its
eyes and face were black. I have heard that white monkeys have been
seen near the Ridi-galle Wihara in Seven Korles and also at
Tangalle; but I never saw another specimen. The natives say they
are not uncommon, and KNOX that they are “milk-white both in body
and face; but of this sort there is not such plenty.”81 The Rev. R. SPENCE HARDY mentions,
in his learned work on Eastern Monachism, that on the
occasion of his visit to the great temple of Dambool, he
encountered a troop of white monkeys on the rock in which it is
situated—which were, doubtless, a variety of the
Wanderoo.82 PLINY was aware of the fact that
white monkeys are occasionally found in India.83
When observed in their native wilds, a party of twenty or thirty
of these creatures is generally busily engaged in the search for
berries and buds. They are seldom to be seen on the ground, except
when [pg
9] they may have descended to recover seeds or fruit which
have fallen at the foot of their favourite trees. When disturbed,
their leaps are prodigious: but, generally speaking, their progress
is made not so much by leaping as by swinging from branch to
branch, using their powerful arms alternately; and when baffled by
distance, flinging themselves obliquely so as to catch the lower
boughs of an opposite tree, the momentum acquired by their descent
being sufficient to cause a rebound of the branch, that carries
them upwards again, till they can grasp a higher and more distant
one, and thus continue their headlong flight. In these perilous
achievements, wonder is excited less by the surpassing agility of
these little creatures, frequently encumbered as they are by their
young, which cling to them in their career, than by the quickness
of their eye and the unerring accuracy with which they seem almost
to calculate the angle at which a descent will enable them to cover
a given distance, and the recoil to attain a higher altitude.
2. The low country Wanderoo is replaced in the hills by the
larger species, P. ursinus, which inhabits the mountain
zone. The natives, who designate the latter the Maha or
Great Wanderoo, to distinguish it from the Kaloo, or black
one, with which they are familiar, describe it as much wilder, and
more powerful than its congener of the lowland forests. It is
rarely seen by Europeans, this portion of the country having till
very recently been but partially opened; and even now it is
difficult to observe its habits, as it seldom approaches the few
roads which wind through these deep solitudes. At early morning,
ere the day begins to dawn, its loud and peculiar howl, which
consists of a quick repetition [pg 10] of the sounds how
how! maybe frequently heard in the mountain jungles, and forms
one of the characteristic noises of these lofty situations. It was
first captured by Dr. Kelaart in the woods near Nuera-ellia, and
from its peculiar appearance it has been named P. ursinus by
Mr. Blyth.101
3. The P. Thersites, which is chiefly distinguished from
the others by wanting the head tuft, is so rare that it was for
some time doubtful whether the single specimen procured by Dr.
Templeton from the Nuera-kalawa, west of Trincomalie, and on which
Mr. Blyth conferred this new name, was in reality native; but the
occurrence of a second, since identified by Dr. Kelaart, has
established its existence as a separate species. Like the common
wanderoo, the one obtained by Dr. Templeton was partial to fresh
vegetables, plantains, and fruit; but he ate freely boiled rice,
beans, and gram. He was fond of being noticed and petted,
stretching out his limbs in succession to be scratched, drawing
himself up so that his ribs might be reached by the finger, closing
his eyes during the operation, and evincing his satisfaction by
grimaces irresistibly ludicrous.
4. The P. Priamus inhabits the northern and eastern
provinces, and the wooded hills which occur in these portions of
the island. In appearance it differs both in size and in colour
from the common wanderoo, being larger and more inclined to grey;
and in habits it is much less reserved. At Jaffna, and in other
parts of the island where the population is comparatively numerous,
[pg
11] these monkeys become so familiarised with the presence
of man as to exhibit the utmost daring and indifference. A flock of
them will take possession of a Palmyra palm; and so effectually can
they crouch and conceal themselves among the leaves that, on the
slightest alarm, the whole party becomes invisible in an instant.
The presence of a dog, however, excites such an irrepressible
curiosity that, in order to watch his movements, they never fail to
betray themselves. They may be frequently seen congregated on the
roof of a native hut: and, some years ago, the child of a European
clergyman stationed near Jaffna having been left on the ground by
the nurse, was so teased and bitten by them as to cause its
death.
The Singhalese have the impression that the remains of a monkey
are never to be found in the forest; a belief which they have
embodied in the proverb that “he who has seen a white crow, the
nest of a paddi bird, a straight coco-nut tree, or a dead monkey,
is certain to live for ever.” This piece of folk-lore has evidently
reached Ceylon from India, where it is believed that persons
dwelling on the spot where a hanumân monkey, Semnopithecus
entellus, has been killed, will die, that even its bones are
unlucky, and that no house erected where they are hid under ground
can prosper. Hence when a dwelling is to be built, it is one of the
employments of the Jyotish philosophers to ascertain by their
science that none such are concealed; and Buchanan observes that
“it is, perhaps, owing to this fear of ill-luck that no native will
acknowledge his having seen a dead hanumân.”111
The only other quadrumanous animal found in Ceylon is the little
loris121, which, from its sluggish
movements, nocturnal habits, and consequent inaction during the
day, has acquired the name of the “Ceylon Sloth.”
THE LORIS.There are two varieties in the island; one of the ordinary
fulvous brown, and another larger, whose fur is entirely black. A
specimen of the former was sent to me from Chilaw, on the western
coast, and lived for some time at Colombo, feeding on rice, fruit,
and vegetables. It was partial to ants and, other insects, and was
always eager for milk or the bone of a fowl. The naturally slow
motion of its limbs enables the loris to [pg 13] approach
its prey so stealthily that it seizes birds before they can be
alarmed by its presence. The natives assert that it has been known
to strangle the pea-fowl at night, to feast on the brain. During
the day the one which I kept was usually asleep in the strange
position represented on the last page; its perch firmly grasped
with both hands, its back curved into a ball of soft fur, and its
head hidden deep between its legs. The singularly-large and intense
eyes of the loris have attracted the attention, of the Singhalese,
who capture the creature for the purpose of extracting them as
charms and love-potions, and this they are said to effect by
holding the little animal to the fire till its eyeballs burst. Its
Tamil name is thaxangu, or “thin-bodied;” and hence a
deformed child or an emaciated person has acquired in the Tamil
districts the same epithet. The light-coloured variety of the loris
in Ceylon has a spot on its forehead, somewhat resembling the
namam, or mark worn by the worshippers of Vishnu; and, from
this peculiarity, it is distinguished as the
Nama-thavangu.131
II. CHEIROPTERA. Bats.—The multitude of bats
is one of the features of the evening landscape; they abound in
every cave and subterranean passage, in the tunnels on the
highways, in the galleries of the fortifications, in the roofs of
the bungalows, and the ruins of every temple and building. At
sunset they are seen issuing from their diurnal retreats to roam
through the twilight in search of crepuscular insects, and as night
approaches and the lights in the rooms attract the night-flying
lepidoptera, the bats sweep round the dinner-table and [pg 14] carry off
their tiny prey within the glitter of the lamps. Including the
frugivorous section about sixteen species have been identified in
Ceylon; and remarkable varieties of two of these are peculiar to
the island. The colours of some of them are as brilliant as the
plumage of a bird, bright yellow, deep orange, and a rich
ferruginous brown inclining to red.141
But of all the bats, the most conspicuous from its size and
numbers, and the most interesting from its habits, is the rousette
of Ceylon142;—the “flying fox,” as it is
called by Europeans, from the similarity to that animal in its head
and ears, its bright eyes, and intelligent little face. In its
aspect it has nothing of the disagreeable and repulsive look so
common amongst the ordinary vespertilionidæ; it likewise
differs from them in the want of the nose-leaf, as well as of the
tail. In the absence of the latter, its flight is directed by means
of a membrane attached to the inner side of each of the hind legs,
and kept distended at the lower extremity by a projecting bone,
just as a fore-and-aft sail is distended by a “gaff.”
FLYING FOXES.In size the body measures from ten to twelve inches in length,
but the arms are prolonged, and especially the metacarpal bones and
phalanges of the four fingers over which the leathery wings are
distended, till the alar expanse measures between four and five
feet. Whilst the function of these metamorphosed limbs in
sustaining flight entitles them to the designation of “wings,” they
are endowed with another faculty, the existence of [pg 15] which
essentially distinguishes them from the feathery wings of a bird,
and vindicates the appropriateness of the term
Cheiro-ptera151, or
“winged hands,” by which the bats are designated. Over the entire
surface of the thin membrane of which they are formed, sentient
nerves of the utmost delicacy are distributed, by means of which
the animal is enabled during the darkness to direct its motions
with security, avoiding objects against contact with which at such
times its eyes and other senses would be insufficient to protect
it.152 Spallanzani ascertained the
perfection of this faculty by a series of cruel experiments, by
which he demonstrated that bats, even after their eyes had been
destroyed, and their external organs, of smell and hearing
obliterated, were still enabled to direct their flight with
unhesitating confidence, avoiding even threads suspended to
intercept them. But after ascertaining the fact, Spallanzani was
slow to arrive at its origin; and ascribed the surprising power to
the existence of some sixth supplementary sense, the enjoyment of
which was withheld from other animals. Cuvier, however, dissipated
the obscurity by showing the seat of this extraordinary endowment
to be in the wings, the superficies of which retains the exquisite
sensitiveness to touch that is inherent in the palms of the human
hand and the extremities of the fingers, as well as in the feet of
some of the mammalia.153 The
face and head of the Pteropus are covered with brownish-grey
hairs, the neck and chest are dark ferruginous grey, and the rest
of the body brown, inclining to black.
These active and energetic creatures, though chiefly
frugivorous, are to some extent insectivorous also, as attested by
their teeth161, as
well as by their habits. They feed, amongst other things, on the
guava, the plantain, the rose-apple, and the fruit of the various
fig-trees. Flying foxes are abundant in all the maritime districts,
especially at the season when the pulum-imbul162, one of the silk-cotton trees, is
putting forth its flower-buds, of which they are singularly fond.
By day they suspend themselves from the highest branches, hanging
by the claws of the hind legs, with the head turned upwards, and
pressing the chin against the breast. At sunset taking wing, they
hover, with a murmuring sound occasioned by the beating of their
broad membranous wings, around the fruit trees, on which they feed
till morning, when they resume their pensile attitude as
before.
A favourite resort of these bats is to the lofty india-rubber
trees, which on one side overhang the Botanic Gardens of Paradenia
in the vicinity of Kandy. Thither for some years past, they have
congregated, chiefly in the autumn, taking their departure when the
figs of the ficus elastica are consumed. Here they hang in
such prodigious numbers, that frequently, large branches give way
beneath their accumulated weight. Every forenoon, generally between
the hours of 9 and 11 A.M., they take to wing, apparently for
exercise, and possibly to sun their wings and fur, and dry them
after the dews of the early morning. On these occasions, their
numbers are quite surprising, flying in clouds as thick as bees or
midges. After these recreations, they hurry back to their favourite
trees, chattering and screaming like monkeys, and always wrangling
and contending angrily for the most shady and comfortable places in
which to hang for the rest of the day protected from the sun. The
branches they resort to soon become almost divested of leaves,
these being stripped off by the action of the bats, attaching and
detaching themselves by means of their hooked feet. At sunset, they
fly off to their feeding-grounds, probably at a considerable
distance, as it requires a large area to furnish sufficient food
for such multitudes.
In all its movements and attitudes, the action of the
Pteropus is highly interesting. If placed upon the ground,
it is almost helpless, none of its limbs being calculated for
progressive motion; it drags itself along by means of the hook
attached to each of its extended thumbs, pushing at the same time
with those of its hind feet. Its natural position is exclusively
pensile; it moves laterally from branch to branch with great ease,
by using each foot alternately, and climbs, when necessary, by
means of its claws.
When at rest, or asleep, the disposition of the limbs is most
curious. At such times it suspends itself by one foot only,
bringing the other close to its side, and thus it is enabled to
wrap itself in the ample folds of its wings, which envelop it like
a mantle, leaving only its upturned head uncovered. Its fur is thus
protected from damp and rain, and to some extent its body is
sheltered from the sun.
As it collects its food by means of its mouth, either when on
the wing, or when suspended within reach of it, the flying-fox is
always more or less liable to [pg 18] have the spoil wrested from
it by its intrusive companions, before it can make good its way to
some secure retreat in which to devour it unmolested. In such
conflicts they bite viciously, tear each other with their hooks,
and scream incessantly, till, taking to flight, the persecuted one
reaches some place of safety, where he hangs by one foot, and
grasping the fruit he has secured in the claws and opposable thumb
of the other, he hastily reduces it to lumps, with which he stuffs
his cheek pouches till they become distended like those of a
monkey; then suspended in safety, he commences to chew and suck the
pieces, rejecting the refuse with his tongue.
To drink, which it does by lapping, the Pteropus suspends
itself head downwards from a branch above the water.
Insects, caterpillars, birds’ eggs, and young birds are devoured
by them; and the Singhalese say that the flying-fox will even
attack a tree snake. It is killed by the natives for the sake of
its flesh, which, I have been told by a gentleman who has eaten of
it, resembles that of the hare.181 It
is strongly attracted to the coconut trees during the period when
toddy is drawn for distillation, and exhibits, it is said, at such
times, symptoms resembling intoxication.
Neither the flying-fox, nor any other bat that I know of in
Ceylon, ever hybernates.
There are several varieties (one of them peculiar to the island)
of the horse-shoe-headed Rhinolophus, with the strange
leaf-like appendage erected on the extremity of the nose.
It has been suggested that the insectivorous bats, though
nocturnal, are deficient in that keen vision characteristic of
animals which take their prey by night.
RHINOLOPHUS.I doubt whether this conjecture be well founded; it certainly
does not apply to the Pteropus and the other frugivorous
species, in which the faculty of sight is singularly clear. As
regards the others, it is possible that in their peculiar
æconomy some additional power may be required to act in
concert with that of vision, as in insects, touch is superadded, in
its most sensitive development, to that of sight. It is probable
that the noseleaf, which forms an extended screen stretched behind
the nostrils in some of the bats, may be intended by nature to
facilitate the collection and conduction of odours, just as the
vast expansion of the shell of the ear in the same family is
designed to assist in the collection of sounds—and thus to
supplement their vision when in pursuit of prey in the dusk by the
superior sensitiveness of the organs of hearing and smell.
One tiny little bat, not much larger than the humble
[pg
20] bee201, and
of a glossy black colour, is sometimes to be seen about Colombo. It
is so familiar and gentle that it will alight on the cloth during
dinner, and manifests so little alarm that it seldom makes any
effort to escape before a wine glass can be inverted to secure
it.
Although not strictly in order, this seems not an inappropriate
place to notice one of the most curious peculiarities connected
with the bats—their singular parasite, the Nycteribia.202 On cursory observation this
creature appears to have neither head, antennæ, eyes, nor
mouth; and the earlier observers of its structure satisfied
themselves that the place of the latter was supplied by a
cylindrical sucker, which, being placed between the shoulders, the
insect had no option but to turn on its back to feed. Another
anomaly was thought to compensate for this apparent
inconvenience;—its three pairs of legs, armed with claws, are
so arranged that they seem to be equally distributed over its upper
and under sides, the creature being thus enabled to use them like
hands, and to grasp the strong hairs above it while extracting its
nourishment.
It moves, in fact, by rolling itself rapidly along, rotating
like a wheel on the extremities of its spokes, or like the clown in
a pantomime, hurling himself forward on hands and feet alternately.
Its celerity is so great that Colonel Montague, who was one of the
first to describe it minutely203,
says its speed exceeds that of any known insect, and as its joints
are so flexible as to yield in every direction (like what mechanics
call a “ball and socket”), its motions are exceedingly grotesque as
it tumbles through the fur of the bat.
NYCTERBIA.To enable it to attain its marvellous velocity, each foot is
armed with two sharp hooks, with elastic opposable pads, so that
the hair can not only be rapidly seized and firmly held, but as
quickly disengaged, as the creature whirls away in its headlong
career.
The insects to which it bears the nearest affinity, are the
Hippoboscidæ, or “spider flies,” that infest birds and
horses; but, unlike them, the Nycteribia is unable to fly.
Its strangest peculiarity, and that which gave rise to the
belief that it was headless, is its faculty when at rest of
throwing back its head and pressing it close between its shoulders
till the under side becomes uppermost, not a vestige of head being
discernible where we would naturally look for it, and the whole
seeming but a casual inequality on its back.
On closer examination this, apparent tubercle is found to have a
leathery attachment like a flexible neck, and by a sudden jerk the
little creature is enabled to project it forward into its normal
position, when it is discovered to be furnished with a mouth,
antennæ, and four eyes, two on each side.
The organisation of such an insect is a marvellous adaptation of
physical form to special circumstances. As the nycteribia has to
make its way through fur and [pg 22] hairs, its feet are furnished with
prehensile hooks that almost convert them into hands; and being
obliged to conform to the sudden flights of its patron, and
accommodate itself to inverted positions, all attitudes are
rendered alike to it by the arrangement of its limbs, which enables
it, after every possible gyration, to find itself always on its
feet.
III. CARNIVORA.—Bears.—Of the
carnivora, the one most dreaded by the natives of Ceylon,
and the only one of the larger animals that makes the depths of the
forest its habitual retreat, is the bear221, attracted chiefly by the honey
which is found in the hollow trees and clefts of the rocks.
Occasionally spots of fresh earth are observed which have been
turned up by the bears in search of some favourite root. They feed
also on the termites and ants. A friend of mine traversing the
forest, near Jaffna, at early dawn, had his attention attracted by
the growling of a bear, that was seated upon a lofty branch,
thrusting portions of a red-ants’ nest into his mouth with one paw,
whilst with the other he endeavoured to clear his eyebrows and lips
of the angry inmates, which bit and tortured him in their rage. The
Ceylon bear is found in the low and dry districts of the northern
and south-eastern coast, and is seldom met with on the mountains or
the moist and damp plains of the west. It is furnished with a bushy
tuft of hair on the back, between the shoulders, by which the young
are accustomed to cling till sufficiently strong to provide for
their own safety. During a severe drought that prevailed in the
northern province in 1850, the district of Caretchy was so infested
by bears that the Oriental custom of the women resorting to the
wells was altogether suspended, as it was a common occurrence to
find one of these animals in the water, unable to climb up the
yielding and slippery soil, down which its thirst had impelled it
to slide during the night.
INDIAN BEAR.Although the structure of the bear shows him to be naturally
omnivorous, he rarely preys upon flesh in Ceylon, and his solitary
habits whilst in search of honey and fruits render him timid and
retiring. Hence he evinces alarm on the approach of man or other
animals, and, unable to make a rapid retreat, his panic, rather
than any vicious disposition, leads him to become an assailant in
self-defence. But so furious are his assaults under such
circumstances that the Singhalese have a terror of his attack
greater than that created by any [pg 24] other beast of the forest.
If not armed with a gun, a native, in the places where bears
abound, usually carries a light axe, called “kodelly,” with which
to strike them on the head. The bear, on the other hand, always
aims at the face, and, if successful in prostrating his victim,
usually commences by assailing the eyes. I have met numerous
individuals on our journeys who exhibited frightful scars from such
encounters, the white seams of their wounds contrasting hideously
with the dark colour of the rest of their bodies.
The Veddahs in Bintenne, whose principal stores consist of
honey, live in dread of the bears, because, attracted by the
perfume, they will not hesitate to attack their rude dwellings,
when allured by this irresistible temptation. The Post-office
runners, who always travel by night, are frequently exposed to
danger from these animals, especially along the coast from Putlam
to Aripo, where they are found in considerable numbers; and, to
guard against surprise, they are accustomed to carry flambeaux, to
give warning to the bears, and enable them to shuffle out of the
path.241
Leopards251 are
the only formidable members of the tiger race in Ceylon252, and they are neither very
numerous nor very dangerous, as they seldom attack man. By the
Europeans, the Ceylon leopard is erroneously called a
cheetah, but the true “cheetah” (felis jubata),’ the
hunting leopard of India, does not exist in the island.253
There is a rare variety of the leopard which has been found in
various parts of the island, in which the skin, instead of being
spotted, is of a uniform black.254
Leopards frequent the vicinity of pasture hinds in quest of the
deer and other peaceful animals which resort to them; and the
villagers often complain of the destruction [pg 26] of their
cattle by these formidable marauders. In relation to them, the
natives have a curious but firm conviction that when a bullock is
killed by a leopard, and, in expiring, falls so that its right
side is undermost, the leopard will not return to devour it. I
have been told by English sportsmen (some of whom share in the
popular belief), that sometimes, when they have proposed to watch
by the carcase of a bullock recently killed by a leopard, in the
hope of shooting the spoiler on his return in search of his prey,
the native owner of the slaughtered animal, though earnestly
desiring to be avenged, has assured them that it would be in vain,
as the beast having fallen on its right side, the leopard not
return.
LEOPARD AND CHEETAH.The Singhalese hunt them for the sake of their extremely
beautiful skins, but prefer taking them in traps and pitfalls, and
occasionally in spring cages formed of poles driven firmly into the
ground, within which a kid is generally fastened as a bait; the
door being held open by a sapling bent down by the united force of
several men, and so arranged as to act as a spring, to which a
noose is ingeniously attached, formed of plaited deer’s hide. The
cries of the kid attract the leopard, which being tempted to enter,
is enclosed by the liberation of the spring, and grasped firmly
round the body by the noose.
Like the other carnivora, leopards are timid and cowardly in the
presence of man, never intruding on him voluntarily, and making a
hasty retreat when approached. Instances have, however, occurred of
individuals having been slain by them; and it is believed, that,
having once tasted human blood, they, like the tiger, acquire an
habitual relish for it. A peon, on duty by night at the court-house
of Anarajapoora, was some years ago carried off by a leopard from a
table in the verandah on which he had laid down his head to sleep.
At Batticaloa a “cheetah” in two instances in succession was known
to carry off men placed on a stage erected in a tree to drive away
elephants from rice-land: but such cases are rare, and, as compared
with their dread of the bear, the natives of Ceylon entertain but
slight apprehensions of the “cheetah.” It is, however, the dread of
sportsmen, whose dogs when beating in the jungle are especially
exposed to its attacks: and I am aware of an instance in which a
party having tied their dogs to the tent-pole for security, and
fallen asleep round them, a leopard sprang into the tent and
carried [pg
28] off a dog from the midst of its slumbering masters. On
one occasion being in the mountains near Kandy, a messenger
despatched to me through the jungle excused his delay by stating
that a “cheetah” had seated itself in the only practicable path,
and remained quietly licking its fore paws and rubbing them over
its face, till he was forced to drive it, with stones, into the
forest.
Leopards are strongly attracted by the peculiar odour which
accompanies small-pox. The reluctance of the natives to submit
themselves or their children to vaccination exposes the island to
frightful visitations of this disease; and in the villages in the
interior it is usual on such occasions to erect huts in the jungle
to serve as temporary hospitals. Towards these the leopards are
certain to be allured; and the medical officers are obliged to
resort to increased precautions in consequence. This fact is
connected with a curious native superstition. Amongst the avenging
scourges sent direct from the gods, the Singhalese regard both the
ravages of the leopard, and the visitation of the small-pox. The
latter they call par excellence “maha ledda,” the great
“sickness;” they look upon it as a special manifestation of
devidosay, “the displeasure of the gods;” and the attraction
of the cheetahs to the bed of the sufferer they attribute to the
same indignant agency. A few years ago, the capua, or demon-priest
of a “dewale,” at Oggalbodda, a village near Caltura, when
suffering under small-pox, was devoured by a cheetah, and his fate
was regarded by those of an opposite faith as a special judgment
from heaven.
Such is the awe inspired by this belief in connection with the
small-pox, that a person afflicted with it is [pg 29] always
approached as one in immediate communication with the deity; his
attendants, address him as “my lord,” and “your lordship,” and
exhaust on him the whole series of honorific epithets in which
their language abounds for approaching personages of the most
exalted rank. At evening and morning, a lamp is lighted before him,
and invoked with prayers to protect his family from the dire
calamity which has befallen himself. And after his recovery, his
former associates refrain from communication with him until a
ceremony shall have been performed by the capua, called
awasara-pandema, or “the offering of lights for permission,”
the object of which is to entreat permission of the deity to regard
him as freed from the divine displeasure, with liberty to his
friends to renew their intercourse as before.
Major SKINNER, who for upwards of forty years has had
occasionally to live for long periods in the interior, occupied in
the prosecution of surveys and the construction of roads, is
strongly of opinion that the disposition of the leopard towards man
is essentially pacific, and that, when discovered, its natural
impulse is to effect its escape. In illustration of this I insert
an extract from one of his letters, which describes an adventure
highly characteristic of this instinctive timidity:—
“On the occasion of one of my visits to Adam’s Peak, in the
prosecution of my military reconnoissances of the mountain zone, I
fixed on a pretty little patena (i.e., meadow) in the midst
of an extensive and dense forest in the southern segment of the
Peak Range, as a favourable spot for operations. It would have been
difficult, after descending from the cone of the peak, to have
found one’s way to this point, in the midst of so [pg 30] vast a
wilderness of trees, had not long experience assured me that good
game tracks would be found leading to it, and by one of them I
reached it. It was in the afternoon, just after one of those
tropical sunshowers that decorate every branch and blade with
pendant brilliants, and the little patena was covered with game,
either driven to the open space by the drippings from the leaves or
tempted by the freshness of the pasture: there were several pairs
of elk, the bearded antlered male contrasting finely with his mate;
and other varieties of game in a profusion not to be found in any
place frequented by man. It was some time before I would allow them
to be disturbed by the rude fall of the axe, in our necessity to
establish our bivouac for the night, and they were so unaccustomed
to danger that it was long before they took alarm at our
noises.
“The following morning, anxious to gain a height for my
observations in time to avail myself of the clear atmosphere of
sunrise, I started off by myself through the jungle, leaving orders
for my men, with my surveying instruments, to follow my track by
the notches which I cut in the bark of the trees. On leaving the
plain, I availed myself of a fine wide game track which lay in my
direction, and had gone, perhaps, half a mile from the camp, when I
was startled by a slight rustling in the nilloo301 to my right, and in another
instant, by the spring of a magnificent leopard, which, in a bound
of full eight feet in height over the lower brushwood, lighted at
my feet within eighteen inches of the spot whereon I stood, and lay
in a crouching position, his fiery gleaming eyes fixed on me.
“The predicament was not a pleasant one. I had no weapon of
defence, and with one spring or blow of his paw the beast could
have annihilated me. To move I knew would only encourage his
attack. It occurred to me at the moment that I had heard of the
power of man’s eye over wild animals, and accordingly I fixed my
gaze as intently as the agitation of such a moment enabled me on
his eyes: we stared at each other for some seconds, when, to my
inexpressible joy, the beast turned and bounded down the straight
open path before me. This scene occurred just at that period of the
morning when the grazing animals retired from the open patena to
the cool shade of the forest: doubtless, the leopard had taken my
approach for that of a deer, or some such animal. And if his spring
had been at a quadruped instead of a biped, his distance was so
well measured, that it must have landed him on the neck of a deer,
an elk, or a buffalo; as it was, one pace more would have done for
me. A bear would not have let his victim off so easily.”
Notwithstanding the unequalled agility of the monkey, it falls a
prey, and not unfrequently, to the leopard. The latter, on
approaching a tree on which a troop of monkeys have taken shelter,
causes an instant and fearful excitement, which they manifest by
loud and continued screams, and incessant restless leaps from
branch to branch. The leopard meanwhile walks round and round the
tree, with his eyes firmly fixed upon his victims, till at last
exhausted by terror, and prostrated by vain exertions to escape,
one or more falls a prey to his voracity. So rivetted is the
attention of both during the struggle, that a sportsman, on one
occasion, attracted by the noise, was enabled to approach within an
uncomfortable [pg 32] distance of the leopard, before he
discovered the cause of the unusual dismay amongst the monkeys
overhead.
It is said, but I have never been able personally to verify the
fact, that the leopard of Ceylon exhibits a peculiarity in being
unable entirely to retract its claws within their sheaths.
There is another piece of curious folk lore, in connexion with
the leopard. The natives assert that it devours the kaolin
clay called by them kiri-mattie321 in a
very peculiar way. They say that the cheetah places it in lumps
beside him, and then gazes intently on the sun, till on turning his
eyes on the clay, every piece appears of a red colour like flesh,
when he instantly devours it.
They likewise allege that the female cheetah never produces more
than one litter of whelps.
Of the lesser feline species, the number and variety in
Ceylon is inferior to those of India. The Palm-cat322 lurks by day among the fronds of
the coco-nut palms, and by night makes destructive forays on the
fowls of the villagers; and, in order to suck the blood of its
victim, inflicts a wound so small as to be almost imperceptible.
The glossy genette323, the
“Civet” of Europeans, is common in the northern province,
where the Tamils confine it in cages for the sake of its musk,
which they collect from the wooden bars on which it rubs itself.
Edrisi, the Moorish geographer, writing in the twelfth century,
enumerates musk as one of the productions then exported from
Ceylon.324
Dogs.—There is no native wild dog in Ceylon, but
every village and town is haunted by mongrels of European descent,
that are known by the generic description of Pariahs. They
are a miserable race, lean, wretched, and mangy, acknowledged by no
owners, living on the garbage of the streets and sewers, and if
spoken to unexpectedly they shrink with an almost involuntary cry.
Yet in these persecuted outcasts there survives that germ of
instinctive affection which binds the dog to the human race, and a
gentle word, even a look of compassionate kindness, is sufficient
foundation for a lasting attachment.
The Singhalese, from their religious aversion to taking away
life in any form, permit the increase of these desolate creatures
till in the hot season they become so numerous as to be a nuisance;
and the only expedient hitherto devised by the civil government to
reduce their numbers, is once in each year to offer a reward for
their destruction, when the Tamils and Malays pursue them in the
streets with clubs (guns being forbidden by the police for fear of
accidents), and the unresisting dogs are beaten to death on the
side-paths and door-steps where they had been taught to resort for
food. Lord Torrington, during his government of Ceylon, attempted
the more civilised experiment of putting some check on their
numbers, by imposing a dog-tax, the effect of which would have been
to lead to the drowning of puppies; whereas there is reason to
believe that dogs [pg 34] are at present bred by the
horse-keepers to be killed for sake of the reward.
The Pariahs of Colombo exhibit something of the same instinct,
by which the dogs in other eastern cities partition the towns into
districts, each apportioned to a separate pack, by whom it is
jealously guarded from the encroachments of all intruders.
Travellers at Cairo and Constantinople are often startled at night
by the racket occasioned by the demonstrations made by the rightful
possessors of a locality in repelling its invasion by some
straggling wanderer. At Alexandria, in 1844, the dogs had
multiplied to such an inconvenient extent, that Mehemet Ali, to
abate the nuisance, caused them to be shipped in boats and conveyed
to one of the islands at the mouth of the Nile. But the streets,
thus deprived of their habitual patroles, were speedily infested by
dogs from the suburbs, in such numbers that the evil became greater
than before, and in the following year, the legitimate denizens
were recalled from their exile in the Delta, and speedily drove
back the intruders within their original boundary. May not this
disposition of the dog be referable to the impulse by which, in a
state of nature, each pack appropriates its own hunting-fields
within a particular area? and may not the impulse which, even in a
state of domestication, they still manifest to attack a passing dog
upon the road, be a remnant of this localised instinct, and a
concomitant dislike of intrusion?
Jackal.—The Jackal341 in
the low country of Ceylon hunts thus in packs, headed by a leader,
and these audacious prowlers have been seen to assault and pull
[pg
35] down a deer. The small number of hares in the districts
they infest is ascribed to their depredations. In the legends of
the natives, and in the literature of the Buddhists, the jackal in
Ceylon is as essentially the type of cunning as the fox is the
emblem of craft and adroitness in the traditions of Europe. In
fact, it is more than doubtful whether the jackal of the East be
not the creature alluded to, in the various passages of the Sacred
Writings which make allusion to the artfulness and subtlety of the
“fox.”
These faculties they display in a high degree in their hunting
expeditions, especially in the northern portions of the island,
where they are found in the greatest numbers. In these districts,
where the wide sandy plains are thinly covered with brushwood, the
face of the country is diversified by patches of thick jungle and
detached groups of trees, that form insulated groves and topes. At
dusk, or after nightfall, a pack of jackals, having watched a hare
or a small deer take refuge in one of these retreats, immediately
surround it on all sides; and having stationed a few to watch the
path by which the game entered, the leader commences the attack by
raising the unearthly cry peculiar to their race, and which
resembles the sound okkay! loudly and rapidly repeated. The
whole party then rush into the jungle, and drive out the victim,
which generally falls into the ambush previously laid to entrap
it.
A native gentleman351, who
had favourable opportunities of observing the movements of these
animals, informed me, that when a jackal has brought down his game
and killed it, his first impulse is to hide it in the nearest
jungle, whence he issues with an air of easy indifference
[pg
36] to observe whether anything more powerful than himself
may be at hand, from which he might encounter the risk of being
despoiled of his capture. If the coast be clear, he returns to the
concealed carcase, and carries it away, followed by his companions.
But if a man be in sight, or any other animal to be avoided, my
informant has seen the jackal seize a coco-nut husk in his mouth,
or any similar substance, and fly at full speed, as if eager to
carry off his pretended prize, returning for the real booty at some
more convenient season.
They are subject to hydrophobia, and instances are frequent in
Ceylon of cattle being bitten by them and dying in consequence.
JACKAL’S SKULL AND HORNAn excrescence is sometimes found on the head of the jackal,
consisting of a small horny cone about half an inch in length, and
concealed by a tuft of hair. This the natives call
narrie-comboo; and they aver that this “Jackal’s Horn” only
grows on the head of the leader of the pack.361
Both the Singhalese and the Tamils regard it as a talisman, and
believe that its fortunate [pg 37] possessor can command by its
instrumentality the realisation of every wish, and that if stolen
or lost by him, it will invariably return of its own accord. Those
who have jewels to conceal rest in perfect security if along with
them they can deposit a narri-comboo, fully convinced that its
presence is an effectual safeguard against robbers.
One fabulous virtue ascribed to the narrie-comboo by the
Singhalese is absurdly characteristic of their passion for
litigation, as well as of their perceptions of the “glorious
uncertainty of the law.” It is the popular belief that the
fortunate discoverer of a jackal’s horn becomes thereby invincible
in every lawsuit, and must irresistibly triumph over every
opponent. A gentleman connected “with the Supreme Court of Colombo
has repeated to me a circumstance, within his own knowledge, of a
plaintiff who, after numerous defeats, eventually succeeded against
his opponent by the timely acquisition of this invaluable charm.
Before the final hearing of the cause, the mysterious horn was duly
exhibited to his friends; and the consequence was, that the adverse
witnesses, appalled by the belief that no one could possibly give
judgment against a person so endowed, suddenly modified their
previous evidence, and secured an unforeseen victory for the happy
owner of the narrie-comboo!
The Mongoos.—Of the Mongoos or Ichneumon four
species have been described; and one, that frequents the hills near
Neuera-ellia371, is
so remarkable from its bushy [pg 38] fur, that the invalid soldiers in
the sanatarium there, to whom it is familiar, have given it the
name of the “Ceylon Badger.”
HERPESTES VITTICOLLIS.I have found universally that the natives of Ceylon attach no
credit to the European story of the Mongoos (H. griseus)
resorting to some plant, which no one has yet succeeded in
identifying, as an antidote against the bite of the venomous
serpents on which it preys: There is no doubt that, in its
conflicts with the cobra de capello and other poisonous snakes,
which it attacks with as little hesitation as the harmless ones, it
may be seen occasionally to retreat, and even to retire into the
jungle, and, it is added, to eat some vegetable; but a gentleman,
who has been a frequent observer of its exploits, assures me that
most usually the herb it resorted to was [pg 39] grass;
and if this were not at hand, almost any other plant that grew near
seemed equally acceptable. Hence has probably arisen the long list
of plants, such as the Ophioxylon serpentinum and
Ophiorhiza mungos, the Aristolochia Indica, the
Mimosa octandria, and others, each of which has been
asserted to be the ichneumon’s specific; whilst their multiplicity
is demonstrative of the non-existence of any one in particular on
which the animal relies as an antidote. Were there any truth in the
tale as regards the mongoos, it would be difficult to understand
why creatures, such as the secretary bird and the falcon, and
others, which equally destroy serpents, should be left defenceless,
and the ichneumon alone provided with a prophylactic. Besides, were
the ichneumon inspired by that courage which would result from the
consciousness of security, it would be so indifferent to the bite
of the serpent that we might conclude that, both in its approaches
and its assault, it would be utterly careless as to the precise
mode of its attack. Such, however, is far from being the case: and
next to its audacity, nothing can be more surprising than the
adroitness with which it escapes the spring of the snake under a
due sense of danger, and the cunning with which it makes its
arrangements to leap upon the back and fasten its teeth in the head
of the cobra. It is this display of instinctive ingenuity that
Lucan391 celebrates where he paints the
ichneumon diverting the attention of the asp, by the motion of his
bushy tail, and then seizing it in the midst of its
confusion:—
“Aspidas ut Pharias caudâ solertior hostis
Ludit, et iratas incertâ provocat umbrâ:
Obliquusque caput vanas serpentis in auras
Effuse toto comprendit guttura morsu
Letiferam citra saniem; tunc irrita pestis
Exprimitur, faucesque fluunt pereunte veneno.”
Pharsalia, lib. iv. v. 729.
The mystery of the mongoos and its antidote has been referred to
the supposition that there may be some peculiarity in its
organisation which renders it proof against the poison of
the serpent. It remains for future investigation to determine how
far this conjecture is founded in truth; and whether in the blood
of the mongoos there exists any element or quality which acts as a
prophylactic. Such exceptional provisions are not without precedent
in the animal oeconomy: the hornbill feeds with impunity on the
deadly fruit of the strychnos; the milky juice of some species of
euphorbia, which is harmless to oxen, is invariably fatal to the
zebra; and the tsetse fly, the pest of South Africa, whose bite is
mortal to the ox, the dog, and the horse, is harmless to man and
the untamed creatures of the forest.401
The Singhalese distinguish one species of mongoos, which they
designate “Hotambeya” and which they assert never preys upon
serpents. A writer in the Ceylon Miscellany mentions, that
they are often to be seen “crossing rivers and frequently
mud-brooks near Chilaw; the adjacent thickets affording them
shelter, and their food consisting of aquatic reptiles, crabs, and
mollusca.”402
FLYING SQUIRREL.IV. RODENTIA. Squirrels.—Smaller animals in
great numbers enliven the forests and lowland plains with their
graceful movements. Squirrels411, of
which there are a great variety, make their shrill metallic call
heard [pg
42] at early morning in the woods; and when sounding their
note of warning on the approach of a civet or a tree-snake, the
ears tingle with the loud trill of defiance, which rings as clear
and rapid as the running down of an alarum, and is instantly caught
up and re-echoed from every side by their terrified playmates.
One of the largest, belonging to a closely allied subgenus, is
known as the “Flying Squirrel,”421 from
its being assisted, in its prodigious leaps from tree to tree, by a
parachute formed by the skin of the flanks, which, on the extension
of the limbs front and rear, is laterally expanded from foot to
foot. Thus buoyed up in its descent, the spring which it is enabled
to make from one lofty tree to another resembles the flight of a
bird rather than the bound of a quadruped.
Of these pretty creatures there are two species, one common to
Ceylon and India, the other (Sciuropterus Layardii, Kelaart)
is peculiar to the island, and by far the most beautiful of the
family.
Rats.—Among the multifarious inhabitants to which
the forest affords at once a home and provender is the tree
rat422, which forms its nest on the
branches, and by turns makes its visits to the dwellings of the
natives, frequenting the ceilings in preference to the lower parts
of houses. Here it is incessantly followed by the rat-snake423, whose domestication is
encouraged by the servants, [pg 43] in consideration of its services in
destroying vermin. I had one day an opportunity of surprising a
snake that had just seized on a rat of this description, and of
covering it suddenly with a glass shade, before it had time to
swallow its prey. The serpent, appeared stunned by its own capture,
and allowed the rat to escape from its jaws, which cowered at one
side of the glass in the most pitiable state of trembling terror.
The two were left alone for some moments, and on my return to them
the snake was as before in the same attitude of sullen stupor. On
setting them at liberty, the rat bounded towards the nearest fence;
but quick as lightning it was followed by its pursuer, which seized
it before it could gain the hedge, through which I saw the snake
glide with its victim in its jaws. In parts of the central
province, at Oovah and Bintenne, the house-rat is eaten as a common
article of food. The Singhalese believe it and the mouse to be
liable to hydrophobia.
Another indigenous variety of the rat is that which made its
appearance for the first time in the coffee plantations on the
Kandyan hills in the year 1847; and in such swarms does it continue
to infest them, at intervals, that as many as a thousand have been
killed in a single day on one estate. In order to reach the buds
and blossoms of the coffee, it cuts such of the slender branches as
would not sustain its weight, and feeds on them when fallen to the
ground; and so delicate and sharp are its incisors, that the twigs
thus destroyed are detached by as clean a cut as if severed with a
knife.
The coffee-rat431 is
an insular variety of the Mus hirsutus of W. Elliot, found
in Southern India. They inhabit [pg 44] the forests, making their
nests among the roots of the trees, and feeding, in the season, on
the ripe seeds of the nilloo. Like the lemmings of Norway and
Lapland, they migrate in vast numbers on the occurrence of a
scarcity of their ordinary food. The Malabar coolies are so fond of
their flesh, that they evince a preference for those districts in
which the coffee plantations are subject to their incursions, where
they fry the rats in coco-nut oil, or convert them into curry.
COFFEE RAT.Bandicoot.—Another favourite article of food with
the coolies is the pig-rat or Bandicoot441,
which attains on those hills the weight of two or three pounds, and
grows to nearly the length of two feet. As it feeds on grain and
roots, its flesh is said to be delicate, and much resembling young
pork.
Its nests, when rifled, are frequently found to contain
considerable quantities of rice, stored up against the dry
season.
BANDICOOT.Porcupine.—The Porcupine451
is another of the rodentia which has drawn down upon itself
the hostility of the planters, from its destruction of the young
coconut palms, to which it is a pernicious and persevering, but
withal so crafty, a visitor, that it is with difficulty any trap
can be so disguised, or any bait made so alluring, as to lead to
its capture. The usual expedient in Ceylon is to place some of its
favourite food at the extremity of a trench, so narrow as to
prevent the porcupine turning, whilst the direction of his quills
effectually bars his retreat backwards. On a newly planted coconut
tope, at Hang-welle, within a few miles of Colombo, [pg 46] I have
heard of as many as twenty-seven being thus captured in a single
night; but such success is rare. The more ordinary expedient is to
smoke them out by burning straw at the apertures of their burrows.
At Ootacamund, on the continent of the Dekkan, spring-guns have
been used with great success by the Superintendent of the
Horticultural Gardens; placing them so as to sweep the runs of the
porcupines. The flesh is esteemed a delicacy in Ceylon, and in
consistency, colour, and flavour it very much resembles young
pork.
V. EDENTATA. Pengolin.—Of the Edentata the only
example in Ceylon is the scaly ant-eater, called by the Singhalese,
Caballaya, but usually known by its Malay name of
Pengolin461, a
word indicative of its faculty, when alarmed, of “rolling itself
up” into a compact ball, by bending its head towards its stomach,
arching its back into a circle, and securing all by a powerful fold
of its mail-covered tail. The feet of the pengolin are armed with
powerful claws, which in walking they double in, like the ant-eater
of Brazil. These they use in extracting their favourite food from
ant-hills and decaying wood. When at liberty, they burrow in the
dry ground to a depth of seven or eight feet, where they reside in
pairs, and produce annually one or two young.462
Of two specimens which I kept alive at different times, one,
about two feet in length, from the vicinity of Kandy, was a gentle
and affectionate creature, which, [pg 47] after wandering over the
house in search of ants, would attract attention to its wants by
climbing up my knee, laying hold of my leg with its prehensile
tail. The other, more than double that length, was caught in the
jungle near Chilaw, and brought to me in Colombo. I had always
understood that the pengolin was unable to climb trees; but the one
last mentioned frequently ascended a tree in my garden, in search
of ants; and this it effected by means of its hooked feet, aided by
an oblique grasp of the tail. The ants it seized by extending its
round and glutinous tongue along their tracks; and in the stomach
of one which was opened after death, I found a quantity of small
stones and gravel, which had been taken to facilitate digestion. In
both specimens in my possession the scales of the back [pg 48] were a
cream-coloured white, with a tinge of red in that which came from
Chilaw, probably acquired by the insinuation of the Cabook dust
which abounds along the western coast of the island.
THE PENGOLIN.
SKELETON OF PENGOLIN.Of the habits of the pengolin I found that very little was known
by the natives, who regard it with aversion, one name given to it
being the “Negombo Devil.” Those kept by me were, generally
speaking, quiet during the day, and grew restless and active as
evening and night approached. Both had been taken near rocks, in
the hollows of which they had their dwelling, but owing to their
slow power of motion, they were unable to reach their hiding place
when overtaken. When frightened, they rolled themselves instantly
into a rounded ball; and such was the powerful force of muscle,
that the strength of a man was insufficient to uncoil it. In
reconnoitring they made important use of the tail, resting upon it
and their hind legs, and holding themselves nearly erect, to
command a view of their object. The strength of this powerful limb
will be perceived from the accompanying drawing of [pg 49] the
skeleton of the Manis; in which it will be seen that the tail is
equal in length to all the rest of the body, whilst the
vertebræ which compose it are stronger by far than those of
the back.
From the size and position of the bones of the leg, the pengolin
is endued with prodigious power; and its faculty of exerting this
vertically, was displayed in overturning heavy cases, by
insinuating itself under them, between the supports, by which it is
customary in Ceylon to raise trunks a few inches above the floor,
in order to prevent the attacks of white ants.
VI. RUMINANTIA. The Gaur.—Besides the deer, and
some varieties of the humped ox, that have been introduced from the
opposite continent of India, Ceylon has probably but one other
indigenous bovine ruminant, the buffalo.491 There is a tradition that the
gaur, found in the extremity of the Indian peninsula, was at one
period a native of the Kandyan Mountains; but as Knox speaks of one
which in his time “was kept among the king’s creatures” at
Kandy492, and his account of it tallies
with that of the Bos Gaurus of Hindustan, it would appear
even then to have been a rarity. A place between Neuera-ellia and
Adam’s Peak bears the name of “Gowra-ellia,” and it is not
impossible that the animal may yet be discovered in some of the
imperfectly explored regions of the island.493
I have heard of an instance in which a very old Kandyan, residing
in the mountains near the Horton Plains, asserted that when young
he had seen what he believed to have been a gaur, and he described
it as between an elk and a buffalo in size, [pg 50] dark
brown in colour, and very scantily provided with hair.
Oxen.—Oxen are used by the peasantry both in
ploughing and in tempering the mud in the wet paddi fields before
sowing the rice; and when the harvest is reaped they “tread out the
corn,” after the immemorial custom of the East. The wealth of the
native chiefs and landed proprietors frequently consists in their
herds of bullocks, which they hire out to their dependents during
the seasons for agricultural labour; and as they already supply
them with land to be tilled, and lend the seed which is to crop it,
the further contribution of this portion of the labour serves to
render the dependence of the peasantry on the chiefs and headmen
complete.
The cows are often worked as well as the oxen; and as the calves
are always permitted to suck them, milk is an article which the
traveller can rarely hope to procure in a Kandyan village. From
their constant exposure at all seasons, the cattle in Ceylon, both
those employed in agriculture and those on the roads, are subject
to devastating murrains, that sweep them away by thousands. So
frequent is the recurrence of these calamities, and so extended
their ravages, that they exercise a serious influence upon the
commercial interests of the colony, by reducing the facilities of
agriculture, and augmenting the cost of carriage during the most
critical periods of the coffee harvest.
A similar disorder, probably peripneumonia, frequently carries
off the cattle in Assam and other hill countries on the continent
of India; and there, as in Ceylon, the inflammatory symptoms in the
lungs and throat, and the internal derangement and external
[pg
51] eruptive appearances, seem to indicate that the disease
is a feverish influenza, attributable to neglect and exposure in a
moist and variable climate; and that its prevention might be hoped
for, and the cattle preserved, by the simple expedient of more
humane and considerate treatment, especially by affording them
cover at night.
During my residence in Ceylon an incident occurred at
Neuera-ellia, which invested one of these pretty animals with an
heroic interest. A little cow, belonging to an English gentleman,
was housed, together with her calf, near the dwelling of her owner,
and being aroused during the night by her furious bellowing, the
servants, on hastening to the stall, found her goring a leopard,
which had stolen in to attack the calf. She had got it into a
corner, and whilst lowing incessantly to call for help, she
continued to pound it with her horns. The wild animal, apparently
stupified by her unexpected violence, was detained by her till
despatched by a bullet.
The number of bullock-carts encountered between Colombo and
Kandy, laden with coffee from the interior, or carrying up rice and
stores for the supply of the plantations in the hill-country, is
quite surprising. The oxen thus employed on this single road, about
seventy miles long, are estimated at upwards of twenty thousand.
The bandy to which they are yoked is a barbarous two-wheeled
waggon, with a covering of plaited coco-nut leaves, in which a pair
of strong bullocks will draw from five to ten hundred weight,
according to the nature of the country; and with this load on a
level they will perform a journey of twenty miles a day.
A few of the large humped cattle of India are annually
[pg
52] imported for draught; but the vast majority of those in
use are small and dark-coloured, with a graceful head and neck, and
elevated hump, a deep silky dewlap, and limbs as slender as a deer.
They appear to have neither the strength nor weight requisite for
this service; and yet the entire coffee crop of Ceylon, amounting
annually to upwards of half a million hundred weight, is year after
year brought down from the mountains to the coast by these
indefatigable little creatures, which, on returning, carry up
proportionally heavy loads, of rice and implements for the
estates.521 There are two varieties of the
native bullock; one a somewhat coarser animal, of a deep red
colour; the other, the high-bred black one I have just described.
So rare was a white one of this species, under the native kings,
that the Kandyans were compelled to set them apart for the royal
herd.522
Although bullocks may be said to be the only animals of draught
and burden in Ceylon (horses being rarely used except in spring
carriages), no attempt has been made to improve the breed, or even
to better the condition and treatment of those in use. Their food
is indifferent, pasture in all parts of the island being rare, and
cattle are seldom housed under any vicissitudes of weather.
The labour for which they are best adapted, and in which, before
the opening of roads, these cattle were formerly employed, is in
traversing the jungle paths of [pg 53] the interior, carrying
light loads as pack-oxen in what is called a
“tavalam“—a term which, substituting bullocks for
camels, is equivalent to a “caravan.”531 The
class of persons engaged in this traffic in Ceylon resemble in
their occupations the “Banjarees” of Hindustan, who bring down to
the coast corn, cotton, and oil, and take back to the interior
cloths and iron and copper utensils. In the unopened parts of the
island, and especially in the eastern provinces, this primitive
practice still continues. When travelling in these districts I have
often encountered long files of pack-bullocks toiling along the
mountain paths, their bells tinkling musically as they moved; or
halting during the noonday heat beside some stream in the forests,
their burdens piled in heaps near the drivers, who had lighted
their cooking fires, whilst the bullocks were permitted to bathe
and browse.
The persons engaged in this wandering trade are chiefly Moors,
and the business carried on by them consists in bringing up salt
from the government depots on the coast to be bartered with the
Kandyans in the hills for “native coffee,” which is grown in small
quantities round every house, but without systematic cultivation.
This they carry down to the maritime towns, and the proceeds are
invested in cotton cloths and brass utensils, dried fish, and other
commodities, with which the tavalams supply the secluded
villages of the interior.
The Buffalo.—Buffaloes abound in all parts of
Ceylon, but they are only to be seen in their native wildness in
the vast solitudes of the northern and eastern provinces, where
rivers, lagoons, and dilapidated tanks abound. In these they
delight to immerse themselves, till only their heads appear above
the surface; or, enveloped in mud to protect themselves from the
assaults of insects, they luxuriate in the long sedges by the water
margins. When the buffalo is browsing, a crow will frequently be
seen stationed on its back, engaged in freeing it from the ticks
and other pests which attach themselves to its leathery hide, the
smooth brown surface of which, unprotected by hair, shines with an
unpleasant polish in the sunlight. When in motion a buffalo throws
back its clumsy head till the huge horns rest on its shoulders, and
the nose is presented in a line with the eyes.
The temper of the wild buffalo is morose and uncertain, and such
is its strength and courage that in the Hindu epic of the Ramayana
its onslaught is compared to that of the tiger.541 It is never quite safe to
approach them, if disturbed in their pasture or alarmed from their
repose in the shallow lakes. On such occasions they hurry into
line, draw up in defensive array, with a few of the oldest bulls in
advance; and, wheeling in circles, their horns clashing with a loud
sound as they clank them together in their rapid evolutions, they
prepare for attack; but generally, after a menacing display the
herd betake themselves to flight; then forming again at a safer
distance, they halt as before, elevating their nostrils, and
throwing back their heads to take a defiant survey of the
intruders. The true sportsman rarely molests them, so huge a
creature affording no worthy mark for [pg 55] his
skill, and their wanton slaughter adds nothing to the supply of
food for their assailant.
In the Hambangtotte country, where the Singhalese domesticate
buffaloes, and use them to assist in the labour of the rice lands,
the villagers are much annoyed by the wild ones, that mingle with
the tame when sent out to the woods to pasture; and it constantly
happens that a savage stranger, placing himself at the head of the
tame herd, resists the attempts of the owners to drive them
homewards at sunset. In the districts of Putlam and the Seven
Corles, buffaloes are generally used for draught; and in carrying
heavy loads of salt from the coast towards the interior, they drag
a cart over roads which would defy the weaker strength of
bullocks.
In one place between Batticaloa and Trincomalie I found the
natives making an ingenious use of them when engaged in shooting
water-fowl in the vast salt marshes and muddy lakes. Being an
object to which the birds are accustomed, the Singhalese train the
buffalo to the sport, and, concealed behind, the animal browsing
listlessly along, they guide it by ropes attached to its horns, and
thus creep undiscovered within shot of the flock. The same practice
prevails, I believe, in some of the northern parts of India, where
they are similarly trained to assist the sportsman in approaching
deer. One of these “sporting buffaloes” sells for a considerable
sum.
In the thick forests which cover the Passdun Corle, to the east,
and south of Caltura, the natives use the sporting buffalo in
another way, to assist in hunting deer and wild hogs. A bell is
attached to its neck, and [pg 56] a box or basket with one side open
is securely strapped on its back. This at nightfall is lighted by
flambeaux of wax, and the buffalo bearing it, is driven slowly into
the jungle. The huntsmen, with their fowling pieces, keep close
under the darkened side, and as it moves slowly onwards, the wild
animals, startled by the sound, and bewildered by the light, steal
cautiously towards it in stupified fascination. Even the snakes, I
am assured, will be attracted by this extraordinary object; and the
leopard too falls a victim to curiosity.
There is a peculiarity in the formation of the buffalo’s foot,
which, though it must have attracted attention, I have never seen
mentioned by naturalists. It is equivalent to the arrangement which
distinguishes the foot of the reindeer from that of the stag and
the antelope. In the latter, the hoofs, being constructed for
lightness and flight, are compact and vertical; but, in the
reindeer, the joints of the tarsal bones admit of lateral
expansion, and the front hoofs curve upwards, while the two
secondary ones behind (which are but slightly developed in the
fallow deer and others of the same family) are prolonged vertically
till, in certain positions, they are capable of being applied to
the ground, thus adding to the circumference and sustaining power
of the foot. It has been usually suggested as the probable design
of this structure, that it is to enable the reindeer to shovel away
the snow in order to reach the lichens beneath it; but I apprehend
that another use of it has been overlooked, that of facilitating
its movements in search of food by increasing the difficulty of its
sinking in the snow.
A formation precisely analogous in the buffalo seems to point to
a corresponding design. The ox, whose life [pg 57] is spent
on firm ground, has the bones of the foot so constructed as to
afford the most solid support to an animal of its great weight; but
in the buffalo, which delights in the morasses on the margins of
pools and rivers, the construction of the foot resembles that of
the reindeer. The tarsi in front extend almost horizontally from
the upright bones of the leg, and spread apart widely on touching
the ground; the hoofs are flattened and broad, with the extremities
turned upwards; and the false hoofs behind descend till they make a
clattering sound as the animal walks. In traversing the marshes,
this combination of abnormal incidents serves to give extraordinary
breadth to the foot, and not only prevents the buffalo from sinking
inconveniently in soft ground571, but
at the same time presents no obstacle to the withdrawal of its foot
from the mud.
The buffalo, like the elk, is sometimes found in Ceylon as an
albino, with purely white hair and a pink iris.
Deer.—”Deer,” says the truthful old chronicler,
Robert Knox, “are in great abundance in the woods, from the
largeness of a cow to the smallness of a hare, for here is a
creature in this land no bigger than the latter, though every part
rightly resembleth a deer: it is called meminna, of a grey
colour, with white spots and good meat.”572
The little creature which thus dwelt in the recollection of the old
man, as one of the memorials [pg 58] of his long captivity, is the small
“musk deer”581 so
called in India, although neither sex is provided with a musk-bag.
The Europeans in Ceylon know it by the name of the “moose deer;”
and in all probability the terms musk and moose are
both corruptions of the Dutch word “muis,” or “mouse” deer,
a name particularly applicable to the timid and crouching attitudes
and aspect of this beautiful little creature. Its extreme length
never reaches two feet; and of those which were domesticated about
my house, few exceeded ten inches in height, their graceful limbs
being of proportionate delicacy. It possesses long and extremely
large tusks, with which it can inflict a severe bite. The
interpreter moodliar of Negombo had a milk white meminna in
1847, which he designed to send home as an acceptable [pg 59] present
to Her Majesty, but it was unfortunately killed by an
accident.591
“MOOSE” DEER (MOSCHUS MEMINNA)Ceylon Elk.—In the mountains, the Ceylon elk592, which reminds one of the red
deer of Scotland, attains the height of four or five feet; it
abounds in all shady places that are intersected by rivers; where,
though its chase affords an endless resource to the sportsman, its
venison scarcely equals in quality the inferior beef of the lowland
ox. In the glades and park-like openings that diversify the great
forests of the interior, the spotted Axis troops in herds as
numerous as the fallow deer in England: but, in journeys through
the jungle, when often dependent on the guns of our party for the
precarious supply of the table, we found the flesh of the
Axis593 and the Muntjac594 a sorry substitute for that of
the pea-fowl, the jungle-cock, and flamingo. The occurrence of
albinos is very frequent in troops of the axis. Deer’s horns are an
article of export from Ceylon, and considerable quantities are
annually sent to the United Kingdom.
VII. PACHYDERMATA.—The Elephant.—The
elephant, and the wild boar, the Singhalese “waloora,”595 are the only representatives of
the pachydermatous order. The latter, which differs somewhat
from the wild boar of [pg 60] India, is found in droves in all parts
of the island where vegetation and water are abundant.
The elephant, the lord paramount of the Ceylon forests, is to be
met with in every district, on the confines of the woods, in the
depths of which he finds concealment and shade during the hours
when the sun is high, and from which he emerges only at twilight to
wend his way towards the rivers and tanks, where he luxuriates till
dawn, when he again seeks the retirement of the deep forests. This
noble animal fills so dignified a place both in the zoology and
oeconomy of Ceylon, and his habits in a state of nature have been
so much misunderstood, that I shall devote a separate section to
his defence from misrepresentation, and to an exposition of what,
from observation and experience, I believe to be his genuine
character when free in his native domains. But this seems the
proper place to allude to a recent discovery in connexion with the
elephant, which strikingly confirms a conjecture which I ventured
to make elsewhere601,
relative to the isolation of Ceylon and its distinctness, in many
remarkable particulars, from the great continent of India. Every
writer who previously treated of the island, including the
accomplished Dr. Davy and the erudite Lassen, was contented, by a
glance at its outline and a reference to its position on the map,
to assume that Ceylon was a fragment, which in a very remote age
had been torn from the adjacent mainland, by some convulsion of
nature. Hence it was taken for granted that the vegetation which
covers and the races of animals which inhabit it, must be identical
with those of Hindustan; to which [pg 61] Ceylon was alleged to bear
the same relation as Sicily presents to the peninsula of Italy.
MALTE BRUN611 and the geographers generally,
declared the larger animals of either to be common to both. I was
led to question the soundness of this dictum;—and from a
closer examination of its geological conformation and of its
botanical and zoological characteristics I came to the conclusion
that not only is there an absence of sameness between the
formations of the two localities; but that plants and animals,
mammals, birds, reptiles, and insects exist in Ceylon, which are
not to be found in the flora and fauna of the Dekkan; but which
present a striking affinity, and occasionally an actual identity,
with those of the Malayan countries and some of the islands of the
Eastern Archipelago. Startling as this conclusion appeared to be,
it was strangely in unison with the legends of the Singhalese
themselves, that at an infinitely remote period Ceylon formed an
integral portion of a vast continent, known in the mythical epics
of the Brahmans by the designation of “Lanka;” so immense
that its southern extremity fell below the equator, whilst in
breadth it was prolonged till its western and eastern boundaries
touch at once upon the shores of Africa and China.
Dim as is this ancient tradition, it is in consistency with the
conclusions of modern geology, that at the commencement of the
tertiary period northern Asia and a considerable part of India were
in all probability covered by the sea but that south of India land
extended eastward and westward connecting Malacca with Arabia.
PROFESSOR ANSTED has propounded this view. His opinion is, that the
Himalayas then existed only as a chain of islands, and did not till
a much later age become [pg 62] elevated into mountain ranges,—a
change which took place during the same revolution that raised the
great plains of Siberia and Tartary and many parts of north-western
Europe. At the same time the great continent whose position between
the tropics has been alluded to, and whose previous existence is
still indicated by the Coral islands, the Laccadives, the Maldives,
and the Chagos group, underwent simultaneous depression by a
counteracting movement.621
But divested of oriental mystery and geologic conjecture, and
brought to the test of “geographical distribution,” this once
prodigious continent would appear to have connected the distant
Islands of Ceylon and Sumatra and possibly to have united both to
the Malay peninsula, from which the latter is now severed by the
Straits of Malacca. The proofs of physical affinity between these
scattered localities are exceedingly curious.
A striking dissimilarity presents itself between some of the
Mammalia of Ceylon and those of the continent of India. In its
general outline and feature, this branch of the island fauna, no
doubt, exhibits a general resemblance to that of the mainland,
although many of the larger animals of the latter are unknown in
Ceylon: but, on the other hand, some species discovered there are
peculiar to the island. A deer622 as
large as the Axis, but differing from it in the number and
arrangement of its spots, has been described by Dr. Kelaart, to
whose vigilance the natural history of Ceylon is indebted, amongst
others, for the identification of two new species of monkeys623, a number of curious shrews624, [pg 63] and an orange-coloured
ichneumon631, before unknown. There are also
two squirrels632 that
have not as yet been discovered elsewhere, (one of them belonging
to those equipped with a parachute633,) as
well as some local varieties of the palm squirrel (Sciurus
penicillatus, Leach).634
But the Ceylon Mammalia, besides wanting a number of minor
animals found in the Indian peninsula, cannot boast such a ruminant
as the majestic Gaur635,
which inhabits the great forests from Cape Comorin to the Himalaya;
and, providentially, the island is equally free of the formidable
tiger and the ferocious wolf of Hindustan. The Hyena and
Cheetah636, common in Southern India, are
unknown in Ceylon; and, though abundant in deer, the island
possesses no example of the Antelope or the Gazelle.
Amongst the Birds of Ceylon, the same abnormity is apparent.
About thirty-eight species will be presently particularised637, which, although some of them may
hereafter be discovered to have a wider geographical range, are at
present believed to be unknown in continental India. I might
further extend this enumeration, by including the Cheela eagle of
Ceylon, which, although I have placed it in my list as identical
with the Hematornis cheela of the Dekkan, is, I have since
been assured, a different bird, and is most probably the Falco
bido of [pg 64] Horsfield, known to us by specimens
obtained from Java and Sumatra.
As to the Fishes of Ceylon, they are of course less distinct;
and besides they have hitherto been very imperfectly compared. But
the Insects afford a remarkable confirmation of the view I have
ventured to propound; so much so that Mr. Walker, by whom the
elaborate lists appended to this work have been prepared, asserts
that some of the families have a less affinity to the entomology of
India than to that of Australia.641
But more conclusive than all, is the discovery to which I have
alluded, in relation to the elephant of Ceylon. Down to a very
recent period it was universally believed that only two species of
the elephant are now in existence, the African and the Asiatic;
distinguished by certain peculiarities in the shape of the cranium,
the size of the ears, the ridges of the teeth, the number of
vertebræ, and, according to Cuvier, in the number of nails on
the hind feet. The elephant of Ceylon was believed to be identical
with the elephant of India. But some few years back, TEMMINCK, in
his survey of the Dutch possessions in the Indian Archipelago642, announced the fact that the
elephant which abounds in Sumatra (although unknown in the adjacent
island of Java), and which had theretofore been regarded as the
same species with the Indian one, has been recently found to
possess peculiarities, in which it differs as much from the
elephant of India, as the latter from its African congener. On this
new species of elephant, to which the natives give the name of
gadjah, TEMMINCK has conferred the scientific designation of
the Elephas Sumatranus.
The points which entitle it to this distinction he enumerated
minutely in the work651
before alluded to, but they have been summarized as follows by
Prince Lucien Bonaparte.
“This species is perfectly intermediate between the Indian and
African, especially in the shape of the skull, and will certainly
put an end to the distinction between Elephas and
Loxodon, with those who admit that anatomical genus; since
although the crowns of the teeth of E. Sumatranus are more
like the Asiatic animal, still the less numerous undulated ribbons
of enamel are nearly quite as wide as those forming the lozenges of
the African. The number of pairs of false ribs (which alone vary,
the true ones being always six) is fourteen, one less than in the
Africanus, one more than in the Indicus; and
so it is with the dorsal vertebræ, which are twenty in the
Sumatranus (twenty-one and nineteen, in the
others), whilst the new species agrees with Africanus in the
number of sacral vertebræ (four), and with
Indicus in that of the caudal ones, which are
thirty-four.”652
PROFESSOR SCHLEGEL of Leyden, in a paper lately submitted by him
to the Royal Academy of Sciences of Holland, (the substance of
which he has obligingly communicated to me, through Baron Bentinck
the Netherlands Minister at this Court), has confirmed the identity
of the Ceylon elephant with that found in the Lampongs of Sumatra.
The osteological comparison of which TEMMINCK has given the results
was, he says, conducted by himself with access to four skeletons of
the latter. And the more recent opportunity of comparing a living
Sumatran elephant with one from Bengal, has served to establish
other though minor points of divergence. The Indian species is more
robust and powerful: the proboscis longer and more slender; and the
extremity, (a point, in which the elephant of Sumatra resembles
that of Africa,) is more flattened and provided with coarser and
longer hair than that of India.
PROFESSOR SCHLEGEL, adverting to the large export of elephants
from Ceylon to the Indian continent, which has been carried on from
time immemorial, suggests the caution with which naturalists, in
investigating this question, should first satisfy themselves
whether the elephants they examine are really natives of the
mainland, [pg 67] or whether they have been brought to it
from the islands.671 “The
extraordinary fact,” he observes in his letter to me, “of the
identity thus established between the elephants of Ceylon and
Sumatra; and the points in which they are found to differ from that
of Bengal, leads to the question whether all the elephants of the
Asiatic continent belong to one single species; or whether these
vast regions may not produce in some quarter as yet unexplored the
one hitherto found only in the two islands referred to? It is
highly desirable that naturalists who have the means and
opportunity, should exert themselves to discover, whether any
traces are to be found of the Ceylon elephant in the Dekkan; or of
that of Sumatra in Cochin China or Siam.”
To me the establishment of a fact so conclusively confirmatory
of the theory I had ventured to broach, is productive of great
satisfaction. But it is not a little remarkable that the
distinction should not long before have been discovered between the
elephant of India and that of Ceylon. Nor can it be regarded
otherwise than as a singular illustration of “geographical
distribution” that two remote islands should be thus shown to
possess in common a species unknown in any other quarter of the
globe. As bearing on the ancient myth which represents both
countries as forming parts of a submerged continent, the discovery
is curious—and it is equally interesting in connection with
the circumstance alluded to by Gibbon, that amongst the early
geographers and even down to a comparatively modern date, Sumatra
and Ceylon were confounded; and grave doubts were entertained as to
which of the two was the “Taprobane” of antiquity. GEMMA FRISIUS,
SEBASTIAN MUNSTER, JULIUS SCALIGER, ORTELIUS and MERCATOR contended
for the former; SALMASIUS, BOCHART, CLUVERIUS, and VOSSIUS for
Ceylon: and the controversy did not cease till it was terminated by
DELISLE about the beginning of the last century.
VIII. CETACEA.—Whales are so frequently seen that they
have been captured within sight of Colombo, and more than once
their carcases, after having been flinched by the whalers, have
floated on shore near the lighthouse, tainting the atmosphere
within the fort by their rapid decomposition.
Of this family, one of the most remarkable animals on the coast
is the dugong681, a
phytophagous cetacean, numbers of which are attracted to the
inlets, from the bay of Calpentyn to Adam’s Bridge, by the still
water and the abundance of marine algæ in these parts of the
gulf. One which was killed at Manaar and sent to me to
Colombo682 in 1847, measured upwards of
seven feet in length; but specimens considerably larger have been
taken at Calpentyn, and their flesh is represented as closely
resembling veal.
The rude approach to the human outline, observed in the shape of
the head of this creature, and the attitude of the mother when
suckling her young, clasping it to her breast with one flipper,
while swimming with the other, holding the heads of both above
water; and when disturbed, suddenly diving and displaying her
fish-like tail,—these, together with her habitual
demonstrations of strong maternal affection, probably gave rise to
the fable of the “mermaid;” and thus that earliest invention of
mythical physiology may be traced to the Arab seamen and the
Greeks, who had watched the movements of the dugong in the waters
of Manaar.
THE DUGONG.Megasthenes records the existence of a creature in the ocean,
near Taprobane, with the aspect of a woman691; and Ælian, adopting and
enlarging on his information, peoples the seas of Ceylon with
fishes having the heads of lions, panthers, and rams, and, stranger
still, cetaceans in the form of satyrs. Statements such as
these must have had their origin in the hairs, which are set round
the mouth of the dugong, somewhat resembling a beard, which
Ælian and Megasthenes both particularise, from their
resemblance to the hair of a woman: “[Greek: kai gynaikôn
opsin echousin aisper anti plokamôn akanthai
prosêrtêntai”]692
The Portuguese cherished the belief in the mermaid, and the
annalist of the exploits of the Jesuits in India, gravely records
that seven of these monsters, male and female, were captured at
Manaar in 1560, and carried to Goa, where they were dissected by
Demas Bosquez, physician to the Viceroy, and “their internal
structure found to be in all respects conformable to the
human.”701
The Dutch were no less inclined to the marvellous, and they
propagated the belief in the mermaid with earnestness and
particularity. VALENTYN, one of their chaplains, in his account of
the Natural History of Amboina, embodied in his great work on the
Netherlands’ Possessions in India, published so late as 1727702, has devoted the first section of
his chapter on the Fishes of that island to a minute description of
the “Zee-Menschen, Zee-Wyven,” and mermaids. As to the dugong he
admits its resemblance to the mermaid, but repudiates the idea of
its having given rise to the fable, by being mistaken for one. This
error he imagines must have arisen at a time when observations on
such matters were made with culpable laxity; but now more recent
and minute attention has established the truth beyond cavil.
For instance, he states that in 1653, when a lieutenant in the
Dutch service was leading a party of soldiers along the sea-shore
in Amboina, he and all his company saw the mermen swimming at a
short distance from the beach with long and flowing hair, of a
colour between gray and green—and six weeks afterwards, the
creatures were again seen by him and more than fifty witnesses, at
the same place, by clear daylight.711
“If any narrative in the world,” adds VALENTYN, “deserves
credit, it is this; since not only one but two mermen
together were seen by so many eye-witnesses. Should the stubborn
world, however, hesitate to believe it, it matters nothing; as
there are people who would even deny that such cities as Rome,
Constantinople or Cairo, exist, merely because they themselves have
not happened to see them.”
But what are such incredulous persons, he continues, to make of
the circumstance recorded by Albert Herport in his account of
India712, that a sea-man was seen in the
water near the Church of Taquan, on the morning of the 29th of
April 1661, and a mermaid at the same spot the same
afternoon?—or what do they say to the fact that in 1714, a
mermaid was not only seen but captured near the island of Booro?
“five feet Rhineland measure in height, which lived four days and
seven hours, but refusing all food, died without leaving any
intelligible account of herself.”
Valentyn, in support of his own faith in the mermaid, cites
numerous other instances in which both “sea-men and women” were
seen and taken at Amboina; especially one by an office-bearer in
the Church of Holland713, by
whom it was surrendered to the Governor Vanderstel.
Of this well-authenticated specimen he gives an elaborate
engraving amongst those of the authentic fishes of the
island—together with a minute ichthyological description of
each for the satisfaction of men of science.
THE MERMAID (From VALENTYN)The fame of this creature having reached Europe, the British
Minister in Holland wrote to Valentyn on the 28th December 1716,
whilst the Emperor, Peter the Great of Russia, was his guest at
Amsterdam; to communicate the desire of the Czar, that the mermaid
should be brought home from Amboina for his Imperial
inspection.
To complete his proofs of the existence of mermen and women,
Valentyn points triumphantly to the historical fact, that in
Holland in the year 1404, a mermaid was driven during a tempest,
through a breach in the dyke of Edam, and was taken alive in the
lake of Purmer. Thence she was carried to Harlem, where the Dutch
women taught her to spin; and where, several years after, she died
in the Roman Catholic faith;—”but this,” [pg 73] says the
pious Calvinistic chaplain, “in no way militates against the truth
of her story.”731
Finally Valentyn winds up his proofs, by the accumulated
testimony of Pliny 732,
Theodore Gaza, George of Trebisond, and Alexander ab Alexandro, to
show that mermaids had in all ages been known in Gaul, Naples,
Epirus, and the Morea. From these and a multitude of more modern
instances he comes to the conclusion, that as there are “sea-cows,”
“sea-horses,” and “sea-dogs;” as well as “sea-trees” and
“sea-flowers” which he himself had seen, what grounds in reason are
there to doubt that there may also be “sea-maidens” and
“sea-men!”
List of Ceylon Mammalia.
A list of the Mammalia of Ceylon is subjoined. In framing it, as
well as the lists appended to the other chapters on the Fauna of
the island, the principal object in view has been to exhibit the
extent to which the Natural History of the island had been
investigated, and collections made up to the period of my leaving
the colony in 1850. It has been considered expedient to exclude a
few individuals which have not had the advantage of a direct
comparison with authentic specimens, either at Calcutta or in
England. This will account for the omission of a number that have
appeared in other catalogues, but of which many, though ascertained
to exist, have not been submitted to this rigorous process of
identification.
The greater portion of the species of mammals and birds
contained in these lists will be found, with suitable references to
the most accurate descriptions, in the admirable catalogue of the
collection at the India House, published under the care of the late
Dr. Horsfield. This work cannot be too highly extolled, not alone
for the scrupulous fidelity with which the description of each
species is referred to its first discoverer, but also for the pains
which have been taken to elaborate synonymes and to collate from
local periodicals and other sources, (little accessible to ordinary
inquirers,) such incidents and traits as are calculated to
illustrate characteristics and habits.
QUADRUMANA.
- Presbytes
- cephalopterus, Zimm.
- ursinus, Blyth.
- Priamus, Elliot & Blyth.
- Thersites, Blyth.
- Macacus pileatus, Shaw & Desm.
- Loris gracilis, Geoff.
CHEIROPTERA.
- Pteropus Edwardsii, Geoff.
- Leschenaultii, Dum.
- Cynopterus
- marginatus, Ham.
- Megaderma spasma, Linn.
- lyra, Geoff.
- Rhinolophus affinis, Horsf.
- Hipposideros
- murinus, Elliot.
- speoris, Elliot.
- armiger, Hodgs.
- vulgaris, Horsf.
- Kerivoula picta, Pall.
- Taphozous
- longimanus, Har.
- Scotophilus Coromandelicus, F. Cuv.
- adversus, Horsf.
- Temminkii, Horsf.
- Tickelli, Blyth.
- Heathii.
CARNIVORA.
- Sorex coerulescens, Shaw.
- ferrugineus, Kelaart.
- serpentarius, Is. Geoff.
- montanus, Kelaart.
- Feroculus macropus, Kel.
- Ursus labiatus, Blainv.
- Lutra nair, F. Cuv.
- Canis aureus. Linn.
- Viverra Indica, Geoff., Hod.
- Herpestes vitticollis, Benn.
- griseus, Gm.
- Smithii, Gray.
- fulvescens, Kelaart.
- Paradoxurus typus, F. Cuv.
- Ceylonicus, Pall.
- Felis pardus, Linn.
- chaus, Guldens.
- viverrinus, Benn.
RODENTIA.
- Sciurus macrurus, Forst.
- Tennentii, Layard.
- penicillatus. Leach.
- trilineatus, Waterh.
- Sciuropterus Layardi, Kel.
- Pteromys petaurista, Pall.
- Mus bandicota, Bechst.
- Kok, Gray.
- Mus rufescens. Gray.
- nemoralis, Blyth.
- Indicus, Geoff.
- fulvidiventris, Blyth.
- Nesoki Hardwickii, Gray.
- Golunda Neuera, Kelaart.
- Ellioti, Gray.
- Gerbillus Indicus, Hardw.
- Lepus nigricollis, F. Cuv.
- Hystrix leucurus, Sykes.
EDENTATA.
- Manis pentadactyla, Linn.
PACHYDERMATA.
- Elephas Sumatranus, Linn.
- Sus Indicus, Gray.
- Zeylonicus, Blyth.
RUMINANTIA.
- Moschus meminna, Eral.
- Stylocerus muntjac, Horsf.
- Axis maculata, H. Smith.
- Rusa Aristotelis, Cuv.
CETACEA.
- Halicore dugung, F. Cuv.
Footnote 31: (return)Dr. DAVY, brother to the illustrious Sir Humphry Davy,
published, in 1821, his Account of the Interior of Ceylon and
its Inhabitants, which contains the earliest notice of the
Natural History of the island, and especially of its ophidian
reptiles.
Footnote 42: (return)Prodromus Faunæ Zeylanicæ; being Contributions to
the Zoology of Ceylon, by F. KELAART, Esq., M.D., F.L.S.,
&c. &c. 2 vols. Colombo and London, 1852.
Footnote 51: (return)Macacus pileatus, Shaw and Desmarest. The “bonneted
Macaque” is common in the south and west; it is replaced on the
neighbouring coast of the Peninsula of India by the Toque, M.
radiatus, which closely resembles it in size, habit, and form,
and in the peculiar appearance occasioned by the hairs radiating
from the crown of the head. A spectacled monkey is said to
inhabit the low country near to Bintenne; but I have never seen one
brought thence. A paper by Dr. TEMPLETON, in the Mag. Nat.
Hist. n. s. xiv. p. 361, contains some interesting facts
relative to the Rilawa of Ceylon.
Footnote 61: (return)KNOX, Historical Relation of Ceylon, an Island in the East
Indies.—P. i. ch. vi. p. 25. Fol. Lond. 1681. See an
account of his captivity in SIR J. EMERSON TENNENT’S Ceylon,
etc., Vol. II. p. 66 n.
Footnote 62: (return)Down to a very late period, a large and somewhat
repulsive-looking monkey, common to the Malabar coast, the Silenus
veter, Linn., was, from the circumstance of his possessing a
“great white beard,” incorrectly assumed to be the “wanderoo” of
Ceylon, described by KNOX; and under that usurped name it has
figured in every author from Buffon to the present time. Specimens
of the true Singhalese species were, however, received in Europe;
but in the absence of information in this country as to their
actual habitat, they were described, first by Zimmerman, on the
continent, under the name of, Leucoprymnus cephalopterus,
and subsequently by Mr. E. Bennett, under that of Semnopithecus
Nestor (Proc. Zool. Soc. pt. i. p. 67: 1833); the
generic and specific characters being on this occasion most
carefully pointed out by that eminent naturalist. Eleven years
later Dr. Templeton forwarded to the Zoological Society a
description, accompanied by drawings, of the wanderoo of the
western maritime districts of Ceylon, and noticed the fact that the
wanderoo of authors (S. veter) was not to be found in the
island except as an introduced species in the custody of the Arab
horse-dealers, who visit the port of Colombo at stated periods. Mr.
Waterhouse, at the meeting (Proc. Zool. Soc. p. 1: 1844) at
which this communication was read, recognised the identity of the
subject of Dr. Templeton’s description with that already laid
before them by Mr. Bennett; and from this period the species in
question was believed to truly represent the wanderoo of Knox. The
later discovery, however, of the P. ursinus by Dr. Kelaart,
in the mountains amongst which we are assured that Knox spent so
many years of captivity, reopens the question, but at the same time
appears to me clearly to demonstrate that in this latter we have in
reality the animal to which his narrative refers.
Footnote 101: (return)Mr. Blyth quotes as authority for this trivial name a passage
from MAJOR FORBES’ Eleven Years in Ceylon; and I can vouch
for the graphic accuracy of the remark.—”A species of very
large monkey, that passed some distance before me, when resting on
all fours, looked so like a Ceylon bear, that I nearly took him for
one.”
Footnote 111: (return)BUCHANAN’S Survey of Bhagulpoor, p. 142. At Gibraltar it
is believed that the body of a dead monkey has never been
found on the rock.
Footnote 131: (return)There is an interesting notice of the Loris of Ceylon by Dr.
TEMPLETON, in the Mag. Nat. Hist. 1844, ch. xiv. p. 362.
Footnote 141: (return)
- Rhinolophus affinis? var. rubidus, Kelaart.
- Hipposideros murinus, var. fulvus, Kelaart.
- Hipposideros speoris, var. aureus, Kelaart.
- Kerivoula picta, Pallas.
- Scotophilus Heathii, Horsf
Footnote 153: (return)See article on Cheiroptera, in TODD’S Cyclopiadia of
Anatomy and Physiology, vol. i. p. 599.
Footnote 161: (return)Those which I have examined have four minute incisors in each
jaw, with two canines and a very minute pointed tooth behind each
canine. They have six molars in the upper jaw and ten in the lower,
longitudinally grooved, and with a cutting edge directed
backwards.
Footnote 181: (return)In Western India the native Portuguese eat the flying-fox, and
pronounce it delicate, and far from disagreeable in flavour.
Footnote 202: (return)This extraordinary creature had formerly been discovered only on
a few European bats. Joínville figured one which he found on
the large roussette (the flying-fox), and says he had seen another
on a bat of the same family. Dr. Templeton observed them in Ceylon
in great abundance on the fur of the Scotophilus
Coromandelicus, and they will, no doubt, be found on many
others.
Footnote 241: (return)Amongst the Singhalese there is a belief that certain charms are
efficacious in protecting them from the violence of bears, and
those whose avocations expose them to encounters of this kind are
accustomed to carry a talisman either attached to their neck or
enveloped in the folds of their luxuriant hair. A friend of mine,
writing of an adventure which occurred at Anarajapoora, thus
describes an occasion on which a Moor, who attended him, was
somewhat, rudely disabused of his belief in the efficacy of charms
upon bears:—”Desiring to change the position of a herd of
deer, the Moorman (with his charm) was sent across some swampy land
to disturb them. As he was proceeding, we saw him suddenly turn
from an old tree and run back with all speed, his hair becoming
unfastened and like his clothes streaming in the wind. It soon
became evident that he was flying from some terrific object, for he
had thrown down his gun, and, in his panic, he was taking the
shortest line towards us, which lay across a swamp covered with
sedge and rushes that greatly impeded his progress, and prevented
us approaching him, or seeing what was the cause of his flight.
Missing his steps from one hard spot to another he repeatedly fell
into the water, but he rose and resumed his flight. I advanced as
far as the sods would bear my weight, but to go further was
impracticable. Just within ball-range there was an open space, and,
as the man gained it. I saw that he was pursued by a bear and two
cubs. As the person of the fugitive covered the bear, it was
impossible to fire without risk. At last he fall exhausted, and the
bear being close upon him, I discharged both barrels. The first
broke the bear’s shoulder, but this only made her more savage, and
rising on her hind legs she advanced with ferocious prowls, when
the second barrel, though I do not think it took effect, served to
frighten her, for turning round she retreated, followed by the
cubs. Some natives then waded through the mud to the Moorman, who
was just exhausted, and would have been drowned but that he fell
with his head upon a tuft of grass: the poor man was unable to
speak, and for several weeks his intellect seemed confused. The
adventure sufficed to satisfy him that he could not again depend
upon a charm to protect him, from bears, though he always insisted
that but for its having fallen from his hair where he had fastened
it under his turban, the bear would not have ventured to attack
him.”
Footnote 251: (return)Felis pardus, Linn. What is called a leopard, or a
cheetah, in Ceylon, is in reality the true panther.
Footnote 252: (return)A belief is prevalent at Trincomalie that a Bengal tiger
inhabits the jungle in its vicinity; and the story runs that it
escaped from the wreck of a vessel on which it had been embarked
for England. Officers of the Government state positively that they
have more than once come on it whilst hunting; and one gentleman of
the Royal Engineers, who had seen it, assured me that he could not
be mistaken as to its being a tiger of India, and one of the
largest description.
Footnote 253: (return)Mr. BAKER, in his Eight Years in Ceylon, has stated that
there are two species of leopard in the island, one of which he
implies is the Indian cheetah. But although he specifies
discrepancies in size, weight, and marking between the varieties
which he has examined, his data are not sufficient to identify any
of them with the true felis jubata.
Footnote 301: (return)A species of one of the suffruticose Acanthaccæ
(Strobilanthes), which grows, abundantly in the mountain ranges of
Ceylon.
Footnote 324: (return)EDRISI, Géogr. sec. vii. Jauberts’s translation,
t. ii. p. 72. In connexion with cats, a Singhalese gentleman has
described to me a plant in Ceylon, called Cuppa-mayniya by
the natives; by which he says cats are so enchanted, that they play
with it as they would with, a captured mouse; throwing if into the
air, watching it till it falls, and crouching to see if it will
move. It would be worth inquiring into the truth of this; and the
explanation of the attraction.
Footnote 361: (return)In the Museum of the College of Surgeons, London (No. 4362 A),
there is a cranium of a jackal which exhibits this strange osseous
process on the super-occipital; and I have placed along with it a
specimen of the horny sheath, which was presented to me by Mr.
Lavalliere, the late district judge of Kandy.
Footnote 371: (return)Herpestes vitticollis. Mr. W. ELLIOTT, in his
Catalogue of Mammalia found in the Southern Maharata
Country, Madras, 1840, says, that “One specimen of this
Herpestes was procured by accident in the Ghât forests in
1829, and is now deposited in the British Museum; it is very rare,
inhabiting only the thickest woods, and its habits are very little
known,” p. 9. In Ceylon it is comparatively common.
Footnote 391: (return)The passage in Lucan is a versification of the same narrative
related by Pliny, lib. viii. ch. 53; and Ælian, lib. iii. ch.
22.
Footnote 401: (return)Dr. LIVINGSTONE, Tour in S. Africa, p. 80. Is it a fact
that, in America, pigs extirpate the rattlesnakes with
impunity?
Footnote 402: (return)This is possibly the “musbilai” or mouse-cat of Behar, which
preys upon birds and fish. Can it be the Urva of the Nepalese
(Urva cancrivora, Hodgson), which Mr. Hodgson describes as
dwelling in burrows, and being carnivorous and
ranivorous?—Vide Journ. As. Soc. Beng. vol. vi. p.
56.
Footnote 411: (return)Of two kinds which frequent the mountains, one which is peculiar
to Ceylon was discovered by Mr. Edgar L. Layard, who has done me
the honour to call it the Sciurus Tennentii. Its dimensions
are large, measuring upwards of two feet from head to tail. It is
distinguished from the S. macrurus by the predominant black
colour of the upper surface of the body, with the exception of a
rusty spot at the base of the ears.
Footnote 422: (return)There are two species of the tree rat in Ceylon: M. rufescens,
Gray; (M. flavescens, Elliot😉 and Mus nemoralis,
Blyth.
Footnote 441: (return)Mus bandicota, Beckst. The English term bandicoot is a
corruption of the Telinga name pandikoku, literally
pig-rat.
Footnote 462: (return)I am assured that there is a hedge-hog in Ceylon; but as I have
never seen it, I cannot tell whether it belongs to either of the
two species known in India (Erinaceus mentalis and E.
collaris)—nor can I vouch for its existence there at all.
But the fact was told to me, in connexion with the statement, that
its favourite dwelling is in the same burrow with the pengolin. The
popular belief in this is attested by a Singhalese proverb, in
relation to an intrusive personage; the import of which is that he
is like “a hedge-hog in the den of a pengolin.”
Footnote 521: (return)A pair of these little bullocks carry up about twenty bushels of
rice to the hills, and bring down from fifty to sixty bushels of
coffee to Colombo.
Footnote 522: (return)WOLF says that, in the year 1763, he saw in Ceylon two white
oxen, each of which measured upwards of eight feet high. They were
sent as a present from the King of Atchin.—Life and
Adventures, p. 172.
Footnote 531: (return)Attempts have been made to domesticate the camel in Ceylon; but,
I am told, they died of ulcers in the feet, attributed to the too
great moisture of the roads at certain seasons. This explanation
seems insufficient if taken in connection with the fact of the
camel living in perfect health in climates equally, if not more,
exposed to rain. I apprehend that sufficient justice has not been
done to the experiment.
Footnote 571: (return)PROFESSOR OWEN has noticed a similar fact regarding the
rudiments of the second and fifth digits in the instance of the elk
and bison, which have them largely expanded where they inhabit
swampy ground; whilst they are nearly obliterated in the camel and
dromedary, that traverse arid deserts.—OWEN on Limbs,
p. 34; see also BELL on the Hand, ch. iii.
Footnote 591: (return)When the English look possession of Kandy, in 1803, they found
“five beautiful milk-white deer in the palace, which was noted as a
very extraordinary thing.”—Letter in Appendix to
PERCIVAL’S Ceylon, p. 428. The writer does not say of what
species they were.
Footnote 592: (return)Rusa Aristotelis. Dr. GRAY has lately shown that this is the
great axis of Cuvier.—Oss. Foss. 502. t. 39; f.
10: The Singhalese, on following the elk, frequently effect their
approaches by so imitating the call of the animal as to induce them
to respond. An instance occurred during my residence in Ceylon, in
which two natives, whose mimicry had mutually deceived them, crept
so close together in the jungle that one shot the other, supposing
the cry to proceed from the game.
Footnote 595: (return)Mr. BLYTH of Calcutta has distinguished, from the hog, common in
India, a specimen sent to him from Ceylon, the skull of which
approaches in form, that of a species from Borneo, the
susbarbatus of S. Müller.
Footnote 601: (return)Ceylon, &c., by Sir J. EMERSON TENNENT, vol. i. pp.
7, 13, 85, 160, 183, n., 205, 270, &c.
Footnote 634: (return)There is a rat found only in the Cinnamon Gardens at Colombo,
Mus Ceylonus, Kelaart; and a mouse which Dr. Kelaart
discovered at Trincomalie, M. fulvidiventris, Blyth, both
peculiar to Ceylon. Dr. TEMPLETON has noticed a little shrew
(Corsira purpurascens, Mag. Nat. Hist. 1855, p. 238) at
Neuera-ellia, not as yet observed elsewhere.
Footnote 642: (return)Coup d’Oeil Général sur les Possessions
Néerlandaises dans l’Inde Archipélagique.
Footnote 652: (return)Proceed. Zool. Soc. London, 1849. p. 144, note.
The original description of TEMMINCK is as follows:“Elephas Sumatranus, Nob. ressemble, par la forme
générale du crâne à
l’éléphant du continent de l’Asie; mais la partie
libre des intermaxillaires est beaucoup plus courte et plus
étroite; les cavités nasales sont beaucoup moins
larges; l’espace entre les orbites des yeux est plus étroit;
la partie postérieur du crâne au contraire est plus
large que dans l’espèce du continent.“Les machelières se rapprochent, par la forme de leur
couronne, plutòt de l’espèce Asíatique que do
celle qui est propre à l’Afrique; c’est-à-dire que
leur couronne offre la forme de rubans ondoyés et non pas en
losange; mais ces rubans sont de la largeur de ceux qu’on voit
à la couronne des dents de l’éléphant
d’Afrique; ils sont conséquemment moins nombreux que dans
celuí du continent de l’Asie. Les dimensions de ces rubans,
dans la direction d’avant en arrière, comparées
à celle prises dans la direction transversale et
latérale, sont en raison de 3 ou 4 à 1; tandis que
dans l’éléphant du continent elles sont comme 4 ou 6
à 1. La longueur totale de six de ces rubans, dans
l’espèce nouvelle de Sumatra, ainsi que dans celle
d’Afrique, est d’environ 12 centimètres, tandis que cette
longueur n’est que de 8 à 10 centimètres dans
l’espèce du continent de l’Asie.“Les autres formes ostéologiques sont à peu
près les mêmes dans les trois espèces; mais il
y a différence dans le nombre des os dont le squelette se
compose, ainsi que le tableau comparatif ci-joint
l’éprouve.“L’elephas Africanus a 7 vertèbres du cou, 21
vert. dorsales, 3 lombaires, 4 sacrées, et 26 caudales; 21
paires de côtes, dont 6 vraies, et 15 fausses. L’elephas
Indicus a 7 vertèbres du cou, 19 dorsales, 3 lombaires,
5 sacrées, et 34 caudales, 19 paires de côtes, dont 6
vraies, et 3 fausses. L’elephas Sumatranus a 7
vertèbres du cou, 20 dorsales, 3 lombaires, 4
sacrées, et 34 caudales; 20 paires du côtes, dont 6
vraies, et 14 fausses.“Ces caractères ont été constatés
sur trois squelettes de l’espèce nouvelle, un mâle et
une femelle adultes et un jeune mâle. Nous n’avons pas encore
été à même de nous procurer la
dépouille de cette espèce.”
Footnote 671: (return)A further inquiry suggests itself, how far the intermixture of
the breed may have served to confound specific differences, in the
case of elephants bred on the continent of India, from stock
partially imported from Ceylon?
Footnote 701: (return)Hist, de la Compagnie de Jésus, quoted in the
Asiat. Journ. vol. xiv. p. 461; and in FORBES’ Orient.
Memoirs, vol. i. p. 421.
Footnote 702: (return)FRAN. VALENTYN, Beschryving van Oud en Nieuw Oost-Indien,
&c. 5 vol. fol. Dordrecht and Amsterdam, MDCCXXVII. vol. iii.
p. 330.
CHAP. II.
THE ELEPHANT.
Structure and Functions.
During my residence at Kandy, I had twice the opportunity of
witnessing the operation on a grand scale, of capturing wild
elephants, intended to be trained for the public service in the
establishment of the Civil Engineer;—and in the course of my
frequent journeys through the interior of the island, I succeeded
in collecting so many facts relative to the habits of these
interesting animals in a state of nature, as enable me not only to
add to the information previously possessed, but to correct many
fallacies popularly received regarding their instincts and
disposition. These particulars I am anxious to place on record
before proceeding to describe the scenes of which I was a
spectator, during the progress of the elephant hunts in the
district of the Seven Korles, at which I was present in 1846, and
again in 1847.
With the exception of the narrow but densely inhabited belt of
cultivated land, that extends along the seaborde of the island from
Chilaw on the western coast to Tangalle on the south-east, there is
no part of Ceylon [pg 76] in which elephants may not be said to
abound; even close to the environs of the most populous localities
of the interior. They frequent both the open plains and the deep
forests; and their footsteps are to be seen wherever food and
shade, vegetation and water761,
allure [pg
77] them, alike on the summits of the loftiest mountains,
and on the borders of the tanks and lowland streams.
From time immemorial the natives have been taught to capture and
tame them and the export of elephants from Ceylon to India has been
going on without interruption from the period of the first Punic
War.771 In later times all elephants were
the property of the Kandyan crown; and their capture or slaughter
without the royal permission was classed amongst the gravest
offences in the criminal code.
In recent years there is reason to believe that their numbers
have become considerably reduced. They have entirely disappeared
from localities in which they were formerly numerous772; smaller herds have been taken in
the periodical captures for the government service, and hunters
returning from the chase report them to be growing scarce. In
consequence of this diminution the peasantry in some parts of the
island have even suspended the ancient practice of keeping watchers
and fires by night to drive away the elephants from their growing
crops.773 The opening of roads and the
clearing of the mountain forests of Kandy for the cultivation of
coffee, [pg
78] have forced the animals to retire to the low country,
where again they have been followed by large parties of European
sportsmen; and the Singhalese themselves, being more freely
provided with arms than in former times, have assisted in swelling
the annual slaughter.781
Had the motive that incites to the destruction of the elephant
in Africa and India prevailed in Ceylon, that is, had the elephants
there been provided with tusks, they would long since have been
annihilated for the sake of their ivory.782
But it is a curious fact that, whilst in Africa and India both
sexes have tusks783,
with some slight disproportion in the size of those of the females:
not one elephant in a hundred is found with tusks in Ceylon, and
the few that possess them are exclusively males. Nearly all,
however, have those stunted processes called tushes, about
ten or twelve inches in length and one or two in diameter. These I
have observed them to use in loosening earth, stripping off bark,
and snapping asunder small branches and climbing [pg 79] plants;
and hence tushes are seldom seen without a groove worn into them
near their extremities.791
Amongst other surmises more ingenious than sound, the general
absence of tusks in the elephant of Ceylon has been associated with
the profusion of rivers and streams in the island; whilst it has
been thrown out as a possibility that in Africa, where water is
comparatively scarce, the animal is equipped with these implements
in order to assist it in digging wells in the sand and in raising
the juicy roots of the mimosas and succulent plants for the sake of
their moisture. In support of this hypothesis, it has been
observed, that whilst the tusks of the Ceylon species, which are
never required for such uses, are slender, graceful and curved,
seldom exceeding fifty or sixty pounds’ weight, those of the
African elephant are straight and thick, weighing occasionally one
hundred and fifty, and even three hundred pounds.792
But it is manifestly inconsistent with the idea that tusks were
given to the elephant to assist him in digging for his food, to
find that the females are less bountifully supplied with them than
the males, whilst the necessity for their use extends equally to
both sexes. The same argument serves to demonstrate the fallacy of
the conjecture, that the tusks of the elephant were given to him as
weapons of offence, for if such were the case the vast majority in
Ceylon, males as well as females, would be left helpless in
presence of an assailant. But although in their conflicts with one
another, those which are provided with tusks may occasionally push
with them clumsily at their opponents; it is a misapprehension to
imagine that tusks are designed specially to serve “in warding off
the attacks of the wily tiger and the furious rhinoceros, often
securing the victory by one blow which transfixes the assailant to
the earth.”801
So harmless and peaceful is the life of the elephant, that
nature appears to have left it unprovided with any weapon of
offence: its trunk is too delicate an organ to be rudely employed
in a conflict with other animals, and although on an emergency it
may push or gore with its tusks (to which the French have hastily
given the term “défenses“), their almost vertical
position, added to the difficulty of raising its head above the
level of the shoulder, is inconsistent with the idea of their being
designed for attack, since it is impossible for the elephant to
strike an effectual blow, or to “wield” its tusks as the deer and
the buffalo can direct their horns. Nor is it easy to conceive
under what circumstances an elephant could have a hostile encounter
with either a rhinoceros or a tiger, with whose pursuits in a state
of nature its own can in no way conflict.
Towards man elephants evince shyness, arising from their love of
solitude and dislike of intrusion; any alarm they exhibit at his
appearance may be reasonably traced to the slaughter which has
reduced their numbers; and as some evidence of this, it has always
been observed that an elephant exhibits greater impatience of the
presence of a white man than of a native. Were its instincts to
carry it further, or were it influenced by any feeling of animosity
or cruelty, it must be apparent that, as against the prodigious
numbers that inhabit the forests of Ceylon, man would wage an
unequal contest, and that of the two one or other must long since
have been reduced to a helpless minority.
Official testimony is not wanting in confirmation of this
view;—in the returns of 108 coroners’ inquests in Ceylon,
during five years, from 1849 to 1855 inclusive, held in cases of
death occasioned by wild animals; 16 [pg 82] are recorded as having been
caused by elephants, 15 by buffaloes, 6 by crocodiles, 2 by boars,
1 by a bear, and 68 by serpents (the great majority of the last
class of sufferers being women and children, who had been bitten
during the night). Little more than three fatal accidents
occurring annually on the average of five years, is certainly a
very small proportion in a population estimated at a million and a
half, in an island abounding with elephants, with which,
independently of casual encounters, voluntary conflicts are daily
stimulated by the love of sport or the hope of gain. Were the
elephants instinctively vicious or even highly irritable in their
temperament, the destruction of human life under the circumstances
must have been infinitely greater. It must also be taken into
account, that some of the accidents recorded may have occurred in
the rutting season, when elephants are subject to fits of temporary
fury, known in India by the term must, in Ceylon
mudda,—a paroxysm which speedily passes away, but
during the fury of which it is dangerous even for the mahout to
approach those ordinarily the gentlest and most familiar.
But, then, the elephant is said to “entertain an extraordinary
dislike to all quadrupeds; that dogs running near him produce
annoyance; that he is alarmed if a hare start from her form;” and
from Pliny to Buffon every naturalist has recorded its supposed
aversion to swine.821
These alleged antipathies are in a great degree, if not entirely,
imaginary. The habits of the elephant are essentially harmless, its
wants lead to no rivalry with other animals, and the food to which
it is [pg
83] most attached flourishes in such abundance that it is
obtained without an effort. In the quiet solitudes of Ceylon,
elephants may constantly be seen browsing peacefully in the
immediate vicinity of other animals, and in close contact with
them. I have seen groups of deer and wild buffaloes reclining in
the sandy bed of a river in the dry season, and elephants plucking
the branches close beside them. They show no impatience in the
company of the elk, the bear, and the wild hog; and on the other
hand, I have never discovered an instance in which these animals
have evinced any apprehension of elephants. The elephant’s natural
timidity, however, is such that it becomes alarmed on the
appearance in the jungle of any animal with which it is not
familiar. It is said to be afraid of the horse; but from my own
experience, I should say it is the horse that is alarmed at the
aspect of the elephant. In the same way, from some unaccountable
impulse, the horse has an antipathy to the camel, and evinces
extreme impatience, both of the sight and the smell of that
animal.831 When enraged, an elephant will
not hesitate to charge a rider on horseback; but it is against the
man, not against the horse, that his fury is directed; and no
instance has been ever known of his wantonly assailing a horse. A
horse, belonging to the late Major [pg 84] Rogers841, had run away from his groom, and
was found some considerable time afterwards grazing quietly with a
herd of elephants. In DE BRY’S splendid collection of travels,
however, there is included “The voyage of a Certain Englishman
to Cambay;” in which the author asserts that at Agra, in the
year 1607, he was present at a spectacle given by the Viceregent of
the great Mogul, in the course of which he saw an elephant destroy
two horses, by seizing them in its trunk, and crushing them under
foot.842 But the display was avowedly an
artificial one, and the creature must have been cruelly tutored for
the occasion.
Pigs are constantly to be seen feeding about the stables of the
tame elephants, which manifest no repugnance to them. As to the
smaller animals, the elephant undoubtedly evinces uneasiness at the
presence of a dog, but this is referable to the same cause as its
impatience of a horse, namely, that neither is habitually seen by
it in the forest; but it would be idle to suppose that this feeling
could amount to hostility against a creature incapable of
inflicting on it the slightest injury.843 The
truth I apprehend to be that, when they meet, the impudence and
impertinences of the dog are offensive to [pg 85] the
gravity of the elephant, and incompatible with his love of solitude
and ease. Or may it be assumed as an evidence of the sagacity of
the elephant, that the only two animals to which it manifests an
antipathy, are the two which it has seen only in the company of its
enemy, man? One instance has certainly been attested to me by an
eye-witness, in which the trunk of an elephant was seized in the
teeth of a Scotch terrier, and such was the alarm of the huge
creature that it came at once to its knees. The dog repeated the
attack, and on every renewal of it the elephant retreated in
terror, holding its trunk above its head, and kicking at the
terrier with its fore feet. It would have turned to flight, but for
the interference of its keeper.
Major Skinner, formerly commissioner of roads in Ceylon, whose
official duties in constructing highways involved the necessity of
his being in the jungle for months together, always found that, by
night or by day, the barking of a dog which accompanied him, was
sufficient to put a herd to flight. On the whole, therefore, I am
of opinion that the elephant lives on terms of amity with every
quadruped in the forest, that it neither regards them as its foes,
nor provokes their hostility by its acts; and that, with the
exception of man, its greatest enemy is a fly!
The current statements as to the supposed animosity of the
elephant to minor animals originated with Ælian and Pliny,
who had probably an opportunity of seeing, what may at any time be
observed, that when a captive elephant is picketed beside a post,
the domestic animals, goats, sheep, and cattle, will annoy and
irritate him by their audacity in making free with his provender;
but this is an evidence in itself of the little instinctive dread
[pg
86] which such comparatively puny creatures entertain of one
so powerful and yet so gentle.
Amongst elephants themselves, jealousy and other causes of
irritation frequently occasion contentions between individuals of
the same herd; but on such occasions it is their habit to strike
with their trunks, and to bear down their opponents with their
heads. It is doubtless correct that an elephant, when prostrated by
the force and fury of an antagonist of its own species, is often
wounded by the downward pressure of the tusks, which in any other
position it would be almost impossible to use offensively.861
Mr. Mercer, who in 1846 was the principal civil officer of
Government at Badulla, sent me a jagged fragment of an elephant’s
tusk, about five inches in diameter, and weighing between twenty
and thirty pounds, which had been brought to him by some natives,
who, being attracted by a noise in the jungle, witnessed a combat
between a tusker and one without tusks, and saw the latter with his
trunk seize one of the tusks of his antagonist and wrench from it
the portion in question, which measured two feet in length.
Here the trunk was shown to be the more powerful offensive
weapon of the two; but I apprehend that the chief reliance of the
elephant for defence is on its ponderous weight, the pressure of
its foot being sufficient to crush any minor assailant after being
prostrated by means of its trunk. Besides, in using its feet for
this purpose, it derives a wonderful facility from the peculiar
formation of the knee-joint in the hind leg, which, enabling
[pg
87] it to swing the hind feet forward close to the ground,
assists it to toss the body alternately from foot to foot, till
deprived of life.871
A sportsman who had partially undergone this operation, having
been seized by a wounded elephant but rescued from its fury,
described to me his sufferings as he was thus flung back and
forward between the hind and fore feet of the animal, which
ineffectually attempted to trample him at each concussion, and
abandoned him without inflicting serious injury.
KNOX, in describing the execution of criminals by the state
elephants of the former kings of Kandy, says, “they will run their
teeth (tusks) through the body, and then tear it in pieces
and throw it limb from limb;” but a Kandyan chief, who was witness
to such scenes, has assured me that the elephant never once applied
its tusks, but, placing its foot on the prostrate victim, plucked
off his limbs in succession by a sudden movement of the trunk. If
the tusks were designed to be employed offensively, some alertness
would naturally be exhibited in using them; but in numerous
instances where sportsmen have fallen into the power of a wounded
elephant, they have escaped through the failure of the enraged
animal to strike them with its tusks, even when stretched upon the
ground.872
Placed as the elephant is in Ceylon, in the midst of the most
luxuriant profusion of its favourite food, in close proximity at
all times to abundant supplies of water, and with no enemies
against whom to protect itself, it is difficult to conjecture any
probable utility which it could derive from such appendages. Their
absence is unaccompanied by any inconvenience to the individuals in
whom they are wanting; and as regards the few who possess them, the
only operations in which I am aware of their tusks being employed
in relation to the oeconomy of the animal, is to assist in ripping
open the stem of the jaggery palms and young palmyras to extract
the farinaceous core; and in splitting the juicy shaft of the
plantain. Whilst the tuskless elephant crushes the latter under
foot, thereby soiling it and wasting its moisture; the other, by
opening it with the point of his tusk, performs the operation with
delicacy and apparent ease.
These, however, are trivial and almost accidental advantages: on
the other hand, owing to irregularities in their growth, the tusks
are sometimes an impediment in feeding881; and
in more than one instance in the Government studs, tusks which had
so grown as to approach and cross one another at the extremities,
have had to be removed by the saw; the contraction of space between
them so impeding the free action of the trunk as to prevent the
animal from conveying branches to its mouth.882
It is true that in captivity, and after a due course of
training, the elephant discovers a new use for its tusks when
employed in moving stones and piling timber; so much so that a
powerful one will raise and carry on them a log of half a ton
weight or more. One evening, whilst riding in the vicinity of
Kandy, towards the scene of the massacre of Major Davie’s party in
1803, my horse evinced some excitement at a noise which approached
us in the thick jungle, and which consisted of a repetition of the
ejaculation urmph! urmph! in a hoarse and dissatisfied tone.
A turn in the forest explained the mystery, by bringing me face to
face with a tame elephant, unaccompanied by any attendant. He was
labouring painfully to carry a heavy beam of timber, which he
balanced across his tusks, but the pathway being narrow, he was
forced to bend his head to one side to permit it to pass endways;
and the exertion and this inconvenience combined led him to utter
the dissatisfied sounds which disturbed the composure of my horse.
On seeing us halt, the elephant raised his head, reconnoitred us
for a moment, then flung down the timber, and voluntarily forced
himself backwards among the brushwood so as to leave a passage, of
which he expected us to avail [pg 90] ourselves. My horse
hesitated: the elephant observed it, and impatiently thrust himself
deeper into the jungle, repeating his cry of urmph! but in a
voice evidently meant to encourage us to advance. Still the horse
trembled; and anxious to observe the instinct of the two sagacious
animals, I forbore any interference: again the elephant of his own
accord wedged himself further in amongst the trees, and manifested
some impatience that we did not pass him. At length the horse moved
forward; and when we were fairly past, I saw the wise creature
stoop and take up its heavy burthen, trim and balance it on its
tusks, and resume its route as before, hoarsely snorting its
discontented remonstrance.
Between the African elephant and that of Ceylon, with the
exception of the striking peculiarity of the infrequency of tusks
in the latter, the distinctions are less apparent to a casual
observer than to a scientific naturalist. In the Ceylon species the
forehead is higher and more hollow, the ears are smaller, and, in a
section of the teeth, the grinding ridges, instead of being
lozenge-shaped, are transverse bars of uniform breadth.
The Indian elephant is stated by Cuvier to have four nails on
the hind foot, the African variety having only three: but amongst
the perfections of a high-bred elephant of Ceylon, is always
enumerated the possession of twenty nails, whilst those of a
secondary class have but eighteen in all.901
So conversant are the natives with the structure and “points” of
the elephant, that they divide them readily into castes, and
describe with particularity their distinctive excellences and
defects. In the Hastisilpe, a
Singhalese work which treats of their management, the marks of
inferior breeding are said to be “eyes restless like those of a
crow, the hair of the head of mixed shades; the face wrinkled; the
tongue curved and black; the nails short and green; the ears small;
the neck thin, the skin freckled; the tail without a tuft, and the
fore-quarter lean and low:” whilst the perfection of form and
beauty is supposed to consist in the “softness of the skin, the red
colour of the mouth and tongue, the forehead expanded and hollow,
the ears broad and rectangular, the trunk broad at the root and
blotched with pink in front; the eyes bright and kindly, the cheeks
large, the neck full, the back level, the chest square, the fore
legs short and convex in front, the hind quarter plump, and five
nails on each foot, all smooth, polished, and round.911 An elephant with these
perfections,” says the author of the Hastisilpe, “will
impart glory and magnificence to the king; but he cannot be
discovered amongst thousands, yea, there shall never be found an
elephant clothed at once with all the excellences herein
described.” The “points” of an elephant are to be studied with the
greatest advantage in those attached to the temples, which are
always of the highest caste, and exhibit the most perfect
breeding.
The colour of the animal’s skin in a state of nature is
generally of a lighter brown than that of those in captivity; a
distinction which arises, in all probability, not so much from the
wild animal’s propensity to cover itself with mud and dust, as from
the superior care which is taken in repeatedly bathing the tame
ones, and in rubbing [pg 92] their skins with a soft stone, a lump
of burnt clay, or the coarse husk of a coco-nut. This kind of
attention, together with the occasional application of oil, gives
rise to the deeper black which the hides of the latter present.
Amongst the native Singhalese, however, a singular preference is
evinced for elephants that exhibit those flesh-coloured blotches
which occasionally mottle the skin of an elephant, chiefly about
the head and extremities. The front of the trunk, the tips of the
ears, the forehead, and occasionally the legs, are thus diversified
with stains of a yellowish tint, inclining to pink. These are not
natural; nor are they hereditary, for they are seldom exhibited by
the younger individuals in a herd, but appear to be the result of
some eruptive affection, the irritation of which has induced the
animal in its uneasiness to rub itself against the rough bark of
trees, and thus to destroy the outer cuticle.921
To a European these spots appear blemishes, and the taste that
leads the natives to admire them is probably akin to the feeling
that has at all times rendered a white elephant an object of
wonder to Asiatics. The rarity of the latter is accounted for by
regarding this peculiar appearance as the result of albinism; and
notwithstanding the exaggeration of Oriental historians, who
compare the fairness of such creatures to the whiteness of snow,
even in its utmost perfection, I apprehend that the tint of a white
elephant is little else than a flesh-colour, rendered somewhat more
conspicuous by the blanching of the skin, and the lightness of the
colourless hairs by [pg 93] which it is sparsely covered. A white
elephant is mentioned in the Mahawanso as forming part of
the retinue attached to the “Temple of the Tooth” at Anarajapoora,
in the fifth century after Christ931; but
it commanded no religious veneration, and like those in the stud of
the kings of Siam, it was tended merely as an emblem of
royalty932; the sovereign of Ceylon being
addressed as the “Lord of Elephants.”933 In
1633 a white elephant was exhibited in Holland934; but as this was some years
before the Dutch had established themselves firmly in Ceylon, it
was probably brought from some other of their eastern
possessions.
Footnote 761: (return)M. AD. PICTET has availed himself of the love of the elephant
for water, to found on it a solution of the long-contested question
as to the etymology of the word “elephant,”-a term which, whilst it
has passed into almost every dialect of the West, is scarcely to be
traced in any language of Asia. The Greek [Greek: elephas], to
which we are immediately indebted for it, did not originally mean
the animal, but, as early as the time of Homer, was applied only to
its tusks, and signified ivory. BOCHART has sought for a
Semitic origin, and seizing on the Arabic fil, and prefixing
the article al, suggests alfil, akin to [Greek:
eleph]; but rejecting this, BOCHART himself resorts to the Hebrew
eleph, an “ox”—and this conjecture derives a certain
degree of countenance from the fact that the Romans, when they
obtained their first sight of the elephant in the army of Pyrrhus,
in Lucania, called it the Luca bos. But the [Greek: antos]
is still unaccounted for; and POTT has sought to remove the
difficulty by introducing the Arabic hindi, Indian, s thus
making eleph-hindi, “bos Indicus.” The conversion of
hindi into [Greek: antos] is an obstacle, but here the
example of “tamarind” comes to aid; tamar hindi, the “Indian
date,” which in mediæval Greek forms [Greek: tamarenti]. A
theory of Benary, that helhephas might be compounded of the Arabic
al, and ibha, a Sanskrit name for the elephant, is
exposed to still greater etymological exception. PICTET’S solution
is, that in the Sanskrit epics “the King of Elephants,” who has the
distinction of carrying the god Indra, is called airarata or
airavana, a modification of airavanta, “son of the
ocean,” which again comes from iravat, “abounding in water.”
“Nous aurions done ainsi, comme corrélatif du gree [Greek:
elephanto], une ancienne forme, âirâvanta ou
âilâvanta, affaiblie plus tard en
âirâvata ou âirâvana…. On
connaît la prédilection de l’éléphant
pour le voisinage des fleuves, et son amour pour l’eau, dont
l’abondance est nécessaire à son bien-être.”
This Sanskrit name, PICTET supposes, may have been carried to the
West by the Phoenicians, who were the purveyors of ivory from
India; and, from the Greek, the Latins derived elephas,
which passed into the modern languages of Italy, Germany, and
France. But it is curious that the Spaniards acquired from the
Moors their Arabic term for ivory, marfil, and the
Portuguese marfim; and that the Scandinavians, probably from
their early expeditions to the Mediterranean, adopted fill
as their name for the elephant itself, and fil-bein for
ivory; in Danish, fils-ben. (See Journ. Asiat. 1843,
t. xliii. p. 133.) The Spaniards of South America call the palm
which produces the vegetable ivory (Phytelephas macrocarpa)
Palma de marfil, and the nut itself, marfil
vegetal.Since the above was written Gooneratné Modliar, the
Singhalese Interpreter to the Supreme Court at Colombo, has
supplied me with another conjecture, that the word elephant may
possibly be traced to the Singhalese name of the animal,
alia, which means literally, “the huge one.” Alia, he
adds, is not a derivation from Sanskrit or Pali, but belongs to a
dialect more ancient than either.
Footnote 772: (return)LE BRUN, who visited Ceylon A.D. 1705, says that in the district
round Colombo, where elephants are now never seen, they were then
so abundant, that 160 had been taken in a single corral.
(Voyage, &c., tom. ii. ch. lxiii. p. 331.)
Footnote 773: (return)In some parts of Bengal, where elephants were formerly
troublesome (especially near the wilds of Ramgur), the natives got
rid of them by mixing a preparation of the poisonous Nepal root
called dakra in balls of grain, and other materials, of
which the animal is fond. In Cuttack, above fifty years ago,
mineral poison was laid for them in the same way, and the carcases
of eighty were found which had been killed by it. (Asiat.
Res., xv. 183.)
Footnote 781: (return)The number of elephants has been similarly reduced throughout
the south of India.
Footnote 782: (return)The annual importation of ivory into Great Britain alone, for
the last few years, has been about one million pounds;
which, taking the average weight of a tusk at sixty pounds, would
require the slaughter of 8,333 male elephants.But of this quantity the importation from Ceylon has generally
averaged only five or six hundred weight; which, making allowance
for the lightness of the tusks, would not involve the destruction
of more than seven or eight in each year. At the same time, this
does not fairly represent the annual number of tuskers shot in
Ceylon, not only because a portion of the ivory finds its way to
China and to other places, but because the chiefs and Buddhist
priests have a passion for collecting tusks, and the finest and
largest are to be found ornamenting their temples and private
dwellings. The Chinese profess that for their exquisite carvings
the ivory of Ceylon excels all other, both in density of texture
and in delicacy of tint; but in the European market, the ivory of
Africa, from its more distinct graining and other causes, obtains a
higher price.
Footnote 783: (return)A writer in the India Sporting Review for October 1857
says, “In Malabar a tuskless male elephant is rare; I have seen but
two.”—p. 157.
Footnote 791: (return)The old fallacy is still renewed, that the elephant sheds his
tusks. ÆLIAN says he drops them once in ten years (lib. xiv.
c. 5): and PLINY repeats the story, adding that, when dropped, the
elephants hide them under ground (lib. viii.) whence SHAW says, in
his Zoology, “they are frequently found in the woods,” and
exported from Africa (vol. i. p. 213): and Sir W. JARDINE in the
Naturalist’s Library (vol. ix. p. 110), says, “the tusks are
shed about the twelfth or thirteenth year.” This is erroneous:
after losing the first pair, or, as they are called, the “milk
tusks,” which drop in consequence of the absorption of their roots,
when the animal is extremely young, the second pair acquire their
full size, and become the “permanent tusks,” which are never
shed.
Footnote 792: (return)Notwithstanding the inferiority in weight of the Ceylon tusks,
as compared with those of the elephant of India, it would, I think,
be precipitate to draw the inference that the size of the former
was uniformly and naturally less than that of the latter. The
truth, I believe to be, that if permitted to grow to maturity, the
tusks of the one would, in all probability, equal those of the
other; but, so eager is the search for ivory in Ceylon, that a
tusker, when once observed in a herd, is followed up with such
vigilant impatience, that he is almost invariably shot before
attaining his full growth. General DE LIMA, when returning from the
governorship of the Portuguese settlements at Mozambique, told me,
in 1848, that he had been requested to procure two tusks of the
largest size, and straightest possible shape, which were to be
formed into a cross to surmount the high altar of the cathedral at
Goa: he succeeded in his commission, and sent two, one of which was
180 pounds, and the other 170 pounds’ weight, with the slightest
possible curve. In a periodical, entitled The Friend,
published in Ceylon, it is stated in the volume for 1837 that the
officers belonging to the ships Quorrah and Alburhak, engaged in
the Niger Expedition, were shown by a native king two tusks, each
two feet and a half in circumference at the base, eight feet long,
and weighing upwards of 200 pounds. (Vol. i. p. 225.) BRODERIP, in
his Zoological Recreations, p. 255, says a tusk of 350
pounds’ weight was sold at Amsterdam, but he does not quote his
authority.
Footnote 801: (return)Menageries, &c., published by the Society for the
Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, vol. i. p. 68: “The Elephant,” ch.
iii. It will be seen that I have quoted repeatedly from this
volume, because it is the most compendious and careful compilation
with which I am acquainted of the information previously existing
regarding the elephant. The author incorporates no speculations of
his own, but has most diligently and agreeably arranged all the
facts collected by his predecessors. The story of antipathy between
the elephant and rhinoceros is probably borrowed from ÆLIAN
de Nat., lib. xvii. c. 44.
Footnote 831: (return)This peculiarity was noticed by the ancients, and is recorded by
Herodotus: [Greek: “kamêlon hippos phobeetai, kai ouk
anechetai oute tên ideên autês oreôn oute
tên odmên osphrainomenos”] (Herod. ch. 80). Camels have
long been bred by the Grand Duke of Tuscany, at his establishment
near Pisa, and even there the same instinctive dislike to them is
manifested by the horse, which it is necessary to train and
accustom to their presence in order to avoid accidents. Mr.
BRODERIP mentions, that, “when the precaution of such training has
not been adopted, the sudden and dangerous terror with which a
horse is seized in coming unexpectedly upon one of them is
excessive.”—Note-book of a Naturalist, ch. iv. p.
113.
Footnote 841: (return)Major ROGERS was many years the chief civil officer of
Government in the district of Oovah, where he was killed by
lightning, 1845.
Footnote 842: (return)“Quidam etiam cum equis silvestribus pugnant. Sæpe unus
elephas cum sex equis committitur; atque ipse adeo interfui cum
unus elephas duos equos cum primo impetu protinus
prosternerit;—injecta enim jugulis ipsorum longa proboscide,
ad se protractos, dentibus porro comminuit ac protrivit.” Angli
Cujusdam in Cambayam Navigatio. DE BRY, Coll., &c.,
vol. iii. ch. xvi. p. 31.
Footnote 843: (return)To account for the impatience manifested by the elephant at the
presence of a dog, it has been suggested that he is alarmed lest
the latter should attack his feet, a portion of his body of
which the elephant is peculiarly careful. A tame elephant has been
observed to regard with indifference a spear directed towards his
head, but to shrink timidly from the same weapon when pointed at
his foot.
Footnote 861: (return)A writer in the India Sporting Review for October 1857
says a male elephant was killed by two others close to his camp:
“the head was completely smashed in; there was a large hole in the
side, and the abdomen was ripped open. The latter wound was given
probably after it had fallen.”—P. 175.
Footnote 871: (return)In the Third Book of Maccabees, which is not printed in our
Apocrypha, but appears in the series in the Greek Septuagint, the
author, in describing the persecution of the Jews by Ptolemy
Philopater, B.C. 210, states that the king swore vehemently that he
would send them into the other world, “foully trampled to death by
the knees and feet of elephants” ([Greek: pempsein eis hadên
en gonasi kai posi thêrion hêkismenous.] 3 Mac. v. 42).
ÆLIAN makes the remark, that elephants on such occasions use
their knees as well as their feet to crush their
victims.—Hist Anim. viii. 10.
Footnote 872: (return)The Hastisilpe, a Singhalese work which treats of the
“Science of Elephants,” enumerates amongst those which it is not
desirable to possess, “the elephant which will fight with a stone
or a stick in his trunk.”
Footnote 881: (return)Among other eccentric forms, an elephant was seen in 1844, in
the district of Bintenne, near Friar’s-Hood Mountain, one of whose
tusks was so bent that it took what sailors term a “round turn,”
and resumed its curved direction as before. In the Museum of the
College of Surgeons, London, there is a specimen, No. 2757, of a
spira tusk.
Footnote 882: (return)Since the foregoing remarks were written relative to the
undefined use of tusks to the elephant, I have seen a speculation
on the same subject in Dr. HOLLAND’S “Constitution of the Animal
Creation, as expressed in structural Appendages;” but the
conjecture of the author leaves the problem scarcely less obscure
than before. Struck with the mere supplemental presence of
the tusks, the absence of all apparent use serving to distinguish
them from the essential organs of the creature, Dr. HOLLAND
concludes that their production is a process incident, but not
ancillary, to other important ends, especially connected with the
vital functions of the trunk and the marvellous motive powers
inherent to it; his conjecture is, that they are “a species of
safety valve of the animal oeconomy,”—and that “they owe
their development to the predominance of the senses of touch and
smell, conjointly with the muscular motions of which the exercise
of these is accompanied.” “Had there been no proboscis,” he thinks,
“there would have been no supplementary appendages,—the
former creates the latter.”—Pp. 246, 271.
Footnote 911: (return)A native of rank informed me, that “the tail of a high-caste
elephant will sometimes touch the ground, but such are very
rare.”
Footnote 921: (return)This is confirmed by the fact that the scar of the ancle wound,
occasioned by the rope on the legs of those which have been
captured by noosing, presents precisely the same tint in the healed
parts.
Footnote 933: (return)Mahawanso, ch. xviii. p. 111. The Hindu sovereigns of
Orissa, in the middle ages, bore the style of Gaja-pati,
“powerful in elephants.”—Asiat. Res. xv. 253.
Footnote 934: (return)ARMANDI, Hist. Milit. des Elephants, lib. ii. c. x. p.
380. HORACE mentions a white elephant as having been exhibited at
Rome: “Sive elephas albus vulgi converteret ora.”—HOR.
Ep. II. 196.
CHAP. III.
THE ELEPHANT.
Habits when Wild.
Although found generally in warm and sunny climates, it is a
mistake to suppose that the elephant is partial either to heat or
to light. In Ceylon, the mountain tops, and not the sultry valleys,
are its favourite resort. In Oovah, where the elevated plains are
often crisp with the morning frost, and on Pedura-talla-galla, at
the height of upwards of eight thousand feet, they are found in
herds, whilst the hunter may search for them without success in the
hot jungles of the low country. No altitude, in fact, seems too
lofty or too chill for the elephant, provided it affords the luxury
of water in abundance; and, contrary to the general opinion that
the elephant delights in sunshine, it seems at all times impatient
of glare, and spends the day in the thickest depth of the forests,
devoting the night to excursions, and to the luxury of the bath, in
which it also indulges occasionally by day. This partiality for
shade is doubtless ascribable to the animal’s love of coolness and
solitude; but it is not altogether unconnected with the position of
the eye, and the circumscribed use which its peculiar mode of life
permits it to make of the faculty of sight.
All the elephant hunters and natives to whom I have spoken on
the subject, concur in opinion that its range of vision is
circumscribed, and that it relies more on its ear and sense of
smell than on its sight, which is liable to be obstructed by dense
foliage; besides which, from the formation of its short neck, the
elephant is incapable of directing the range of the eye much above
the level of the head.951
The elephant’s small range of vision is sufficient to account
for its excessive caution, its alarm at unusual noises, and the
timidity and panic exhibited at trivial [pg 96] objects
and incidents which, imperfectly discerned, excite suspicions for
its safety.961 In
1841 an officer962 was
chased by an elephant that he had slightly wounded. Seizing him
near the dry bed of a river, the animal had its forefoot already
raised to crush him; but its forehead being caught at the instant
by the tendrils of a climbing plant which had suspended itself from
the branches above, it suddenly turned and fled; leaving him badly
hurt, but with no limb broken. I have heard similar instances,
equally well attested, of this peculiarity in the elephant.
On the other hand, the power of smell is so remarkable as almost
to compensate for the deficiency of sight. A herd is not only
apprised of the approach of danger by this means, but when
scattered in the forest, and dispersed out of range of sight, they
are enabled by it to reassemble with rapidity and adopt precautions
for their common safety. The same necessity is met by a delicate
sense of hearing, and the use of a variety of noises or calls, by
means of which elephants succeed in communicating with each other
upon all emergencies. “The sounds which they utter have been
described by the African hunters as of three kinds: the first,
which is very shrill, produced by blowing through the trunk, is
indicative of pleasure; the second, produced by the mouth, is
expressive of want; and the third, proceeding from the throat, is a
terrific roar of anger or revenge.”963
These words convey but an imperfect idea of the variety of noises
made by the elephant in Ceylon; and the shrill cry produced by
blowing through his trunk, so far [pg 97] from being regarded as an
indication of “pleasure,” is the well-known cry of rage with which
he rushes to encounter an assailant. ARISTOTLE describes it as
resembling the hoarse sound of a “trumpet.”971
The French still designate the proboscis of an elephant by the same
expression “trompe,” (which we have unmeaningly corrupted into
trunk,) and hence the scream of the elephant is known as
“trumpeting” by the hunters in Ceylon. Their cry when in pain, or
when subjected to compulsion, is a grunt or a deep groan from the
throat, with the proboscis curled upwards and the lips wide
apart.
Should the attention of an individual in the herd be attracted
by any unusual appearance in the forest, the intelligence is
rapidly communicated by a low suppressed sound made by the lips,
somewhat resembling the twittering of a bird, and described by the
hunters by the word “prut.”
A very remarkable noise has been described to me by more than
one individual, who has come unexpectedly upon a herd during the
night, when the alarm of the elephants was apparently too great to
be satisfied with the stealthy note of warning just described. On
these occasions the sound produced resembled the hollow booming of
an empty tun when struck with a wooden mallet or a muffled sledge.
Major MACREADY, Military Secretary in Ceylon in 1836, who heard it
by night amongst the wild elephants in the great forest of
Bintenne, describes it as “a sort of banging noise like a
[pg
98] cooper hammering a cask;” and Major SKINNER is of
opinion that it must be produced by the elephant striking his sides
rapidly and forcibly with his trunk. Mr. CRIPPS informs me that he
has more than once seen an elephant, when surprised or alarmed,
produce this sound by striking the ground forcibly with the flat
side of the trunk; and this movement was instantly succeeded by
raising it again, and pointing it in the direction whence the alarm
proceeded, as if to ascertain by the sense of smell the nature of
the threatened danger. As this strange sound is generally mingled
with the bellowing and ordinary trumpeting of the herd, it is in
all probability a device resorted to, not alone for warning their
companions of some approaching peril, but also for the additional
purpose of terrifying unseen intruders.981
Elephants are subject to deafness; and the Singhalese regard as
the most formidable of all wild animals, a “rogue”982 afflicted with this
infirmity.
Extravagant estimates are recorded of the height of the
elephant. In an age when popular fallacies in relation to him were
as yet uncorrected in Europe by the actual inspection of the living
animal, he was supposed to grow to the height of twelve or fifteen
feet. Even within the last century in popular works on natural
history, the elephant, when full grown, was said to measure from
seventeen to twenty feet from the ground to the shoulder.983 At a still later period, so
imperfectly had [pg 99] the facts been collated, that the
elephant of Ceylon was believed “to excel that of Africa in size
and strength.”991 But
so far from equalling the size of the African species, that of
Ceylon seldom exceeds the height of nine feet; even in the
Hambangtotte country, where the hunters agree that the largest
specimens are to be found, the tallest of ordinary herds do not
average more than eight feet. WOLF, in his account of the Ceylon
elephant992, says he saw one taken near
Jaffna, which measured twelve feet and one inch high. But the truth
is, that the general bulk of the elephant so far exceeds that of
the animals which we are accustomed to see daily, that the
imagination magnifies its unusual dimensions; and I have seldom or
ever met with an inexperienced spectator who did not unconsciously
over-estimate the size of an elephant shown to him, whether in
captivity or in a state of nature. Major DENHAM would have guessed
some which he saw in Africa to be sixteen feet in height, but
the largest when killed was found to measure nine feet six, from
the foot to the hip-bone.1001
For a creature of such extraordinary weight it is astonishing
how noiselessly and stealthily the elephant can escape from a
pursuer. When suddenly disturbed in the jungle, it will burst away
with a rush that seems to bear down all before it; but the noise
sinks into absolute stillness so suddenly, that a novice might well
be led to suppose that the fugitive had only halted within a few
yards of him, when further search will disclose that it has stolen
silently away, making scarcely a sound in its escape; and, stranger
still, leaving the foliage almost undisturbed by its passage.
The most venerable delusion respecting the elephant, and that
which held its ground with unequalled tenacity, is the ancient
fallacy which is explained by SIR THOMAS BROWNE in his
Pseudodoxia Epidemica, that “it hath no joynts; and this
absurdity is seconded by another, that being unable to lye downe it
sleepeth against a tree, which the hunters observing doe saw almost
asunder, whereon the beast relying, by the fall of the tree falls
also downe it-selfe and is able to rise no more.”1002 Sir THOMAS is disposed to think
that “the hint and ground of this opinion might be the grosse and
somewhat cylindricall composure of the legs of the elephant, and
the equality and lesse perceptible disposure of the joynts,
especially in the forelegs of this animal, they [pg 101]
appearing, when he standeth, like pillars of flesh;” but he
overlooks the fact that PLINY has ascribed the same peculiarity to
the Scandinavian beast somewhat resembling a horse, which he calls
a “machlis,”1011
and that CÆSAR in describing the wild animals in the
Hercynian forests, enumerates the alce, “in colour and
configuration approaching the goat, but surpassing it in size, its
head destitute of horns and its limbs of joints, whence it
can neither lie down to rest, nor rise if by any accident it should
fall, but using the trees for a resting-place, the hunters by
loosening their roots bring the alce to the ground, so soon
as it is tempted to lean on them.”1012
This fallacy, as Sir THOMAS BROWNE says, is “not the daughter of
latter times, but an old and grey-headed errour, even in the days
of ARISTOTLE,” who deals with the story as he received it from
CTESIAS, by whom it [pg 102] appears to have been embodied in his
lost work on India. But although ARISTOTLE generally receives the
credit of having exposed and demolished the fallacy of CTESIAS, it
will be seen by a reference to his treatise On the Progressive
Motions of Animals, that in reality he approached the question
with some hesitation, and has not only left it doubtful in one
passage whether the elephant has joints in his knee,
although he demonstrates that it has joints in the shoulders1021; but in another he distinctly
affirms that on account of his weight the elephant cannot bend his
forelegs together, but only one at a time, and reclines to sleep on
that particular side.1022
So great was the authority of ARISTOTLE, that ÆLIAN, who
wrote two centuries later and borrowed many of his statements from
the works of his predecessor, perpetuates this error; and, after
describing the exploits of the trained elephants exhibited at Rome,
adds the expression of his surprise, that an animal without joints
([Greek: anarthron]) should yet be able to dance.1023 The fiction was too agreeable
to be readily abandoned by the poets [pg 103] of the Lower Empire and
the Romancers of the middle ages; and PHILE, a contemporary of
PETRARCH and DANTE, who in the early part of the fourteenth
century, addressed his didactic poem on the elephant to the Emperor
Andronicus II., untaught by the exposition of ARISTOTLE, still
clung to the old delusion,
[Greek:
“Podes de toutps thauma kai saphes teras,
Ous, ou kathaper talla tôn zôôn
genê,
Eiôthe kinein ex anarthrôn klasmatôn,
Kai gar stibarois syntethentes osteois,
Kai tê pladara tôn sphyrôn katastasei,
Kai tê pros arthra tôn skelôn hypokrisei,
Nyn eis tonous agousi, nyn eis hypheseis,
Tas pantodapas ekdromas tou thêriou.
Brachyterous ontas de ton opisthiôn
‘Anamphilektôs oida tous emprosthious
Toutois elephas entatheis osper stylois
‘Orthostadên akamptos hypnôttôn menei.”]
v. 106, &c.
SOLINUS introduced the same fable into his Polyhistor;
and DICUIL, the Irish commentator of the ninth century, who had an
opportunity of seeing the elephant sent by Haroun Alraschid as a
present to Charlemagne1031
in the year 802, corrects the error, and attributes its
perpetuation to the circumstance that the joints in the elephant’s
leg are not very apparent, except when he lies down.1032
It is a strong illustration of the vitality of error, that the
delusion thus exposed by Dicuil in the ninth century, was revived
by MATTHEW PARIS in the thirteenth; and stranger still, that
Matthew not only saw [pg 104] but made a drawing of the elephant
presented to King Henry III. by the King of France in 1255, in
which he nevertheless represents the legs as without joints.1041
In the numerous mediæval treatises on natural history,
known under the title of Bestiaries, this delusion regarding
the elephant is often repeated; and it is given at length in a
metrical version of the Physiologus of THEOBALDUS, amongst
the Arundel Manuscripts in the British Museum.1042
With the Provençal song writers, the helplessness of the
fallen elephant was a favourite simile, and amongst others RICHARD
DE BARBEZIEUX, in the latter half of the twelfth century,
sung1043,
“Atressi cum l’olifans
Que quan chai no s’pot levar.”
As elephants were but rarely seen in Europe prior to the
seventeenth century, there were but few opportunities of correcting
the popular fallacy by ocular demonstration. Hence SHAKSPEARE still
believed that,
“The elephant hath joints; but none for courtesy:
His legs are for necessity, not flexure:”1051
and DONNE sang of
“Nature’s great masterpiece, an Elephant;
The only harmless great thing:
Yet Nature hath given him no knee to bend:
Himself he up-props, on himself relies;
Still sleeping stands.”1052
Sir THOMAS BROWNE, while he argues against the delusion, does
not fail to record his suspicion, that “although the opinion at
present be reasonably well suppressed, yet from the strings of
tradition and fruitful recurrence of errour, it was not improbable
it might revive in the next generation;”1053—an anticipation which has
proved singularly correct; for the heralds still continued to
explain that the elephant is the emblem of watchfulness, “nec
jacet in somno,”1054
and poets almost of our own times paint the scene when
“Peaceful, beneath primeval trees, that cast
Their ample shade on Niger’s yellow stream,
Or where the Ganges rolls his sacred waves,
Leans the huge Elephant.”1061
It is not difficult to see whence this antiquated delusion took
its origin; nor is it, as Sir THOMAS BROWNE imagined, to be traced
exclusively “to the grosse and cylindricall structure” of the
animal’s legs. The fact is, that the elephant, returning in the
early morning from his nocturnal revels in the reservoirs and
water-courses, is accustomed to rub his muddy sides against a tree,
and sometimes against a rock if more convenient. In my rides
through the northern forests, the natives of Ceylon have often
pointed out that the elephants which had preceded me must have been
of considerable size, from the height at which their marks had been
left on the trees against which they had been rubbing. Not
unfrequently the animals themselves, overcome with drowsiness from
the night’s gambolling, are found dosing and resting against the
trees they had so visited, and in the same manner they have been
discovered by sportsmen asleep, and leaning against a rock.
It is scarcely necessary to explain that the position is
accidental, and that it is taken by the elephant not from any
difficulty in lying at length on the ground, but rather from the
coincidence that the structure of his legs affords such support in
a standing position, that reclining scarcely adds to his enjoyment
of repose; and elephants in a state of captivity have been known
for [pg
107] months together to sleep without lying down.1071 So distinctive is this
formation, and so self-sustaining the configuration of the limbs,
that an elephant shot in the brain, by Major Rogers in 1836, was
killed so instantaneously that it died literally on its
knees, and remained resting on them. About the year 1826,
Captain Dawson, the engineer of the great road to Kandy, over the
Kaduganava pass, shot an elephant at Hangwelle on the banks of the
Kalany Ganga; it remained on its feet, but so motionless,
that after discharging a few more balls, he was induced to go close
to it, and found it dead.
The real peculiarity in the elephant in lying down is, that he
extends his hind legs backwards as a man does when he kneels,
instead of bringing them under him like the horse or any other
quadruped. The wise purpose of this arrangement must be obvious to
any one who observes the struggle with which the horse gets
up from the ground, and the violent efforts which he makes to
raise himself erect. Such an exertion in the case of the elephant,
and the force requisite to apply a similar movement to raise his
weight (equal to four or five tons) would be attended with a
dangerous strain upon the muscles, and hence the simple
arrangement, which by enabling him to draw the hind feet gradually
under him, assists him to rise without a perceptible effort.
The same construction renders his gait not a “gallop,”
[pg
108] as it has been somewhat loosely described1081, which would be too violent a
motion for so vast a body; but a shuffle, that he can increase at
pleasure to a pace as rapid as that of a man at full speed, but
which he cannot maintain for any considerable distance.
It is to the structure of the knee-joint that the elephant is
indebted for his singular facility in ascending and descending
steep activities, climbing rocks and traversing precipitous ledges,
where even a mule dare not [pg 109] venture; and this again leads to
the correction of another generally received error, that his legs
are “formed more for strength than flexibility, and fitted to bear
an enormous weight upon a level surface, without the necessity of
ascending or descending great acclivities.”1091 The same authority assumes
that, although the elephant is found in the neighbourhood of
mountainous ranges, and will even ascend rocky passes, such a
service is a violation of its natural habits.
Of the elephant of Africa I am not qualified to speak, nor of
the nature of the ground which it most frequents; but certainly the
facts in connection with the elephant of India are all
irreconcilable with the theory mentioned above. In Bengal, in the
Nilgherries, in Nepal, in Burmah, in Siam, Sumatra, and Ceylon, the
districts in which the elephants most abound, are all hilly and
mountainous. In the latter, especially, there is not a range so
elevated as to be inaccessible to them. On the very summit of
Adam’s Peak, at an altitude of 7,420 feet, and on a pinnacle which
the pilgrims climb with difficulty, by means of steps hewn in the
rock, Major Skinner, in 1840, found the spoor of an elephant.
Prior to 1840, and before coffee-plantations had been
extensively opened in the Kandyan ranges, there was not a mountain
or a lofty feature of land of Ceylon which they had not traversed,
in their periodical migrations in search of water; and the sagacity
which they display in “laying out roads” is almost incredible. They
generally keep along the backbone of a chain of hills,
avoiding steep gradients: and one curious observation was not lost
upon the government surveyors, that in crossing [pg 110] the
valleys from ridge to ridge, through forests so dense as altogether
to obstruct a distant view, the elephants invariably select the
line of march which communicates most judiciously with the opposite
point, by means of the safest ford.1101 So sure-footed are they, that
there are few places where man can go that an elephant cannot
follow, provided there be space to admit his bulk, and solidity to
sustain his weight.
This faculty is almost entirely derived from the unusual
position, as compared with other quadrupeds, of the knee joint of
the hind leg; arising from the superior length of the thigh-bone,
and the shortness of the metatarsus: the heel being almost where it
projects in man, instead of being lifted up as a “hock.” It is this
which enables him, in descending declivities, to depress and adjust
the weight of his hinder portions, which would otherwise
overbalance and force him headlong.1102
It is by the same arrangement that he is [pg 111]
enabled, on uneven ground, to lift his feet, which are tender and
sensitive, with delicacy, and plant them with such precision as to
ensure his own safety as well as that of objects which it is
expedient to avoid touching.
A herd of elephants is a family, not a group whom
accident or attachment may have induced to associate together.
Similarity of features and caste attest that, among the various
individuals which compose it, there is a common lineage and
relationship. In a herd of [pg 112] twenty-one elephants, captured in
1844, the trunks of each individual presented the same peculiar
formation,—long, and almost of one uniform breadth
throughout, instead of tapering gradually from the root to the
nostril. In another instance, the eyes of thirty-five taken in one
corral were of the same colour in each. The same slope of the back,
the same form of the forehead, is to be detected in the majority of
the same group.
In the forest several herds will browse in close contiguity, and
in their expeditions in search of water they may form a body of
possibly one or two hundred; but on the slightest disturbance each
distinct herd hastens to re-form within its own particular circle,
and to take measures on its own behalf for retreat or defence.
The natives of any place which may chance to be frequented by
elephants, observe that the numbers of the same herd fluctuate very
slightly; and hunters in pursuit of them, who may chance to have
shot one or more, always reckon with certainty the precise number
of those remaining, although a considerable interval may intervene
before they again encounter them. The proportion of males is
generally small, and some herds have been seen composed exclusively
of females; possibly in consequence of the males having been shot.
A herd usually consists of from ten to twenty individuals, though
occasionally they exceed the latter number; and in their frequent
migrations and nightly resort to tanks and water-courses, alliances
are formed between members of associated herds, which serve to
introduce new blood into the family.
In illustration of the attachment of the elephant to its young,
the authority of KNOX has been quoted, that “the shees are alike
tender of any one’s young ones as [pg 113] of their own.”1131 Their affection in this
particular is undoubted, but I question whether it exceeds that of
other animals; and the trait thus adduced of their indiscriminate
kindness to all the young of the herd,—of which I have myself
been an eye-witness,—so far from being an evidence of the
strength of parental attachment individually, is, perhaps, somewhat
inconsistent with the existence of such a passion to any
extraordinary degree.1132
In fact, some individuals, who have had extensive facilities for
observation, doubt whether the fondness of the female elephants for
their offspring is so great as that of many other animals; as
[pg
114] instances are not wanting in Ceylon, in which, when
pursued by the hunters, the herd has abandoned the young ones in
their flight, notwithstanding the cries of the latter for help.
In an interesting paper on the habits of the Indian elephant,
published in the Philosophical Transactions for 1793, Mr.
CORSE says: “If a wild elephant happens to be separated from its
young for only two days, though giving suck, she never after
recognises or acknowledges it,” although the young one evidently
knows its dam, and by its plaintive cries and submissive approaches
solicits her assistance.
If by any accident an elephant becomes hopelessly separated from
his own herd, he is not permitted to attach himself to any other.
He may browse in the vicinity, or frequent the same place to drink
and to bathe; but the intercourse is only on a distant and
conventional footing, and no familiarity or intimate association is
under any circumstances permitted. To such a height is this
exclusiveness carried, that even amidst the terror and stupefaction
of an elephant corral, when an individual, detached from his own
party in the mêlée and confusion, has been
driven into the enclosure with an unbroken herd, I have seen him
repulsed in every attempt to take refuge among them, and driven off
by heavy blows with their trunks as often as he attempted to
insinuate himself within the circle which they had formed for
common security. There can be no reasonable doubt that this jealous
and exclusive policy not only contributes to produce, but mainly
serves to perpetuate, the class of solitary elephants which are
known by the term goondahs, in India, and which from
[pg
115] their vicious propensities and predatory habits are
called Hora, or Rogues, in Ceylon.1151
It is believed by the Singhalese that these are either
individuals, who by accident have lost their former associates and
become morose and savage from rage and solitude; or else that being
naturally vicious they have become daring from the yielding habits
of their milder companions, and eventually separated themselves
from the rest of the herd which had refused to associate with them.
Another conjecture is, that being almost universally males, the
death or capture of particular females may have detached them from
their former companions in search of fresh alliances.1152 It is also believed that a tame
elephant escaping from captivity, unable to rejoin its former herd,
and excluded from any other, becomes a “rogue” from
necessity. In Ceylon it is generally believed that the
rogues are all males (but of this I am not certain), and so
sullen is their disposition that
although two may be in the same vicinity, there is no known
instance of their associating, or of a rogue being seen in
company with another elephant.
They spend their nights in marauding, often about the dwellings
of men, destroying their plantations, trampling down their gardens,
and committing serious ravages in rice grounds and young coco-nut
plantations. Hence from their closer contact with man and his
dwellings, these outcasts become disabused of many of the terrors
which render the ordinary elephant timid and needlessly cautious;
they break through fences without fear; and even in the daylight a
rogue has been known near Ambogammoa to watch a field of
labourers at work in reaping rice, and boldly to walk in amongst
them, seize a sheaf from the heap, and retire leisurely to the
jungle. By day they generally seek concealment, but are frequently
to be met with prowling about the by-roads and jungle paths, where
travellers are exposed to the utmost risk from their savage
assaults. It is probable that this hostility to man is the result
of the enmity engendered by those measures which the natives, who
have a constant dread of their visits, adopt for the protection of
their growing crops. In some districts, especially in the low
country of Badulla, the villagers occasionally enclose their
cottages with rude walls of earth and branches to protect them from
nightly assaults. In places infested by them, the visits of
European sportsmen to the vicinity of their haunts are eagerly
encouraged by the natives, who think themselves happy in lending
their services to track the ordinary herds in consideration of the
benefit conferred on the village communities by the destruction of
a rogue. In 1847 one of these formidable creatures frequented for
some months the Rangbodde Pass on the [pg 117] great
mountain road leading to the sanatarium, at Neuera-ellia; and
amongst other excesses, killed a Caffre belonging to the corps of
Caffre pioneers, by seizing him with its trunk and beating him to
death against the bank.
To return to the herd: one member of it, usually the largest and
most powerful, is by common consent implicitly followed as leader.
A tusker, if there be one in the party, is generally observed to be
the commander; but a female, if of superior energy, is as readily
obeyed as a male. In fact, in this promotion there is no reason to
doubt that supremacy is almost unconsciously assumed by those
endowed with superior vigour and courage rather than from the
accidental possession of greater bodily strength; and the devotion
and loyalty which the herd evince to their leader are very
remarkable. This is more readily seen in the case of a tusker than
any other, because in a herd he is generally the object of the
keenest pursuit by the hunters. On such occasions the others do
their utmost to protect him from danger: when driven to extremity
they place their leader in the centre and crowd so eagerly in front
of him that the sportsmen have to shoot a number which they might
otherwise have spared. In one instance a tusker, which was badly
wounded by Major ROGERS, was promptly surrounded by his companions,
who supported him between their shoulders, and actually succeeded
in covering his retreat to the forest.
Those who have lived much in the jungle in Ceylon, and who have
had constant opportunities of watching the habits of wild
elephants, have witnessed instances of the submission of herds to
their leaders, that suggest an inquiry of singular interest as to
the means adopted by [pg 118] the latter to communicate with
distinctness, orders which are observed with the most implicit
obedience by their followers. The following narrative of an
adventure in the great central forest toward the north of the
island, communicated to me by Major SKINNER, who was engaged for
some time in surveying and opening roads through the thickly-wooded
districts there, will serve better than any abstract description to
convey an idea of the conduct of a herd on such
occasions:—
“The case you refer to struck me as exhibiting something more
than ordinary brute instinct, and approached nearer to reasoning
powers than any other instance I can now remember. I cannot do
justice to the scene, although it appeared to me at the time to be
so remarkable that it left a deep impression in my mind.
“In the height of the dry season in Neuera-Kalawa, you know the
streams are all dried up, and the tanks nearly so. All animals are
then sorely pressed for water, and they congregate in the vicinity
of those tanks in which there may remain ever so little of the
precious element.
“During one of those seasons I was encamped on the bund or
embankment of a very small tank, the water in which was so dried
that its surface could not have exceeded an area of 500 square
yards. It was the only pond within many miles, and I knew that of
necessity a very large herd of elephants, which had been in the
neighbourhood all day, must resort to it at night.
“On the lower side of the tank, and in a line with the
embankment, was a thick forest, in which the elephants sheltered
themselves during the day. On the upper side and all around the
tank there was a considerable [pg 119] margin of open ground.
It was one of those beautiful bright, clear, moonlight nights, when
objects could be seen almost as distinctly as by day, and I
determined to avail myself of the opportunity to observe the
movements of the herd, which had already manifested some uneasiness
at our presence. The locality was very favourable for my purpose,
and an enormous tree projecting over the tank afforded me a secure
lodgement in its branches. Having ordered the fires of my camp to
be extinguished at an early hour, and all my followers to retire to
rest, I took up my post of observation on the overhanging bough;
but I had to remain for upwards of two hours before anything was to
be seen or heard of the elephants, although I knew they were within
500 yards of me. At length, about the distance of 300 yards from
the water, an unusually large elephant issued from the dense cover,
and advanced cautiously across the open ground to within 100 yards
of the tank, where he stood perfectly motionless. So quiet had the
elephants become (although they had been roaring and breaking the
jungle throughout the day and evening), that not a movement was now
to be heard. The huge vidette remained in his position, still as a
rock, for a few minutes, and then made three successive stealthy
advances of several yards (halting for some minutes between each,
with ears bent forward to catch the slightest sound), and in this
way he moved slowly up to the water’s edge. Still he did not
venture to quench his thirst, for though his fore-feet were
partially in the tank and his vast body was reflected clear in the
water, he remained for some minutes listening in perfect stillness.
Not a motion could be perceived in himself or his shadow. He
returned cautiously and slowly to [pg 120] the position he had at
first taken up on emerging from the forest. Here in a little while
he was joined by five others, with which he again proceeded as
cautiously, but less slowly than before, to within a few yards of
the tank, and then posted his patrols. He then re-entered the
forest and collected around him the whole herd, which must have
amounted to between 80 and 100 individuals,—led them across
the open ground with the most extraordinary composure and
quietness, till he joined the advanced guard, when he left them for
a moment and repeated his former reconnoissance at the edge of the
tank. After which, having apparently satisfied himself that all was
safe, he returned and obviously gave the order to advance, for in a
moment the whole herd rushed into the water with a degree of
unreserved confidence, so opposite to the caution and timidity
which had marked their previous movements, that nothing will ever
persuade me that there was not rational and preconcerted
co-operation throughout the whole party, and a degree of
responsible authority exercised by the patriarch leader.
“When the poor animals had gained possession of the tank (the
leader being the last to enter), they seemed to abandon themselves
to enjoyment without restraint or apprehension of danger. Such a
mass of animal life I had never before seen huddled together in so
narrow a space. It seemed to me as though they would have nearly
drunk the tank dry. I watched them with great interest until they
had satisfied themselves as well in bathing as in drinking, when I
tried how small a noise would apprise them of the proximity of
unwelcome neighbours. I had but to break a little twig, and the
solid mass instantly took to flight like a herd of frightened
[pg
121] deer, each of the smaller calves being apparently
shouldered and carried along between two of the older ones.”1211
In drinking, the elephant, like the camel, although preferring
water pure, shows no decided aversion to it when discoloured with
mud1212; and the eagerness with which
he precipitates himself into the tanks and streams attests his
exquisite enjoyment of the fresh coolness, which to him is the
chief attraction. In crossing deep rivers, although his rotundity
and buoyancy enable him to swim with a less immersion than other
quadrupeds, he generally prefers to sink till no part of his huge
body is visible except the tip of his trunk, through which he
breathes, moving beneath the surface, and only now and then raising
his head to look that he is keeping the proper direction.1213 In the dry season the scanty
streams which, during the rains, are sufficient to convert the
rivers of the low country into torrents, often entirely disappear,
leaving only broad expanses of dry sand, which they have swept down
with them from the hills. In this the elephants contrive to sink
wells for their own use by scooping out the sand to the depth of
four or five feet, and leaving a hollow for the percolation of the
spring. But as the weight of the elephant would force in the side
if left perpendicular, one approach is always formed with such a
gradient that he can reach
the water with his trunk without disturbing the surrounding
sand.
I have reason to believe, although the fact has not been
authoritatively stated by naturalists, that the stomach of the
elephant will be found to include a section analogous to that
possessed by some of the ruminants, calculated to contain a supply
of water as a provision against emergencies. The fact of his being
enabled to retain a quantity of water and discharge it at pleasure
has been long known to every observer of the habits of the animal;
but the proboscis has always been supposed to be “his
water-reservoir,”1221
and the theory of an internal receptacle has not been discussed.
The truth is that the anatomy of the elephant is even yet but
imperfectly understood1222,
and, although some peculiarities of his
stomach were observed at an early period, and even their
configuration described, the function of the abnormal portion
remained undetermined, and has been only recently conjectured. An
elephant which belonged to Louis XIV. died at Versailles in 1681 at
the age of seventeen, and an account of its dissection was
published in the Mémoires pour servir à l’Histoire
Naturelle, under the authority of the Academy of Sciences, in
which the unusual appendages of the stomach are pointed out with
sufficient particularity, but no suggestion is made as to their
probable uses.”1231
A writer in the Quarterly Review for December 1850, says
that “CAMPER and other comparative anatomists have shown that the
left, or cardiac end of the stomach in the elephant is adapted, by
several wide folds of lining membrane, to serve as a receiver for
water;” but this is scarcely correct, for although CAMPER has
accurately figured the external form of the stomach, he disposes of
the question of the interior functions with the simple remark that
its folds “semblent en faire une espèce de division
particulière.”1241
In like manner SIR EVERARD HOME, in his Lectures on Comparative
Anatomy, has not only carefully described the form of the
elephant’s stomach, and furnished a drawing of it even more
accurate than CAMPER; but he has equally omitted to assign any
purpose to so strange a formation, contenting himself with
observing that the structure is a peculiarity, and that one of the
remarkable folds nearest the orifice of the diaphragm appears to
act as a valve, so that the portion beyond may be considered as an
appendage similar to that of the hog and the peccary.1242
ELEPANT’S STOMACH.The appendage thus alluded to by Sir EVERARD HOME is the grand
“cul-de-sac,” noticed by the Académic des Sciences, and the
“division particulière,” figured by CAMPER. It is of
sufficient dimensions to contain ten gallons of water, and by means
of the valve above alluded to, it can be shut off from the chamber
devoted to the process of digestion. Professor OWEN is probably the
first who, not from an autopsy, but from the mere inspection of the
drawings of CAMPER and HOME, ventured to assert (in lectures
hitherto unpublished), that the uses of this section of the
elephant’s stomach may be analogous to those ascertained to belong
to a somewhat similar arrangement in the stomach of the camel, one
cavity of which is exclusively employed as a reservoir for water,
and performs no function the preparation of food.1251
Whilst Professor OWEN was advancing this conjecture, another
comparative anatomist, from the examination of another portion of
the structure of the elephant, was led to a somewhat similar
conclusion. Dr. HARRISON of Dublin had, in 1847, an opportunity of
dissecting the body of an elephant which had suddenly died; and in
the course of his examination of the thoracic viscera, he observed
that an unusually close connection existed between the trachea and
oesophagus, which he found to depend on a muscle unnoticed by any
previous anatomist, connecting the back of the former with the
forepart of the latter, along which the fibres descend and can be
distinctly traced to the cardiac orifice of the stomach.
Imperfectly acquainted with the habits and functions of the
elephant in a state of nature, Dr. HARRISON found it difficult to
pronounce as to the use of this very peculiar [pg 127]
structure; but looking to the intimate connection between the
mechanism concerned in the functions of respiration and
deglutition, and seeing that the proboscis served in a double
capacity as an instrument of voice and an organ for the prehension
of food, he ventured (apparently without adverting to the abnormal
form of the stomach) to express the opinion that this muscle,
viewing its attachment to the trachea, might either have some
influence in raising the diaphragm, and thereby assisting in
expiration, “or that it might raise the cardiac orifice of the
stomach, and so aid this organ to regurgitate a portion of its
contents into the oesophagus.”1271
Dr. HARRISON, on the reflection that “we have no satisfactory
evidence that the animal ever ruminates,” thought it useless to
speculate on the latter supposition as to the action of the newly
discovered muscle, and rather inclined to the surmise that it was
designed to assist the elephant in producing the remarkable sound
through his proboscis known as “trumpeting;” but there is little
room to doubt that of the two the rejected hypothesis was the more
correct one. I have elsewhere described the occurrence to which I
was myself a witness1272,
of elephants inserting their proboscis in their mouths, and
withdrawing gallons of water, which could only have been contained
in the receptacle figured by CAMPER and HOME, and of which the true
uses were discerned by the clear intellect of Professor OWEN. I was
not, till very recently, aware that a similar observation as to the
remarkable habit of the elephant, had been made by the author of
the Ayeen Akbery, in his account of the Feel
[pg
128] Kaneh, or elephant stables of the Emperor Akbar,
in which he says, “an elephant frequently with his trunk takes
water out of his stomach and sprinkles himself with it, and it is
not in the least offensive.”1281
FORBES, in his Oriental Memoirs, quotes this passage of the
Ayeen Akbery, but without a remark; nor does any European
writer with whose works I am acquainted appear to have been
cognisant of the peculiarity in question.
WATER-CELLS IN THE STOMACH OF THE CAMEL.It is to be hoped that Professor OWEN’S dissection of the young
elephant, recently arrived, may serve to decide this highly
interesting point.1282
Should scientific investigation hereafter more clearly establish
the fact that, in this particular, the structure of the elephant is
assimilated to that of the llama and the camel, it will be
[pg
129] regarded as more than a common coincidence, that an
apparatus, so unique in its purpose and action, should thus have
been conferred by the Creator on the three animals which in sultry
climates are, by this arrangement, enabled to traverse arid regions
in the service of man.1291
To show this peculiar organization where it attains its fullest
development, I have given a sketch of the water-cells, in the
stomach of the camel on the preceding page.
The food of the elephant is so abundant, that in feeding
he never appears to be impatient or voracious, but rather to play
with the leaves and branches on which he leisurely feeds. In riding
by places where a herd has recently halted, I have sometimes seen
the bark peeled curiously off the twigs, as though it had been done
in mere dalliance. In the same way in eating grass the elephant
selects a tussac which he draws from the ground by a dexterous
twist of his trunk, and nothing can be more graceful than the ease
with which, before conveying it to his mouth, he beats the earth
from its roots by striking it gently upon his fore-leg. A coco-nut
he first rolls under foot, to detach the strong outer bark, then
stripping off with his trunk the thick layer of fibre within, he
places the shell in his mouth, and swallows with evident relish the
fresh liquid which flows as he crushes it between his grinders.
The natives of the peninsula of Jaffna always look for the
periodical appearance of the elephants, at the precise
time when the fruit of the palmyra palm begins to fall to the
ground from ripeness. In like manner in the eastern provinces where
the custom prevails of cultivating what is called chena land
(by clearing a patch of forest for the purpose of raising a single
crop, after which the ground is abandoned, and reverts to jungle
again), although a single elephant may not have been seen in the
neighbourhood during the early stages of the process, the Moormen,
who are the cultivators of this class, will predict their
appearance with almost unerring confidence so soon as the grains
shall have begun to ripen; and although the crop comes to maturity
at different periods in different districts, herds are certain to
be seen at each in succession, as soon as it is ready to be cut. In
these well-timed excursions, they resemble the bison of North
America, which, by a similarly mysterious instinct, finds its way
to portions of the distant prairies, where accidental fires have
been followed by a growth of tender grass. Although the fences
around these chenas are little more than lines of reeds
loosely fastened together, they are sufficient, with the presence
of a single watcher, to prevent the entrance of the elephants, who
wait patiently till the rice and coracan have been removed,
and the watcher withdrawn; and, then finding gaps in the fence,
they may be seen gleaning among the leavings and the stubble; and
they take their departure when these are exhausted, apparently in
the direction of some other chena, which they have
ascertained to be about to be cut.
There is something still unexplained in the dread which an
elephant always exhibits on approaching a fence, and the reluctance
which he displays to face the slightest artificial obstruction to
his passage. In the [pg 131] fine old tank of Tissa-weva, close by
Anarajapoora, the natives cultivate grain, during the dry season,
around the margin where the ground has been left bare by the
subsidence of the water. These little patches of rice they enclose
with small sticks an inch in diameter and five or six feet in
height, such as would scarcely serve to keep out a wild hog if he
attempted to force his way through. Passages of from ten to twenty
feet wide are left between each field, to permit the wild
elephants, which abound in the vicinity to make their nocturnal
visits to the water still remaining in the tank. Night after night
these open pathways are frequented by immense herds, but the
tempting corn is never touched, nor is a single fence disturbed,
although the merest, movement of a trunk would be sufficient to
demolish the fragile structure. Yet the same spots, the fences
being left open as soon as the grain has been cut and carried home,
are eagerly entered by the elephants to glean amongst the
stubble.
Sportsmen observe that an elephant, even when enraged by a
wound, will hesitate to charge an assailant across an intervening
hedge, but will hurry along it to seek for an opening. It is
possible that, on the part of the elephant, there may be some
instinctive consciousness, that owing to his superior bulk, he is
exposed to danger from sources that might be perfectly harmless in
the case of lighter animals, and hence his suspicion that every
fence may conceal a snare or pitfall. Some similar apprehension is
apparent in the deer, which shrinks from attempting a fence of
wire, although it will clear without hesitation a solid wall of
greater height.
At the same time, the caution with which the elephant is
supposed to approach insecure ground and places of [pg 132]
doubtful1321 solidity, appears to me, so far
as my own observation and experience extend, to be exaggerated, and
the number of temporary bridges which are annually broken down by
elephants in all parts of Ceylon, is sufficient to show that,
although in captivity, and when familiar with such structures, the
tame ones may, and doubtless do, exhibit all the wariness
attributed to them; yet, in a state of liberty, and whilst
unaccustomed to such artificial appliances, their instincts are not
sufficient to ensure their safety. Besides, the fact is adverted to
elsewhere1322,
that the chiefs of the Wanny, during the sovereignty of the Dutch,
were accustomed to take in pitfalls the elephants which they
rendered as tribute to government.
A fact illustrative at once of the caution and the spirit of
curiosity with which an elephant regards an unaccustomed object has
been frequently mentioned to me by the officers engaged in opening
roads through the forest. On such occasions the wooden “tracing
pegs” which they are obliged to drive into the ground to mark the
levels taken during the day, will often be withdrawn by the
elephants during the night, to such an extent as frequently to
render it necessary to go over the work a second time, in order to
replace them.1323
Colonel HARDY, formerly Deputy Quarter-Master-General in Ceylon,
when proceeding, about the year 1820, to a military out-post in the
south-east of the island, imprudently landed in an uninhabited part
of [pg
133] the coast, intending to take a short cut through the
forest, to his destination. He not only miscalculated the distance,
but, on the approach of nightfall, he was chased by a vicious rogue
elephant. The pursuer was nearly upon him, when, to gain time, he
flung down a small dressing-case, which he happened to be carrying.
The device was successful; the elephant halted and minutely
examined its contents, and thus gave the colonel time to effect his
escape.1331
As regards the general sagacity of the elephant, although it has
not been over-rated in the instances of those whose powers have
been largely developed in captivity, an undue estimate has been
formed in relation to them whilst still untamed. The difference of
instincts and habits renders it difficult to institute a just
comparison between them and other animals. CUVIER1332 is disposed to ascribe the
exalted idea that prevails of their intellect to the feats which an
elephant performs with that unique instrument, its trunk, combined
with an imposing expression of countenance: but he records his own
conviction that in sagacity it in no way excels the dog, and some
other species of Carnivora. If there be a superiority, I am
disposed to award it to the dog, not from any excess of natural
capacity, but from the [pg 134] higher degree of development
consequent on his more intimate domestication and association with
man.
One remarkable fact was called to my attention by a gentleman
who resided on a coffee plantation at Rassawé, one of the
loftiest mountains of the Ambogammoa range. More than once during
the terrific thunder-bursts that precede the rains at the change of
each monsoon, he observed that the elephants in the adjoining
forest hastened from under cover of the trees and took up their
station in the open ground, where I saw them on one of these
occasions collected into a group; and here, he said, it was their
custom to remain till the lightning had ceased, when they retired
again into the jungle.1341
It must be observed, however, that showers, and especially light
drizzling rain, are believed to bring the elephants from the jungle
towards pathways or other openings in the forest;—and hence,
in places infested by them, timid persons are afraid to travel in
the afternoon during uncertain weather.
When free in its native woods the elephant evinces rather
simplicity than sagacity, and its intelligence seldom exhibits
itself in cunning. The rich profusion in which nature has supplied
its food, and anticipated its every want, has made it independent
of those devices by which carnivorous animals provide for their
subsistence; and, from the absence of all rivalry between it and
the other denizens of the plains, it is never required to resort to
artifice for self-protection. For these reasons, in its tranquil
and harmless life, it may appear to casual observers to exhibit
even less than [pg 135] ordinary ability; but when danger and
apprehension call for the exertion of its powers, those who have
witnessed their display are seldom inclined to undervalue its
sagacity.
Mr. CRIPPS has related to me an instance in which a recently
captured elephant was either rendered senseless from fear, or, as
the native attendants asserted, feigned death in order to
regain its freedom. It was led from the corral as usual between two
tame ones, and had already proceeded far towards its destination;
when night closing in, and the torches being lighted, it refused to
go on, and finally sank to the ground, apparently lifeless. Mr.
CRIPPS ordered the fastenings to be removed from its legs, and when
all attempts to raise it had failed, so convinced was he that it
was dead, that he ordered the ropes to be taken off and the carcase
abandoned. While this was being done he and a gentleman by whom he
was accompanied leaned against the body to rest. They had scarcely
taken their departure and proceeded a few yards, when, to their
astonishment, the elephant rose with the utmost alacrity, and fled
towards the jungle, screaming at the top of its voice, its cries
being audible long after it had disappeared in the shades of the
forest.
APPENDIX TO CHAPTER III.
NARRATIVES OF THE NATIVES OF CEYLON RELATIVE TO ENCOUNTERS WITH
ROGUE ELEPHANTS.
The following narratives have been taken down by a Singhalese
gentleman, from the statements of the natives by whom they are
recounted;—and they are here inserted, in order to show the
opinion prevalent amongst the people of Ceylon as to the habits and
propensities of the rogue elephant. The stories are given in words
of my correspondent, who writes in English, as follows:—
1. “We,” said my informant, who was a native trader of Caltura,
“were on our way to Badulla, by way of Ratnapoora and Balangodde,
to barter our merchandize for coffee. There were six in our party,
myself, my brother-in-law, and four coolies, who carried on
pingoes1361 our merchandize, which
consisted of cloth and brass articles. About 4 o’clock, P.M., we
were close to Idalgasinna, and our coolies were rather unwilling to
go further for fear of elephants, which they said were sure to be
met with at that noted place, especially as there had been a slight
drizzling of rain during the whole afternoon. I was as much afraid
of elephants as the coolies themselves; but I was anxious to
proceed, and so, after a few words of encouragement addressed to
them, and a prayer or two offered up to Saman dewiyo1362, we resumed our journey. I also
took the [pg 137] further precaution of hanging up a
few leaves.1371
As the rain was coming down fast and thick, and I was anxious to
get to our halting-place before night, we moved on at a rapid pace.
My brother-in-law was in the van of the party, I myself was in the
rear, and the four coolies between us, all moving along on a
rugged, rocky, and difficult path; as the road to Badulla till
lately was on the sloping side of a hill, covered with jungle,
pieces of projecting rock, and brushwood. It was about five o’clock
in the evening, or a little later, and we had hardly cleared the
foot of the hill and got to the plain below, when a rustling of
leaves and a crackling of dry brushwood were heard on our right,
followed immediately by the trumpeting of a hora allia1372, which was making towards us.
We all fled, followed by the elephant. I, who was in the rear of
the party, was the first to take to flight; the coolies threw away
their pingoes, and my brother-in-law his umbrella, and all ran in
different directions. I hid myself behind a large boulder of
granite nearly covered by jungle: but as my place of concealment
was on high ground, I could see all that was going on below. The
first thing I observed was the elephant returning to the place
where one of the pingoes was lying: he was carrying one of the
coolies in a coil of his trunk. The body of the man was dangling
with the head downward. I cannot say whether he was then alive or
not; I could not perceive any marks of blood or bruises on his
person: but he appeared to be lifeless. The elephant placed him
down on the ground, put the pingo on his (the man’s) shoulder,
steadying both the man and the pingo with his trunk and fore-legs.
But the man of course did not move or stand up with his pingo.
Seeing this, the elephant again raised the cooly and dashed him
against the ground, and then trampled [pg 138] the
body to a very jelly. This done, he took up the pingo and moved
away from the spot; but at the distance of about a fathom or two,
laid it down again, and ripping open one of the bundles, took out
of it all the contents, somans1381,
cambāyas1382,
handkerchiefs, and several pieces of white cambrick cloth, all
which he tore to small pieces, and flung them wildly here and
there. He did the same with all the other pingoes. When this was
over the elephant quietly walked away into the jungle, trumpeting
all the way as far as I could hear. When danger was past I came out
of my concealment, and returned to the place where we had halted
that morning. Here the rest of my companions joined me soon after.
The next morning we set out again on our journey, our party being
now increased by some seven or eight traders from Salpity Corle:
but this time we did not meet with the elephant. We found the
mangled corpse of our cooly on the same spot where I had seen it
the day before, together with the torn pieces of my cloths, of
which we collected as fast as we could the few which were
serviceable, and all the brass utensils which were quite uninjured.
That elephant was a noted rogue. He had before this killed many
people on that road, especially those carrying pingoes of coco-nut
oil and ghee. He was afterwards killed by an Englishman. The
incidents I have mentioned above, took place about twenty years
ago.”
The following also relates to the same locality. It was narrated
to me by an old Moorman of Barberyn, who, during his earlier years,
led the life of a pedlar.
2. “I and another,” said he, “were on our way to Badulla, one
day some twenty-five or thirty years ago. We were quietly moving
along a path which wound round a hill, when all of a sudden, and
without the slightest previous intimation either by the rustling of
leaves or by any other sign, a huge elephant with short tusks
rushed to the path. Where he had been before I can’t say; I believe
he must have been lying in [pg 139] wait for travellers. In a moment
he rushed forward to the road, trumpeting dreadfully, and seized my
companion. I, who happened to be in the rear, took to flight,
pursued by the elephant, which had already killed my companion by
striking him against the ground. I had not moved more than seven or
eight fathoms, when the elephant seized me, and threw me up with
such force, that I was carried high into the air towards a
Cahata tree, whose branches caught me and prevented my
falling to the ground. By this I received no other injury than the
dislocation of one of my wrists. I do not know whether the elephant
saw me after he had hurled me away through the air; but certainly
he did not come to the tree to which I was then clinging: even if
he had come, he couldn’t have done me any more harm, as the branch
on which I was far beyond the reach of his trunk, and the tree
itself too large for him to pull down. The next thing I saw was the
elephant returning to the corpse of my companion, which he again
threw on the ground, and placing one of his fore feet on it, he
tore it with his trunk limb after limb; and dabbled in the blood
that flowed from the shapeless mass of flesh which he was still
holding under his foot.”
3. “In 1847 or ’46,” said another informant, “I was a
superintendent of a coco-nut estate belonging to Mr. Armitage,
situated about twelve miles from Negombo. A rogue elephant did
considerable injury to the estate at that time; and one day,
hearing that it was then on the plantation, a Mr. Lindsay, an
Englishman, who was proprietor of the adjoining property, and
myself, accompanied by some seven or eight people of the
neighbouring village, went out, carrying with us six rifles loaded
and primed. We continued to walk along a path which, near one of
its turns, had some bushes on one side. We had calculated to come
up with the brute where it had been seen half an hour before; but
no sooner had one of our men, who was walking foremost, seen the
animal at the distance of some fifteen or twenty fathoms, than he
exclaimed, ‘There! there!’ and immediately took to his heels, and
we all [pg
140] followed his example. The elephant did not see us until
we had run some fifteen or twenty paces from the spot where we
turned, when he gave us chase, screaming frightfully as he came on.
The Englishman managed to climb a tree, and the rest of my
companions did the same; as for myself I could not, although I made
one or two superhuman efforts. But there was no time to be lost.
The elephant was running at me with his trunk bent down in a curve
towards the ground. At this critical moment Mr. Lindsay held out
his foot to me, with the help of which and then of the branches of
the tree, which were three or four feet above my head, I managed to
scramble up to a branch. The elephant came directly to the tree and
attempted to force it down, which he could not. He first coiled his
trunk round the stem, and pulled it with all his might, but with no
effect. He then applied his head to the tree, and pushed for
several minutes, but with no better success. He then trampled with
his feet all the projecting roots, moving, as he did so, several
times round and round the tree. Lastly, failing in all this, and
seeing a pile of timber, which I had lately cut, at a short
distance from us, he removed it all (thirty-six pieces) one at a
time to the root of the tree, and piled them up in a regular
business-like manner; then placing his hind feet on this pile, he
raised the fore part of his body, and reached out his trunk, but
still he could not touch us, as we were too far above him. The
Englishman then fired, and the ball took effect somewhere on the
elephant’s head, but did not kill him. It made him only the more
furious. The next shot, however, levelled him to the ground. I
afterwards brought the skull of the animal to Colombo, and it is
still to be seen at the house of Mr. Armitage.”
4. “One night a herd of elephants entered a village in the Four
Corles. After doing considerable injury to plaintain bushes and
young coco-nut trees, they retired, the villagers being unable to
do anything to protect their fruit trees from destruction. But one
elephant was left behind, who continued to scream the whole night
through at the same spot. It was [pg 141] then discovered that the
elephant, on seeing a jak fruit on a tree somewhat beyond the reach
of his trunk, had raised himself on his hind legs, placing his fore
feet against the stem, in order to lay hold of the fruit, but
unluckily for him there happened to be another tree standing so
close to it that the vacant space between the two stems was only a
few inches. During his attempts to take hold of the fruit one of
his legs happened to get in between the two trees, where, on
account of his weight and his clumsy attempts to extricate himself,
it got so firmly wedged that he could not remove it, and in this
awkward position he remained for some days, till he died on the
spot.”
Footnote 951: (return)After writing the above, I was permitted by the late Dr.
HARRISON, of Dublin, to see some accurate drawings of the brain of
an elephant, which he had the opportunity of dissecting in 1847;
and on looking to that of the base, I have found a remarkable
verification of the information which I collected in Ceylon.The small figure A is the ganglion of the fifth nerve, showing
the small motor and large sensitive portion.The olfactory lobes, from which the olfactory nerves
proceed, are large, whilst the optic and muscular nerves of the
orbit are singularly small for so vast an animal; and one is
immediately struck by the prodigious size of the fifth nerve, which
supplies the proboscis with its exquisite sensibility, as well as
by the great size of the motor portion of the seventh, which
supplies the same organ with its power of movement and action.
Footnote 962: (return)Major ROGERS. An account of this singular adventure will be
found in the Ceylon Miscellany for 1842, vol. i. p. 221.
Footnote 971: (return)ARISTOTLE, De Anim., lib. iv. c. 9. “[Greek: homoion
salpingi].” See also PLINY, lib. x. ch. cxiii. A manuscript in the
British Museum, containing the romance of “Alexander” which
is probably of the fifteenth century, is interspersed with drawings
illustrative of the strange animals of the East. Amongst them are
two elephants, whose trunks are literally in form of trumpets
with expanded mouths. See WRIGHT’S Archæological
Album, p. 176.
Footnote 981: (return)PALLEGOIX, in his Description du Royaume Thai ou Siam,
adverts to a sound produced by the elephant when weary: “quand il
est fatigué, il frappe la terre avec sa trompe, et en
tire un son semblable à celui du cor.”—Tom. i. p.
151.
Footnote 983: (return)Natural History of Animals. By Sir JOHN HILL, M.D.
London, 1748-52, p. 565. A probable source of these false estimates
is mentioned by a writer in the Indian Sporting Review for
Oct. 1857. “Elephants were measured formerly, and even now, by
natives, as to their height, by throwing a rope over them, the ends
brought to the ground on each side, and half the length taken as
the true height. Hence the origin of elephants fifteen and sixteen
feet high. A rod held at right angles to the measuring rod, and
parallel to the ground, will rarely give more than ten feet, the
majority being under nine.”—P. 159.
Footnote 991: (return)SHAW’S Zoology. Lond. 1806. vol. i. p. 216; ARMANDI,
Hist. Milit. des Eléphans, liv. i. ch. i. p. 2.
Footnote 992: (return)WOLF’S Life and Adventures, &c., p. 164. Wolf was a
native of Mecklenburg, who arrived in Ceylon about 1750, as
chaplain in one of the Dutch East Indiamen, and having been taken
into the government employment, he served for twenty years at
Jaffna, first as Secretary to the Governor, and afterwards in an
office the duties of which he describes to be the examination and
signature of the “writings which served to commence a suit in any
of the Courts of justice.” His book embodies a truthful and
generally accurate account of the northern portion of the island,
with which alone he was conversant, and his narrative gives a
curious insight into the policy of the Dutch Government, and of the
condition of the natives under their dominion.
Footnote 1001: (return)DENHAM’S Travels, &c., 4to p. 220. The fossil remains
of the Indian elephant have been discovered at Jabalpur, showing a
height of fifteen feet.—Journ. Asiat. Soc. Beng. vi.
Professor ANSTED in his Ancient World, p. 197, says he was
informed by Dr. Falconer “that out of eleven hundred elephants from
which the tallest were selected and measured with care, on one
occasion in India, there was not one whose height equalled eleven
feet.”
Footnote 1011: (return)Machlis (said to be derived from a, priv., and [Greek:
klinô], cubo, quod non cubat). “Moreover in the island
of Scandinavia there is a beast called Machlis, that hath
neither ioynt in the hough, nor pasternes in his hind legs, and
therefore he never lieth down, but sleepeth leaning to a tree,
wherefore the hunters that lie in wait for these beasts cut downe
the trees while they are asleepe, and so take them; otherwise they
should never be taken, they are so swift of foot that it is
wonderful.”—PLINY, Natur. Hist. Transl. Philemon
Holland, book viii. ch. xv. p. 200.
Footnote 1012: (return)“Sunt item quæ appellantur Alces. Harum est
consimilis capreis figura, et varietas pellium; sed magnitudine
paulo antecedunt, mutilæque sunt cornibus, et crura sine
nodis articulisque habent; neque quietis causa procumbunt;
neque, si quo afflictæ casu considerunt, erigere sese aut
sublevare possunt. His sunt arbores pro cubilibus; ad eas sese
applicant, atque ita, paulum modo reclinatæ, quietem capiunt,
quarum ex vestigiis cum est animadversum a venatoribus, quo se
recipere consueverint, omnes eo loco, aut a radicibus subruunt aut
accidunt arbores tantum, ut summa species earum stantium
relinquatur. Huc cum se consuetudine reclinaverint, infirmas
arbores pondere affligunt, atque una ipsæ
concidunt.”—CÆSAR, De Bello Gall. lib. vi. ch.
xxvii.The same fiction was extended by the early Arabian travellers to
the rhinoceros, and in the MS. of the voyages of the “Two
Mahometans” it is stated that the rhinoceros of Sumatra “n’a
point d’articulation au genou ni à la
main.”—Relations des Voyages, &c., Paris, 1845,
vol. i. p. 29.
Footnote 1021: (return)When an animal moves progressively an hypothenuse is produced,
which is equal in power to the magnitude that is quiescent, and to
that which is intermediate. But since the members are equal, it is
necessary that the member which is quiescent should be inflected
either in the knee or in the incurvation, if the animal that
walks is without knees. It is possible, however, for the leg to
be moved, when not inflected, in the same manner as infants creep;
and there is an ancient report of this kind about elephants, which
is not true, for such animals as these, are moved in consequence
of an inflection taking place either in their shoulders or
hips.”—ARISTOTLE, De Ingressu Anim., ch. ix.
Taylor’s Transl.
Footnote 1022: (return)ARISTOTLE, De Animal., lib. ii. ch. i. It is curious that
Taylor, in his translation of this passage, was so strongly imbued
with the “grey-headed errour,” that in order to elucidate the
somewhat obscure meaning of Aristotle, he has actually interpolated
the text with the exploded fallacy of Ctesias, and after the word
reclining to sleep, has inserted the words “leaning against some
wall or tree,” which are not to be found in the original.
Footnote 1023: (return)[Greek: “Zpson de anarthron sunienai kai rhuthmou kai melous,
kai phylattein schêma physeôs dôra tauta hama kai
idiotês kath’ ekaston
ekplêktikê].”—ÆLIAN, De Nat. Anim.,
lib. ii. cap. xi.
Footnote 1032: (return)“Sed idem Julius, unum de elephantibus mentions, falso loquitur;
dicens elephantem nunquam jacere; dum ille sicut bos certissime
jacet, ut populi communiter regni Francorum elephantem, in tempore
Imperatoris Karoli viderunt. Sed, forsitan, ideo hoc de elephante
ficte æstimando scriptum est, eo quod genua et suffragines
sui nisi quando jacet, non palam apparent.”—DICUILUS, De
Mensura Orbis Terræ, c. vii.
Footnote 1042: (return)Arundel MSS. No. 292, fol. 4, &c. It has been printed
in the Reliquiæ Antiquæ, vol. i. p. 208, by Mr.
WRIGHT, to whom I am indebted for the following rendering of the
passage referred to:—in water ge sal stonden
in water to mid side
that wanne hire harde tide
that ge ne falle nither nogt
that it most in hire thogt
for he ne haven no lith
that he mugen risen with, etc.
“They will stand in the water,
in water up to the middle of the side,
that when it comes to them hard,
they may not fall down:
that is most in their thought,
for they have no joint
to enable them to rise again.
How he resteth him this animal,
when he walketh abroad,
hearken how it is here told.
For he is all unwieldy,
forsooth he seeks out a tree,
that it strong and stedfast,
and leans confidently against it,
when he is weary of walking.
The hunter has observed this,
who seeks to ensnare him,
where his usual dwelling is,
to do his will;
saws this tree and props it
in the manner that he best may,
covers it well that he (the elephant) may not be on
his guard.Then he makes thereby a seat,
himself sits alone and watches
whether his trap takes effect.
Then cometh this unwieldy elephant,
and leans him on his side,
rests against the tree in the shadow,
and so both fall together.
If nobody be by when he falls,
he roars ruefully and calls for help,
roars ruefully in his manner,
hopes he shall through help rise.
Then cometh there one (elephant) in haste,
hopes he shall cause him to stand up;
labours and tries all his might,
but he cannot succeed a bit.
He knows then no other remedy,
but roars with his brother,
many and large (elephants) come there in search,
thinking to make him get up,
but for the help of them all
he may not get up.
Then they all roar one roar,
like the blast of a horn or the sound of bell,
for their great roaring
a young one cometh running,
stoops immediately to him,
puts his snout under him,
and asks the help of them all;
this elephant they raise on his legs:
and thus fails this hunter’s trick,
in the manner that I have told you.”
Footnote 1043: (return)One of the most venerable authorities by whom the fallacy was
transmitted to modern times was PHILIP de THAUN, who wrote, about
the year 1121, A.D., his Livre des Créatures,
dedicated to Adelaide of Louvaine, Queen of Henry I. of England. In
the copy of it printed by the Historical Society of Science in
1841, and edited by Mr. WRIGHT, the following passage
occurs:—“Et Ysidre nus dit ki le elefant descrit,
Es jambes par nature nen ad que une jointure,
Il ne pot pas gesir quant il se volt dormir,
Ke si cuchet estait par sei nen leveraît;
Pur ceo li stot apuier, el lui del cucher,
U à arbre u à mur, idunc dort
aseur.E le gent de la terre, ki li volent conquere,
Li mur enfunderunt, u le arbre encíserunt;
Quant li elefant vendrat, ki s’i apuierat,
La arbre u le mur carrat, e il tribucherat;
Issi faiterement le parnent cele gent.”
P. 100.
Footnote 1054: (return)RANDAL HOME’S Academy of Armory, A.D. 1671. HOME only
perpetuated the error of GUILLAM, who wrote his Display of
Heraldry in A.D. 1610; wherein he explains that the elephant is
“so proud of his strength that he never bows himself to any
(neither indeed can he), and when he is once down he cannot
rise up again.”—Sec. III. ch. xii. p. 147.
Footnote 1071: (return)So little is the elephant inclined to lie down in captivity, and
even after hard labour, that the keepers are generally disposed to
suspect illness when he betakes himself to this posture. PHILE, in
his poem De Animalium Proprietate, attributes the propensity
of the elephant to sleep on his legs, to the difficulty he
experiences in rising to his feet:[Greek: ‘Orthostadên de kai katheudei panychos
‘HOt ouk anastêsai men eucherôs pelei.]
But this is a misapprehension.
Footnote 1081: (return)Menageries, &c. “The elephant,” ch. i.
Sir CHARLES BELL, in his essay on The Hand and its
Mechanism, which forms one of the “Bridgewater Treatises,” has
exhibited the reasons deducible from organisation, which show the
incapacity of the elephant to spring or leap like the
horse and other animals whose structure is designed to facilitate
agility and speed. In them the various bones of the shoulder and
fore limbs, especially the clavicle and humerus, are set at such an
angle, that the shock in descending is modified, and the joints and
sockets protected from the injury occasioned by concussion. But in
the elephant, where the weight of the body is immense, the bones of
the leg, in order to present solidify and strength to sustain it,
are built in one firm and perpendicular column; instead of being
placed somewhat obliquely at their points of contact. Thus whilst
the force of the weight in descending is broken and distributed by
this arrangement in the case of the horse; it would be so
concentrated in the elephant as to endanger every joint from the
toe to the shoulder.
Footnote 1101: (return)Dr. HOOKER, in describing the ascent of the Himalayas, says, the
natives in making their paths despise all zigzags, and run in
straight lines up the steepest hill faces; whilst “the elephant’s
path is an excellent specimen of engineering—the opposite of
the native track,—for it winds
judiciously.”—Himalayan Journal, vol. i. ch. iv.
Footnote 1102: (return)Since the above passage was written, I have seen in the
Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, vol. xiii, pt. ii.
p. 916, a paper upon this subject, illustrated by the subjoined
diagram.The writer says, “an elephant descending a bank of too acute an
angle to admit of his walking down it direct, (which, were he to
attempt, his huge tody, soon disarranging the centre of gravity,
would certainly topple over,) proceeds thus. His first manoeuvre is
to kneel down close to the edge of the declivity, placing his chest
to the ground: one fore-leg is then cautiously passed a short way
down the slope; and if there is no natural protection to afford a
firm footing, he speedily forms one by stamping into the soil if
moist, or kicking out a footing if dry. This point gained, the
other fore-leg is brought down in the same way; and performs the
same work, a little in advance of the first; which is thus at
liberty to move lower still. Then, first one and then the second of
the hind legs is carefully drawn over the side, and the hind-feet
in turn occupy the resting-places previously used and left by the
fore ones. The course, however, in such precipitous ground is not
straight from top to bottom, but slopes along the face of the bank,
descending till the animal gains the level below. This an elephant
has done, at an angle of 45 degrees, carrying a howdah, its
occupant, his attendant, and sporting apparatus; and in a much less
time than it takes to describe the operation.” I have observed that
an elephant in descending a declivity uses his knees, on the side
next the bank; and his feet on the lower side only.
Footnote 1131: (return)A correspondent of Buffon, M. MARCELLUS BLES, Seigneur de
Moergestal, who resided eleven years in Ceylon in the time of the
Dutch, says in one of his communications, that in herds of forty or
fifty, enclosed in a single corral, there were frequently very
young calves; and that “on ne pouvoit pas reconnaître quelles
étoient les mères de chacun de ces petits
éléphans, car tous ces jeunes animaux paroissent
faire manse commune; ils têtent indistinctement celles des
femelles de toute la troupe qui ont du lait, soit qu’elles aient
elles-mêmes un petit en propre, soit qu’elles n’en aient
point.”—BUFFON, Suppl. à l’Hist. des Anim.,
vol. vi. p. 25.
Footnote 1132: (return)WHITE, in his Natural History of Selborne, philosophising
on the fact which had fallen under his own notice of this
indiscriminate suckling of the young of one animal by the parent of
another, is disposed to ascribe it to a selfish feeling; the
pleasure and relief of having its distended teats drawn by this
intervention. He notices the circumstance of a leveret having been
thus nursed by a cat, whose kittens had been recently drowned: and
observes, that “this strange affection was probably occasioned by
that desiderium, those tender maternal feelings, which the loss of
her kittens had awakened in her breast; and by the complacency and
ease she derived to herself from procuring her teats to be drawn,
which were too much distended with milk; till from habit she became
as much delighted with this foundling as if it had been her real
offspring. This incident is no bad solution of that strange
circumstance which grave historians, as well as the poets, assert
of exposed children being sometimes nurtured by female wild beasts
that probably had lost their young. For it is not one whit more
marvellous that Romulus and Remus in their infant state should be
nursed by a she wolf than that a poor little suckling leveret
should be fostered and cherished by a bloody
Grimalkin.”—WHITE’S Selborne, lett. xx.
Footnote 1151: (return)The term “rogue” is scarcely sufficiently accounted for by
supposing it to be the English equivalent for the Singhalese word
Hora. In that very curious book, the Life and Adventures
of JOHN CHRISTOPHER WOLF, late principal Secretary at
Jaffnapatam in Ceylon, the author says, when a male elephant in
a quarrel about the females “is beat out of the field and obliged
to go without a consort, he becomes furious and mad, killing every
living creature, be it man or beast: and in this state is called
ronkedor, an object of greater terror to a traveller than a
hundred wild ones.”—P. 142. In another passage, p. 164, he is
called runkedor, and I have seen it spelt elsewhere
ronquedue, WOLF does not give “ronkedor” as a term
peculiar to that section of the island; but both there and
elsewhere, it is obsolete at the present day, unless it be open to
conjecture that the modern term “rogue” is a modification of
ronquedue.
Footnote 1152: (return)BUCHANAN, in his Survey of Bhagulpore, p. 503, says that
solitary males of the wild buffalo, “when driven from the herd by
stronger competitors for female society, are reckoned very
dangerous to meet with; for they are apt to wreak their vengeance
on whatever they meet, and are said to kill annually three or four
people.” LIVINGSTONE relates the same of the solitary hippopotamus
which becomes soured in temper, and wantonly attacks the passing
canoes.—Travels in South Africa, p. 231.
Footnote 1212: (return)This peculiarity was known in the middle ages, and PHILE,
writing in the fourteenth century, says, that such is his
preference, for muddy water that the elephant stirs
it before he drinks.[Greek:
“Ydor de pineisynchythen prin anpinoi
To gar dieides akribos diaptuei.”]
—PHILE de Eleph., i. 144.
Footnote 1213: (return)A tame elephant, when taken by his keepers to be bathed, and to
have his skin washed and rubbed, lies down on his side, pressing
his head to the bottom under water, with only the top of his trunk
protruded, to breathe.
Footnote 1222: (return)For observing the osteology of the elephant, materials are of
course abundant in the indestructible remains of the animal: but
the study of the intestines, and the dissection of the softer parts
by comparative anatomists in Europe, have been up to the present
time beset by difficulties. These arise not alone from the rarity
of subjects, but even in cases where elephants have died in these
countries, decomposition interposes, and before the thorough
examination of so vast a body can be satisfactorily completed, the
great mass falls into putrefaction.The principal English authorities are An Anatomical Account
of the Elephant accidentally burnt in Dublin, by A. MOLYNEUX,
A.D. 1696; which is probably a reprint of a letter on the same
subject in the library of Trinity College, Dublin, addressed by A.
Moulin, to Sir William Petty, Lond. 1682. There are also some
papers communicated to Sir Hans Sloane, and afterwards published in
the Philosophical Transactions of the year 1710, by Dr. P.
BLAIR, who had an opportunity of dissecting an elephant which died
at Dundee in 1708. The latter writer observes that,
“notwithstanding the vast interest attaching to the elephant in all
ages, yet has its body been hitherto very little subjected to
anatomical, inquiries;” and he laments that the rapid decomposition
of the carcase, and other causes, had interposed obstacles to the
scrutiny of the subject he was so fortunate as to find access
to.In 1723 Dr. WM. STUCKLEY published Some Anatomical
Observations made upon the Dissection of an Elephant; but each
of the above essays is necessarily unsatisfactory, and little has
since been done to supply their defects. One of the latest and most
valuable contributions to the subjects, is a paper read before the
Royal Irish Academy, on the 18th of Feb., 1847, by Professor
HARRISON, who had the opportunity of dissecting an Indian elephant
which died of acute fever; but the examination, so far as he has
made it public, extends only to the cranium, the brain, and the
proboscis, the larynx, trachea, and oesophagus. An essential
service would be rendered to science if some sportsman in Ceylon,
or some of the officers connected with the elephant establishment
there, would take the trouble to forward the carcase of a young one
to England in a state fit for dissection.Postscriptum.—I am happy to say that a young
elephant, carefully preserved in spirits, has recently been
obtained in Ceylon, and forwarded to Prof. Owen, of the British
Museum, by the joint exertions of M. DIARD and Major SKINNER. An
opportunity has thus been afforded from which science will reap
advantage, of devoting a patient attention to the internal
structure of this interesting animal.
Footnote 1231: (return)The passage as quoted by BUFFON from the Mémoires
is as follows:—”L’estomac avoit peu de diamètre; il en avoit
moins que le colon, car son diamètre n’étoit que de
quatorze pouces dans la partie la plus large; il avoit trois pieds
et demi de longueur: l’orifice supérieur étoit
à-peu-près aussi éloigné du pylore que
du fond du grand cul-de-sac qui se terminoit en une pointe
composée de tuniques beaucoup plus épaisses que
celles du reste de l’estomac; il y avoit au fond du grand
cul-de-sac plusieurs feuillets épais d’une ligne, larges
d’un pouce et demi, et disposés irrégulierement; le
reste de parois intérieures étoit percé de
plusieurs petits trous et par de plus grands qui
correspondoîent à des grains
glanduleux.”—BUFFON, Hist. Nat., vol. xi. p. 109.
Footnote 1241: (return)“L’extrémité voisine du cardia se termine par une
poche très-considérable et doublée à
l’intérieure du quatorze valvules orbiculaires que semblent
en faire une espèce de division
particulière.”—CAMPER, Description Anatomique d’un
Eléphant Mâle, p. 37, tabl. IX.
Footnote 1242: (return)“The elephant has another peculiarity in the internal structure
of the stomach. It is longer and narrower than that of most
animals. The cuticular membrane of the oesophagus terminates at the
orifice of the stomach. At the cardiac end, which is very narrow
and pointed at the extremity, the lining is thick and glandular,
and is thrown into transverse folds, of which five are broad and
nine narrow. That nearest the orifice of the æsophagus is the
broadest, and appears to act occasionally as a valve, so that the
part beyond may be considered as an appendage similar to that of
the peccary and the hog. The membrane of the cardiac portion is
uniformly smooth; that of the pyloric is thicker and more
vascular.”—Lectures on Comparative Anatomy, by Sir
EVERARD HOME, Bart. 4to. Lond. vol. i. p. 155. The figure of the
elephant’s stomach is given, in his Lectures, vol. ii. plate
xviii.
Footnote 1251: (return)A similar arrangement, with some modifications, has more
recently been found in the llama of the Andes, which, like the
camel, is used as a beast of burden in the Cordilleras of Chili and
Peru; but both these and the camel are ruminants, whilst the
elephants belongs to the Pachydermata.
Footnote 1282: (return)One of the Indian names for the elephant is duipa, which
signifies “to drink twice” (AMANDI, p. 513). Can this have
reference to the peculiarity of the stomach for retaining a supply
of water? Or has it merely reference to the habit of the animal to
fill his trunk before transferring the water to his mouth.
Footnote 1291: (return)The buffalo and the humped cattle of India, which are used for
draught and burden, have, I believe, a development of the
organisation of the reticulum which enables the ruminants
generally, to endure thirst, and abstain from water, somewhat more
conspicuous than in the rest of their congeners; but nothing that
approaches in singularity of character to the distinct cavities in
the stomach exhibited by the three animals above alluded to.
Footnote 1321: (return)“One of the strongest instincts which the elephant possesses, is
this which impels him to experiment upon the solidity of every
surface which he is required to cross.”—Menageries,
&c. “The Elephant,” vol. i. pp. 17, 19, 66.
Footnote 1323: (return)Private Letter from Dr. DAVY, author of An Account of
the Interior of Ceylon.
Footnote 1331: (return)The Colombo Observer for March 1858, contains an offer of
a reward of twenty-five guineas for the destruction of an elephant
which infested the Rajawallé coffee plantation, in the
vicinity of Kandy. Its object seemed to be less the search for
food, than the satisfying of its curiosity and the gratification of
its passion for mischief. Mr. TYTLER, the proprietor, states that
it frequented the jungle near the estate, whence it was its custom
to sally forth at night for the pleasure of pulling down buildings
and trees, “and it seemed to have taken a spite at the pipes of the
water-works, the pillars of which it several times broke
down—its latest fancy being to wrench off the taps.” This
elephant has since been shot.
Footnote 1341: (return)The elephant is believed by the Singhalese to express his
uneasiness by his voice, on the approach of rain; and the
Tamils have a proverb.—”Listen to the elephant, rain is
coming.“
Footnote 1371: (return)The Singhalese hold the belief, that twigs taken from one bush
and placed on another growing close to a pathway, ensure protection
to travellers from the attacks of wild animals, and especially of
elephants. Can it be that the latter avoid the path, on discovering
this evidence of the proximity of recent passengers?
CHAP. IV.
THE ELEPHANT.
Elephant Shooting.
As the shooting of an elephant, whatever endurance and
adroitness the sport may display in other respects, requires the
smallest possible skill as a marksman, the numbers which are
annually slain in this way may be regarded as evidence of the
multitudes abounding in those parts of Ceylon to which they resort.
One officer, Major ROGERS, killed upwards of 1400; another, Captain
GALLWEY, has the credit of slaying more than half that number;
Major SKINNER, the Commissioner of Roads, almost as many; and less
persevering aspirants follow at humbler distances.1421
But notwithstanding this prodigious destruction, a reward of a
few shillings per head offered by the Government for taking
elephants was claimed for 3500 destroyed in part of the northern
province alone, in less than three years prior to 1848: and between
1851 and 1856, a similar reward was paid for 2000 in the southern
province, between Galle and Hambangtotte.
Although there is little opportunity for the display of
marksmanship in an elephant battue, there is one feature in the
sport, as conducted in Ceylon, which contrasts favourably with the
slaughterhouse details chronicled with revolting minuteness in some
recent accounts of [pg 144] elephant shooting in South Africa.
The practice in Ceylon is to aim invariably at the head, and the
sportsman finds his safety to consist in boldly facing the animal,
advancing to within fifteen paces, and lodging a bullet, either in
the temple or in the hollow over the eye, or in a well-known spot
immediately above the trunk, where the weaker structure of the
skull affords an easy access to the brain.1441 The region of the ear is also a
fatal spot, and often resorted to,—the places I have
mentioned in the front of the head being only accessible when the
animal is “charging.” Professor HARRISON, in his communication to
the Royal Irish Academy on the Anatomy of the Elephant, has
rendered an intelligible explanation of this in the following
passage descriptive of the cranium:—”it exhibits two
remarkable facts: first, the small space occupied by the
brain; and, secondly, the beautiful and curious structure of
the bones of the head. The two tables of all these bones, except
the occipital, are separated by rows of large cells, some from four
to five inches in length, others only small, irregular, and
honey-comb-like:—these all communicate with each other, and,
through the frontal sinuses, with the cavity of the nose, and also
with the tympanum or drum of each ear; consequently, as in some
birds, these cells are filled with air, and thus while the skull
attains a great size in order to afford an extensive surface
[pg
145] for the attachment of muscles, and a mechanical support
for the tusks, it is at the same time very light and buoyant in
proportion to its bulk; a property the more valuable as the animal
is fond of water and bathes in deep rivers.”
SECTION OF ELEPHANT’S HEAD.Generally speaking, a single ball, planted in the forehead, ends
the existence of the noble creature instantaneously: and expert
sportsmen have been known to kill right and left, one with each
barrel; but occasionally an elephant will not fall before several
shots have been lodged in his head.1451
Contrasted with this, one reads with a shudder the sickening
details of the African huntsman approaching behind the
retiring animal, and of the torture inflicted by the shower of
bullets which tear up its flesh and lacerate its flank and
shoulders.1461
The shooting of elephants in Ceylon has been described with
tiresome iteration in the successive journals of sporting
gentlemen, but one who turns to their pages for traits of the
animal and his instincts is disappointed to find little beyond
graphic sketches of the daring and exploits of his pursuers, most
of whom, having had no further opportunity of observation than is
derived from a casual encounter with the outraged animal, have
apparently tried to exalt their own prowess, by misrepresenting the
ordinary character of the elephant, describing him as “savage,
wary, and revengeful.”1471
These epithets may undoubtedly apply to the outcasts from the
herd, the “Rogues” or hora allia, but so small is the
proportion of these that there is not probably one rogue to
be found for every five hundred of those in herds; and it is a
manifest error, arising from imperfect information, to extend this
censure to them generally, or to suppose the elephant to be an
animal “thirsting for blood, lying in wait in the jungle to rush on
the unwary passer-by, and knowing no greater pleasure than the act
of crushing his victim to a shapeless mass beneath his feet.”1472 The cruelties practised by the
hunters have no doubt taught these sagacious creatures to be
cautious and alert, but their precautions are simply defensive; and
beyond the alarm and apprehension which they [pg 148] evince
on the approach of man, they exhibit no indication of hostility or
thirst for blood.
An ordinary traveller seldom comes upon elephants unless after
sunset or towards daybreak, as they go to or return from their
nightly visits to the tanks: but when by accident a herd is
disturbed by day, they evince, if unattacked, no disposition to
become assailants; and if the attitude of defence which they
instinctively assume prove sufficent to check the approach of the
intruder, no further demonstration is to be apprehended.
Even the hunters who go in search of them find them in positions
and occupations altogether inconsistent with the idea of their
being savage, wary, or revengeful. Their demeanour when undisturbed
is indicative of gentleness and timidity, and their actions bespeak
lassitude and indolence, induced not alone by heat, but probably
ascribable in some degree to the fact that the night has been spent
in watchfulness and amusement. A few are generally browsing
listlessly on the trees and plants within reach, others fanning
themselves with leafy branches, and a few are asleep; whilst the
young run playfully among the herd, the emblems of innocence, as
the older ones are of peacefulness and gravity.
Almost every elephant may be observed to exhibit some peculiar
action of the limbs when standing at rest; some move the head
monotonously in a circle, or from right to left; some swing their
feet back and forward; others flap their ears or sway themselves
from side to side, or rise and sink by alternately bending and
straightening the fore knees. As the opportunities of observing
this custom have been almost confined to elephants in captivity, it
has been conjectured to arise from some morbid [pg 149] habit
contracted during the length of a voyage by sea1491, or from an instinctive impulse
to substitute a motion of this kind in lieu of their wonted
exercise; but this supposition is erroneous; the propensity being
equally displayed by those at liberty and those in captivity. When
surprised by sportsmen in the depths of the jungle, individuals of
a herd are always occupied in swinging their limbs in this manner;
and in the several corrals which I have seen, where whole herds
have been captured, the elephants in the midst of the utmost
excitement, and even after the most vigorous charges, if they
halted for a moment in stupor and exhaustion, manifested their
wonted habit, and swung their limbs or swayed their bodies to and
fro incessantly. So far from its being a substitute for exercise,
those in the government employment in Ceylon are observed to
practise their acquired motion, whatever it may be, with increased
vigour when thoroughly fatigued after excessive work. Even the
favourite practice of fanning themselves with a leafy branch seems
less an enjoyment in itself than a resource when listless and at
rest. The term “fidgetty” seems to describe appropriately the
temperament of the elephant.
They evince the strongest love of retirement and a corresponding
dislike to intrusion. The approach of a stranger is perceived less
by the eye, the quickness of which is not remarkable (besides which
its range is obscured by the foliage), than by sensitive smell and
singular acuteness of hearing; and the whole herd is put in instant
but noiseless motion towards some deeper and more secure retreat.
The effectual manner in [pg 150] which an animal of the prodigious
size of the elephant can conceal himself, and the motionless
silence which he preserves, is quite surprising; whilst beaters
pass and repass within a few yards of his hiding place, he will
maintain his ground till the hunter, creeping almost close to his
legs, sees his little eye peering out through the leaves, when,
finding himself discovered, the elephant breaks away with a crash,
levelling the brushwood in his headlong career.
If surprised in open ground, where stealthy retreat is
impracticable, a herd will hesitate in indecision, and, after a few
meaningless movements, stand huddled together in a group, whilst
one or two, more adventurous than the rest, advance a few steps to
reconnoitre. Elephants are generally observed to be bolder in open
ground than in cover, but, if bold at all, far more dangerous in
cover than in open ground.
In searching for them, sportsmen often avail themselves of the
expertness of the native trackers; and notwithstanding the
demonstration of Combe that the brain of the timid Singhalese is
deficient in the organ of destructiveness1501, he shows an instinct for
hunting, and exhibits in the pursuit of the elephant a courage and
adroitness far surpassing in interest the mere handling of the
rifle, which is the principal share of the proceeding that falls to
his European companions.
The beater on these occasions has the double task of finding the
game and carrying the guns; and, in an animated communication to
me, an experienced sportsman describes “this light and active
creature, with his long glossy hair hanging down his shoulders,
every [pg
151] muscle quivering with excitement; and his countenance
lighting up with intense animation, leaping from rock to rock, as
nimble as a deer, tracking the gigantic game like a blood-hound,
falling behind as he comes up with it, and as the elephants,
baffled and irritated, make the first stand, passing one rifle into
your eager hand and holding the other ready whilst right and left
each barrel performs its mission, and if fortune does not flag, and
the second gun is as successful as the first, three or four huge
carcases are piled one on another within a space equal to the area
of a dining room.”1511
It is curious that in these encounters the herd never rush
forward in a body, as buffaloes or bisons do, but only one elephant
at a time moves in advance of the rest to confront, or, as it is
called, to “charge,” the assailants. I have heard of but one
instance in which two so advanced as champions of their
companions. Sometimes, indeed, the whole herd will follow a leader,
and manoeuvre in his rear like a body of cavalry; but so large a
party are necessarily liable to panic; and, one of them having
turned in alarm, the entire body retreat with terrified
precipitation.
As regards boldness and courage, a strange variety of
temperament is observable amongst elephants, but it may be affirmed
that they are, much more generally timid than courageous. One herd
may be as difficult to approach as deer, gliding away through the
jungle so gently and quickly that scarcely a trace marks their
passage; another, in apparent stupor, will huddle themselves
together like swine, and allow their assailant to come within a few
yards before they break away in [pg 152] terror; and a third will
await his approach without motion, and then advance, with fury to
the “charge.”
In individuals the same differences are discernible; one flies
on the first appearance of danger, whilst another, alone and
unsupported, will face a whole host of enemies. When wounded and
infuriated with pain, many of them become literally savage1521; but, so unaccustomed are they
to act as assailants, and so awkward and inexpert in using their
strength, that they rarely or ever exceed in killing a pursuer who
falls into their power. Although the pressure of a foot, a blow
with the trunk, or a thrust with the tusk, could scarcely fail to
prove fatal, three-fourths of those who have fallen into their
power have escaped without serious injury. So great is this chance
of impunity, that the sportsman prefers to approach within about
fifteen paces of the advancing elephant, a space which gives time
for a second fire should the first shot prove ineffectual, and
should both fail there is still opportunity for flight.
Amongst full-grown timber, a skilful runner can escape from an
elephant by “dodging” round the trees, but in cleared land, and low
brushwood, the difficulty is much increased, as the small growth of
underwood which obstructs the movements of man presents no obstacle
to those of an elephant. On the other hand, on level and open
ground the chances are rather in favour of the elephant, as his
pace in full flight exceeds that of man, although as a general
rule, it is unequal to that of a horse, as has been sometimes
asserted.1522
The incessant slaughter of elephants by sportsmen in Ceylon,
appears to be merely in subordination to the influence of the organ
of destructiveness, since the carcase is never applied to any
useful purpose, but left to decompose and to defile the air of the
forest. The flesh is occasionally tasted as a matter of curiosity:
as a steak it is coarse and tough; but the tongue is as delicate as
that of an ox; and the foot is said to make palatable soup. The
Caffres attached to the pioneer corps in the Kandyan province are
in the habit of securing the heart of any elephant shot in their
vicinity, and say it is their custom to eat it in Africa. The hide
it has been found impracticable to tan in Ceylon, or to convert to
any useful purpose, but the bones of those shot have of late years
been collected and used for manuring coffee estates. The hair of
the tail, which is extremely strong and horny, is mounted by the
native goldsmith, and made into bracelets; and the teeth are sawn
by the Moormen at Galle (as they used to be by the Romans during a
scarcity of ivory) into plates, out of which they fashion numerous
articles of ornament, knife-handles, card racks, and
“presse-papiers.”
NOTE.
Amongst extraordinary recoveries from desperate wounds, I
venture to record here an instance which occurred in Ceylon to a
gentleman while engaged in the chase of elephants, and which, I
apprehend, has few parallels in pathological experience. Lieutenant
GERARD FRETZ, of the Ceylon Rifle Regiment, whilst firing at an
elephant in the vicinity of Fort MacDonald, in Oovah, was wounded
in the face by the bursting of his fowling-piece, on the 22nd
January, 1828. He was then about thirty-two years of age. On
raising him, it was found that part of the breech of the gun and
about two inches of the barrel had been driven through the frontal
sinus, at the junction of the nose and forehead. It had sunk almost
perpendicularly till the iron-plate called “the tail-pin,” by which
the barrel is made fast to the stock by a screw, had descended
through the palate, carrying with it the screw, one extremity of
which had forced itself into the right nostril, where it was
discernible externally, whilst the headed end lay in contact with
his tongue. To extract the jagged mass of iron thus sunk in the
ethmoidal and sphenoidal cells was found hopelessly impracticable;
but, strange to tell, after the inflammation subsided, Mr. FRETZ
recovered rapidly; his general health was unimpaired, and he
returned to his regiment with this, singular appendage firmly
embedded behind the bones of his face. He took his turn of duty as
usual, attained the command of his company, participated in all the
enjoyments of the mess-room, and died eight years
afterwards, on the 1st of April, 1836, not from any
consequences of this fearful wound, but from fever and inflammation
brought on by other causes.
presence of the strange body in his palate that he was accustomed
with his finger partially to undo the screw, which but for its
extreme length he might altogether have withdrawn. To enable this
to be done, and possibly to assist by this means the extraction of
the breech itself through the original orifice (which never
entirely closed), an attempt was made in 1835 to take off a portion
of the screw with a file; but, after having cut it three parts
through the operation was interrupted, chiefly owing to the
carelessness and indifference of Capt. FRETZ, whose death occurred
before the attempt could be resumed. The piece of iron, on being
removed after his decease, was found to measure 2-3/4 inches in
length, and weighed two scruples more than two ounces and three
quarters. A cast of the breech and screw now forms No. 2790 amongst
the deposits in the Medical Museum of Chatham.
Footnote 1421: (return)To persons like myself, who are not addicted to what is called
“sport,” the statement of these wholesale slaughters is calculated
to excite surprise and curiosity as to the nature of a passion that
impels men to self-exposure and privation, in a pursuit which
presents nothing but the monotonous recurrence of scenes of blood
and suffering. Mr. BAKER, who has recently published, under the
title of “The Rifle and the Hound in Ceylon” an account of
his exploits in the forest, gives us the assurance that “all
real sportsmen are tender-hearted men, who shun cruelty to an
animal, and are easily moved by a tale of distress;” and that
although man is naturally bloodthirsty, and a beast of prey by
instinct, yet that the true sportsman is distinguished from the
rest of the human race by his “love of nature, and of noble
scenery.” In support of this pretension to a gentler nature
than the rest of mankind, the author proceeds to attest his own
abhorrence of cruelty by narrating the sufferings of an old hound,
which, although “toothless,” he cheered on to assail a boar at bay,
but the poor dog recoiled “covered with blood, cut nearly in half,
with a wound fourteen inches in length, from the lower part of the
belly, passing up the flank, completely severing the muscles of the
hind leg, and extending up the spine; his hind leg having the
appearance of being nearly off.” In this state, forgetful of the
character he had so lately given of the true sportsman, as a lover
of nature and a hater of cruelty, he encouraged “the poor old dog,”
as he calls him, to resume the fight with the boar, which lasted
for an hour, when he managed to call the dogs off; and perfectly
exhausted, the mangled hound crawled out of the jungle with several
additional wounds, including a severe gash in his throat. “He fell
from exhaustion, and we made a litter with two poles and a
horsecloth to carry him home.”—P. 314. If such were the
habitual enjoyments of this class of sportsmen, their motiveless
massacres would admit of no manly justification. In comparison with
them one is disposed to regard almost with favour the exploits of a
hunter like Major ROGERS, who is said to have applied the value of
the ivory obtained from his encounters towards the purchase of his
successive regimental commissions, and had, therefore, an object,
however disproportionate, in his slaughter of 1400 elephants.One gentleman in Ceylon, not less distinguished for his genuine
kindness of heart, than for his marvellous success in shooting
elephants, avowed to me that the eagerness with which he found
himself impelled to pursue them had often excited surprise in his
own mind; and although he had never read the theory of Lord Kames,
or the speculations of Vicesimus Knox, he had come to the
conclusion that the passion thus excited within him was a remnant
of the hunter’s instinct, with which man was originally endowed, to
enable him, by the chase, to support existence in a state of
nature, and which, though rendered dormant by civilisation, had not
been utterly eradicated.This theory is at least more consistent and intelligible than
the “love of nature and scenery,” sentimentally propounded by the
author quoted above.
Footnote 1441: (return)The vulnerability of the elephant in this region of the head was
known to the ancients, and PLINY, describing a combat of elephants
in the amphitheatre at Rome, says, that one was slain by a single
blow, “pilum sub oculo adactum, in vitalia capitis venerat” (Lib.
viii. c. 7.) Notwithstanding the comparative facility of access to
the brain afforded at this spot, an ordinary leaden bullet is not
certain to penetrate, and frequently becomes flattened. The
hunters, to counteract this, are accustomed to harden the ball, by
the introduction of a small portion of type-metal along with the
lead.
Footnote 1451: (return)“There is a wide difference of opinion as to the most deadly
shot. I think the temple the most certain, but authority in Ceylon
says the ‘fronter,’ that is, above the trunk. Behind the ear is
said to be deadly, but that is a shot which I never fired or saw
fired that I remember. If the ball go true to its mark, all shots
(in the head) are certain; but the bones on either side of the
honey-comb passage to the brain are so thick that there is in all a
‘glorious uncertainty’ which keeps a man on the qui vive
till he sees the elephant down.”—From a paper on Elephant
Shooting in Ceylon, by Major MACREADY, late Military Secretary
at Colombo.
Footnote 1461: (return)In Mr. GORDON CUMMING’S account of a Hunter’s Life in South
Africa, there is a narrative of his pursuit of a wounded
elephant which he had lamed by lodging a ball in its
shoulder-blade. It limped slowly towards a tree, against which it
leaned itself in helpless agony, whilst its pursuer seated himself
in front of it, in safety, to boil his coffee, and observe
its sufferings. The story is continued as follows:—”Having
admired him for a considerable time, I resolved to make
experiments on vulnerable points; and approaching very near I
fired several bullets at different parts of his enormous skull. He
only acknowledged the shots by a salaam-like movement of his trunk,
with the point of which he gently touched the wounds with a
striking and peculiar action. Surprised and shocked at finding that
I was only prolonging the sufferings of the noble beast, which bore
its trials with such dignified composure, I resolved to finish the
proceeding with all possible despatch, and accordingly opened fire
upon him from the left side, aiming at the shoulder. I first fired
six shots with the two-grooved rifle, which must have
eventually proved mortal. After which I fired six shots at
the same part with the Dutch six-pounder. Large tears now
trickled from his eyes, which he slowly shut and opened, his
colossal frame shivered convulsively, and falling on his side, he
expired.” (Vol. ii. p. 10.)In another place, after detailing the manner in which he
assailed a poor animal—he says, “I was loading and firing as
fast as could be, sometimes at the head, sometimes behind the
shoulder, until my elephant’s fore-quarter was a mass of gore;
notwithstanding which he continued to hold on, leaving the grass
and branches of the forest scarlet in his wake. * * * Having fired
thirty-five rounds with my two-grooved rifle, I opened upon
him with the Dutch six-pounder, and when forty bullets had
perforated his hide, he began for the first time, to evince signs
of a dilapidated constitution.” The disgusting description is
closed thus: “Throughout the charge he repeatedly cooled his person
with large quantities of water, which he ejected from his trunk
over his sides and back, and just as the pangs of death came over
him, he stood trembling violently beside a thorn tree, and kept
pouring water into his bloody mouth until he died, when he pitched
heavily forward with the whole weight of his fore-quarters resting
on the points of his tusks. The strain was fair, and the tusks did
not yield; but the portion of his head in which the tusks were
embedded, extending a long way above the eye, yielded and burst
with a muffled crash.”—(Ib., vol. ii. pp. 4, 5.)
Footnote 1471: (return)The Rifle and the Hound in Ceylon; by S.W. BAKER, Esq.,
pp. 8, 9. “Next to a rogue,” says Mr. BAKER, “in ferocity, and even
more persevering in the pursuit of her victim, is a female
elephant.” But he appends the significant qualification, “when
her young one has been killed.”—Ibid., p. 13.
Footnote 1521: (return)Some years ago an elephant which had been wounded by a native,
near Hambangtotte, pursued the man into the town, followed him
along the street, trampled him to death in the bazaar before a
crowd of spectators, and succeeded in making good its retreat to
the jungle.
Footnote 1522: (return)SHAW, in his Zoology, asserts that an elephant can run as
swiftly as a horse can gallop. London, 1800-6, vol. i. p. 216.
CHAP. V.
THE ELEPHANT.
An Elephant Corral.
So long as the elephants of Ceylon were merely required in small
numbers for the pageantry of the native princes, or the sacred
processions of the Buddhist temples, their capture was effected
either by the instrumentality of female decoys, or by the artifices
and agility of the individuals and castes who devoted themselves to
their pursuit and training. But after the arrival of the European
conquerors of the island, and when it had become expedient to take
advantage of the strength and intelligence of these creatures in
clearing forests and making roads and other works, establishments
were organised on a great scale by the Portuguese and Dutch, and
the supply of elephants kept up by periodical battues conducted at
the cost of the government, on a plan similar to that adopted on
the continent of India, when herds varying in number from twenty to
one hundred and upwards are driven into concealed enclosures and
secured.
In both these processes, success is entirely dependent on the
skill with which the captors turn to advantage the terror and
inexperience of the wild elephant, since all attempts would be
futile to subdue or confine by ordinary force an animal of such
strength and sagacity.1561
Knox describes with circumstantiality the mode adopted, two
centuries ago, by the servants of the King of Kandy to catch
elephants for the royal stud. He says, “After discovering the
retreat of such as have tusks, unto these they drive some she
elephants, which they bring with them for the purpose, which,
when once the males have got a sight of, they will never leave, but
follow them wheresoever they go; and the females are so used to it
that they will do whatsoever, either by word or a beck, their
keepers bid them. And so they delude them along through towns and
countries, and through the streets of the city, even to the very
gates of the king’s palace, where sometimes they seize upon them by
snares, and sometimes by driving them into a kind of pound, they
catch them.”1571
In Nepaul and Burmah, and throughout the Chin-Indian Peninsula,
when in pursuit of single elephants, either rogues detached
from the herd, or individuals [pg 158] who have been marked for
the beauty of their ivory, the natives avail themselves of the aid
of females in order to effect their approaches and secure an
opportunity of casting a noose over the foot of the destined
captive. All accounts concur in expressing high admiration of their
courage and address; but from what has fallen under my own
observation, added to the descriptions I have heard from other
eye-witnesses, I am inclined to believe that in such exploits the
Moormen of Ceylon evince a daring and adroitness, surpassing all
others.
These professional elephant catchers, or, as they are called,
Panickeas, inhabit the Moorish villages in the north and north-east
of the island, and from time immemorial have been engaged in taking
elephants, which are afterwards trained by Arabs, chiefly for the
use of the rajahs and native princes in the south of India, whose
vakeels are periodically despatched to make purchases in
Ceylon.
The ability evinced by these men in tracing elephants through
the woods has almost the certainty of instinct; and hence their
services are eagerly sought by the European sportsmen who go down
into their country in search of game. So keen is their glance, that
like hounds running “breast high” they will follow the course of an
elephant, almost at the top of their speed, over glades covered
with stunted grass, where the eye of a stranger would fail to
discover a trace of its passage, and on through forests strewn with
dry leaves, where it seems impossible to perceive a footstep. Here
they are guided by a bent or broken twig, or by a leaf dropped from
the animal’s mouth, on which the pressure of a tooth may be
detected. If at fault, they fetch a circuit like a setter, till
lighting on some fresh marks, [pg 159] they go a-head again
with renewed vigour. So delicate is the sense of smell in the
elephant, and so indispensable is it to go against the wind in
approaching him, that on those occasions when the wind is so still
that its direction cannot be otherwise discerned, the Panickeas
will suspend the film of a gossamer to determine it and shape their
course accordingly.
They are enabled by the inspection of the footmarks, when
impressed in soft clay, to describe the size as well as the number
of a herd before it is seen; the height of an elephant at the
shoulder being as nearly as possible twice the circumference of his
fore foot.1591
On overtaking the game their courage is as conspicuous as their
sagacity. If they have confidence in the sportsman for whom they
are finding, they will advance to the very heel of the elephant,
slap him on the quarter, and convert his timidity into anger, till
he turns upon his tormentor and exposes his front to receive the
bullet which is awaiting him.1592
So fearless and confident are they that two men, without aid or
attendants, will boldly attempt to capture the largest-sized
elephant. Their only weapon is a flexible rope made of elk’s or
buffalo’s hide, with which it is their object to secure one of the
hind legs. This they effect either by following in its footsteps
when in motion or by stealing close up to it when at rest, and
availing themselves of its well-known propensity at such moments to
swing the feet backwards and forwards, they contrive to slip a
noose over the hind leg.
At other times this is achieved by spreading the noose on the
ground partially concealed by roots and leaves beneath a tree on
which one of the party is stationed, whose business it is to lift
it suddenly by means of a cord, raising it on the elephant’s leg at
the moment when his companion has succeeded in provoking him to
place his foot within the circle, the other end having been
previously made fast to the stem of the tree. Should the noosing be
effected in open ground, and no tree of sufficient strength at hand
round which to wind the rope, one of the Moors, allowing himself to
be pursued by the enraged elephant, entices him towards the nearest
grove; where his companion, dexterously laying hold of the rope as
it trails along the ground, suddenly coils it round a suitable
stem, and brings the fugitive to a stand still. On finding himself
thus arrested, the natural impulse of the captive is to turn on the
man [pg
161] who is engaged in making fast the rope, a movement
which it is the duty of his colleague to present by running up
close to the elephant’s head and provoking the animal to confront
him by irritating gesticulations and taunting shouts of dah!
dah! a monosyllable, the sound of which the elephant peculiarly
dislikes. Meanwhile the first assailant, having secured one noose,
comes up from behind with another, with which, amidst the vain rage
and struggles of the victim, he entraps a fore leg, the rope being,
as before, secured to another tree in front, and the whole four
feet having been thus entangled, the capture is completed.
A shelter is then run up with branches, to protect their
prisoner from the sun, and the hunters proceed to build a wigwam
for themselves in front of him, kindling their fires for cooking,
and making all the necessary arrangements for remaining day and
night on the spot to await the process of subduing and taming his
rage. In my journeys through the forest I have come unexpectedly on
the halting place of adventurous hunters when thus engaged; and on
one occasion, about sunrise, in ascending the steep ridge from the
bed of the Malwatte river, the foremost rider of our party was
suddenly driven back by a furious elephant, which we found picketed
by two Panickeas on the crest of the bank. In such a position, the
elephant soon ceases to struggle; and what with the exhaustion of
rage and resistance, the terror of fire which he dreads, and the
constant annoyance of smoke which he detests, in a very short time,
a few weeks at the most, his spirit becomes subdued; and being
plentifully supplied with plantains and fresh food, and indulged
with water, in which he luxuriates, he grows so far reconciled to
his keepers [pg 162] that they at length venture to remove
him to their own village, or to the sea-side for shipment to
India.
No part of the hunter’s performances exhibits greater skill and
audacity than this first forced march of the recently captured
elephant from the great central forests to the sea-coast. As he is
still too morose to submit to be ridden, and as it would be equally
impossible to lead or to drive him by force, the ingenuity of the
captors is displayed in alternately irritating and eluding him, but
always so attracting his attention as to allure him along in the
direction in which they want him to go. Some assistance is derived
from the rope by which the original capture was effected, and
which, as it serves to make him safe at night, is never removed
from the leg till his taming is sufficiently advanced to permit of
his being entrusted with partial liberty.
In Ceylon the principal place for exporting these animals to
India is Manaar, on the western coast, to which the Arabs from the
continent resort, bringing with them horses to be bartered for
elephants. In order to reach the sea, open plains must be
traversed, across which it requires the utmost courage, agility,
and patience of the Moors to coax their reluctant charge. At Manaar
the elephants are usually detained till any wound on the leg caused
by the rope has been healed, when the shipment is effected in the
most primitive manner. It being next to impossible to induce the
still untamed creature to walk on board, and no mechanical
contrivances being provided to ship him; a dhoney, or native boat,
of about forty tons’ burthen, and about three parts filled with the
strong ribbed leaves of the Palmyra palm, is brought alongside the
quay in front of the Old Dutch Fort, and lashed so that the gunwale
[pg
163] may be as nearly as possible on a line with the level
of the wharf. The elephant being placed with his back to the water
is forced by goads to retreat till his hind legs go over the side
of the quay, but the main contest commences when it is attempted to
disengage his fore feet from the shore, and force him to entrust
himself on board. The scene becomes exciting from the screams and
trumpeting of the elephants, the shouts of the Arabs, the calls of
the Moors, and the rushing of the crowd. Meanwhile the huge
creature strains every nerve to regain the land; and the day is
often consumed before his efforts are overcome, and he finds
himself fairly afloat. The same dhoney will take from four to five
elephants, who place themselves athwart it, and exhibit amusing
adroitness in accommodating their movements to the rolling of the
little vessel; and in this way they are ferried across the narrow
strait which separates the continent of India from Ceylon.1631
But the feat of ensnaring and subduing a single elephant,
courageous as it is, and demonstrative of the supremacy with which
man wields his “dominion over every beast of the earth,” falls far
short of the daring [pg 164] exploit of capturing a whole herd:
when from thirty to one hundred wild elephants are entrapped in one
vast decoy. The mode of effecting this, as it is practised in
Ceylon, is no doubt imitated, but with considerable modifications,
from the methods prevalent in various parts of India. It was
introduced by the Portuguese, and continued by the Dutch, the
latter of whom had two elephant hunts in each year, and conducted
their operations on so large a scale, that the annual export after
supplying the government establishments, was from one hundred to
one hundred and fifty elephants, taken principally in the vicinity
of Matura, in the southern province, and marched for shipment to
Manaar.1641
The custom in Bengal is to construct a strong enclosure (called
a keddah), in the heart of the forest, formed of the trunks
of trees firmly secured by transverse beams and buttresses, and
leaving the gate for the entrance of the elephants. A second
enclosure, opening from the first, contains water (if possible a
rivulet): this, again, communicates with a third, which terminates
in a funnel-shaped passage, too narrow to admit of an elephant
turning, and within this the captives being driven in line, are
secured with ropes introduced from the outside, and led away in
custody of tame ones trained for the purpose.
The keddah being prepared, the first operation is to
drive the elephants towards it, for which purpose vast bodies of
men fetch a compass in the forest around the haunts of the herds,
contracting it by degrees, till they complete the enclosure of a
certain area, round [pg 165] which they kindle fires, and cut
footpaths through the jungle, to enable the watchers to communicate
and combine. All this is performed in cautious silence and by slow
approaches, to avoid alarming the herd. A fresh circle nearer to
the keddah is then formed in the same way, and into this the
elephants are admitted from the first one, the hunters following
from behind, and lighting new fires around the newly inclosed
space. Day after day the process is repeated; till the drove having
been brought sufficiently close to make the final rush, the whole
party close in from all sides, and with drums, guns, shouts, and
flambeaux, force the terrified animals to enter the fatal
enclosure, when the passage is barred behind them, and retreat
rendered impossible.
Their efforts to escape are repressed by the crowd, who drive
them back from the stockade with spears and flaming torches; and at
last compel them to pass on into the second enclosure. Here they
are detained for a short time, and their feverish exhaustion
relieved by free access to water;—until at last, being
tempted by food, or otherwise induced to trust themselves in the
narrow outlet, they are one after another made fast by ropes,
passed in through the palisade; and picketed in the adjoining woods
to enter on their course of systematic training.
These arrangements vary in different districts of Bengal; and
the method adopted in Ceylon differs in many essential particulars
from them all; the Keddah, or, as it is here called, the corral or
korahl1651
(from the [pg 166] Portuguese curral, a
“cattle-pen”), consists of but one enclosure instead of three. A
stream or watering-place is not uniformly enclosed within it,
because, although water is indispensable after the long thirst and
exhaustion of the captives, it has been found that a pond or
rivulet within the corral itself adds to the difficulty of leading
them out, and increases their reluctance to leave it; besides
which, the smaller ones are often smothered by the others in their
eagerness to crowd into the water. The funnel-shaped outlet is also
dispensed with, as the animals are liable to bruise and injure
themselves within the narrow stockade; and should one of them die
in it, as is too often the case in the midst of the struggle, the
difficulty of removing so great a carcase is extreme. The noosing
and securing them, therefore, takes place in Ceylon within the area
of the first enclosure into which they enter, and the dexterity and
daring displayed in this portion of the work far surpasses that of
merely attaching the rope through the openings of the paling, as in
an Indian keddah.
One result of this change in the system is manifested in the
increased proportion of healthy elephants which are eventually
secured and trained out of the number originally enclosed. The
reason of this is obvious: under the old arrangements, months were
consumed in the preparatory steps of surrounding and driving in the
herds, which at last arrived so wasted by excitement and exhausted
by privation that numbers died within the corral itself, and still
more died during the process of training. But in later years the
labour of months is reduced to weeks, and the elephants are driven
in fresh and full of vigour, so that comparatively few are lost
[pg
167] either in the enclosure or the stables. A conception of
the whole operation from commencement to end will be best conveyed
by describing the progress of an elephant corral as I witnessed it
in 1847 in the great forest on the banks of the Alligator River,
the Kimbul-oya, in the district of Kornegalle, about thirty miles
north-west of Kandy.
Kornegalle, or Kurunai-galle, was one of the ancient capitals of
the island, and the residence of its kings from A.D. 1319 to
1347.1671 The dwelling-house of the
principal civil officer in charge of the district now occupies the
site of the former palace, and the ground is strewn with fragments
of columns and carved stones, the remnants of the royal buildings.
The modern town consists of the bungalows of the European
officials, each surrounded with its own garden; two or three
streets inhabited by Dutch descendants and by Moors; and a native
bazaar, with the ordinary array of rice and curry stuffs and
cooking chattees of brass or burnt clay.
The charm of the village is the unusual beauty of its position.
It rests within the shade of an enormous rock of gneiss upwards of
600 feet in height, nearly denuded of verdure, and so rounded and
worn by time that it has acquired the form of a couchant elephant,
from which it derives its name of Ætagalla, the Rock of the
Tusker.1672 But Ætagalla is only the
last eminence in a range of similarly-formed rocky mountains, which
here terminate abruptly; and, which from the fantastic shapes into
which their gigantic outlines have been [pg 168]
wrought by the action of the atmosphere, are called by the names of
the Tortoise Rock, the Eel Rock, and the Rock of the Tusked
Elephant. So impressed are the Singhalese by the aspect of these
stupendous masses that in ancient grants lands are conveyed in
perpetuity, or “so long as the sun and the moon, so long as
Ætagalla and Andagalla shall endure.”1681
Kornegalle is the resort of Buddhists from the remotest parts of
the island, who come to visit an ancient temple on the summit of
the great rock, to which access is had from the valley below by
means of steep paths and steps hewn out of the solid stone. Here
the chief object of veneration is a copy of the sacred footstep
hollowed in the granite, similar to that which confers sanctity on
Adam’s Peak, the towering apex of which, about forty miles distant,
the pilgrims can discern from Ætagalla.
At times the heat at Kornegalle is intense, in consequence of
the perpetual glow diffused from these granite cliffs. The warmth
they acquire during the blaze of noon becomes almost intolerable
towards evening, and the sultry night is too short to permit them
to cool between the setting and the rising of the sun. The district
is also liable to occasional droughts when the watercourses fail,
and the tanks are dried up. One of these calamities occurred about
the period of my visit, and such was the suffering of the wild
animals that numbers of crocodiles and bears made their way
[pg
169] into the town to drink at the wells. The soil is
prolific in the extreme; rice, cotton, and dry grain are cultivated
largely in the valley. Every cottage is surrounded by gardens of
coco-nuts, arecas, jak-fruit and coffee; the slopes, under tillage,
are covered with luxuriant vegetation, and, as far as the eye can
reach on every side, there are dense forests intersected by
streams, in the shade of which the deer and the elephant
abound.
In 1847 arrangements were made for one of the great elephant
hunts for the supply of the Civil Engineer’s Department, and the
spot fixed on by Mr. Morris, the Government officer who conducted
the corral, was on the banks of the Kimbul river, about fifteen
miles from Kornegalle. The country over which we rode to the scene
of the approaching capture showed traces of the recent drought, the
fields lay to a great extent untilled, owing to the want of water,
and the tanks, almost reduced to dryness, were covered with the
leaves of the rose-coloured lotus.
Our cavalcade was as oriental as the scenery through which it
moved; the Governor and the officers of his staff and household
formed a long cortege, escorted by the native attendants,
horse-keepers, and foot-runners. The ladies were borne in
palankins, and the younger individuals of the party carried in
chairs raised on poles, and covered with cool green awnings made of
the fresh leaves of the talipat palm.
After traversing the cultivated lands, the path led across open
glades of park-like verdure and beauty, and at last entered the
great-forest under the shade of ancient trees wreathed to their
crowns with climbing plants and festooned by natural garlands of
convolvulus and orchids. Here silence reigned, disturbed only by
[pg
170] the murmuring hum of glittering insects, or the shrill
clamour of the plum-headed parroquet and the flute-like calls of
the golden oriole.
We crossed the broad sandy beds of two rivers over-arched by
tall trees, the most conspicuous of which is the Kombook1701, from the calcined bark of
which the natives extract a species of lime to be used with their
betel. And from the branches hung suspended over the water the
gigantic pods of the huge puswæl bean1702, the sheath of which measures
six feet long by five or six inches broad.
On ascending the steep bank of the second stream, we found
ourselves in front of the residences which had been extemporised
for our party in the immediate vicinity of the corral. These cool
and enjoyable structures were formed of branches and thatched with
palm leaves and fragrant lemon grass; and in addition to a
dining-room and suites of bedrooms fitted with tent furniture, they
included kitchens, stables, and storerooms, all run up by the
natives in the course of a few days.
In former times, the work connected with these elephant hunts
was performed by the “forced labour” of the natives, as part of
that feudal service which under the name of Raja-kariya was
extorted from the Singhalese during the rule of their native
sovereigns. This system was continued by the Portuguese and Dutch,
and prevailed under the British Government till its abolition by
the Earl of Ripon in 1832. Under it from fifteen hundred to two
thousand men superintended by their headmen, used to be occupied,
in constructing the [pg 171] corral, collecting the elephants,
maintaining the cordon of watch-fires and watchers, and conducting
all the laborious operations of the capture. Since the abolition of
Raja-kariya, however, no difficulty has been found in obtaining the
voluntary co-operation of the natives on these exciting occasions.
The government defrays the expense of that portion of the
preparations which involves actual cost,—for the skilled
labour expended in the erection of the corral and its
appurtenances, and the providing of spears, ropes, arms, flutes,
drums, gunpowder, and other necessaries for the occasion.
The period of the year selected is that which least interferes
with the cultivation of the rice-lands (in the interval between
seed time and harvest), and the people themselves, in addition to
the excitement and enjoyment of the sport, have a personal interest
in reducing the number of elephants, which inflict serious injury
on their gardens and growing crops. For a similar reason the
priests encourage the practice, because the elephants destroy their
sacred Bo-trees, of the leaves of which they are passionately fond;
besides which it promotes the facility for obtaining elephants for
the processions of the temples: and the Rata-mahat-mayas and
headmen have a pride in exhibiting the number of retainers who
follow them to the field, and the performances of the tame
elephants which they lend for the business of the corral. Thus vast
numbers of the peasantry are voluntarily occupied for many weeks in
putting up the stockades, cutting paths through the jungle, and
relieving the beaters who are engaged in surrounding and driving in
the elephants.
In selecting the scene for the hunt a position is chosen which
lies on some old and frequented route of the animals, [pg 172] in
their periodical migrations in search of forage and water; and the
vicinity of a stream is indispensable, not only for the supply of
the elephants during the time spent in inducing them to approach
the enclosure, but to enable them to bathe and cool themselves
throughout the process of training after capture.
GROUND PLAN OF A CORRAL, AND METHOD OF FENCING IT.In constructing the corral itself, care is taken to avoid
disturbing the trees or the brushwood within the included space,
and especially on the side by which the elephants are to approach,
where it is essential to conceal the stockade as much as possible
by the density of the foliage. The trees used in the structure are
from ten to twelve inches in diameter; and are sunk about three
feet in the earth, so as to leave a length of from twelve to
fifteen feet above ground; with spaces between each stanchion
sufficiently wide to permit a man to glide through. The uprights
are made fast by transverse beams, to which they are lashed
securely by ratans and flexible climbing plants, or as they are
called “jungle ropes,” and the whole is steadied by means of forked
[pg
173] supports, which grasp the tie beams, and prevent the
work from being driven outward by the rush of the wild
elephants.
On the occasion I am now attempting to describe, the space thus
enclosed was about 500 feet in length by 250 wide. At one end an
entrance was left open, fitted with sliding bars, so prepared as to
be capable of being instantly shut;—and from each angle of
the end by which the elephants were to approach, two lines of the
same strong fencing were continued, and cautiously concealed by the
trees; so that if, instead of entering by the open passage, the
herd should swerve to right, or left, they would find themselves
suddenly stopped and forced to retrace their course to the
gate.
The preparations were completed by placing a stage for the
Governor’s party on a group of the nearest trees looking down into
the enclosure, so that a view could be had of the entire
proceeding, from the entrance of the herd, to the leading out of
the captive elephants.
It is hardly necessary to observe that the structure here
described, massive as it is, would be entirely ineffectual to
resist the shock, if assaulted by the full force of an enraged
elephant; and accidents have sometimes happened by the breaking
through of the herd; but reliance is placed not so much on the
resistance of the stockade as on the timidity of the captives and
their unconsciousness of their own strength, coupled with the
daring of their captors and their devices for ensuring
submission.
The corral being prepared, the beaters address themselves to
drive in the elephants. For this purpose it is often necessary to
fetch a circuit of many miles in [pg 174] order to surround a
sufficient number, and the caution to be observed involves patience
and delay; as it is essential to avoid alarming the elephants,
which might otherwise escape. Their disposition being essentially
peaceful, and their only impulse to browse in solitude and
security, they withdraw instinctively before the slightest
intrusion, and advantage is taken of this timidity and love of
seclusion to cause only just such an amount of disturbance as will
induce them to return slowly in the direction which it is desired
they should take. Several herds are by this means concentrated
within such an area as will admit of their being completely
surrounded by the watchers; and day after day, by degrees, they are
moved gradually onwards to the immediate confines of the corral.
When their suspicions become awakened and they exhibit restlessness
and alarm, bolder measures are adopted for preventing their escape.
Fires are kept burning at ten paces apart, night and day, along the
circumference of the area within which they are detained; a corps
of from two to three thousand beaters is completed, and pathways
are carefully cleared through the jungle so as to keep open a
communication along the entire circuit. The headmen keep up a
constant patrol, to see that their followers are alert at their
posts, since neglect at any one spot might permit the escape of the
herd, and undo in a moment the vigilance of weeks. By this means
any attempt of the elephants to break away is generally checked,
and on any point threatened a sufficient force can be promptly
assembled to drive them back. At last the elephants are forced
onwards so close to the enclosure, that the investing cordon is
united at either end with the wings of the corral, the whole
forming a [pg 175] circle of about two miles, within the
area of which the herd is detained to await the signal for the
final drive.
Two months had been spent in these preliminaries, and the
preparations had been thus far completed, on the day when we
arrived and took our places on the stage erected for us,
overlooking the entrance to the corral. Close beneath us a group of
tame elephants sent by the temples and the chiefs to assist in
securing the wild ones, were picketed in the shade, and lazily
fanning themselves with leaves. Three distinct herds, whose united
numbers were variously represented at from forty to fifty
elephants, were enclosed, and were at that moment concealed in the
jungle within a short distance of the stockade. Not a sound was
permitted to be made, each person spoke to his neighbour in
whispers, and such was the silence observed by the multitude of the
watchers at their posts, that occasionally we could hear the
rustling of the branches as some of the elephants stripped off a
leaf.
Suddenly the signal was made, and the stillness of the forest
was broken by the shouts of the guard, the rolling of the drums and
tom-toms, and the discharge of muskets; and beginning at the most
distant side of the area, the elephants were urged forward at a
rapid pace towards the entrance into the corral.
The watchers along the line kept silence only till the herd had
passed them, and then joining the cry in their rear they drove them
onward with redoubled shouts and noises. The tumult increased as
the terrified rout drew near, swelling now on one side now on the
other, as the herd in their panic dashed from point to point in
their endeavours to force the line, but they were instantly driven
back by screams, muskets, and drums.
At length the breaking of the branches and the crackling of the
brushwood announced their close approach, and the leader bursting
from the jungle rushed wildly forward to within twenty yards of the
entrance followed by the rest of the herd. Another moment and they
would have plunged into the open gate, when suddenly they wheeled
round, re-entered the forest, and in spite of the hunters resumed
their original position. The chief headman came forward and
accounted for the freak by saying that a wild pig1761, an animal which the elephants
are said to dislike, had started out of the cover and run across
the leader, who would otherwise have held on direct for the corral;
and intimated that as the herd was now in the highest pitch of
excitement: and it was at all times much more difficult to effect a
successful capture by daylight than by night when the fires and
flambeaux act with double effect, it was the wish of the hunters to
defer their final effort till the evening, when the darkness would
greatly aid their exertions.
After sunset the scene exhibited was of extraordinary interest;
the low fires, which had apparently only smouldered in the
sunlight, assumed their ruddy glow amidst the darkness, and threw
their tinge over the groups collected round them; while the smoke
rose in eddies through the rich foliage of the trees. The crowds of
spectators maintained a profound silence, and not a sound was
perceptible beyond the hum of an insect. On a sudden the stillness
was broken by the distant roll of a drum, followed [pg 177] by a
discharge of musketry. This was the signal for the renewed assault,
and the hunters entered the circle with shouts and clamour; dry
leaves and sticks were flung upon the watch-fires till they blazed
aloft, and formed a line of flame on every side, except in the
direction of the corral, which was studiously kept dark; and
thither the terrified elephants betook themselves, followed by the
yells and racket of their pursuers.
The elephants approached at a rapid pace, trampling down the
brushwood and crushing the dry branches; the leader emerged in
front of the corral, paused for an instant, stared wildly round,
and then rushed headlong through the open gate, followed by the
rest of the herd. Instantly, as if by magic, the entire circuit of
the corral, which up to this moment had been kept in profound
darkness, blazed with thousands of lights, every hunter on the
instant that the elephants entered, rushing forward to the stockade
with a torch kindled at the nearest watch-fire.
The elephants first dashed to the very extremity of the
enclosure, and being brought up by the fence, retreated to regain
the gate, but found it closed. Their terror was sublime: they
hurried round the corral at a rapid pace, but saw it now girt by
fire on every side; they attempted to force the stockade, but were
driven back by the guards with spears and flambeaux; and on
whichever side they approached they were repulsed with shouts and
volleys of musketry. Collecting into one group, they would pause
for a moment in apparent bewilderment, then burst off in another
direction, as if it had suddenly occurred to them to try some point
which they had before overlooked; but again baffled, they
[pg
178] slowly returned to their forlorn resting-place in the
centre of the corral.
The attraction of this strange scene was not confined to the
spectators; it extended to the tame elephants which were stationed
outside. At the first approach of the flying herd they evinced the
utmost interest. Two in particular which were picketed near the
front were intensely excited, and continued tossing their heads,
pawing the ground, and starting as the noise drew near. At length,
when the grand rush into the corral took place, one of them fairly
burst from her fastenings and rushed towards the herd, levelling a
tree of considerable size which obstructed her passage.1781
For upwards of an hour the elephants continued to traverse the
corral and assail the palisade with unabated energy, trumpeting and
screaming with rage after each disappointment. Again and again they
attempted to force the gate, as if aware, by experience, that it
ought to afford an exit as it had already served as an entrance,
but they shrank back stunned and bewildered. By degrees their
efforts became less and less frequent. Single ones rushed excitedly
here and there, returning sullenly to their companions after each
effort; and at last the whole herd, stupified and exhausted, formed
themselves into a single group, drawn up in a circle with the young
[pg
179] in the centre, and stood motionless under the dark
shade of the trees in the middle of the corral.
Preparations were now made to keep watch during the night, the
guard was reinforced around the enclosure, and wood heaped on the
fires to keep up a high flame till sunrise.
Three herds had been originally entrapped by the beaters
outside; but with characteristic instinct they had each kept clear
of the other, taking up different stations in the space invested by
the watchers. When the final drive took place one herd only had
entered the enclosure, the other two keeping behind; and as the
gate had to be instantly shut on the first division, the last were
unavoidably excluded and remained concealed in the jungle. To
prevent their escape, the watchers were ordered to their former
stations, the fires were replenished; and all precautions having
been taken, we returned to pass the night in our bungalows by the
river.
Footnote 1561: (return)The device of taking them by means of pitfalls still prevails in
India: but in addition to the difficulty of providing against that
caution with which the elephant is supposed to reconnoitre
suspicious ground, it has the further disadvantage of exposing him
to injury from bruises and dislocations in his fall. Still it was
the mode of capture employed by the Singhalese, and so late as 1750
WOLF relates that the native chiefs of the Wanny, when capturing
elephants for the Dutch, made “pits some fathoms deep in those
places whither the elephant is wont to go in search of food, across
which were laid poles covered with branches and baited with the
food of which he is fondest, making towards which he finds himself
taken unawares. Thereafter being subdued by fright and exhaustion,
he was assisted to raise himself to the surface by means of hurdles
and earth, which he placed underfoot as they were thrown down to
him, till he was enabled to step out on solid ground, when the
noosers and decoys were in readiness to tie him up to the nearest
tree.”—See WOLF’S Life and Adventures, p. 152.
Shakspeare appears to have been acquainted with the plan of taking
elephants in pitfalls: Decius, encouraging the conspirators,
reminds them of Cæsar’s taste for anecdotes of animals, by
which he would undertake to lure him to his fate:“For he loves to hear
That unicorns may be betrayed with trees.
And bears with glasses; elephants with
holes.”JULIUS CÆSAR, Act ii. Scene I.
Footnote 1591: (return)Previous to the death of the female elephant in the Zoological
Gardens, in the Regent’s Park, in 1851, Mr. MITCHELL, the
Secretary, caused measurements to be accurately made, and found the
statement of the Singhalese hunters to be strictly correct, the
height at the shoulders being precisely twice the circumference of
the fore foot.
Footnote 1592: (return)Major SKINNER, the Chief Officer at the head of the Commission
of Roads, in Ceylon, in writing to me, mentions an anecdote
illustrative of the daring of the Panickeas. “I once saw,” he says,
“a very beautiful example of the confidence with which these
fellows, from their knowledge of the elephants, meet their worst
defiance. It was in Neuera-Kalawa; I was bivouacking on the bank of
a river, and had been kept out so late that I did not get to my
tent until between 9 and 10 at night. On our return towards it we
passed several single elephants making their way to the nearest
water, but at length we came upon a large herd that had taken
possession of the only road by which we could pass, and which no
intimidation would induce to move off. I had some Panickeas with
me; they knew the herd, and counselled extreme caution. After
trying every device we could think of for a length of time, a
little old Moorman of the party came to me and requested we should
all retire to a distance. He then took a couple of chules
(flambeaux of dried wood, or coco-nut leaves), one in each hand,
and waving them above his head till they flamed out fiercely, he
advanced at a deliberate pace to within a few yards of the elephant
who was acting as leader of the party, and who was growling and
trumpeting in his rage, and flourished the flaming torches in his
face. The effect was instantaneous: the whole herd dashed away in a
panic, bellowing, screaming, and crushing through the underwood,
whilst we availed ourselves of the open path to make our way to our
tents.”
Footnote 1631: (return)In the Philosophical Transactions for 1701, there is “An
Account of the taking of Elephants in Ceylon, by Mr. STRACHAN, a
Physician who lived seventeen years there,” in which the author
describes the manner in which they were shipped by the Dutch, at
Matura, Galle, and Negombo. A piece of strong sail-cloth having
been wrapped round the elephant’s chest and stomach, he was forced
into the sea between two tame ones, and there made fast to a boat.
The tame ones then returned to land, and he swam after the boat to
the ship, where tackle was reeved to the sail-cloth, and he was
hoisted on board.“But a better way has been invented lately,” says Mr. Strachan;
“a large flat-bottomed vessel is prepared, covered with planks like
a floor; so that this floor is almost of a height with the key.
Then the sides of the key and the vessel are adorned with green
branches, so that the elephant sees no water till he is in the
ship.”—Phil. Trans., vol. xxiii. No. 227, p. 1051.
Footnote 1651: (return)It is thus spelled by WOLF, in his Life and Adventures,
p. 144. Corral is at the present day a household word in
South America, and especially in La Plata, to designate an
enclosure for cattle.
Footnote 1672: (return)Another enormous mass of gneiss is called the Kuruminiagalla, or
the Beetle-rock, from its resemblance in shape to the back of that
insect, and hence is said to have been derived the name of the
town, Kuruna-galle or Kornegalle.
Footnote 1681: (return)FORBES quotes a Tamil conveyance of land, the purchaser of which
is to “possess and enjoy it as long as the sun and the moon, the
earth and its vegetables, the mountains and the River Cauvery
exist.”—Oriental Memoirs, vol. ii. chap. ii. It will
not fail to be observed, that the same figure was employed in
Hebrew literature as a type of duration—” They shall fear
thee, so long as the sun and moon endure; throughout all
generations.”—Psalm lxxii. 5, 17.
Footnote 1761: (return)Fire, the sound of a horn, and the grunting of a boar are the
three things which the Greeks, in the middle ages, believed the
elephant specially to dislike:[Greek:
Pyr de ptoeitai kai krion kerasphoron,
Kai tôn moniôn tên boên
tên athroan.]—PHILE, Expositio de Elephante, 1.
177.
Footnote 1781: (return)The other elephant, a fine tusker, which belonged to Dehigam
Ratamahatmeya, continued in extreme excitement throughout all the
subsequent operations of the capture, and at last, after attempting
to break its way into the corral, shaking the bars with its
forehead and tusks, it went off in a state of frenzy into the
jungle. A few days after the Aratchy went in search of it with a
female decoy, and watching its approach, sprang fairly on the
infuriated beast, with a pair of sharp hooks in his hands, which he
pressed into tender parts in front of the shoulder, and thus held
the elephant firmly till chains were passed over its legs, and it
permitted itself to be led quietly away.
CHAP. VI.
THE ELEPHANT.
The Captives.
As our sleeping-place was not above two hundred yards from the
corral, we were frequently awakened by the din of the multitude who
were bivouacking in the forest, by the merriment round the
watch-fires, and now and then by the shouts with which the guards
repulsed some sudden charge of the elephants in attempts to force
the stockade. But at daybreak, on going down to the corral, we
found all still and vigilant. The fires were allowed to die out as
the sun rose, and the watchers who had been relieved were sleeping
near the great fence, the enclosure on all sides being surrounded
by crowds of men and boys with spears or white peeled wands about
ten feet long, whilst the elephants within were huddled together in
a compact group, no longer turbulent and restless, but exhausted
and calm, and utterly subdued by apprehension and amazement at all
that had been passing around them.
Nine only had been as yet entrapped1801,
of which [pg 181] three were very large, and two were
little creatures but a few months old. One of the large ones was a
“rogue” and being unassociated with the rest of the herd, he was
not admitted to their circle, although permitted to stand near
them.
Meanwhile, preparations were making outside to conduct the tame
elephants into the corral, in order to secure the captives. Noosed
ropes were in readiness; and far apart from all stood a party of
the out-caste Rodiyas, the only tribe who will touch a dead
carcase, to whom, therefore, the duty is assigned of preparing the
fine flexible rope for noosing, which is made from the fresh hides
of the deer and the buffalo.
At length, the bars which secured the entrance to the corral
were cautiously withdrawn, and two trained elephants passed
stealthily in, each ridden by its mahout (or ponnekella, as
the keeper is termed in Ceylon), and one attendant; and, carrying a
strong collar, formed by coils of rope made from coco-nut fibre,
from which hung on either side cords of elk’s hide, prepared with a
ready noose. Along with these, and concealed behind them, the
headman of the “cooroowe,” or noosers, crept in, eager to
secure the honour of taking the first elephant, a distinction which
this class jealously contests with the mahouts of the chiefs and
temples. He was a wiry little man, nearly seventy years old, who
had served in the same capacity under the Kandyan king, and wore
two silver bangles, which had been conferred on him in testimony of
his prowess. He was accompanied by his son, named Ranghanie,
equally renowned for his courage and dexterity.
On this occasion ten tame elephants were in attendance; two were
the property of an adjoining temple [pg 182] (one of which had been
caught but the year before, yet it was now ready to assist in
capturing others), four belonged to the neighbouring chiefs, and
the rest, including the two which first entered the corral, were
part of the Government stud. Of the latter, one was of prodigious
age, having been in the service of the Dutch and English
Governments in succession for upwards of a century.1821 The other, called by her keeper
“Siribeddi,” was about fifty years old, and distinguished for
gentleness and docility. She was a most accomplished decoy, and
evinced the utmost relish for the sport. Having entered the corral
noiselessly, carrying a mahout on her shoulders with the headman of
the noosers seated behind him, she moved slowly along with a sly
composure and an assumed air of easy indifference; sauntering
leisurely in the direction of the captives, and halting now and
then to pluck a bunch of grass or a few leaves as she passed. As
she approached the herd, they put themselves in motion to meet her,
and the leader, having advanced in front and passed his trunk
gently over her head, turned and paced slowly back to his dejected
companions. Siribeddi followed with the same listless step, and
drew herself up close behind him, thus affording the nooser an
opportunity to stoop under her and slip the noose over the hind
foot of the wild one. The latter instantly perceived his danger,
shook off the rope, and turned to attack the man. He would have
suffered for his temerity had not Siribeddi protected him by
raising her trunk and driving the assailant into the midst of the
herd, when the old man, being slightly [pg 183]
wounded, was helped out of the corral, and his son, Ranghanie, took
his place.
The herd again collected in a circle, with their heads towards
the centre. The largest male was singled out, and two tame ones
pushed boldly in, one on either side of him, till the three stood
nearly abreast. He made no resistance, but betrayed his uneasiness
by shifting restlessly from foot to foot. Ranghanie now crept up,
and, holding the rope open with both hands (its other extremity
being made fast to Siribeddi’s collar), and watching the instant
when the wild elephant lifted its hind-foot, succeeded in passing
the noose over its leg, drew it close, and fled to the rear. The
two tame elephants instantly fell back, Siribeddi stretched the
rope to its full length, and, whilst she dragged out the captive,
her companion placed himself between her and the herd to prevent
any interference.
In order to tie him to a tree he had to be drawn backwards some
twenty or thirty yards, making furious resistance, bellowing in
terror, plunging on all sides, and crushing the smaller timber,
which bent like reeds beneath his clumsy struggles. Siribeddi drew
him steadily after her, and wound the rope round the proper tree,
holding it all the time at its full tension, and stepping
cautiously across it when, in order to give it a second turn, it
was necessary to pass between the tree and the elephant. With a
coil round the stem, however, it was beyond her strength to haul
the prisoner close up, which was, nevertheless, necessary in order
to make him perfectly fast; but the second tame one, perceiving the
difficulty, returned from the herd, confronted the struggling
prisoner, pushed him shoulder to shoulder, and head to head,
forcing him backwards, whilst at [pg 184] every step Siribeddi
hauled in the slackened rope till she brought him fairly up to the
foot of the tree, where he was made fast by the cooroowe people. A
second noose was then passed over the other hind-leg, and secured
like the first, both legs being afterwards hobbled together by
ropes made from the fibre of the kitool or jaggery palm, which,
being more flexible than that of the coco-nut, occasions less
formidable ulcerations. The two decoys then ranged themselves, as
before, abreast of the prisoner on either side, thus enabling
Ranghanie to stoop under them and noose the two fore-feet as he had
already done the hind; and these ropes being made fast to a tree in
front, the capture was complete, and the tame elephants and keepers
withdrew to repeat the operation on another of the herd.
As long as the tame ones stood beside him the poor animal
remained comparatively calm and almost passive under his distress,
but the moment they moved off, and he was left utterly alone, he
made the most surprising efforts to set himself free and rejoin his
companions. He felt the ropes with his trunk and tried to untie the
numerous knots; he drew backwards to liberate his fore-legs, then
leaned forward to extricate the hind ones, till every branch of the
tall tree vibrated with his struggles. He screamed in anguish, with
his proboscis raised high in the air, then falling on his side he
laid his head to the ground, first his cheek and then his brow, and
pressed down his doubled-in trunk as though he would force it into
the earth; then suddenly rising he balanced himself on his forehead
and forelegs, holding his hind-feet fairly off the ground. This
scene of distress continued some hours, with occasional pauses of
apparent stupor, after which the struggle was from time to time
renewed convulsively, and as if by [pg 186] some sudden impulse; but
at last the vain strife subsided, and the poor animal remained
perfectly motionless, the image of exhaustion and despair.
Meanwhile Ranghanie presented himself in front of the governor’s
stage to claim the accustomed largesse for tying the first
elephant. He was rewarded by a shower of rupees, and retired to
resume his perilous duties in the corral.
The rest of the herd were now in a state of pitiable dejection,
and pressed closely together as if under a sense of common
misfortune. For the most part they stood at rest in a compact body,
fretful and uneasy. At intervals one more impatient than the rest
would move out a few steps to reconnoitre; the others would follow
at first slowly, then at a quicker pace, and at last the whole herd
would rush off furiously to renew the often-baffled attempt to
storm the stockade.
There was a strange combination of the sublime and the
ridiculous in these abortive onsets; the appearance of prodigious
power in their ponderous limbs, coupled with the almost ludicrous
shuffle of their clumsy gait, and the fury of their apparently
resistless charge, converted in an instant into timid retreat. They
rushed madly down the enclosure, their backs arched, their tails
extended, their ears spread, and their trunks raised high above
their heads, trumpeting and uttering shrill screams, yet when one
step further would have dashed the opposing fence into fragments,
they stopped short on a few white rods being pointed at them
through the paling1861;
and, on catching the derisive shouts of the
crowd, they turned in utter discomfiture, and after an
objectless circle or two through the corral, they paced slowly back
to their melancholy halting place in the shade.
The crowd, chiefly comprised of young men and boys, exhibited
astonishing nerve and composure at such moments, rushing up to the
point towards which the elephants charged, pointing their wands at
their trunks, and keeping up the continual cry of whoop!
whoop! which invariably turned them to flight.
The second victim singled out from the herd was secured in the
same manner as the first. It was a female. The tame ones forced
themselves in on either side as before, cutting her off from her
companions, whilst Ranghanie stooped under them and attached the
fatal noose, and Siribeddi dragged her out amidst unavailing
struggles, when she was made fast by each leg to the nearest group
of strong trees. When the noose was placed upon her fore-foot, she
seized it with her trunk, and succeeded in carrying it to her
mouth, where she would speedily have severed it had not a tame
elephant interfered, and placing his foot on the rope pressed it
downwards out of her jaws. The individuals who acted as leaders in
the successive charges on the palisades were always those selected
by the noosers, and the operation of tying each, from the first
approaches of the decoys, till the captive was left alone by the
tree, occupied on an average somewhat less than three-quarters of
an hour.
It is strange that in these encounters the wild elephants
[pg
188] made no attempt to attack or dislodge the mahouts or
the cooroowes, who rode on the tame ones. They moved in the very
midst of the herd, any individual in which could in a moment have
pulled the riders from their seats; but no effort was made to
molest them.1881
As one after another their leaders wore entrapped and forced
away from them, the remainder of the group [pg 189]
evinced increased emotion and excitement; but whatever may have
been their sympathy for their lost companions, their alarm seemed
to prevent them at first from following them to the trees to which
they had been tied. In passing them afterwards they sometimes
stopped, mutually entwined their trunks, lapped them round each
other’s limbs and neck, and exhibited the most touching distress at
their detention, but made no attempt to disturb the cords that
bound them.
The variety of disposition in the herd as evidenced by
difference of demeanour was very remarkable: some submitted with
comparatively little resistance; whilst others in their fury dashed
themselves on the ground with a force sufficient to destroy any
weaker [pg
190] animal. They vented their rage upon every tree and
plant within reach; if small enough to be torn down, they levelled
them with their trunks, and stripping them of their leaves and
branches, they tossed them wildly over their heads on all sides.
Some in their struggles made no sound, whilst others bellowed and
trumpeted furiously, then uttered short convulsive screams, and at
last, exhausted and hopeless, gave vent to their anguish in low and
piteous moanings. Some, after a few violent efforts of this kind,
lay motionless on the ground, with no other indication of suffering
than the tears which suffused their eyes and flowed incessantly.
Others in all the vigour of their rage exhibited the most
surprising contortions; and to us who had been accustomed to
associate with the unwieldy bulk of the elephant the idea that he
must of necessity be stiff and inflexible, the attitudes into which
they forced themselves were almost incredible. I saw one lie with
the cheek pressed to the earth, and the fore-legs stretched in
front, whilst the body was twisted round till the hind-legs
extended in the opposite direction.
It was astonishing that their trunks were not wounded by the
violence with which they flung them on all sides. One twisted his
proboscis into such fantastic shapes, that it resembled the
writhings of a gigantic worm; he coiled it and uncoiled it with
restless rapidity, curling it up like a watch-spring, and suddenly
unfolding it again to its full length. Another, which lay otherwise
motionless in all the stupor of hopeless anguish, slowly beat the
ground with the extremity of his trunk, as a man in despair beats
his knee with the palm of his hand.
They displayed an amount of sensitiveness and delicacy of touch
in the foot, which was very remarkable [pg 191] in a
limb of such clumsy dimensions and protected by so thick a
covering. The noosers could always force them to lift it from the
ground by the gentlest touch of a leaf or twig, apparently applied
so as to tickle; but the imposition of the rope was instantaneously
perceived, and if it could not be reached by the trunk the other
foot was applied to feel its position, and if possible remove it
before the noose could be drawn tight.
One practice was incessant with almost the entire herd: in the
interval between their struggles they beat the ground with their
fore feet, and taking up the dry earth in a coil of the trunk, they
flung it dexterously over every part of their body. Even when lying
down, the sand within reach was thus collected and scattered over
their limbs: then inserting the extremity of the trunk in their
mouths, they withdrew a quantity of water, which they discharged
over their backs, repeating the operation again and again, till the
dust was thoroughly saturated. I was astonished at the quantity of
water thus applied, which was sufficient when the elephant, as was
generally the case, had worked the spot where he lay into a hollow,
to convert its surface into a coating of mud. Seeing that the herd
had been now twenty-four hours without access to water of any kind,
surrounded by watch-fires, and exhausted by struggling and terror,
the supply of moisture an elephant is capable of containing in the
receptacle attached to his stomach must be very considerable.
The conduct of the tame ones during all these proceedings was
truly wonderful. They displayed the most perfect conception of
every movement, both of the object to be attained, and of the means
to accomplish it.
They manifested the utmost enjoyment in what was going on. There
was no ill-humour, no malignity in the spirit displayed, in what
was otherwise a heartless proceeding, but they set about it in a
way that showed a thorough relish for it, as an agreeable pastime.
Their caution was as remarkable as their sagacity; there was no
hurrying, no contusion, they never ran foul of the ropes, were
never in the way of the animals already noosed; and amidst the most
violent struggles, when the tame ones had frequently to step across
the captives, they in no instance trampled on them, or occasioned
the slightest accident or annoyance. So far from this, they saw
intuitively a difficulty or a danger, and addressed themselves
unbidden to remove it. In tying up one of the larger elephants, he
contrived before he could be hauled close up to the tree, to walk
once or twice round it, carrying the rope with him; the decoy,
perceiving the advantage he had thus gained over the nooser, walked
up of her own accord, and pushed him backwards with her head, till
she made him unwind himself again; upon which the rope was hauled
tight and made fast. More than once, when a wild one was extending
his trunk, and would have intercepted the rope about to be placed
over his leg, Siribeddi, by a sudden motion of her own trunk,
pushed his aside, and prevented him; and on one occasion, when
successive efforts had failed to put the noose over the fore-leg of
an elephant which was already secured by one foot, but which wisely
put the other to the ground as often as it was attempted to pass
the noose under it, I saw the decoy watch her opportunity, and when
his foot was again raised, suddenly push in her own leg beneath it,
and hold it up till the noose was attached and drawn tight.
One could almost fancy there was a display of dry humour in the
manner in which the decoys thus played with the fears of the wild
herd, and made light of their efforts at resistance. When reluctant
they shoved them forward, when violent they drove them back; when
the wild ones threw themselves down, the tame ones butted them with
head and shoulders, and forced them up again. And when it was
necessary to keep them down, they knelt upon them, and prevented
them from rising, till the ropes were secured.
At every moment of leisure they fanned themselves with a bunch
of leaves, and the graceful ease with which an elephant uses his
trunk on such occasions is very striking. It is doubtless owing to
the combination of a circular with a horizontal movement in that
flexible limb; but it is impossible to see an elephant fanning
himself without being struck by the singular elegance of motion
which he displays. The tame ones, too, indulged in the luxury of
dusting themselves with sand, by flinging it from their trunks; but
it was a curious illustration of their delicate sagacity, that so
long as the mahout was on their necks, they confined themselves to
flinging the dust along their sides and stomach, as if aware, that
to throw it over their heads and back would cause annoyance to
their riders.
One of the decoys which rendered good service, and was obviously
held in special awe by the wild herd, was a tusker belonging to
Dehigame Rata-mahatmeya. It was not that he used his tusks for
purposes of offence, but he was enabled to insinuate himself
between two elephants by wedging them in where he could not force
his head; besides which they assisted him in raising up the fallen
and refractory with greater ease. In some [pg 194]
instances where the intervention of the other decoys failed to
reduce a wild one to order, the mere presence and approach of the
tusker seemed to inspire fear, and insure submission, without more
active intervention.
I do not know whether it was the surprising qualities exhibited
by the tame elephants that cast the courage and dexterity of the
men into the shade, but even when supported by the presence, the
sagacity, and co-operation of these wonderful creatures, the part
sustained by the noosers can bear no comparison with the address
and daring displayed by the pícador and
matador in a Spanish bull-fight. They certainly possessed
great quickness of eye in watching the slightest movement of the
elephant, and great expertness in flinging the noose over its foot
and attaching it firmly before the animal could tear it off with
its trunk; but in all this they had the cover of the decoys to
conceal them; and their shelter behind which to retreat. Apart from
the services which, from their prodigious strength, the tame
elephants are alone capable of rendering, in dragging out and
securing the captives, it is perfectly obvious that without their
co-operation the utmost prowess and dexterity of the hunters would
not avail them, unsupported, to enter the corral and ensnare and
lead out a single captive.
Of the two tiny elephants which were entrapped, one was about
ten months old, the other somewhat more. The smaller one had a
little bolt head covered with woolly brown hair, and was the most
amusing and interesting miniature imaginable. Both kept constantly
with the herd, trotting after them in every charge; when the others
stood at rest they ran in and out between the legs of the older
ones; and not their own mothers alone, but every female in the
group caressed them in turn.
The dam of the youngest was the second elephant singled out by
the noosers, and as she was dragged along by the decoys, the little
creature kept by her side till she was drawn close to the fatal
tree. The men at first were rather amused than otherwise by its
anger; but they found that it would not permit them to place the
second noose upon its mother; it ran between her and them, it tried
to seize the rope, it pushed them and struck them with its little
trunk, till they were forced to drive it back to the herd. It
retreated slowly, shouting all the way, and pausing at every step
to look back. It then attached itself to the largest female
remaining in the group, and placed itself across her forelegs,
whilst she hung down her trunk over its side and soothed and
caressed it. Here it continued moaning and lamenting; till the
noosers had left off securing its mother, when it instantly
returned to her side; but as it became troublesome again, attacking
every one who passed, it was at last tied up by a rope to an
adjoining tree, to which the other young one was also tied. The
second little one, equally with its playmate, exhibited great
affection for its dam; it went willingly with its captor as far as
the tree to which she was fastened, and in passing her stretched
out its trunk and tried to rejoin her; but finding itself forced
along, it caught at every twig and branch within its reach, and
screamed with grief and disappointment.
These two little creatures were the most vociferous of the whole
herd, their shouts were incessant, they struggled to attack every
one within reach; and as their bodies were more lithe and pliant
than those of greater growth, their contortions were quite
wonderful. The most amusing thing was, that in the midst of all
their [pg
196] agony and affliction, the little fellows seized on
every article of food that was thrown to them, and ate and roared
simultaneously.
Amongst the last of the elephants noosed was the rogue. Though
far more savage than the others, he joined in none of their charges
and assaults on the fences, as they uniformly drove him off and
would not permit him to enter their circle. When dragged past
another of his companions in misfortune, who was lying exhausted on
the ground, he flew upon him and attempted to fasten his teeth in
his head; this was the only instance of viciousness which occurred
during the progress of the corral. When tied up and overpowered, he
was at first noisy and violent, but soon lay down peacefully, a
sign, according to the hunters, that his death was at hand. Their
prognostication was correct; he continued for about twelve hours to
cover himself with dust like the others, and to moisten it with
water from his trunk; but at length he lay exhausted, and died so
calmly, that having been moving but a few moment before, his death
was only perceived by the myriads of black flies by which his body
was almost instantly covered, although not one was visible a moment
before.1961 The Rodiyas were called
[pg
197] in to loose the ropes that bound him, from the tree,
and two tame elephants being harnessed to the dead body, it was
dragged to a distance without the corral.
When every wild elephant had been noosed and tied up, the scene
presented was truly oriental. From one to two thousand natives,
many of them in gaudy dresses and armed with spears, crowded about
the enclosures. Their [pg 198] families had collected to see the
spectacle; women, whose children clung like little bronzed Cupids
by their sides; and girls, many of them in the graceful costume of
that part of the country,—a scarf, which, after having been
brought round the waist, is thrown over the left shoulder, leaving
the right arm and side free and uncovered.
At the foot of each tree was its captive elephant; some still
struggling and writhing in feverish excitement, whilst others, in
exhaustion and despair, lay motionless, except that, from time to
time, they heaped fresh dust upon their heads. The mellow notes of
a Kandyan flute, which was played at a distance, had a striking
effect upon one or more of them; they turned their heads in the
direction from which the music came, expanded their broad ears, and
were evidently soothed with the plaintive sound. The two young ones
alone still roared for freedom; they stamped their feet, and blew
clouds of dust over their shoulders, brandishing their little
trunks aloft, and attacking every one who came within their
reach.
At first the older ones, when secured, spurned every offer of
food, trampled it under foot, and turned haughtily away. A few,
however, as they became more composed, could not resist the
temptation of the juicy stems of the plantain, but rolling them
under foot, till they detached the layers, they raised them in
their trunks, and commenced chewing listlessly.
On the whole, whilst the sagacity, the composure, and docility
of the decoys were such as to excite lively astonishment, it was
not possible to withhold the highest admiration from the calm and
dignified demeanour of the captives. Their entire bearing was at
variance with [pg 199] the representation made by some of
the “sportsmen” who harass them, that they are treacherous, savage,
and revengeful; when tormented by the guns of their persecutors,
they, no doubt, display their powers and sagacity in efforts to
retaliate or escape; but here their every movement was indicative
of innocence and timidity. After a struggle, in which they evinced
no disposition to violence or revenge, they submitted with the
calmness of despair. Their attitudes were pitiable, their grief was
most touching, and their low moaning went to the heart. We could
not have borne to witness their distress had their capture been
effected by the needless infliction of pain, or had they been
destined to ill-treatment afterwards.
It was now about two hours after noon, and the first elephants
that had entered the corral having been disposed of, preparations
were made to reopen the gate, and drive in the other two herds,
over which the watchers were still keeping guard. The area of the
enclosure was cleared; and silence was again imposed on the crowds
who surrounded the corral. The bars that secured the entrance were
withdrawn and every precaution repeated as before; but as the space
inside was now somewhat trodden down, especially near the entrance,
by the frequent charges of the last herd, and as it was to be
apprehended that the others might be earlier alarmed and retrace
their steps, before the barricades could be replaced, two tame ones
were stationed inside to protect the men to whom that duty was
assigned.
All preliminaries being at length completed, the signal was
given; the beaters on the side most distant from the corral closed
in with tom-toms and discordant noises; a hedge-fire of musketry
was kept up in the [pg 200] rear of the terrified elephants;
thousands of voices urged them forward; we heard the jungle
crashing as they came on, and at last they advanced through an
opening amongst the trees, bearing down all before them like a
charge of locomotives. They were led by a huge female, nearly nine
feet high, after whom one half of the herd dashed precipitately
through the narrow entrance, but the rest turning suddenly towards
the left, succeeded in forcing the cordon of guards and making good
their escape to the forest.
No sooner had the others passed the gate, than the two tame
elephants stepped forward from either side, and before the herd
could return from the further end of the enclosure, the bars were
drawn, the entrance closed, and the men in charge glided outside
the stockade. The elephants which had previously been made
prisoners within exhibited intense excitement as the fresh din
arose around them; they started to their feet, and stretched their
trunks in the direction whence they winded the scent of the herd in
its headlong flight; and as the latter rushed past, they renewed
their struggles to get free and follow. It is not possible to
imagine anything more exciting than the spectacle which the wild
ones presented careering round the corral, uttering piercing
screams, their heads erect and trunks aloft, the very emblems of
rage and perplexity, of power and helplessness.
Along with those which entered at the second drive was one that
evidently belonged to another herd, and had been separated from
them in the mêlée when the latter effected
their escape, and, as usual, his new companions in misfortune drove
him off indignantly as often as he attempted to approach them.
The demeanour of those taken in the second drive differed
materially from that of the preceding captives, who, having entered
the corral in darkness, to find themselves girt with fire and
smoke, and beset by hideous sounds and sights on every side, were
speedily reduced by fear to stupor and submission—whereas,
the second herd having passed into the enclosure by daylight, and
its area being trodden down in many places, could clearly discover
the fences, and were consequently more alarmed and enraged at their
confinement. They were thus as restless as the others had been
calm, and so much more vigorous in their assaults that, on one
occasion, their courageous leader, undaunted by the multitude of
white wands thrust towards her, was only driven back from the
stockade by a hunter hurling a blazing flambeau at her head. Her
attitude as she stood repulsed, but still irresolute, was a study
for a painter. Her eye dilated, her ears expanded, her back arched
like a tiger, and her fore-foot in air, whilst she uttered those
hideous screams that are imperfectly described by the term
“trumpeting.”
Although repeatedly passing by the unfortunates from the former
drove, the new herd seemed to take no friendly notice of them; they
halted inquiringly for a minute, and then resumed their career
round the corral, and once or twice in their headlong flight they
rushed madly over the bodies of the prostrate captives as they lay
in their misery on the ground.
It was evening before the new captives had grown wearied with
their furious and repeated charges, and stood still in the centre
of the corral collected into a terrified and motionless group. The
fires were then relighted, the guard redoubled by the addition of
the watchers, [pg 202] who were now relieved from duty in
the forest, and the spectators retired to their bungalows for the
night.
The business of the third day began by noosing and tying
up the new captives, and the first sought out was their magnificent
leader. Siribeddi and the tame tusker having forced themselves on
either side of her, a boy in the service of the Rata-Mahatmeya
succeeded in attaching a rope to her hind-foot. Siribeddi moved
off, but feeling her strength insufficient to drag the reluctant
prize, she went down on her fore-knees, so as to add the full
weight of her body to the pull. The tusker, seeing her difficulty,
placed himself in front of the prisoner, and forced her backwards,
step by step, till his companion, brought her fairly up to the
tree, and wound the rope round the stem. Though overpowered by
fear, she showed the fullest sense of the nature of the danger she
had to apprehend. She kept her head turned towards the noosers, and
tried to step in advance of the decoys; in spite of all their
efforts, she tore off the first noose from her fore-leg, and
placing it under her foot, snapped it into fathom lengths. When
finally secured, her writhings were extraordinary. She doubled in
her head under her chest, till she lay as round as a hedgehog, and
rising again, stood on her fore-feet, and lifting her hind-feet off
the ground, she wrung them from side to side, till the great tree
above her quivered in every branch.
Before proceeding to catch the others, we requested that the
smaller trees and jungle, which partially obstructed our view,
might be broken away, being no longer essential to screen the
entrance to the corral; and five of the tame elephants were brought
up for the purpose. They felt the strength of each tree with their
trunks, [pg 203] then swaying it backwards and
forwards, by pushing it with their foreheads, they watched the
opportunity when it was in full swing to raise their fore-feet
against the stem, and bear it down to the ground. Then tearing off
the festoons of climbing plants, and trampling down the smaller
branches and brushwood, they pitched them with their tusks, piling
them into heaps along the side of the fence.
Amongst the last that was secured was the solitary individual
belonging to the fugitive herd. When they attempted to drag him
backwards from the tree near which he was noosed, he laid hold of
it with his trunk and lay down on his side immoveable. The temple
tusker and another were ordered up to assist, and it required the
combined efforts of the three elephants to [pg 204] force
him along. When dragged to the place at which he was to be tied up,
he continued the contest with desperation, and to prevent the
second noose being placed on his foot, he sat down on his haunches,
almost in the attitude of the “Florentine Boar,” keeping his
hind-feet beneath him, and defending his fore-feet with his trunk,
with which he flung back the rope as often as it was attempted to
attach it.
When overpowered and made fast, his grief was most affecting;
his violence sunk to utter prostration, and he lay on the ground,
uttering choking cries, with tears trickling down his cheeks.
The final operation was that of slackening the ropes, and
marching each captive down to the river between two tame ones. This
was effected very simply. A decoy, with a strong collar round its
neck, stood on either side of the wild one, on which a similar
collar was formed, by successive coils of coco-nut rope; and
[pg
205] then, connecting the three collars together, the
prisoner was effectually made safe between his two guards. During
this operation, it was curious to see how the tame elephant, from
time to time, used its trunk to shield the arm of its rider, and
ward off the trunk of the prisoner, who resisted the placing the
rope round his neck. This done, the nooses were removed from his
feet, and he was marched off to the river, in which he and his
companions were allowed to bathe; a privilege of which all availed
themselves eagerly. Each was then made fast to a tree in the
forest, and keepers being assigned to him, with a retinue of
leaf-cutters, he was plentifully supplied with his favourite food,
and left to the care and tuition of his new masters.
Returning from a spectacle such as I have attempted to describe,
one cannot help feeling how immeasurably it exceeds in interest
those royal battues where timid deer are driven in crowds to
unresisting slaughter; or those vaunted “wild sports” the amusement
of which appears to be in proportion to the effusion of blood. Here
the only display of power was the imposition of restraint; and
though considerable mortality often occurs amongst the animals
caught, the infliction of pain, so far from being an incident of
the operation, is most cautiously avoided from its tendency to
enrage, the policy of the captor being to conciliate and soothe.
The whole scene exhibits the most marvellous example of the
voluntary alliance of animal sagacity and instinct in active
co-operation with human intelligence and courage; and nothing else
in nature, not even the chase of the whale, can afford so vivid an
illustration of the sovereignty of man over brute creation even
when confronted with force in its most stupendous embodiment.
Of the two young elephants which were taken in the corral, the
smallest was sent down to my house at Colombo, where he became a
general favourite with the servants. He attached himself especially
to the coachman, who had a little shed erected for him near his own
quarters at the stables. But his favourite resort was the kitchen,
where he received a daily allowance of milk and plantains, and
picked up several other delicacies besides. He was innocent and
playful in the extreme, and when walking in the grounds he would
trot up to me, twine his little trunk round my arm, and coax me to
take him to the fruit-trees. In the evening the grass-cutters now
and then indulged him by permitting him to carry home a load of
fodder for the horses, on which occasions he assumed an air of
gravity that was highly amusing, showing that he was deeply
impressed with the importance and responsibility of the service
entrusted to him. Being sometimes permitted to enter the
dining-room, and helped to fruit at desert, he at last learned his
way to the side-board; and on more than one occasion having stolen
in, during the absence of the servants, he made a clear sweep of
the wine-glasses and china in his endeavours to reach a basket of
oranges. For these and similar pranks we were at last forced to put
him away. He was sent to the Government stud, where he was
affectionately received and adopted by Siribeddi, and he now takes
his turn of public duty in the department of the Commissioner of
Roads.
Footnote 1801: (return)In some of the elephant hunts conducted in the southern
provinces of Ceylon by the earlier British Governors, as many as
170 and 200 elephants were secured in a single corral, of which a
portion only were taken out for the public service, and the rest
shot, the motive being to rid the neighbourhood of them, and thus
protect the crops from destruction. In the present instance, the
object being to secure only as many as were required for the
Government stud, it was not sought to entrap more than could
conveniently be attended to and trained after capture.
Footnote 1821: (return)This elephant is since dead; she grew infirm and diseased, and
died at Colombo in 1848. Her skeleton is now in the Museum of the
Natural History Society at Belfast.
Footnote 1861: (return)The fact of the elephant exhibiting timidity, on having a long
rod pointed towards him, was known to the Romans; and PLINY,
quoting from the annals of PISO, relates, that in order to
inculcate contempt for want of courage in the elephant, they were
introduced into the circus during the triumph of METELLUS, after
the conquest of the Carthaginians in Sicily, and driven round
the area by workmen holding blunted spears,—”Ab operariis
hastas præpilatas habentibus, per circum totam
actos.”—Lib. viii. c. 6.
Footnote 1881: (return)“In a corral, to be on a tame elephant, seems to insure perfect
immunity from the attacks of the wild ones. I once saw the old
chief Mollegodde ride in amongst a herd of wild elephants, on a
small elephant; so small that the Adigar’s head was on a level the
back of the wild animals: I felt very nervous, but he rode right in
among them, and received not the slightest
molestation.”—Letter from MAJOR SKINNER.
Footnote 1961: (return)The surprising faculty of vultures for discovering carrion, has
been a subject of much speculation, as to whether it be dependent
on their power of sight or of scent. It is not, however, more
mysterious than the unerring certainty and rapidity with which some
of the minor animals, and more especially insects, in warm climates
congregate around the offal on which they feed. Circumstanced as
they are, they must be guided towards their object mainly if not
exclusively by the sense of smell; but that which excites
astonishment is the small degree of odour which seems to suffice
for the purpose; the subtlety and rapidity with which it traverses
and impregnates the air; and the keen and quick perception with
which it is taken up by the organs of those creatures. The instance
of the scavenger beetles has been already alluded to; the
promptitude with which they discern the existence of matter suited
to their purposes, and the speed with which they hurry to it from
all directions; often from distances as extraordinary,
proportionably, as those traversed by the eye of the vulture. In
the instance of the dying elephant referred to above, life was
barely extinct when the flies, of which not one was visible but a
moment before, arrived in clouds and blackened the body by their
multitude; scarcely an instant was allowed to elapse for the
commencement of decomposition; no odour of putrefaction could be
discerned by us who stood close by; yet some peculiar smell of
mortality, simultaneously with parting breath, must have summoned
them to the feast. Ants exhibit an instinct equally surprising. I
have sometimes covered up a particle of refined sugar with paper on
the centre of a polished table; and counted the number of minutes
which would elapse before it was fastened on by the small black
ants of Ceylon, and a line formed to lower it safely to the floor.
Here was a substance which, to our apprehension at least, is
altogether inodorous, and yet the quick sense of smell must have
been the only conductor of the ants. It has been observed of those
fishes which travel overland on the evaporation of the ponds in
which they live, that they invariably march in the direction of the
nearest water, and even when captured, and placed on the floor of a
room, their efforts to escape are always made towards the same
point. Is the sense of smell sufficient to account for this display
of instinct in them? or is it aided by special organs in the case
of the others? Dr. MCGEE, formerly of the Royal Navy, writing to me
on the subject of the instant appearance of flies in the vicinity
of dead bodies, says: “In warm climates they do not wait for death
to invite them to the banquet. In Jamaica I have again and again
seen them settle on a patient, and hardly to be driven away by the
nurse, the patient himself saying. ‘Here are these flies coming to
eat me ere I am dead.’ At times they have enabled the doctor, when
otherwise he would have been in doubt as to his prognosis, to
determine whether the strange apyretic interval occasionally
present in the last stage of yellow fever was the fatal lull or the
lull of recovery; and ‘What say the flies?’ has been the settling
question. Among many, many cases during a long period I have seen
but one recovery after the assembling of the flies. I consider the
foregoing as a confirmation of smell being the guide even to the
attendants, a cadaverous smell has been perceived to arise from the
body of a patient twenty-four hours before death.”
CHAP. VII.
THE ELEPHANT.
Conduct in Captivity.
The idea prevailed in ancient times, and obtains even at the
present day, that the Indian elephant surpasses that of Africa in
sagacity and tractability, and consequently in capacity for
training, so as to render its services more available to man. There
does not appear to me to be sufficient ground for this conclusion.
It originated, in all probability, in the first impressions created
by the accounts of the elephant brought back by the Greeks after
the Indian expedition of Alexander, and above all by the
descriptions of Aristotle, whose knowledge of the animal was
derived exclusively from the East. A long interval elapsed before
the elephant of Africa, and its capabilities, became known in
Europe. The first elephants brought to Greece by Antipater, were
from India, as were also those introduced by Pyrrhus into Italy.
Taught by this example, the Carthaginians undertook to employ
African elephants in war. Jugurtha led them against Metellus, and
Juba against Cæsar; but from inexperienced and deficient
training, they proved less effective than the elephants of
India2071, and the historians
[pg
208] of these times ascribed to inferiority of race, that
which was but the result of insufficient education.
It must, however, be remembered that the elephants which, at a
later period, astonished the Romans by their sagacity, and whose
performances in the amphitheatre have been described by Ælian
and Pliny, were brought from Africa, and acquired their
accomplishments from European instructors2081; a sufficient proof that under
equally favourable auspices the African species are capable of
developing similar docility and powers with those of India. It is
one of the facts from which the inferiority of the Negro race has
been inferred, that they alone, of all the nations amongst whom the
elephant is found, have never manifested ability to domesticate it;
and even as regards the more highly developed races who inhabited
the valley of the Nile, it is observable that the elephant is
nowhere to be found amongst the animals figured on the monuments of
ancient Egypt, whilst the camelopard, the lion, and even the
hippopotamus are represented. And although in later times the
knowledge of the art of training appears to have existed under the
Ptolemies, and on the southern shore of the Mediterranean, it
admits of no doubt that it was communicated by the more
accomplished natives of India who had settled there.2082
Another favourite doctrine of the earlier visitors to the East
seems to me to be equally fallacious; PYRARD, BERNIER, PHILLIPE,
THEVENOT, and other travellers in the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries, proclaimed the superiority of the elephant of Ceylon, in
size, strength, and sagacity, above those of all other parts of
India2091; and TAVERNIER in particular is
supposed to have stated that if a Ceylon elephant be introduced
amongst those bred in any other place, by an instinct of nature
they do him homage by laying their trunks to the ground, and
raising them reverentially. This passage has been so repeatedly
quoted in works on Ceylon that it has passed into an aphorism, and
is always adduced as a testimony to the surpassing intelligence of
the elephants of that island; although a reference to the original
shows that Tavernier’s observations are not only fanciful in
themselves, but are restricted to the supposed excellence
[pg
210] of the Ceylon animal in war.2101 This estimate of the
superiority of the elephant of Ceylon, if it ever prevailed in
India, was not current there at a very early period; for in the
Ramayana, which is probably the oldest epic in the world,
the stud of Dasartha, the king of Ayodhya, was supplied with
elephants from the Himalaya and the Vindhya Mountains.2102 I have had no opportunity of
testing by personal observation the justice of the assumption; but
from all that I have heard of the elephants of the continent, and
seen of those of Ceylon, I have reason to conclude that the
difference, if not imaginary, is exceptional, and must have arisen
in particular and individual instances, from more judicious or
elaborate instruction.
The earliest knowledge of the elephant in Europe and the West,
was derived from the conspicuous position assigned to it in the
wars of the East: in India, from the remotest antiquity, it formed
one of the most picturesque, if not the most effective, features in
the armies of the native princes.2103
It is more than [pg 211] probable that the earliest attempts
to take and train the elephant, were with a view to military uses,
and that the art was perpetuated in later times to gratify the
pride of the eastern kings, and sustain the pomp of their
processions.
An impression prevails even to the present day, that the process
of training is tedious and difficult, and the reduction of a
full-grown elephant to obedience, slow and troublesome in the
extreme.2111 In both particulars, however,
the contrary is the truth. The training as it prevails in Ceylon is
simple, and the conformity and obedience of the animal are
developed with singular [pg 212] rapidity. For the first three days,
or till they will eat freely, which they seldom do in a less time,
the newly-captured elephants are allowed to stand quiet; and, if
practicable, a tame elephant is tied near to give the wild ones
confidence. Where many elephants are being trained at once, it is
customary to put every new captive between the stalls of half-tamed
ones, when it soon takes to its food. This stage being attained,
training commences by placing tame elephants on either side. The
“cooroowe vidahn,” or the head of the stables, stands in front of
the wild elephants holding a long stick with a sharp iron point.
Two men are then stationed one on either side, assisted by the tame
elephants, and each holding a hendoo or crook2121 towards the wild one’s trunk,
whilst one or two others rub their hands over his back, keeping up
all the while a soothing and plaintive chaunt, interlarded with
endearing epithets, such as “ho! my son,” or “ho! my father,” or
“my mother,” as may be applicable to the age and sex of the
captive. The elephant is at first furious, and strikes in all
directions with his trunk; but the [pg 213] men in front receiving
all these blows on the points of their weapons, the extremity of
the trunk becomes so sore that the animal curls it up close, and
seldom afterwards attempts to use it offensively. The first dread
of man’s power being thus established, the process of taking him to
bathe between two tame elephants is greatly facilitated, and by
lengthening the neck rope, and drawing the feet together as close
as possible, the process of laying him down in the water is finally
accomplished by the keepers pressing the sharp point of their
hendoos over the backbone.
For many days the roaring and resistance which attend the
operation are considerable, and it often requires the sagacious
interference of the tame elephants to control the refractory wild
ones. It soon, however, becomes practicable to leave the latter
alone, only taking them to and from the stall by the aid of a
decoy. This step lasts, under ordinary treatment, for about three
weeks, when an elephant may be taken alone with his legs hobbled,
and a man walking backwards in front with the point of the hendoo
always presented to the elephant’s head, and a keeper with an iron
crook at each ear. On getting into the water, the fear of being
pricked on his tender back induces him to lie down directly on the
crook being only held over him in terrorem. Once this point
has been achieved, the further process of taming is dependent upon
the disposition of the creature.
The greatest care is requisite, and daily medicines are applied
to heal the fearful wounds on the legs which even the softest ropes
occasion. This is the great difficulty of training; for the wounds
fester grievously, and months and sometimes years will [pg 214] elapse
before an elephant will allow his feet to be touched without
indications of alarm and anger.
The observation has been frequently made that the elephants most
vicious and troublesome to tame, and the most worthless when tamed,
are those distinguished by a thin trunk and flabby pendulous ears.
The period of tuition does not appear to be influenced by the size
or strength of the animals: some of the smallest give the greatest
amount of trouble; whereas, in the instance of the two largest that
have been taken in Ceylon within the last thirty years, both were
docile in a remarkable degree. One in particular, which was caught
and trained by Mr. Cripps, when Government agent, in the Seven
Korles, fed from the hand the first night it was secured, and in a
very few days evinced pleasure on being patted on the head.2141 There is none so obstinate, not
even a rogue, that may not, when kindly and patiently
treated, be conciliated and reconciled.
The males are generally more unmaneagable than the females, and
in both an inclination to lie down to rest is regarded as a
favourable symptom of approaching tractability, some of the most
resolute having been known to stand for months together, even
during sleep. Those which are the most obstinate and violent at
first [pg
215] are the soonest and most effectually subdued, and
generally prove permanently docile and submissive. But those which
are sullen or morose, although they may provoke no chastisement by
their viciousness, are always slower in being taught, and are
rarely to be trusted in after life.2151
But whatever may be its natural gentleness and docility, the
temper of an elephant is seldom to be implicitly relied on in a
state of captivity and coercion. The most amenable are subject to
occasional fits of stubbornness; and even after years of
submission, irritability and resentment will unaccountably manifest
themselves. It may be that the restraints and severer discipline of
training have not been entirely forgotten; or that incidents which
in ordinary health would be productive [pg 216] of no
demonstration whatever, may lead, in moments of temporary illness,
to fretfulness and anger. The knowledge of this infirmity led to
the popular belief recorded by PHILE, that the elephant had two
hearts, under the respective influences of which it evinced
ferocity of gentleness; subdued by the one to habitual tractability
and obedience, but occasionally roused by the other to displays of
rage and resistance.2161
In the process of taming, the presence of the tame ones can
generally be dispensed with after two months, and the captive may
then be ridden by the driver alone; and after three or four months
he may be entrusted with labour, so far as regards
docility;—but it is undesirable, and even involves the risk
of life, to work an elephant too soon; it has frequently happened
that a valuable animal has lain down and died the first time it was
tried in harness, from what the natives believe to be “broken
heart,”—certainly without any cause inferable from injury or
previous disease.2162
It is observable, that [pg 217] till a captured elephant begins to
relish food, and grow fat upon it, he becomes so fretted by work,
that it kills him in an incredibly short space of time.
The first employment to which an elephant is put is to tread
clay in a brick-field, or to draw a waggon in double harness with a
tame companion. But the work in which the display of sagacity
renders his labours of the highest value, is that which involves
the use of heavy materials; and hence in dragging and piling
timber, or moving stones2171
for the construction of retaining walls and the approaches to
bridges, his services in an unopened country are of the utmost
importance. When roads are to be constructed along the face of
steep declivities, and the space is so contracted that risk is
incurred either of the working elephant falling over the precipice
or of rocks slipping down from above, not only are the measures to
which he resorts the most judicious and reasonable that could be
devised, but if urged by his keeper to adopt any other, he
manifests a reluctance sufficient to show that he has balanced in
his own mind the comparative advantages of each. An elephant
appears on all occasions to comprehend the purpose and object that
he is expected to promote, and hence he voluntarily executes a
variety of details without any guidance whatever from his keeper.
This is one characteristic in which this animal manifests a
superiority over the horse; although his strength in proportion to
his weight is not so great as that of the latter.
His minute motions when engrossed by such operations,
[pg
218] the activity of his eye, and the earnestness of his
attitudes, can only be comprehended by being seen. In moving timber
and masses of rock his trunk is the instrument on which he mainly
relies, but those which have tusks turn them to good account. To
get a weighty stone out of a hollow an elephant will kneel down so
as to apply the pressure of his head to move it upwards, then
steadying it with one foot till he can raise himself, he will apply
a fold of his trunk to shift it to its place, and fit it accurately
in position: this done, he will step round to view it on either
side, and adjust it with due precision. He appears to gauge his
task by his eye, and to form a judgment whether the weight be
proportionate to his strength. If doubtful of his own power, he
hesitates and halts, and if urged against his will, he roars and
shows temper.
In clearing an opening through forest land, the power of the
African elephant, and the strength ascribed to him by a recent
traveller, as displayed in uprooting trees, have never been
equalled or approached by anything I have seen of the elephant in
Ceylon2181 or heard of them in India.
Of course much must depend on the nature of the timber and the
moisture of the soil; thus a strong tree on the verge of a swamp
may be overthrown with greater ease than a small and low one in
parched and solid ground. I have seen no “tree” deserving the name,
nothing but jungle and brushwood, thrown down by the mere movement
of an elephant without some special exertion of force. But he is by
no means fond of gratuitously tasking his strength; and food being
so abundant that he obtains it without an effort, it is not
altogether apparent, even were he able to do so, why he should
assail “the largest trees in the forest,” and encumber his own
haunts with their broken stems; especially as there is scarcely
anything which an elephant dislikes more than venturing amongst
fallen timber.
A tree of twelve inches in diameter resisted successfully the
most strenuous struggles of the largest elephant I ever saw led to
it; and when directed by their keepers to clear away jungle, the
removal of even a small tree, or a healthy young coco-nut palm, is
a matter both of time and exertion. Hence the services of an
elephant are of much less value in clearing a forest than in
dragging and piling felled timber. But in the latter occupation he
manifests an intelligence and dexterity which is surprising to a
stranger, because the sameness of the operation enables the animal
to go on for hours disposing of log after log, almost without a
hint or direction from his attendant. For example, two elephants
employed [pg 220] in piling ebony and satinwood in the
yards attached to the commissariat stores at Colombo, were so
accustomed to their work, that they were able to accomplish it with
equal precision and with greater rapidity than if it had been done
by dock-labourers. When the pile attained a certain height, and
they were no longer able by their conjoint efforts to raise one of
the heavy logs of ebony to the summit, they had been taught to lean
two pieces against the heap, up the inclined plane of which they
gently rolled the remaining logs, and placed them trimly on the
top.
It has been asserted that in their occupations “elephants are to
a surprising extent the creatures of habit,”2201 that their movements are
altogether mechanical, and that “they are annoyed by any deviation
from their accustomed practice, and resent any constrained
departure from the regularity of their course.” So far as my own
observation goes, this is incorrect; and I am assured by officers
of experience, that in regard to changing his treatment, his hours,
or his occupation, an elephant evinces no more consideration than a
horse, but exhibits the same pliancy and facility.
At one point, however, the utility of the elephant stops short.
Such is the intelligence and earnestness he displays in work, which
he seems to conduct almost without supervision, that it has been
assumed2202 that he would continue his
labour, and accomplish his given task, as well in the absence of
his keeper as during his presence. But here his innate love of ease
displays itself, and if the eye of his attendant be withdrawn, the
moment he has finished the thing immediately in hand, [pg 221] he
will stroll away lazily, to browse or enjoy the luxury of fanning
himself and blowing dust over his back.
The means of punishing so powerful an animal is a question of
difficulty to his attendants. Force being almost inapplicable, they
try to work on his passions and feelings, by such expedients as
altering the nature of his food or withholding it altogether for a
time. Ou such occasions the demeanour of the creature will
sometimes evince a sense of humiliation as well as of discontent.
In some parts of India it is customary, in dealing with offenders,
to stop their allowance of sugar canes or of jaggery; or to
restrain them from eating their own share of fodder and leaves till
their companions shall have finished; and in such cases the
consciousness of degradation betrayed by the looks and attitudes of
the culprit is quite sufficient to identify him, and to excite a
feeling of sympathy and pity.
The elephant’s obedience to his keeper is the result of
affection, as well as of fear; and although his attachment becomes
so strong that an elephant in Ceylon has been known to remain out
all night, without food, rather than abandon his mahout, lying
intoxicated in the jungle, yet he manifests little difficulty in
yielding the same submission to a new driver in the event of a
change of attendants. This is opposed to the popular belief that
“the elephant cherishes such an enduring remembrance of his old
mahout, that he cannot easily be brought to obey a stranger.”2211 In the extensive establishments
of the Ceylon Government, the keepers are changed without
hesitation, and the animals, when equally kindly treated, are
usually found to be as tractable [pg 222] and obedient to their
new driver as to the old, in fact so soon as they have become
familiarised with his voice.
This is not, however, invariably the case; and Mr. CRIPPS, who
had remarkable opportunities for observing the habits of the
elephant in Ceylon, mentioned to me an instance in which one of a
singularly stubborn disposition occasioned some inconvenience after
the death of its keeper, by refusing to obey any other, till its
attendants bethought them of a child about twelve years old, in a
distant village, where the animal had been formerly picketed, and
to whom it had displayed much attachment. The child was sent for:
and on its arrival the elephant, as anticipated, manifested extreme
satisfaction, and was managed with ease, till by degrees it became
reconciled to the presence of a new superintendent.
It has been said that the mahouts die young, owing to some
supposed injury to the spinal column from the peculiar motion of
the elephant; but this remark does not apply to those in Ceylon,
who are healthy, and as long lived as other men. If the motion of
the elephant be thus injurious, that of the camel must be still
more so; yet we never hear of early death ascribed to this cause by
the Arabs.
The voice of the keeper, with a very limited vocabulary of
articulate sounds, serves almost alone to guide the elephant in his
domestic occupations.2221
Sir EVERARD [pg 223] HOME, from an examination of the
muscular fibres in the drum of an elephant’s ear, came to the
conclusion, that notwithstanding the distinctness and power of his
perception of sounds at a greater distance than other animals, he
was insensible to their harmonious modulation and destitute of a
musical ear.2231
But Professor HARRISON, in a paper read before the Royal Irish
Academy in 1847, has stated that on a careful examination of the
head of an elephant which he had dissected, he could “see no
evidence of the muscular structure of the membrana tympani
so accurately described by Sir E. HOME.” Sir EVERARD’S deduction, I
may observe, is clearly inconsistent with the fact that the power
of two elephants may be combined by singing to them a measured
chant, somewhat resembling a sailor’s capstan song; and in labour
of a particular kind, such as hauling a stone with ropes, they will
thus move conjointly a weight to which their divided strength would
be unequal.2232
Nothing can more strongly exhibit the impulse to obedience in
the elephant, than the patience with which, at the order of his
keeper, he swallows the nauseous medicines of the native
elephant-doctors; and it is impossible to witness the fortitude
with which (without shrinking) he submits to excruciating surgical
operations for the removal of tumours and ulcers to which he is
subject, without conceiving a vivid impression of his gentleness
and intelligence. Dr. DAVY when in Ceylon was consulted about an
elephant in the government Stud, which was suffering from a deep,
burrowing sore in the back, just over the back-bone, which had long
resisted the treatment ordinarily employed. He recommended the use
of the knife, that issue might be given to the accumulated matter,
but no one of the attendants was competent to undertake the
operation. “Being assured,” he continues, “that the creature would
behave well, I undertook it myself. The elephant was not bound, but
was made to kneel down at his keeper’s command—and with an
amputating knife, using all my force, I made the incision required
through the tough integuments. The elephant did not flinch, but
rather inclined towards me when using the knife; and merely uttered
a low, and as it were suppressed, groan. In short, he behaved as
like a human being as possible, as if conscious (as I [pg 225]
believe he was), that the operation was for his good, and the pain
unavoidable.”2251
Obedience to the orders of his keepers is not, however, to be
assumed as the result of a uniform perception of the object to be
attained by compliance; and we cannot but remember the touching
incident which took place during the slaughter of the elephant at
Exeter Change in 1846, when, after receiving ineffectually upwards
of 120 balls in various parts of his body, he turned his face to
his assailants on hearing the voice of his keeper, and knelt down
at the accustomed word of command, so as to bring his forehead
within view of the rifles.2252
The working elephant is always a delicate animal, and requires
watchfulness and care. As a beast of burden he is unsatisfactory;
for although in point of mere strength there is scarcely any weight
which could be conveniently placed on him that he could not carry,
it is difficult to pack his load without causing abrasions that
afterwards ulcerate. His skin is easily chafed by harness,
especially in wet weather. During either long droughts or too much
moisture, his feet become liable to sores, that render him
non-effective for months. Many attempts have been made to provide
him with some protection for the sole of the foot, but from his
extreme weight and peculiar mode of planting the foot, they have
all been unsuccessful. His eyes are also liable to frequent
inflammations, and the skill of the native elephant-doctors, which
has been renowned since the time of Ælian, is nowhere more
strikingly displayed than in the successful treatment of such
attacks.2253 In Ceylon, [pg 226] the
murrain among cattle is of frequent occurrence, and carries off
great numbers of animals, wild as well as tame. In such visitations
the elephants suffer severely, not only those at liberty in the
forest, but those carefully tended in the government stables. Out
of a stud of about 40 attached to the department of the Commission
of Roads, the deaths between 1841 and 1849 were on an average
four in each year, and this was nearly doubled in those
years when murrain prevailed.
Of 240 elephants, employed in the public departments of the
Ceylon Government, which died in twenty-five years, from 1831 to
1856, the length of time that each lived in captivity has only been
recorded in the instances of 138. Of these there died:—
| Duration of Captivity. | No. | Male. | Female. |
|---|---|---|---|
| Under 1 year | 72 | 29 | 43 |
| From 1 to 2 years | 14 | 5 | 9 |
| From 2 to 3 years | 8 | 5 | 3 |
| From 3 to 4 years | 8 | 3 | 5 |
| From 4 to 5 years | 3 | 2 | 1 |
| From 5 to 6 years | 2 | 2 | . |
| From 6 to 7 years | 3 | 1 | 2 |
| From 7 to 8 years | 5 | 2 | 3 |
| From 8 to 9 years | 5 | 5 | . |
| From 9 to 10 years | 2 | 2 | . |
| From 10 to 11 years | 2 | 2 | . |
| From 11 to 12 years | 3 | 1 | 2 |
| From 12 to 13 years | 3 | . | 3 |
| From 13 to 14 years | . | . | . |
| From 14 to 15 years | 3 | 1 | 2 |
| From 15 to 16 years | 1 | 1 | . |
| From 16 to 17 years | 1 | . | 1 |
| From 17 to 18 years | . | . | . |
| From 18 to 19 years | 2 | 1 | 1 |
| From 19 to 20 years | 1 | . | 1 |
| Total | 138 | 62 | 76 |
Of the 72 who died in one year’s servitude, 35 expired within
the first six months of their captivity. During training, many
elephants die in the unaccountable manner already referred to, of
what the natives designate a broken heart.
On being first subjected to work, the elephant is liable to
severe and often fatal swellings of the jaws and abdomen.2271
| From these causes there died, between 1841 and 1849 | 9 |
| Of cattle murrain | 10 |
| Sore feet | 1 |
| Colds and inflammation | 6 |
| Diarrhoea | 1 |
| Worms | 1 |
| Of diseased liver | 1 |
| Injuries from a fall | 1 |
| General debility | 1 |
| Unknown causes | 3 |
Of the entire, twenty-three were females and eleven males.
The ages of those that died could not be accurately stated,
owing to the circumstance of their having been captured in corral.
Two only were tuskers. Towards keeping the stud in health, nothing
has been found so conducive as regularly bathing the elephants, and
giving them the opportunity to stand with their feet in water, or
in moistened earth.
Elephants are said to be afflicted with tooth-ache; their tushes
have likewise been found with symptoms of internal perforation by
some parasite, and the natives assert that, in their agony, the
animals have been known [pg 228] to break them off short.2281 I have never heard of the teeth
themselves being so affected, and it is just possible that the
operation of shedding the subsequent decay of the milk-tushes, may
have in some instances been accompanied by incidents that gave rise
to this story.
At the same time the probabilities are in favour of its being
true. CUVIER committed himself to the statement that the tusks of
the elephant have no attachments to connect them with the pulp
lodged in the cavity at their base, from which the peculiar
modification of dentine, known as “ivory,” is secreted2282; and hence, by inference, that
they would be devoid of sensation.
But independently of the fact that ivory in permeated by tubes
so fine that at their origin from the pulpy cavity they do not
exceed 1/15000th part of an inch in diameter, OWEN had the tusk and
pulp of the great elephant which died at the Zoological Gardens in
London in 1847 longitudinally divided, and found that, “although
the pulp could be easily detached from the inner surface of the
cavity, it was not without a certain resistance; and when the edges
of the co-adapted pulp and tusk were examined by a strong lens, the
filamentary processes from the outer surface of the former could be
seen stretching, as they were drawn from the dentinal tubes, before
they broke. These filaments are so minute, he adds, that to the
naked eye the detached surface of the pulp seems to be entire; and
hence CUVIER was deceived into supposing that there was no organic
[pg
229] connexion between the pulp and the ivory. But if, as
there seems no reason to doubt, these delicate nervous processes
traverse the tusk by means of the numerous tubes already described,
if attacked by caries the pain occasioned to the elephant would be
excruciating.
As to maintaining a stud of elephants for the purposes to which
they are now assigned in Ceylon, there may be a question on the
score of prudence and economy. In the rude and unopened parts of
the country, where rivers are to be forded, and forests are only
traversed by jungle paths, their labour is of value, in certain
contingencies, in the conveyance of stores, and in the earlier
operations for the construction of fords and rough bridges of
timber. But in more highly civilised districts, and wherever
macadamised roads admit of the employment of horses and oxen for
draught, I apprehend that the services of elephants might, with
advantage, be gradually reduced, if not altogether dispensed
with.
The love of the elephant for coolness and shade renders him at
all times more or less impatient of work in the sun, and every
moment of leisure he can snatch is employed in covering his back
with dust, or fanning himself to diminish the annoyance of the
insects and heat. From the tenderness of his skin and its liability
to sores, the labour in which he can most advantageously be
employed is that of draught; but the reluctance of horses to meet
or pass elephants renders it difficult to work the latter with
safety on frequented roads. Besides, were the full load which an
elephant is capable of drawing, in proportion to his muscular
strength, to be placed upon waggons of corresponding dimension, the
to the roads would be such that the wear and [pg 230] tear
of the highways and bridges would prove too costly to be borne. On
the other hand, by restricting it to a somewhat more manageable
quantity, and by limiting the weight, as at present, to about
one ton and a half, it is doubtful whether an elephant
performs so much more work than could be done by a horse or by
bullocks, as to compensate for the greater cost of his feeding and
attendance.
Add to this, that from accidents and other causes, from
ulcerations of the skin, and illnesses of many kinds, the elephant
is so often invalided, that the actual cost of his labour, when at
work, is very considerably enhanced. Exclusive of the salaries of
higher officers attached to the government establishments, and
other permanent charges, the expenses of an elephant, looking only
to the wages of his attendants and the cost of his food and
medicines, varies from three shillings to four shillings and
sixpence, per diem, according to his size and class.2301 Taking the average at three
shillings and [pg 231] nine-pence, and calculating that
hardly any individual works more than four days out of seven, the
charge for each day so employed would amount to six shillings
and sixpence. The keep per day of a powerful dray-horse,
working five days in the week, would not exceed half-a-crown, and
two such would unquestionably do more work than any elephant under
the present system. I do not know whether it be from a comparative
calculation of this kind that the strength of the elephant
establishments in Ceylon has been gradually diminished of late
years, but in the department of the Commissioner of Roads, the
stud, which formerly numbered upwards of sixty elephants, was
reduced, some years ago, to thirty-six, and is at present less than
half that number.
The fallacy of the supposed reluctance of the elephant to breed
in captivity has been demonstrated by many recent authorities; but
with the exception of the birth of young elephants at Rome, as
mentioned by ÆLIAN, the only instances that I am aware of
their actually producing young under such circumstances, took place
in Ceylon. Both parents had been for several years attached
[pg
232] to the stud of the Commissioner of Roads, and in 1844
the female, whilst engaged in dragging a waggon, gave birth to a
still-born calf. Some years before, an elephant that had been
captured by Mr. Cripps, dropped a female calf, which he succeeded
in rearing. As usual, the little one became the pet of the keepers;
but as it increased in growth, it exhibited the utmost violence
when thwarted; striking out with its hind-feet, throwing itself
headlong on the ground, and pressing its trunk against any opposing
object.
The duration of life in the elephant has been from the remotest
times a matter of uncertainty and speculation. Aristotle says it
was reputed to live from two to three hundred years2321, and modern zoologists have
assigned to it an age very little less; CUVIER2322 allots two hundred and DE
BLAINVILLE one hundred and twenty. The only attempt which I know of
to establish a period historically or physiologically is that of
FLEURENS, who has advanced an ingenious theory on the subject in
his treatise “De la Longévité Humaine.” He
assumes the sum total of life in all animals to be equivalent to
five times the number of years requisite to perfect their growth
and development;—and he adopts as evidence of the period at
which growth ceases, the final consolidation of the bones with
their epiphyses; which in the young consist of cartilages;
but in the adult become uniformly osseous and solid. So long as the
epiphyses are distinct from the bones, the growth of the animal is
proceeding, but it ceases so soon as the consolidation is complete.
In man, according to FLEURENS, this consummation takes place at 20
years of age, in the horse at [pg 233] 5, in the dog at 2; so
that conformably to this theory the respective normal age for each
would be 100 years for man, 25 for the horse, and 10 for a dog. As
a datum for his conclusion, FLEURENS cites the instance of one
young elephant in which, at 26 years old, the epiphyses were still
distinct, whereas in another, which died at 31, they were firm and
adherent. Hence he draws the inference that the period of completed
solidification is thirty years, and consequently that the normal
age of the elephant is one hundred and fifty.2331
Amongst the Singhalese the ancient fable of the elephant
attaining to the age of two or three hundred years still prevails;
but the Europeans, and those in immediate charge of tame ones,
entertain the opinion that the duration of life for about
seventy years is common both to man and the elephant; and
that before the arrival of the latter period, symptoms of debility
and decay ordinarily begin to manifest themselves. Still instances
are not wanting in Ceylon of trained decoys that have lived for
more than double the reputed period in actual servitude. One
employed by Mr. Cripps in the Seven Korles was represented by the
Cooroowe people to have served the king of Kandy in the same
capacity sixty years before; and amongst the papers left by Colonel
Robertson (son to the historian of “Charles V.”), who held a
command in Ceylon in 1799, shortly after the capture of the island
by the British, I have found a memorandum showing that a decoy was
then attached to the elephant establishment at Matura, which the
records proved to have served under the Dutch during the entire
period of their occupation (extending to upwards of one hundred and
forty years); and it was [pg 234] said to have been found in the
stables by the Dutch on the expulsion of the Portugese in 1656.
It is perhaps from this popular belief in their almost
illimitable age, that the natives generally assert that the body of
a dead elephant is seldom or never to be discovered in the woods.
And certain it is that frequenters of the forest with whom I have
conversed, whether European or Singhalese, are consistent in their
assurances that they have never found the remains of an elephant
that had died a natural death. One chief, the Wannyah of the
Trincomalie district, told a friend of mine, that once after a
severe murrain, which had swept the province, he found the carcases
of elephants that had died of the disease. On the other hand, a
European gentleman, who for thirty-six years without intermission
has been living in the jungle, ascending to the summits of
mountains in the prosecution of the trigonometrical survey, and
penetrating valleys in tracing roads and opening means of
communication,—one, too, who has made the habits of the wild
elephant a subject of constant observation and study,—has
often expressed to me his astonishment that after seeing many
thousands of living elephants in all possible situations, he had
never yet found a single skeleton of a dead one, except of those
which had fallen by the rifle.2341
It has been suggested that the bones of the elephant, may be so
porous and spongy as to disappear in consequence of an early
decomposition; but this remark would [pg 235] not apply to the
grinders or to the tusks; besides which, the inference is at
variance with the fact, that not only the horns and teeth, but
entire skeletons of deer, are frequently found in the districts
inhabited by the elephant.
The natives, to account for this popular belief, declare that
the survivors of the herd bury such of their companions as die a
natural death.2351
It is curious that this belief was current also amongst the Greeks
of the Lower Empire; and PHILE, writing early in the fourteenth
century, not only describes the younger elephants as tending the
wounded, but as burying the dead:
[Greek: “Otan d’ epistê tês teleutês o chronos
Koinou telous amunan o xenos pherei].”2352
The Singhalese have a further superstition in relation to the
close of life in the elephant: they believe that, on feeling the
approach of dissolution, he repairs to a solitary valley, and there
resigns himself to death. A native who accompanied Mr. Cripps, when
hunting, in the forests of Anarajapoora, intimated to him that he
was then in the immediate vicinity of the spot “to which the
elephants come to die,” but that it was so mysteriously
concealed, that although every one believed in its existence,
[pg
236] no one had ever succeeded in penetrating to it. At the
corral which I have described at Kornegalle, in 1847, Dehigame, one
of the Kandyan chiefs, assured me it was the universal belief of
his countrymen, that the elephants, when about to die, resorted to
a valley in Saffragam, among the mountains to the east of Adam’s
Peak, which was reached by a narrow pass with walls of rock on
either side, and that there, by the side of a lake of clear water,
they took their last repose.2361
It was not without interest that I afterwards recognised this
tradition in the story of Sinbad of the Sea, who in his
Seventh Voyage, after conveying the presents of Haroun al Raschid
to the king of Serendib, is wrecked on his return from Ceylon, and
sold as a slave to a master who employs him in shooting elephants
for the sake of their ivory; till one day the tree on which he was
stationed having been uprooted by one of the herd, he fell
senseless to the ground, and the great elephant approaching wound
his trunk around him and carried him away, ceasing not to proceed,
until he had taken him to a place where, his terror having
subsided, he found himself amongst the bones of elephants, and
knew that this was their burial place.2362 It is curious to find this
legend of Ceylon in what has, not inaptly, been described as the
“Arabian Odyssey” of Sinbad; the original of which [pg 237]
evidently embodies the romantic recitals of the sailors returning
from the navigation of the Indian Seas, in the middle ages2371, which were current amongst the
Mussulmans, and are reproduced in various forms throughout the
tales of the Arabian Nights.
APPENDIX TO CHAPTER VII.
As Ælian’s work on the Nature of Animals has never,
I believe, been republished in any English version, and the passage
in relation to the training and performance of elephants is so
pertinent to the present inquiry, I venture to subjoin a
translation of the 11th Chapter of his 2nd Book.
“Of the cleverness of the elephant I have spoken elsewhere, and
likewise of the manner of hunting. I have mentioned these things, a
few out of the many which others have stated; but for the present I
purpose to speak of their musical feeling, their tractability, and
facility in learning what it is difficult for even a human being to
acquire, much less a beast, hitherto so wild:—such as to
dance, as is done on the stage; to walk with a measured gait; to
listen to the melody of the flute and to perceive the difference of
sounds, that, being pitched low lead to a slow movement, or high to
a quick one: all this the elephant learns and understands, and is
accurate withal, [pg 238] and makes no mistake. Thus has Nature
formed him not only the greatest in size, but the most gentle and
the most easily taught. Now if I were going to write about the
tractability and aptitude to learn amongst those of India,
Æthiopia, and Libya, I should probably appear to be
concocting a tale and acting the braggart, or to be telling a
falsehood respecting the nature of the animal founded on a mere
report, all which it behoves a philosopher, and most of all one who
is an ardent lover of truth, not to do. But what I have seen
myself, and what others have described as having occurred at Rome,
this I have chosen to relate, selecting a few facts out of many, to
show the particular nature of those creatures. The elephant when
tamed is an animal most gentle and most easily led to do whatever
he is directed. And by way of showing honour to time, I will first
narrate events of the oldest date. Cæsar Germanicus, the
nephew of Tiberius, exhibited once a public show, wherein there
were many full-grown elephants, male and female, and some of their
breed born in this country. When their limbs were beginning to
become firm, a person familiar with such animals instructed them by
a strange and surpassing method of teaching; using only gentleness
and kindness, and adding to his mild lessons the bait of pleasant
and varied food. By this means he led them by degrees to throw off
all wildness, and, as it were, to desert to a state of
civilisation, conducting themselves in a manner almost human. He
taught them neither to be excited on hearing the pipe, nor to be
disturbed by the beat of drum, but to be soothed by the sounds of
the reed, and to endure unmusical noises and the clatter of feet
from persons while marching; and they were trained to feel no fear
of a mass of men, nor to be enraged at the infliction of blows, not
even when compelled to twist their limbs and to bend them like a
stage-dancer, and this too although endowed with strength and
might. And there is in this a very noble addition to nature, not to
conduct themselves in a disorderly manner and disobediently towards
the instructions of man; for after the dancing-master had made them
expert, [pg 239] and they had learnt their lessons
accurately, they did not belie the labour of his instruction
whenever a necessity and opportunity called upon them to exhibit
what they had been taught. For the whole troop came forward from
this and that side of the theatre, and divided themselves into
parties: they advanced walking with a mincing gait and exhibiting
in their whole body and persons the manners of a beau, clothed in
the flowery dresses of dancers; and on the ballet-master giving a
signal with his voice, they fell into line and went round in a
circle, and if it were requisite to deploy they did so. They
ornamented the floor of the stage by throwing flowers upon it, and
this they did in moderation and sparingly, and straightway they
beat a measure with their feet and kept time together.
“Now that Damon and Spintharus and Aristoxenus and Xenophilus
and Philoxenus and others should know music excellently well, and
for their cleverness be ranked amongst the few, is indeed a thing
of wonder, but not incredible nor contrary at all to reason. For
this reason that a man is a rational animal, and the recipient of
mind and intelligence. But that a jointless animal ([Greek:
anarthron]) should understand rhythm and melody, and preserve a
gesture, and not deviate from a measured movement, and fulfil the
requirements of those who laid down instructions, these are gifts
of nature, I think, and a peculiarity in every way astounding.
Added to these there were things enough to drive the spectator out
of his senses; when the strewn rushes and other materials for beds
on the ground were placed on the sand of the theatre, and they
received stuffed mattrasses such as belonged to rich houses and
variegated bed coverings, and goblets were placed there, very
expensive, and bowls of gold and silver, and in them a great
quantity of water; and tables were placed there of sweet-smelling
wood and ivory very superb: and upon them flesh meats and loaves
enough to fill the stomachs of animals the most voracious. When the
preparations were completed and abundant, the banqueters came
forward, six male and an [pg 240] equal number of female elephants;
the former had on a male dress, and the latter a female; and on a
signal being given they stretched forward their trunks in a subdued
manner, and took their food in great moderation, and not one of
them appeared to be gluttonous greedy, or to snatch at a greater
portion, as did the Persian mentioned by Xenophon. And when it was
requisite to drink, a bowl was placed by the side of each; and
inhaling with their trunks they took a draught very orderly; and
then they scattered the drink about in fun; but not as in insult.
Many other acts of a similar kind, both clever and astonishing,
have persons described, relating to the peculiarities of these
animals, and I saw them writing letters on Roman tablets with their
trunks, neither looking awry nor turning aside. The hand, however,
of the teacher was placed so as to be a guide in the formation of
the letters; and while it was writing the animal kept its eye fixed
down in an accomplished and scholarlike manner.”
Footnote 2071: (return)ARMANDI, Hist. Milit. des Eléphants, liv. i. ch.
i. p. 2. It is an interesting fact, noticed by ARMANDI, that the
elephants figured on the coins of Alexander, and the
Seleucidæ invariably exhibit the characteristics of the
Indian type, whilst those on Roman medals can at once be pronounced
African, from the peculiarities of the convex forehead and
expansive ears.—Ibid. liv. i. cap. i. p. 3.ARMANDI has, with infinite industry, collected from original
sources a mass of curious informations relative to the employment
of elephants in ancient warfare, which he has published under the
title of Histoire Militaire des Eléphants depuis les
temps les plus reculés jusqu’ à l’introduction des
armes a feu. Paris. 1843.
Footnote 2082: (return)See SCHLEGEL’S Essay on the Elephant and the Sphynx.
Classical Journal, No. lx. Although the trained elephant
nowhere appears upon the monuments of the Egyptians, the animal was
not unknown to them, and ivory and elephants are figured on the
walls of Thebes and Karnac amongst the spoils of Thothmes III., and
the tribute paid to Rameses I. The Island of Elephantine, in the
Nile, near Assouan (Syene) is styled in hieroglyphical writing “The
Land of the Elephant;” but as it is a mere rock, it probably owes
its designation to its form. See Sir GARDNER WILKINSON’S Ancient
Egyptians, vol. i. pl. iv.; vol. v. p. 176. Above the first
cataract of the Nile are two small islands, each bearing the name
of Phylæ;—quære, is the derivation of this word
at all connected with the Arabic term fil? See ante, p. 76,
note. The elephant figured in the sculptures of Nineveh is
universally as wild, not domesticated.
Footnote 2091: (return)This is merely a reiteration of the statement of ÆLIAN,
who ascribes to the elephants of Taprobane a vast superiority in
size, strength, and intelligence, above, those of continental
India,—[Greek: “Kai oide ge næsiotai elephantes ton
hæpiroton halkimoteroi te tæn rhomæn kai meixous
idein eisi, kai thumosophoteroi de panta pantæ krinointo
han.”]—ÆLIAN, De Nat. Anim., lib. xvi. cap.
xviii.ÆLIAN also, in the same chapter, states the fact of the
shipment of elephants in large boats from Ceylon to the opposite
continent of India, for sale to the king of Kalinga; so that the
export from Manaar, described in a former passage, has been going
on apparently without interruption since the time of the
Romans.
Footnote 2101: (return)The expression of TAVERNIER is to the effect that as compared
with all others, the elephants of Ceylon are “plus courageux
à la guerre.” The rest of the passage is a
curiosity:—“Il faut remarquer ici une chose qu’on aura peut-être de
la peine à croire main quit est toutefois
très-véritable: c’est que lorsque quelque roi on
quelque seigneur a quelqu’un de ces éléphants de
Ceylan, et qu’on en amène quelqu’autre des lieux où
les marchands vont les prendre, comme d’Achen, de Siam, d’Arakan,
de Pegu, du royáume de Boutan, d’Assam, des terres de Cochin
et de la coste du Mélinde, dés que les
éléphants en voient un de Ceylan, par un instinct de
nature, ils lui font la révérence, portant le bout de
leur trompe à la terre et la relevant. Il est vrai que les
éléphants que les grand seigneurs entretiennent,
quand en les amine devant eux, pour voir s’ils sent en bon point,
font troi fois une espére de révérence avec
leur troupe, a que j’ai en souvent, mais ils sont
stylés à cela, et leurs maitres le leur enseignent de
bonne heure.”—Les Six Voyages de J.B. TAVERNIER, lib.
iii. ch. 20.
Footnote 2103: (return)The only mention of the elephant in Sacred History in the
account given in Maccabees of the invasion of Egypt by
Antiochus, who entered it 170 B.C., “with chariots and elephants,
and horsemen, and a great navy.”—1 Macc. i. 17.
Frequent allusions to the use of elephants in war occur in both
books: and in chap. vi. 34, it is stated that “to provoke the
elephants to fight they showed them the blood of grapes and of
mulberries.” The term showed, “[Greek: edeixan],” might be thought
to imply that the animals were enraged by the sight of the wine and
its colour, but in the Third Book of Maccabees, in the Greek
Septuagint, various other passages show that wine, on such
occasions, was administered to the elephants to render them
furious.—Mace, v. 2. 10, 45. PHILE mentions the same fact,
De Elephante, i. 145.There is a very curious account of the mode in which the Arab
conquerors of Seinde, in the 9th and 10th centuries, equipped the
elephant for war; which being written with all the particularity of
an eye-witness, bears the impress of truth and accuracy. MASSOUDI,
who was born in Bagdad at the close of the 9th century, travelled
in India in the year A.D. 913, and visited the Gulf of Cambay, the
coast of Malabar, and the Island of Ceylon:—from a larger
account of his journeys he compiled a summary under the title of
“Moroudj al-dzeheb,” or the “Golden Meadows,” the MS. of
which is now in the Bibliothèque Nationale. M. REINAUD, in
describing this manuscript says on its authority, “The Prince of
Mensura, whose dominions lay south of the Indus, maintained eighty
elephants trained for war, each of which bore in his trunk a bent
cymeter (carthel), with which he was taught to cut and thrust at
all confronting him. The trunk itself was effectually protected by
a coat of mail, and the rest of the body enveloped in a covering
composed jointly of iron and horn. Other elephants were employed in
drawing chariots, carrying baggage, and grinding forage, and the
performance of all bespoke the utmost intelligence and
docility.”—REINAUD, Mèmoires sur l’Inde,
antérieurement au milieu du XIe siècle,
d’après les écrivains arabes, persans et chinois.
Paris, M.D.CCC. XLIX. p. 215. See SPRENGER’S English Translation of
Massoudi, vol. i. p. 383.
Footnote 2121: (return)The iron goad with which the keeper directs the movements of the
elephants, called a hendoo in Ceylon and hawkus in
Bengal, appears to have retained the present shape from the
remotest antiquity. It is figured in the medals of Caracalla in the
identical form in which it is in use at the present day in
India.Medal of Numidia.
Modern Hendoo.
The Greeks called it [Greek: harpê], and the Romans
cuspis.
Footnote 2141: (return)This was the largest elephant that had been tamed in Ceylon; he
measured upwards of nine feet at the shoulders and belonged to the
caste so highly prized for the temples. He was gentle after his
first capture, but his removal from the corral to the stables,
though only a distance of six miles, was a matter of the extremest
difficulty; his extraordinary strength rendering him more than a
match for the attendant decoys. He, on one occasion, escaped, but
was recaptured in the forest; and he afterwards became so docile as
to perform a variety of tricks. He was at length ordered to be
removed to Colombo; but such was his terror on approaching the
gate, that on coaxing him to enter the gate, he became paralysed in
the extraordinary way elsewhere alluded to, and died on the
spot.
Footnote 2151: (return)The natives profess that the high caste elephants, such as are
allotted to the temples, are of all others the most difficult to
tame, and M. BLES, the Dutch correspondent of BUFFON, mentions a
caste of elephants which he had heard of, as being peculiar to the
Kandyan kingdom, that were not higher than a heifer
(génisse), covered with hair, and insusceptible of being
tamed. (BUFFON, Supp. vol. vi. p. 29.) Bishop HEBER, in the
account of his journey from Bareilly towards the Himalayas,
describes the Raja Gourman Sing, “mounted on a little female
elephant, hardly bigger than a Durham ox, and almost as shaggy as a
poodle.”—Journx., ch. xvii. It will be remembered that
the mammoth discovered in 1803 embedded in icy soil in Siberia, was
covered with a coat of long hair, with a sort of wool at the roots.
Hence there arose the question whether that northern region had
been formerly inhabited by a race of elephants, so fortified by
nature against cold; or whether the individual discovered had been
borne thither by currents from some more temperate latitudes. To
the latter theory the presence of hair seemed a fatal objection;
but so far as my own observation goes, I believe the elephants are
more or less provided with hair. In some it is more developed than
in others, and it is particularly observable in the young, which
when captured are frequently covered with a woolly fleece,
especially about the head and shoulders. In the older individuals
in Ceylon, this is less apparent: and in captivity the hair appears
to be altogether removed by the custom of the mahouts to rub their
skin daily with oil and a rough lump of burned clay. See a paper on
the subject, Asiat. Journ. N.S. vol. xiv. p. 182, by Mr. G.
FAIRHOLME.
Footnote 2161: (return)[Greek:
“Diplês de phasin euporêsai kardias
Kai tê men einai thumikon to thêrion
Eis akratê kinêsin
êrethismenon,Tê de prosênes kai thrasytêtos
xenon.Kai pê men autôn akroasthai ton
logônOus an tis Indos eu tithaseuôn legoi,
Pê de pros autous tous nomeis epitrechein
Eis tas palaias ektrapen kakoupgias.”]
PHILE, Expos. de Eleph., l. 126, &c.
Footnote 2162: (return)Captain YULE, in his Narrative of an Embassy to Ava in
1855, records an illustration of this tendency of the elephant to
sudden death; one newly captured, the process of taming which was
exhibited to the British Envoy, “made vigorous resistance to the
placing of a collar on its neck, and the people were proceeding to
tighten it, when the elephant, which had lain down as if quite
exhausted, reared suddenly on the hind quarters, and fell on its
side—dead!”—P. 104.Mr. STRACHAN noticed the same liability of the elephants to
sudden death from very slight causes; “of the fall.” he says, “at
any time, though on plain ground, they either die immediately, or
languish till they die; their great weight occasioning them so much
hurt by the fall.”—Phil. Trans. A.D. 1701, vol. xxiii.
p. 1052.
Footnote 2171: (return)A correspondent informs me that on the Malabar coast of India,
the elephant, when employed in dragging stones, moves them by means
of a rope, which he either draws with his forehead, or manages by
seizing it in his teeth.
Footnote 2181: (return)“Here the trees were large and handsome, but not strong enough
to resist the inconceivable strength of the mighty monarch of these
forests; almost every tree had half its branches broken short by
them and at every hundred yards I came upon entire trees, and
these, the largest in the forest, uprooted clean out of the
ground, and broken short across their stems.”—A
Hunter’s Life in South Africa. By R. GORDON CUMMING, vol. ii.
p. 305.—“Spreading out from one another, they smash and destroy all the
finest trees in the forest which happen to be in their course…. I
have rode through forests where the trees thus broken lay so thick
across one another, that it was almost impossible to ride through
the district.”—Ibid., p. 310.Mr. Gordon Cumming does not name the trees which he saw thus
“uprooted” and “broken across,” nor has he given any idea of their
size and weight; but Major DENHAM, who observed like traces of the
elephant in Africa, saw only small trees overthrown by them; and
Mr. PRINGLE, who had an opportunity of observing similar practices
of the animals in the neutral territory of the Eastern frontier of
the Cape of Good Hope, describes their ravages as being confined to
the mimosas, “immense numbers of which had been torn out of the
ground, and placed in an inverted position, in order to enable the
animals to browse at their ease on the soft and juicy roots, which
form a favourite part of their food. Many of the larger mimosas
had resisted all their efforts; and indeed, it is only after heavy
rain, when the soil is soft and loose, that they ever successfully
attempt this operation.“—Pringle’s Sketches of South
Africa.
Footnote 2221: (return)The principal sound by which the mahouts in Ceylon direct the
motions of the elephants is a repetition, with various modulations,
of the words ur-re! ur-re! This is one of those
interjections in which the sound is so expressive of the sense that
persons in charge of animals of almost every description throughout
the world appear to have adopted it with a concurrence that is very
curious. The drivers of camels in Turkey, Palestine, and Egypt
encourage them to speed by shouting ar-ré!
ar-ré! The Arabs in Algeria cry eirich! to their
mules. The Moors seem to have carried the custom with them into
Spain, where mules are still driven with cries of
arré (whence the muleteers derive their Spanish
appellation of “arrieros”). In France the Sportsman excites the
hound by shouts of hare! hare! and the waggoner there turns
his horses by his voice, and the use of the word hurhaut! In
the North, “Hurs was a word used by the old Germans in
urging their horses to speed;” and to the present day, the herdsmen
in Ireland, and parts of Scotland, drive their pigs with shouts of
hurrish! a sound closely resembling that used by the mahouts
in Ceylon.
Footnote 2231: (return)On the Difference between the Human Membrana Tympani and that
of the Elephant. By Sir EVERARD HOME, Bart., Philos. Trans.,
1823. Paper by Prof. HARRISON. Proc. Royal Irish Academy, vol. iii.
p. 386.
Footnote 2232: (return)I have already noticed the striking effect produced on the
captive elephants in the corral, by the harmonious notes of an
ivory flute; and on looking to the graphic description which is
given by ÆLIAN of the exploits which he witnessed as
performed by the elephants exhibited at Rome, it is remarkable how
very large a share of their training appears to have been ascribed
to the employment of music.PHILE, in the account which he has given of the elephant’s
fondness for music, would almost seem to have versified the prose
narrative of ÆLIAN, as he describes its excitement at the
more animated portions, its step being regulated to the time and
movements of the harmony: the whole “surprising in a creature
whose limbs are without joints![Greek: “Kainon ti poiôn ex anarthrôn
organôn.”]PHILE, Expos. de Eleph, 1. 216.
For an account of the training and performances of the elephants
at Rome, as narrated by ÆLIAN see the appendix to this
chapter.
Footnote 2252: (return)A shocking account of the death of this poor animal is given in
HONE’S Every-Day Book, March, 1830, p. 337.
Footnote 2271: (return)The elephant which was dissected by DR. HARRISON of Dublin, in
1847, died of a febrile attack, after four or five days’ illness,
which, as Dr. H. tells me in a private letter, was “very like
scarlatina, at that time a prevailing disease; its skin in some
places became almost scarlet.”
Footnote 2281: (return)See a paper entitled “Recollections of Ceylon,” in
Fraser’s Magazine for December, 1860.
Footnote 2282: (return)Annales du Muséum F. viii. 1805. p. 94, and
Ossemens Fossiles, quoted by OWEN, in the article on
“Teeth,” in TODD’S Cyclop. of Anatomy, &c., vol. iv. p.
929.
Footnote 2301: (return)An ordinary-sized elephant engrosses the undivided attention of
three men. One, as his mahout or superintendent, and two as
leaf-cutters, who bring him branches and grass for his daily
supplies. An animal of larger growth would probably require a third
leaf-cutter. The daily consumption is two cwt. of green food with
about half a bushel of grain. When in the vicinity of towns and
villages, the attendants have no difficulty in procuring an
abundant supply of the branches of the trees to which elephants are
partial; and in journeys through the forests and unopened country,
the leaf-cutters are sufficiently expert in the knowledge of those
particular plants with which the elephant is satisfied. Those that
would be likely to disagree with him he unerringly rejects. His
favourites are the palms, especially the cluster of rich, unopened
leaves, known as the “cabbage,” of the coco-nut, and areca; and he
delights to tear open the young trunks of the palmyra and jaggery
(Caryota urens) in search of the farinaceous matter
contained in the spongy pith. Next to these come the varieties of
fig-trees. particularly the sacred Bo (F. religiosa)
which is found near every temple, and the na gaha (Messua
ferrea), with thick dark leaves and a scarlet flower. The
leaves of the Jak-tree and bread-fruit (Artocarpus
integrifolia, and A. incisa), the Wood apple
(Ægle Marmelos), Palu (Mimusops Indica), and a
number of others well known to their attendants, are all consumed
in turn. The stems of the plaintain, the stalks of the sugar-cane,
and the feathery tops of the bamboos, are irresistible luxuries.
Pine-apples, water-melons, and fruits of every description, are
voraciously devoured, and a coco-nut when found is first rolled
under foot to detach it from the husk and fibre, and then raised in
his trunk and crushed, almost without an effort, by his ponderous
jaws.The grasses are not found in sufficient quantity to be an item
of daily fodder; the Mauritius or the Guinea grass is seized with
avidity; lemon grass is rejected from its overpowering perfume, but
rice in the straw, and every description of grain, whether growing
or dry; gram (Cicer arietinum), Indian Corn, and millet are
his natural food. Of such of these as can be found, it is the duty
of the leaf-cutters, when in the jungle and on march, to provide a
daily supply.
Footnote 2341: (return)This remark regarding the elephant of Ceylon does not appear to
extend to that of Africa, as I observe that BEAVER, in his
African Memoranda, says that “the skeletons of old ones that
have died in the woods are frequently found.”—African
Memoranda relative to an attempt to establish British Settlements
at the Island of Bulama. Lond. 1815, p. 353.
Footnote 2351: (return)A corral was organised near Putlam in 1846, by Mr. Morris, the
chief officer of the district. It was constructed across one of the
paths which the elephants frequent in their frequent marches, and
during the course of the proceedings two of the captured elephants
died. Their carcases were left of course within the enclosure,
which was abandoned as soon as the capture was complete. The wild
elephants resumed their path through it, and a few days afterwards
the headman reported to Mr. Morris that the bodies had been removed
and carried outside the corral to a spot to which nothing but the
elephants could have borne them.
Footnote 2361: (return)The selection by animals of a place to die, is not
confined to the elephant, DARWIN says, that in South America “the
guanacos (llamas) appear to have favourite spots for lying down to
die; on the banks of the Santa Cruz river, in certain circumscribed
spaces which were generally bushy and all near the water, the
ground was actually white with their bones; on one such spot I
counted between ten and twenty heads.”—Nat. Voy. ch.
viii. The same has been remarked in the Rio Gallegos; and at St.
Jago in the Cape de Verde Islands, DARWIN saw a retired corner
similarly covered with the bones of the goat, as if it were “the
burial-ground of all the goats in the island.”
Footnote 2371: (return)See a disquisition on the origin of the story of Sinbad, by M.
REINAUD, in the introduction prefixed to his translation of the
Arabian Geography of Aboulfeda, vol. i. p. lxxvi.
CHAP. VIII.
BIRDS.
Of the Birds of the island, upwards of three hundred and
twenty species have been indicated, for which we are indebted to
the persevering labours of Dr. Templeton, Dr. Kelaart, and Mr.
Layard; but many yet remain to be identified. In fact, to the eye
of a stranger, their prodigious numbers, and especially the myriads
of waterfowl which, notwithstanding the presence of the crocodiles,
people the lakes and marshes in the eastern provinces, form one of
the marvels of Ceylon.
In the glory of their plumage, the birds of the interior are
surpassed by those of South America and Northern India; and the
melody of their song bears no comparison with that of the warblers
of Europe, but the want of brilliancy is compensated by their
singular grace of form, and the absence of prolonged and modulated
harmony by the rich and melodious tones of their clear and musical
calls. In the elevations of the Kandyan country there are a few,
such as the robin of Neuera-ellia2411
and the long-tailed thrush2412,
whose song rivals that of their European namesakes; but, far beyond
the attraction of their notes, the traveller rejoices in the
flute-like voices of the Oriole, the Dayal-bird2413, [pg 242] and some others equally
charming; when at the first dawn of day, they wake the forest with
their clear réveil.
It is only on emerging from the dense woods and coming into the
vicinity of the lakes and pasture of the low country, that birds
become visible in great quantities. In the close jungle one
occasionally hears the call of the copper-smith2421, or the strokes of the great
orange-coloured woodpecker2422
as it beats the decaying trees in search of insects, whilst
clinging to the bark with its finely-pointed claws, and leaning for
support upon the short stiff feathers of its tail. And on the lofty
branches of the higher trees, the hornbill2423 (the toucan of the East), with
its enormous double casque, sits to watch the motions of the tiny
reptiles and smaller birds on which it preys, tossing them into the
air when seized, and catching them in its gigantic mandibles as
they fall.2424
The remarkable excrescence on the beak of this [pg 243]
extraordinary bird may serve to explain the statement of the
Minorite friar Odoric, of Portenau in Friuli, who travelled in
Ceylon in the fourteenth century, and brought suspicion on the
veracity of his narrative by asserting that he had there seen
“birds with two heads.”2431
THE HORNBILL.The Singhalese have a belief that the hornbill never resorts to
the water to drink; but that it subsists exclusively by what it
catches in its prodigious bill while [pg 244] rain is falling. This
they allege is associated with the incessant screaming which it
keeps up during showers.
As we emerge from the dark shade, and approach park-like
openings on the verge of the low country, quantities of pea-fowl
are to be found either feeding on the seeds among the long grass or
sunning themselves on the branches of the surrounding trees.
Nothing to be met with in English demesnes can give an adequate
idea of the size and magnificence of this matchless bird when seen
in his native solitudes. Here he generally selects some projecting
branch, from which his plumage may hang free of the foliage, and,
if there be a dead and leafless bough, he is certain to choose it
for his resting-place, whence he droops his wings and suspends his
gorgeous train, or spreads it in the morning sun to drive off the
damps and dews of the night.
In some of the unfrequented portions of the eastern province, to
which Europeans rarely resort, and where the pea-fowl are
unmolested by the natives, their number is so extraordinary that,
regarded as game, it ceases to be “sport” to destroy them; and
their cries at early dawn are so tumultuous and incessant as to
banish sleep, and amount to an actual inconvenience. Their flesh is
excellent in flavour when served up hot, though it is said to be
indigestible; but, when cold, it contracts a reddish and
disagreeable tinge.
The European fable of the jackdaw borrowing the plumage of the
peacock, has its counterpart in Ceylon, where the popular legend
runs that the pea-fowl stole the plumage of a bird called by the
natives avitchia. I have not been able to identify the
species which bears [pg 245] this name; but it utters a cry
resembling the word matkiang! which in Singhalese means, “I
will complain!” This they believe is addressed by the bird
to the rising sun, imploring redress for its wrongs. The
avitchia is described as somewhat less than a crow, the
colours of its plumage being green, mingled with red.
But of all, the most astonishing in point of multitude, as well
as the most interesting from their endless variety, are the myriads
of aquatic birds and waders which frequent the lakes and
watercourses; especially those along the coast near Batticaloa,
between the mainland and the sand formations of the shore, and the
innumerable salt marshes and lagoons to the south of Trincomalie.
These, and the profusion of perching birds, fly-catchers, finches,
and thrushes, that appear in the open country, afford sufficient
quarry for the raptorial and predatory species—eagles, hawks,
and falcons—whose daring sweeps and effortless undulations
are striking objects in the cloudless sky.
I. ACCIPITRES. Eagles.—The Eagles, however, are
small, and as compared with other countries rare; except, perhaps,
the crested eagle2451,
which haunts the mountain provinces and the lower hills,
disquieting the peasantry by its ravages amongst their poultry; and
the gloomy serpent eagle2452,
which, descending from its eyrie in the lofty jungle, and uttering
a loud and plaintive cry, sweeps cautiously around the lonely tanks
and marshes, to feed upon the reptiles on their margin. The largest
eagle is the great sea Erne2453,
seen on the [pg 246] northern coasts and the salt lakes of
the eastern provinces, particularly when the receding tide leaves
bare an expanse of beach, over which it hunts, in company with the
fishing eagle2461,
sacred to Siva. Unlike its companions, however, the sea eagle
rejects garbage for living prey, and especially for the sea snakes
which abound on the northern coasts. These it seizes by descending
with its wings half closed, and, suddenly darting down its talons,
it soars aloft again with its writhing victim.2462
Hawks.—The beautiful Peregrine Falcon2463 is rare, but the Kestrel2464 is found almost universally;
and the bold and daring Goshawk2465
wherever wild crags and precipices afford safe breeding places. In
the district of Anarajapoora, where it is trained for hawking, it
is usual, in lieu of a hood, to darken its eyes by means of a
silken thread passed through holes in the eyelids. The ignoble
birds of prey, the Kites2466,
keep close by the shore, and hover round the returning boats of the
fishermen to feast on the fry rejected from their nets.
THE “DEVIL BIRD.”Owls.—Of the nocturnal accipitres the most
remarkable is the brown owl, which, from its hideous yell, has
acquired the name of the “Devil-Bird.”2467
The Singhalese [pg 247] regard it literally with horror, and
its scream by night in the vicinity of a village is bewailed as the
harbinger of impending calamity.2471
There is a popular legend in connection with it, to the effect that
a morose [pg 248] and savage husband, who suspected the
fidelity of his wife, availed himself of her absence to kill her
child, of whose paternity he was doubtful, and on her return placed
before her a curry prepared from its flesh. Of this the unhappy
woman partook, till discovering the crime by finding the finger of
her infant, she fled in frenzy to the forest, and there destroyed
herself. On her death she was metamorphosed, according to the
Buddhist belief, into an ulama, or Devil-bird, which still
at nightfall horrifies the villagers by repeating the frantic
screams of the bereaved mother in her agony.
II. PASSERES. Swallows.—Within thirty-five miles of
Caltura, on the western coast, are inland caves, to which the
Esculent Swift2481
resorts, and there builds the “edible bird’s nest,” so highly
prized in China. Near the spot a few Chinese immigrants have
established themselves, who rent the nests as a royalty from the
government, and make an annual export of the produce. But the
Swifts are not confined to this district, and caves containing
[pg
249] them have been found far in the interior, a fact which
complicates the still unexplained mystery of the composition of
their nest; and, notwithstanding the power of wing possessed by
these birds, adds something to the difficulty of believing that it
consists of glutinous material obtained from algæ.2491 In the nests brought to me
there was no trace of organisation; and the original material,
whatever it be, is so elaborated by the swallow as to present
somewhat the appearance and consistency of strings of isinglass.
The quantity of these nests exported from Ceylon is trifling.
Kingfishers.—In solitary places, where no sound
breaks the silence except the gurgle of the river as it sweeps
round the rocks, the lonely Kingfisher, the emblem of vigilance and
patience, sits upon an overhanging branch, his turquoise plumage
hardly less intense in its lustre than the deep blue of the sky
above him; and so intent is his watch upon the passing fish that
intrusion fails to scare him from his post.
Sun Birds.—In the gardens the tiny Sun Birds2492 (known as the Humming Birds of
Ceylon) hover all day long, attracted to the plants, over which
they hang poised on their glittering wings, and inserting their
curved beaks to extract the insects that nestle in the flowers.
Perhaps the most graceful of the birds of Ceylon in form and
motions, and the most chaste in colouring, is the one which
Europeans call “the Bird of Paradise,”2493
and [pg
250] natives “the Cotton Thief,” from the circumstance that
its tail consists of two long white feathers, which stream behind
it as it flies. Mr. Layard says:—”I have often watched them,
when seeking their insect prey, turn suddenly on their perch and
whisk their long tails with a jerk over the bough, as if to
protect them from injury.”
TCHITREA PARADISI.The tail is sometimes brown, and the natives have the idea that
the bird changes its plumage at stated periods, and that the
tail-feathers become white and brown in alternate years. The fact
of the variety of plumage is no doubt true, but this story as to
the alternation [pg 251] of colours in the same individual
requires confirmation.2511
The Bulbul.—The Condatchee Bulbul2512, which, from the crest on its
head, is called by the Singhalese the “Konda Cooroola,” or Tuft
bird, is regarded by the natives as the most “game” of
all birds; and training it to fight was one of the duties entrusted
by the Kings of Kandy to the Cooroowa, or Head-man, who had charge
of the King’s animals and Birds. For this purpose the Bulbul is
taken from the nest as soon as the sex is distinguishable by the
tufted crown; and secured by a string, is taught to fly from hand
to hand of its keeper. When pitted against an antagonist, such is
the obstinate courage of this little creature that it will sink
from exhaustion rather than release its hold. This propensity, and
the ordinary character of its notes, render it impossible that the
Bulbul of India could be identical with the Bulbul of Iran, the
“Bird of a Thousand Songs,”2513
of which, poets say that its delicate passion for the rose gives a
plaintive character to its note.
“CISSA PUELLA.”Tailor-Bird.—The Weaver-Bird.—The
tailor-bird2514
having completed her nest, sewing together leaves by passing
through them a cotton thread twisted by herself, leaps from branch
to branch to testify her happiness by [pg 252] a
clear and merry note; and the Indian weaver2521, a still more ingenious artist,
hangs its pendulous dwelling from a projecting bough; twisting it
with grass into a form somewhat resembling a bottle with a
prolonged neck, the entrance being inverted, so as to baffle the
approaches of its enemies, the tree snakes and other reptiles. The
natives assert that the male bird carries fire flies to the nest,
and fastens them to its sides by a particle of soft mud;—Mr.
Layard assures me that although he has never succeeded in finding
the fire fly, the nest of the male bird (for the female occupies
another during incubation) invariably contains a patch [pg 253] of mud
on each side of the perch. Grass is apparently the most convenient
material for the purposes of the Weaver-bird when constructing its
nest, but other substances are often substituted, and some nests
which I brought from Ceylon proved to be formed with delicate
strips from the fronds of the dwarf date-palm, Phoenix
paludosa, which happened to grow near the breeding place.
Amongst the birds of this order, one which, as far as I know, is
peculiar to the island is Layard’s Mountain-jay (Cissa
puella, Blyth and Layard), is distinguished not less by the
beautiful blue colour which enlivens its plumage, than by the
elegance of its form and the grace of its attitudes. It frequents
the hill country, and is found about the mountain streams at
Neuera-ellia, and elsewhere.2531
Crows.—Of all the Ceylon birds of this order the
most familiar and notorious are the small glossy crows, whose
shining black plumage shot with blue has suggested the title of
Corvus splendens.2532
They frequent the towns in companies, and domesticate themselves in
the close vicinity of every house; and it may possibly serve to
account for the familiarity and audacity which they exhibit in
their intercourse with men, that the Dutch during their sovereignty
in Ceylon, enforced severe penalties against any one killing a
crow, under the belief that they were instrumental in extending the
[pg
254] growth of cinnamon by feeding on the fruit, and thus
disseminating the undigested seed.2541
So accustomed are the natives to their presence and exploits,
that, like the Greeks and Romans, they have made the movements of
crows the basis of their auguries; and there is no end to the
vicissitudes of good and evil fortune which may not be predicted
from the direction of their flight, the hoarse or mellow notes of
their croaking, the variety of trees on which they rest, and the
numbers in which they are seen to assemble.
All day long these birds are engaged in watching either the
offal of the offices, or the preparation for meals in the
dining-room: and as doors and windows are necessarily opened to
relieve the heat, nothing is more common than the passage of a crow
across the room, lifting on the wing some ill-guarded morsel from
the dinner-table. No article, however unpromising its quality,
provided only it be portable, can with safety be left unguarded in
any apartment accessible to them. The contents of ladies’
work-boxes, kid gloves, and pocket handkerchiefs vanish instantly
if exposed near a window or open door. They open paper parcels to
ascertain the contents; they will undo the knot on a napkin if it
encloses anything eatable, and I have known a crow to extract the
peg which fastened the lid of a basket in order to plunder the
provender within.
On one occasion a nurse seated in a garden adjoining a
regimental mess-room, was terrified by seeing a bloody clasp-knife
drop from the air at her feet; but the mystery was explained on
learning that a crow, which had been watching the cook chopping
mince-meat, had seized [pg 255] the moment when his head was turned
to carry off the knife.
One of these ingenious marauders, after vainly attitudinising in
front of a chained watch-dog, that was lazily gnawing a bone, and
after fruitlessly endeavouring to divert his attention by dancing
before him, with head awry and eye askance, at length flew away for
a moment, and returned bringing a companion which perched itself on
a branch a few yards in the rear. The crow’s grimaces were now
actively renewed, but with no better success, till its confederate,
poising itself on its wings, descended with the utmost velocity,
striking the dog upon the spine with all the force of its strong
beak. The ruse was successful; the dog started with surprise
and pain, but not quickly enough to seize his assailant, whilst the
bone he had been gnawing was snatched away by the first crow the
instant his head was turned. Two well-authenticated instances of
the recurrence of this device came within my knowledge at Colombo,
and attest the sagacity and powers of communication and combination
possessed by these astute and courageous birds.
On the approach of evening the crows near Colombo assemble in
noisy groups along the margin of the freshwater lake which
surrounds the fort on the eastern side; and here for an hour or two
they enjoy the luxury of throwing the water over their shining
backs, and arranging their plumage decorously, after which they
disperse, each taking the direction of his accustomed quarters for
the night.2551
During the storms which usher in the monsoon, it has been
observed, that when coco-nut palms are destroyed by lightning, the
effect frequently extends beyond a single tree, and from the
contiguity and conduction of the spreading leaves, or some other
peculiar cause, large groups will be affected by a single flash, a
few killed instantly, and the rest doomed to rapid decay. In
Belligam Bay, a little to the east of Point-de-Galle, a small
island, which is covered with coco-nuts, has acquired the name of
“Crow Island,” from being the resort of those birds, which are seen
hastening towards it in thousands towards sunset. A few years ago,
during a violent storm of thunder, such was the destruction of the
crows that the beach for some distance was covered with a black
line of their remains, and the grove on which they had been resting
was to a great extent destroyed by the same flash.2561
III. SCANSORES. Parroquets.—Of the Psittacidæ
the only examples are the parroquets, of which the most renowned is
the Palæornis Alexandri, which has the historic
distinction of bearing the name of the great conqueror of India,
having been the first of its race introduced to the knowledge of
Europe on the return of his expedition. An idea of their number may
be formed from the following statement of Mr. Layard, as to the
multitudes which are to be found on the western coast. “At Chilaw,
I have seen such vast flights of parroquets hurrying towards the
coco-nut trees which overhang the [pg 257] bazaar, that their noise
drowned the Babel of tongues bargaining for the evening provisions.
Hearing of the swarms that resorted to this spot, I posted myself
on a bridge some half mile distant, and attempted to count the
flocks which came from a single direction to the eastward. About
four o’clock in the afternoon, straggling parties began to wend
towards home, and in the course of half an hour the current fairly
set in. But I soon found that I had no longer distinct flocks to
count, it became one living screaming stream. Some flew high in the
air till right above their homes, and dived abruptly downward with
many evolutions till on a level with the trees; others kept along
the ground and dashed close by my face with the rapidity of
thought, their brilliant plumage shining with an exquisite lustre
in the sun-light. I waited on the spot till the evening closed,
when I could hear, though no longer distinguish, the birds fighting
for their perches, and on firing a shot they rose with a noise like
the ‘rushing of a mighty wind,’ but soon settled again, and such a
din commenced as I shall never forget; the shrill screams of the
birds, the fluttering of their innumerable wings, and the rustling
of the leaves of the palm trees was almost deafening, and I was
glad at last to escape to the Government Rest House.”2571
IV. COLUMBIDÆ. Pigeons.—Of pigeons and doves
there are at least a dozen species. Some live entirely on
trees2572, never alighting on the ground;
others, notwithstanding the abundance of food and warmth, are
[pg
258] migratory2581,
allured, as the Singhalese allege, by the ripening of the cinnamon
berries, and hence one species is known in the southern provinces
as the “Cinnamon Dove.” Others feed on the fruits of the banyan:
and it is probably to their instrumentality that this marvellous
tree chiefly owes its diffusion, its seeds being carried by them to
remote localities. A very beautiful pigeon, peculiar to the
mountain range, discovered in the lofty trees at Neuera-ellia, has,
in compliment to the Viscountess Torrington, been named
Carpophaga Torringtoniæ.
Another, called by the natives neela-cobeya2582, although strikingly elegant
both in shape and colour, is still more remarkable for the
singularly soothing effect of its low and harmonious voice. A
gentleman who has spent many years in the jungle, in writing to me
of this bird and of the effects of its melodious song, says, that
“its soft and melancholy notes, as they came from some solitary
place in the forest, were the most gentle sounds I ever listened
to. Some sentimental smokers assert that the influence of the
propensity is to make them feel as if they could freely forgive
all who had ever offended them; and I can say with truth such
has been the effect on my own nerves of the plaintive murmurs of
the neela-cobeya, that sometimes, when irritated, and not without
reason, by the perverseness of some of my native followers, the
feeling has almost instantly subsided into placidity on suddenly
hearing the loving tones of these beautiful birds.”
V. GALLINÆ. The Ceylon Jungle-fowl.—The
jungle-fowl of Ceylon2591
is shown by the peculiarity of its plumage to be not only distinct
from the Indian species, but peculiar to the island. It has never
yet bred or survived long in captivity, and no living specimens
have been successfully transmitted to Europe. It abounds in all
parts of the island, but chiefly in the lower ranges of mountains;
and one of the vivid memorials which are associated with our
journeys through the hills, is its clear cry, which sounds like a
person calling “George Joyce,”2592
and rises at early morning amidst mist and dew, giving life to the
scenery, that has scarcely yet been touched by the sun-light.
The female of this handsome bird was figured many years ago by
Dr. GRAY in his illustrations of “Indian Zoology,” under the
name of G. Stanleyi. The cock bird subsequently received
from LESSON, the name by which the species is now known: but its
habitat was not discovered, until a specimen having been forwarded
from Ceylon to Calcutta, Dr. BLYTH recognised it as the
long-sought-for male of Dr. Gray’s specimen.
Another of the Gallinæ of Ceylon, remarkable for the
delicate pencillings of its plumage, as well as for the peculiarity
of the double spur, from which it has acquired its trivial name, is
the Galloperdix bicalcaratus, of which a figure is given
from a drawing by Mr. Gould.
GALLOPERDIX BICALCARATUS.VI. GRALLÆ.—On reaching the marshy plains and
shallow lagoons on either side of the island, the astonishment of
the stranger is excited by the endless multitudes of stilt-birds
and waders which stand in long array within the wash of the water,
or sweep in vast clouds above it. Ibises2601, storks2602, egrets, spoonbills2603, herons2604, and the smaller races of sand
larks and plovers, are seen busily traversing the wet sand, in
search of the red worm which burrows there, or peering with steady
eye to watch the motions of the small fry and aquatic insects in
the ripple on the shore.
VII. ANSERES.—Preeminent in size and beauty, the
[pg
261] tall flamingoes2611,
with rose-coloured plumage, line the beach in long files. The
Singhalese have been led, from their colour and their military
order, to designate them the “English Soldier birds.”
Nothing can be more startling than the sudden flight of these
splendid creatures when alarmed; their strong wings beating the air
with a sound like distant thunder; and as they soar over head, the
flock which appeared almost white but a moment before, is converted
into crimson by the sudden display of the red lining of their
wings. A peculiarity in the beak of this bird has scarcely
attracted the attention it merits, as a striking illustration of
creative wisdom in adapting the organs of animals to their local
necessities.
FLAMINGO.The upper mandible, which is convex in other birds, is flattened
in the flamingo, whilst the lower, instead of being flat, is
convex. To those who have had an opportunity of witnessing the
action of the bird in its native haunts, the expediency of this
arrangement is at once apparent. To counteract the extraordinary
length of its legs, it is provided with a proportionately long
neck, so that in feeding in shallow water the crown of the head
becomes inverted and the upper mandible brought into contact with
the bottom; where its flattened surface qualifies it for performing
the functions of the lower one in birds of the same class; and the
edges of both being laminated, it is thus enabled, like the duck,
by the aid of its fleshy tongue, to sift before swallowing its
food.
Floating on the surface of the deeper water, are fleets of the
Anatidæ, the Coromandel teal2621,
the Indian hooded gull2622,
the Caspian tern, and a countless variety of ducks and smaller
fowl—pintails2623,
teal2624, red-crested pochards2625, shovellers2626, and terns.2627 Pelicans2628 in great numbers resort to the
mouths of the rivers, taking up their position at sunrise on some
projecting rock, from which to dart on the passing fish, and
returning far inland at night to their retreats among the trees,
which overshadow some solitary river or deserted tank.
I chanced upon one occasion to come unexpectedly upon one of
these remarkable breeding places during a visit which I made to the
great tank of Padivil, one of those gigantic constructions by which
the early kings of Ceylon have left imperishable records of their
reigns.
It is situated in the depth of the forests to the north-west of
Trincomalie; and the tank is itself the basin of a broad and
shallow valley, enclosed between two lines of low hills, that
gradually sink into the plain as they approach towards the sea. The
extreme breadth of the included space may be twelve or fourteen
miles, narrowing to eleven at the spot where the retaining bund has
been constructed across the valley; and when this enormous
embankment was in effectual repair, and the reservoir filled by the
rains, the water must have been thrown back along the basin of the
valley for at least fifteen miles. It is difficult now to determine
the precise distances, as the overgrowth of wood and jungle has
obliterated all lines left by the original level of the lake at its
junction with the forest. Even when we rode along it, the centre of
the tank was deeply submerged, so that notwithstanding the partial
escape, the water still covered an area of ten miles in diameter.
Even now its depth when full must be very considerable, for high on
the branches of the trees that grow in the area, the last flood had
left quantities of driftwood and withered grass; and the rocks and
banks were coated with the yeasty foam, that remains after the
subsidence of an agitated flood.
The bed of the tank was difficult to ride over, being still soft
and treacherous, although covered everywhere with tall and waving
grass; and in every direction it was poched into deep holes by the
innumerable elephants that had congregated to roll in the soft mud,
to bathe in the collected water, or to luxuriate in the rich
herbage, under the cool shade of the trees. The ground, too, was
thrown up into hummocks like great molehills which, the natives
told us, were formed by a huge earthworm, [pg 264] common
in Ceylon, nearly two feet in length, and as thick as a small
snake. Through these inequalities the water was still running off
in natural drains towards the great channel in the centre, that
conducts it to the broken sluice; and across these it was sometimes
difficult to find a safe footing for our horses.
In a lonely spot, towards the very centre of the tank, we came
unexpectedly upon an extraordinary scene. A sheet of still water,
two or three hundred yards broad, and about half a mile long, was
surrounded by a line of tall forest-trees, whose branches stretched
above its margin. The sun had not yet risen, when we perceived some
white objects in large numbers on the tops of the trees; and as we
came nearer, we discovered that a vast colony of pelicans had
formed their settlement and breeding-place in this solitary
retreat. They literally covered the trees in hundreds; and their
heavy nests, like those of the swan, constructed of large sticks,
forming great platforms, were sustained by the horizontal branches.
Each nest contained three eggs, rather larger than those of a
goose; and the male bird stood placidly beside the female as she
sat upon them.
Nor was this all; along with the pelicans prodigious numbers of
other water-birds had selected this for their dwelling-place, and
covered the trees in thousands, standing on the topmost branches;
tall flamingoes, herons, egrets, storks, ibises, and other waders.
We had disturbed them thus early, before their habitual hour for
betaking themselves to their fishing-fields. By degrees, as the
light increased, we saw them beginning to move upon the trees; they
looked around them on every side, stretched their awkward legs
behind them, extended their broad wings, gradually rose in groups,
[pg
265] and slowly soared away in the direction of the
seashore.
The pelicans were apparently later in their movements; they
allowed us to approach as near them as the swampy nature of the
soil would permit; and even when a gun was discharged amongst them,
only those moved off which the particles of shot disturbed. They
were in such numbers at this favourite place; that the water over
which they had taken up their residence was swarming with
crocodiles, attracted by the frequent fall of the young birds; and
the natives refused, from fear of them, to wade in for one of the
larger pelicans which had fallen, struck by a rifle ball. It was
altogether a very remarkable sight.
Of the birds familiar to European sportsmen, partridges and
quails are to be had at all times; the woodcock has occasionally
been shot in the hills, and the ubiquitous snipe, which arrives in
September from Southern India, is identified not alone by the
eccentricity of its flight, but by retaining in high perfection the
qualities which have endeared it to the gastronome at home. But the
magnificent pheasants, which inhabit the Himalayan range and the
woody hills of the Chin-Indian peninsula, have no representative
amongst the tribes that people the woods of Ceylon; although a bird
believed to be a pheasant has more than once been seen in the
jungle, close to Rangbodde, on the road to Neuera-ellia.
List of Ceylon Birds.
In submitting this Catalogue of the birds of Ceylon, I am
anxious to state that the copious mass of its contents [pg 266] is
mainly due to the untiring energy and exertions of my friend, Mr.
E.L. Layard. Nearly every bird in the list has fallen by his gun;
so that the most ample facilities have been thus provided, not only
for extending the limited amount of knowledge which formerly
existed on this branch of the zoology of the island; but for
correcting, by actual comparison with recent specimens, the errors
which had previously prevailed as to imperfectly described species.
The whole of Mr. Layard’s fine collection is at present in
England.
ACCIPITRES.
- Aquila
- Bonelli, Temm.
- pennata, Gm.
- Spizaëtus
- Nipalensis, Hodgs.
- limnæëtus, Horsf.
- Ictinaëtus
- Malayensis, Reinw.
- Hæmatornis
- Bacha, Daud.
- spilogaster, Blyth.
- Pontoaëtus
- leucogaster, Gm.
- ichthyaëtus, Horsf.
- Haliastur
- Indus, Bodd.
- Falco
- peregrinus, Linn.
- peregrinator, Sund.
- Tinnunculus
- alaudarius, Briss.
- Hypotriorchis
- chicquera, Daud.
- Baza
- lophotes, Cuv.
- Milvus
- govinda, Sykes.
- Elanus
- melanopterus, Daud.
- Astur
- trivirgatus, Temm.
- Accipiter
- badius, Gm.
- Circus
- Swainsonii, A. Smith.
- cinerascens, Mont.
- melanoleucos, Gm.
- æruginosus, Linn.
- Athene
- castonatus, Blyth.
- scutulata, Raffles.
- Ephialtes
- scops, Linn.
- lempijii, Horsf.
- sunia, Hodgs.
- Ketupa
- Ceylonensis, Gm.
- Syrnium
- Indranee, Sykes.
- Strix
- Javanica, Gm.
PASSERES.
- Batrachostomus
- moniliger, Layard.
- Caprimulgus
- Mahrattensis, Sykes.
- Kelaarti, Blyth.
- Asiaticus, Lath.
- Cypselus
- batassiensis, Gray.
- melba, Linn.
- affinis, Gray.
- Macropteryx
- coronatus, Tickell.
- Collocalia
- brevirostris, McClel.
- Acanthylis
- caudacuta, Lath.
- Hirundo
- panayana, Gm.
- daurica, Linn.
- hyperythra, Layard.
- domicola, Jerdon.
- Coracias
- Indica, Linn.
- Harpactes
- fasciatus, Gm.
- Eurystomus
- orientalis, Linn.
- Halcyon
- Capensis, Linn.
- atricapillus, Gm.
- Smyrnensis, Linn.
- Ceyx
- tridactyla, Linn.
- Alcedo
- Bengalensis, Gm.
- Ceryle
- rudis, Linn.
- Merops
- Philippinus, Linn.
- viridis, Linn.
- quincticolor, Vieill.
- Upupa
- nigripennis, Gould.
- Nectarina
- Zeylanica, Linn.
- minima, Sykes.
- Asiatica, Lath.
- Lotenia, Linn.
- Dicæum
- minimum, Tickell.
- Phyllornis
- Malabarica, Lath.
- Jerdoni, Blyth.
- Dendrophila
- frontalis, Horsf.
- Piprisoma
- agile, Blyth.
- Orthotomus
- longicauda, Gm.
- Cisticola
- cursitans, Frankl.
- omalura, Blyth.
- Drymoica
- valida, Blyth.
- inornata, Sykes.
- Prinia
- socialis, Sykes.
- Acrocephalus
- dumetorum, Blyth.
- Phyllopneuste
- nitidus, Blyth.
- montanus, Blyth.
- viridanus, Blyth.
- Copsychus
- saularis, Linn.
- Kittacincla
- macrura, Gm.
- Pratincola
- caprata, Linn.
- atrata, Kelaart.
- Calliope
- cyanea, Hodgs.
- Thamnobia
- fulicata, Linn.
- Cyanecula
- Suecica, Linn.
- Sylvia
- affinis, Blyth.
- Parus
- cinereus, Vieill.
- Zosterops
- Iöra
- Zeylanica, Gm.
- typhia, Linn.
- Motacilla
- sulphurea, Becks.
- Indica, Gm.
- Madraspatana, Briss.
- Budytes
- viridis, Gm.
- Anthus
- rutulus, Vieill.
- Richardii, Vieill.
- striolatus, Blyth.
- Brachypteryx
- Palliseri, Kelaart.
- Alcippe
- nigrifrons, Blyth.
- Pitta
- brachyura, Jerd.
- Oreocincla
- spiloptera, Blyth.
- Merula
- Wardii, Jerd.
- Kinnisii, Kelaart.
- Zoothera
- imbricata, Layard.
- Garrulax
- cinereifrons, Blyth.
- Pormatorhinus
- melanurus, Blyth.
- Malacocercus
- rufescens, Blyth.
- griseus, Gm.
- striatus, Swains.
- Pellorneum
- fuscocapillum, Blyth.
- Dumetia
- albogularis, Blyth.
- Chrysomma
- Sinense, Gm.
- Oriolus
- melanocephalus, Linn.
- Indicus, Briss.
- Criniger
- ictericus, Stickl.
- Pycnonotus
- pencillatus, Kelaart.
- flavirictus, Strickl.
- hæmorrhous, Gm.
- atricapillus, Vieill.
- Hemipus
- picatus, Sykes.
- Hypsipetes
- Nilgherriensis, Jerd.
- Cyornis
- rubeculoïdes, Vig.
- Myiagra
- azurea, Bodd.
- Cryptolopha
- cinereocapilla, Vieill.
- Leucocerca
- compressirostris, Blyth.
- Tchitrea
- paradisi, Linn.
- *Butalis
- latirostris, Raffles.
- Muttui, Layard.
- Stoparola
- melanops, Vig.
- Pericrocotus
- flammeus, Forst.
- peregrinus, Linn.
- Campephaga
- Macei, Less.
- Sykesii, Strickl.
- Artamus
- fuscus, Vieill.
- Edolius
- paradiseus, Gm.
- Dicrurus
- macrocereus, Vieill.
- edoliformis, Blyth.
- longicaudatus, A. Hoy.
- leucopygialis, Blyth.
- cærulescens, Linn.
- Irena
- puella, Lath.
- Lanius
- superciliosus, Lath.
- erythronotus, Vig.
- Tephrodornis
- affinis, Blyth.
- Cissa
- puella, Blyth & Layard.
- Corvus
- splendens, Vieill.
- culminatus, Sykes.
- Eulabes
- religiosa, Linn.
- ptilogenys, Blyth.
- Pastor
- roseus, Linn.
- Hetærornis
- pagodarum, Gm.
- albifrontata, Layard.
- Acridotheres
- tristis, Linn.
- Ploceus
- manyar, Horsf.
- baya, Blyth.
- Munia
- undulata, Latr.
- Malabarica, Linn.
- Malacca, Linn.
- rubronigra, Hodgs.
- striata, Linn.
- Kelaarti, Blyth.
- Passer
- Indicus, Jard. & Selb.
- Alauda
- gulgula, Frank.
- Malabarica, Scop.
- Pyrrhulauda
- grisea, Scop.
- Mirafra
- affinis, Jerd.
- Buceros
- gingalensis, Shaw.
- Malabaricus, Jerd.
SCANSORES.
- Loriculus
- Asiaticus, Lath.
- Palæcornis
- Alexandri, Linn.
- torquatus, Briss.
- cyanocephalus, Linn.
- Calthropæ, Layard.
- Megalaima
- Indica, Latr.
- Zeylanica, Gmel.
- flavifrons, Cuv.
- rubicapilla, Gm.
- Picus
- gymnophthalmus, Blth.
- Mahrattensis, Lath.
- Macei, Vieill.
- Gecinus
- chlorophanes, Vieill.
- Brachypternus
- aurantius, Linn.
- Ceylonus, Forst.
- rubescens, Vieill.
- Stricklandi, Layard.
- Micropternus
- gularis, Jerd.
- Centropus
- rufipennis, Illiger.
- chlororhynchos, Blyth.
- Oxylophus
- melanoleucos, Gm.
- Coromandus, Linn.
- Endynamys
- orientalis, Linn.
- Cuculus
- Poliocephalus, Lath.
- striatus, Drapiex.
- canorus, Linn.
- Polyphasia
- tenuirostris, Gray.
- Sonneratii, Lath.
- Hierococcyx
- varius, Vahl.
- Surniculus
- dicruroïdes, Hodgs.
- Phoenicophaus
- pyrrhocephalus, Forst.
- Zanclostomus
- viridirostris, Jerd.
COLUMBÆ.
- Treron
- bicincta, Jerd.
- flavogularis, Blyth.
- Pompadoura, Gm.
- chlorogaster, Blyth.
- Carpophaga
- pusilla, Blyth.
- Torringtoniæ, Kelaart.
- Alsocomus
- puniceus, Tickel.
- Columba
- intermedia, Strickl.
- Turtur
- risorius, Linn.
- Suratensis, Lath.
- humilis, Temm.
- orientalis, Lath.
- Chalcophaps
- Indicus, Linn.
GALLINÆ.
- Pavo
- cristatus, Linn.
- Gallus
- Lafayetti, Lesson.
- Galloperdix
- bicalcaratus, Linn.
- Francolinus
- Ponticerianus, Gm.
- Perdicula
- Coturnix
- Chinensis, Linn.
- Turnix ocellatus
- var. Bengalensis, Blyth.
- var. taigoor, Sykes.
GRALLÆ.
- Esacus
- recurvirostris, Cuv.
- Oedienemus
- crepitans, Temm.
- Cursorius
- Coromandelicus, Gm.
- Lobivanellus
- bilobus, Gm.
- Göensis, Gm.
- Charadrius
- virginicus, Bechs.
- Hiaticula
- Philippensis, Scop.
- Cantiana, Lath.
- Leschenaultii, Less.
- Strepsilas
- Interpres, Linn.
- Ardea
- purpurea, Linn.
- cinerea, Linn.
- asha, Sykes.
- intermedia, Wagler.
- garzetta, Linn.
- alba, Linn.
- bubulcus, Savig.
- Ardeola
- leucoptera, Bodd.
- Ardetta
- cinnamomea, Gm.
- flavicollis, Lath.
- Sinensis, Gm.
- Butoroides
- Javanica, Horsf.
- Platalea
- leucorodia, Linn.
- Nycticorax
- griseus, Linn.
- Tigrisoma
- melanolopha, Raffl.
- Mycteria
- australis, Shaw.
- Leptophilus
- Javanica, Horsf.
- Ciconia
- leucocephala, Gm.
- Anastomus
- oscitans, Bodd.
- Tantalus
- leucocephalus, Gm.
- Geronticus
- melanocephalus, Lath.
- Falcinellus
- igneus, Gm.
- Numenias
- arquatus, Linn.
- phæopus, Linn.
- Totanus
- fuscus, Linn.
- calidris, Linn.
- glottis, Linn.
- stagnalis, Bechst.
- Actitis
- glareola, Gm.
- ochropus, Linn.
- hypoleucos, Linn.
- Tringa
- minuta, Leist.
- subarquata, Gm.
- Limicola
- platyrhyncha, Temm.
- Limosa
- ægocephala, Linn.
- Himantopus
- candidus, Bon.
- Recurvirostra
- avocetta, Linn.
- Hæmatopus
- ostralegus, Linn.
- Rhynchoea
- Bengalensis, Linn.
- Scolopax
- rusticola, Linn.
- Gallinago
- stenura, Temm.
- scolopacina, Bon.
- gallinula, Linn.
- Hydrophasianus
- Sinensis, Gm.
- Ortygometra
- rubiginosa, Temm.
- Corethura
- Zeylanica, Gm.
- Rallus
- striatus, Linn.
- Indicus, Blyth.
- Porphyrio
- poliocephalus, Lath.
- Porzana
- pygmæa, Nan.
- Gallinula
- phoenicura, Penn.
- chloropus, Linn.
- cristata, Lath.
ANSERES.
- Phoenicopterus
- ruber, Linn.
- Sarkidiornis
- melanonotos, Penn.
- Nettapus
- Coromandelianus, Gm.
- Anas
- poecilorhyncha, Penn.
- Dendrocygnus
- arcuatus, Cuv.
- Dafila
- acuta, Linn.
- Querquedula
- crecca, Linn.
- circia, Linn.
- Fuligula
- rufina, Pall.
- Spatula
- clypeata, Linn.
- Podiceps
- Philippensis, Gm.
- Larus
- brunnicephalus, Jerd.
- ichthyaëtus, Pall.
- Sylochelidon
- Caspius, Lath.
- Hydrochelidon
- Indicus, Steph.
- Gelochelidon
- Anglicus, Mont.
- Onychoprion
- anasthætus, Scop.
- Sterna
- Javanica, Horsf.
- melanogaster, Temm.
- minuta, Linn.
- Seena
- aurantia, Gray.
- Thalasseus
- Bengalensis, Less.
- cristata, Stepth.
- Dromas
- ardeola, Payk.
- Atagen
- ariel, Gould.
- Thalassidroma
- melanogaster, Gould.
- Plotus
- melanogaster, Gm.
- Pelicanus
- Philippensis, Gm.
- Graculus
- Sinensis, Shaw.
- pygmæus, Pallas.
NOTE.
The following is a list of the birds which are, as far as is at
present known, peculiar to the island; it will probably be
determined at some future day that some included in it have a wider
geographical range.
Hæmatornis spilogaster. The “Ceylon eagle;” was discovered
by Mr. Layard in the Wanny, and by Dr. Kelaart at Trincomalie.
Athene castonotus. The chestnut-winged hawk owl. This pretty
little owl was added to the list of Ceylon birds by Dr. Templeton.
Mr. Blyth is at present of opinion that this bird is identical with
Ath. Castanopterus, Horsf. of Java as figured by Temminck:
P. Col.
Batrachostomus moniliger. The oil bird; was discovered amongst
the precipitous rocks of the Adam’s Peak range by Mr. Layard.
Another specimen was sent about the same time to Sir James Emerson
Tennent from Avisavelle. Mr. Mitford has met with it at
Ratnapoora.
Caprimulgus Kelaarti. Kelaart’s nightjar; swarms on the marshy
plains of Neuera-ellia at dusk.
Hirundo hyperythra. The red-bellied swallow; was discovered in
1849, by Mr. Layard at Ambepusse. They build a globular nest, with
a round hole at top. A pair built in the ring for a hanging lamp in
Dr. Gardner’s study at Peradenia, and hatched their young,
undisturbed by the daily trimming and lighting of the lamp.
Cisticola omalura. Layard’s mountain grass warbler; is found in
abundance on Horton Plain and Neuera-ellia, among the long Patena
grass.
Drymoica valida. Layard’s wren-warbler; frequents tufts of grass
and low bushes, feeding on insects.
Pratincola atrata. The Neuera-ellia robin; a melodious songster;
added to our catalogue by Dr. Kelaart.
Brachypteryx Palliseri. Ant thrush. A rare bird, added by Dr.
Kelaart from Dimboola and Neuera-ellia.
Pellorneum fuscocapillum. Mr. Layard found two specimens of this
rare thrush creeping about shrubs and bushes, feeding on
insects.
Alcippe nigrifrons. This thrush frequents low impenetrable
thickets, and seems to be widely distributed.
Oreocincla spiloptera. The spotted thrush is only found in the
mountain zone about lofty trees.
Merula Kinnisii. The Neuera-ellia blackbird; was added by Dr.
Kelaart.
Garrulax cinereifrons. The ashy-headed babbler; was found by Mr.
Layard near Ratnapoora.
Pomatorhinus melanurus. Mr. Layard states that the mountain
babbler frequents low, scraggy, impenetrable brush, along the
margins of deserted cheena land. This may turn out to be little
more than a local yet striking variety of P. Horsfieldii of the
Indian Peninsula.
Malacocercus rufescens. The red dung thrush added by Dr.
Templeton to the Singhalese Fauna, is found in thick jungle in the
southern and midland districts.
Pycnonotus penicillatus. The yellow-eared bulbul; was found by
Dr. Kelaart at Neuera-ellia.
Butalis Muttui. This very handsome flycatcher was procured at
Point Pedro, by Mr. Layard.
Dicrurus edoliformis. Dr. Templeton found this kingcrow at the
Bibloo Oya. Mr. Layard has since got it at Ambogammoa.
Dicrurus leucopygialis. The Ceylon kingcrow was sent to Mr.
Blyth from the vicinity of Colombo, by Dr. Templeton. A species
very closely allied to D. coerulescens of the Indian continent.
Tephrodornis affinis. The Ceylon butcher-bird. A migatory
species found in the wooded grass lands in October.
Cissa puella. Layard’s mountain jay. A most lovely bird, found
along mountain streams at Neuera-ellia and elsewhere.
Eulabes ptilogenys. Templeton’s mynah. The largest and most
beautiful of the species. It is found in flocks perching on the
highest trees, feeding on berries.
Munia Kelaarti. This Grosbeak previously assumed to be M.
pectoralls of Jerdon; is most probably peculiar to Ceylon.
Loriculus asiaticus. The small parroquet, abundant in various
districts.
Palæornis Calthropæ. Layard’s purple-headed
parroquet, found at Kandy, is a very handsome bird, flying in
flocks, and resting on the summits of the very highest trees. Dr.
Kelaart states that it is the only parroquet of the Neuera-ellia
range.
Megalaima flavifrons. The yellow-headed barbet, is not
uncommon.
Megalaima rubricapilla, is found in most parts of the
island.
Picus gymnophthalmus. Layard’s woodpecker. The smallest of the
species, was discovered near Colombo, amongst jak-trees.
Brachypternus Ceylonus. The Ceylon woodpecker, is found in
abundance near Neuera-ellia.
Brachypternus rubescens. The red woodpecker.
Centropus chlororhynchus. The yellow-billed cuckoo, was detected
by Mr. Layard in dense jungle near Colombo and Avisavelle.
Phoenicophaus pyrrhocephalus. The malkoha, is confined to the
southern highlands.
Treron Pompadoura. The Pompadour pigeon. “The Prince of Canino
has shown that this is a totally distinct bird from Tr.
flavogularis, with which it was confounded: it is much smaller,
with the quantity of maroon colour on the mantle greatly
reduced.”—Paper by Mr. BLYTH, Mag. Nat. Hist. p. 514:
1857.
Carpophaga Torringtoniæ. Lady Torrington’s pigeon; a very
handsome pigeon discovered in the highlands by Dr. Kelaart. It
flies high in long sweeps, and makes its nest on the loftiest
trees. Mr. Blyth is of opinion that it is no more than a local
race, barely separable from C. Elphinstonii of the Nilgiris and
Malabar coast.
Carpophaga pusilla. The little-hill dove a migratory species
found by Mr. Layard in the mountain zone, only appearing with the
ripened fruit of the teak, banyan, &c., on which they feed.
Gallus Lafayetti.—The Ceylon jungle fowl. The female of
this handsome bird was figured by Mr. GRAY (Ill. Ind. Zool.)
under the name of G. Stanleyi. The cock bird had long been lost to
naturalists, until a specimen was forwarded by Dr. Templeton to Mr.
Blyth, who at once recognised it as the long-looked-for male of Mr.
Gray’s recently described female. It is abundant in all the
uncultivated portions of Ceylon; coming out into the open spaces to
feed in the mornings and evenings. Mr. Blyth states that there can
be no doubt that Hardwicke’s published figure refers to the hen of
this species, long afterwards termed G. Lafayetti.
Galloperdix bicalcaratus. Not uncommon in suitable
situations.
Footnote 2413: (return)Copsychussaularis, Linn.. Called by the Europeans in
Ceylon the “Magpie Robin.” This is not to be confounded with the
other popular favourite the “Indian Robin” (Thamnobia fulicata,
Linn.), which is “never seen in the unfrequented jungle,
but, like the coco-nut palm, which the Singhalese assert will only
flourish within the sound of the human voice, it is always found
near the habitations of men.”—E.L. LAYARD.
Footnote 2421: (return)The greater red-headed Barbet (Megalaima indica, Lath.;
M. Philippensis, var. A. Lath.), the incessant din of which
resembles the blows of a smith hammering a cauldron.
Footnote 2423: (return)Buceros pica, Scop.; B. Malaharicus, Jerd. The
natives assert that B. pica builds in holes in the trees, and that
when incubation has fairly commenced, the female takes her seat on
the eggs, and the male closes up the orifice by which she entered,
leaving only a small aperture through which he feeds his partner,
whilst she successfully guards their treasures from the monkey
tribes; her formidable bill nearly filling the entire entrance. See
a paper by Edgar L. Layard, Esq. Mag. Nat. Hist. March,
1853. Dr. Horsfield had previously observed the same habit in a
species of Buceros in Java. (See HORSFIELD and MOORE’S Catal.
Birds, E.I. Comp. Mus. vol. ii.) It is curious that a similar
trait, though necessarily from very different instincts, is
exhibited by the termites, who literally build a cell round the
great progenitrix of the community, and feed her through
apertures.
Footnote 2424: (return)The hornbill is also frugivorous, and the natives assert that
when endeavouring to detach a fruit, if the stem is too tough to be
severed by his mandibles, he flings himself off the branch so as to
add the weight of his body to the pressure of his beak. The
hornbill abounds in Cuttack, and bears there the name of
“Kuchila-Kai,” or Kuchila-eater, from its partiality for the fruit
of the Strychnus nuxvomica. The natives regard its flesh as a
sovereign specific for rheumatic affections.—Asiat.
Res. ch. xv. p. 184.
Footnote 2431: (return)Itinerarius FRATRIS ODORICI, de Foro Julii de
Portu-vahonis, &c.—HAKLUYT, vol. ii. p. 39.
Footnote 2451: (return)Spizaëtuslimnaëtus, Horsf. The race of these
birds in the Deccan and Ceylon are rather more crested, originating
the Sp. Cristatellus, Auct.
Footnote 2462: (return)E.L. Layard. Europeans have given this bird the name of the
“Brahminy Kite,” probably from observing the superstitious feeling
of the natives regarding it, who believe that when two armies are
about to engage, its appearance prognosticates victory to the party
over whom it hovers.
Footnote 2466: (return)Milvus govinda, Sykes. Dr. Hamilton Buchanan remarks that
when gorged this bird delights to sit on the entablature of
buildings, exposing its back to the hottest rays of the sun,
placing its breast against the wall, and stretching out its wings
exactly as the Egyptian Hawk is represented on the
monuments.
Footnote 2467: (return)Syrnium Indranee, Sykes. Mr. Blyth writes to me from
Calcutta that there are some doubts about this bird. There would
appear to be three or four distinguishable races, the Ceylon bird
approximating most nearly to that of the Malayan Peninsula.
Footnote 2471: (return)The horror of this nocturnal scream was equally prevalent in the
West as in the East. Ovid introduces it in his Fasti, L. vi.
l. 139; and Tibullus in his Elegies, L. i. El. 5. Statius
says—Nocturnæque gemunt striges, et feralla bubo
Damna canens. Theb. iii. l. 511.
But Pliny, l. xi. c. 93, doubts as to what bird produced the
sound;—and the details of Ovid’s description do not apply to
an owl.Mr. Mitford, of the Ceylon Civil Service, to whom I am indebted
for many valuable notes relative to the birds of the island,
regards the identification of the Singhalese Devil-Bird as open to
similar doubt: he says—”The Devil-Bird is not an owl. I never
heard it until I came to Kornegalle, where it haunts the rocky hill
at the back of Government-house. Its ordinary note is a magnificent
clear shout like that of a human being, and which can be heard at a
great distance, and has a fine effect in the silence of the closing
night. It has another cry like that of a hen just caught, but the
sounds which have earned for it its bad name, and which I have
heard but once to perfection, are indescribable, the most appalling
that can be imagined, and scarcely to be heard without shuddering;
I can only compare it to a boy in torture, whose screams are being
stopped by being strangled. I have offered rewards for a specimen,
but without success. The only European who had seen and fired at
one agreed with the natives that it is of the size of a pigeon,
with a long tail. I believe it is a Podargus or Night Hawk.” In a
subsequent note he further says—”I have since seen two birds
by moonlight, one of the size and shape of a cuckoo, the other a
large black bird, which I imagine to be the one which gives these
calls.”
Footnote 2491: (return)An epitome of what has been written on this subject will be
found in Dr. Horsfield’s Catalogue of the Birds in the E.I.
Comp. Museum, vol. i. p. 101, &c. Mr. Morris assures me, that
he has found the nests of the Esculent Swallow eighty miles distant
from the sea.
Footnote 2511: (return)The engraving of the Tchitrea given on page 244 is copied by
permission from one of the splendid drawings in. MR. GOULD’S
Birds of India.
Footnote 2513: (return)“Hazardasitaum” the Persian name for the bulbul. “The Persians,”
according to Zakary ben Mohamed al Caswini, “say the bulbul has a
passion for the rose, and laments and cries when he sees it
pulled.”—OUSELEY’S Oriental Collections, vol. i. p.
16. According to Pallas it is the true nightingale of Europe,
Sylvia luscinia, which the Armenians call boulboul, and the
Crim-Tartars byl-byl-i.
Footnote 2531: (return)The engraving above is taken by permission of Mr. Gould from one
of his drawings for his Birds of India.
Footnote 2532: (return)There is another species, the C. culminatus, so called
from the convexity of its bill; but though seen in the towns, it
lives chiefly in the open country, and may be constantly observed
wherever there are buffaloes, perched on their backs and engaged,
in company with the small Minah (Acridotheres tristis), in
freeing them from ticks.
Footnote 2551: (return)A similar habit has been noticed in the damask Parrots of Africa
(Palæornis fuscus) which daily resort at the same hour
to their accustomed pools to bathe.
Footnote 2561: (return)Similar instances are recorded in other countries of sudden and
prodigious mortality amongst crows; but whether occasioned by
lightning seems uncertain. In 1839 thirty-three thousand dead crows
were found on the shores of a lake in the county Westmeath in
Ireland after a storm.—THOMPSON’S Nat. Hist. Ireland,
vol. i. p. 319. PATTERSON in his Zoology, p. 356, mentions
other cases.
Footnote 2581: (return)Alsocomus puniceus, the “Season Pigeon” of Ceylon, so
called from its periodical arrival and departure.
Footnote 2592: (return)I apprehend that in the particular of the peculiar cry the
Ceylon jungle fowl differs from that of the Dekkan, where I am
told that it crows like a bantam cock.
CHAP. IX.
REPTILES.
LIZARDS. Iguana.—One of the earliest, if not the
first remarkable animal to startle a stranger on arriving in
Ceylon, whilst wending his way from Point-de-Galle to Colombo, is a
huge lizard of from four to five feet in length, the
Talla-goyā of the Singhalese, and Iguana2711 of the Europeans. It may be
seen at noonday searching for ants and insects in the middle of the
highway and along the fences; when disturbed, but by no means
alarmed, by the approach of man, it moves off to a safe distance;
and, the intrusion being at an end, it returns again to the
occupation in which it had been interrupted. Repulsive as it is in
appearance, it is perfectly harmless, and is hunted down by dogs in
the maritime provinces, and its delicate flesh, which is believed
to be a specific in dysentery, is converted into curry, and its
skin into shoes. When seized, it has the power of inflicting a
smart blow with its tail. The Talla-goyā lives in almost any
convenient hollow, such as a hole in the ground, or a deserted nest
of the termites; and some small ones, which frequented my garden at
Colombo, made their retreat in the heart of a decayed tree.
A still larger species, the Kabara-goyā2721, is partial to marshy ground,
and when disturbed upon land, will take refuge in the nearest
water. From the somewhat eruptive appearance of the yellow blotches
on its scales, a closely allied species, similarly spotted,
formerly obtained amongst naturalists the name of Monitor
exanthematicus, and it is curious that the native appellation
of this one, kabara2722,
is suggestive of the same idea. The Singhalese, on a strictly
homoeopathic principle, believe that its fat, externally applied,
is a cure for cutaneous disorders, but that taken inwardly it is
poisonous. The skilfulness of the Singhalese in their preparation
of poisons, and their addiction to using them, are unfortunately
notorious traits in the character of the rural population. Amongst
these preparations, the one which above all others excites the
utmost dread, from the number of murders attributed to its agency,
is the potent kabara-tel—a term which Europeans sometimes
corrupt into cobra-tel, implying that the venom is obtained
from the hooded-snake; whereas it professes to be extracted from
the “kabara-goyā.” Such is the bad renown of this formidable
poison, that an individual suspected of having it in his
possession, is cautiously shunned by his neighbours. Those
especially who are on doubtful terms with him, suspect their
servants lest they should be suborned to mix kabara-tel in the
curry. So subtle is the virus supposed [pg 273] to be,
that one method of administering it, is to introduce it within the
midrib of a leaf of betel, and close the orifice with chunam; and,
as it is an habitual act of courtesy for one Singhalese on meeting
another to offer [pg 274] the compliment of a betel-leaf, which
it would be rudeness to refuse, facilities are thus afforded for
presenting the concealed drug. It is curious that to this latent
suspicion has been traced the origin of a custom universal amongst
the natives, of nipping off with the thumb nail the thick end of
the stem before chewing the betel.
THE KABARA-GOYA.In the preparation of this mysterious compound, the unfortunate
Kabara-goya is forced to take a painfully prominent part. The
receipt, as written down by a Kandyan, was sent to me from
Kornegalle, by Mr. Morris, the civil officer of that district; and
in dramatic arrangement it far outdoes the cauldron of
Macbeth’s witches. The ingredients are extracted from
venomous snakes, the cobra de capello, the Carawilla, and the
Tic-polonga, by making incisions in the head of these reptiles and
suspending them over a chattie to collect the poison as it flows.
To this, arsenic and other drugs are added, and the whole is
“boiled in a human skull, with the aid of the three Kabara-goyas,
which are tied on three sides of the fire, with their heads
directed towards it, and tormented by whips to make them hiss, so
that the fire may blaze. The froth from their lips is then added to
the boiling mixture, and so soon as an oily scum rises to the
surface, the kabara-tel is complete.”
It is obvious that arsenic is the main ingredient in the poison,
and Mr. Morris reported to me that the mode of preparing it,
described above, was actually practised in his district. This
account was transmitted by him apropos to the murder of a
Mohatal2741 and his wife, which had been
committed with the kabara-tel, and [pg 275] was
then under investigation. Before commencing the operation of
preparing the poison, a cock has to be sacrificed to the
yakhos or demons.
This ugly lizard is itself regarded with such aversion by the
Singhalese, that if a kabara enter a house or walk over the
roof, it is regarded as an omen of ill fortune, sickness, or death;
and in order to avert the evil, a priest is employed to go through
a rhythmical incantation; one portion of which consists in the
repetition of the words
Kabara goyin wan dōsey Ada palayan e dōsey.
“These are the inflictions caused by the Kabara-goya—let
them now be averted!”
It is one of the incidents that serve to indicate that Ceylon
may belong to a separate circle of physical geography, that this
lizard, though found to the eastward in Burmah2751, has not hitherto been
discovered in the Dekkan or Hindustan.
Blood-suckers.—The lizards already mentioned,
however, are but the stranger’s introduction to innumerable
varieties of others, all most attractive in their sudden movements,
and some unsurpassed in the brilliancy of their colouring, which
bask on banks, dart over rocks, and peer curiously out of the
chinks of every ruined wall. In all their motions there is that
vivid and brief energy, the rapid but restrained action associated
with their [pg 276] limited power of respiration, which
justifies the accurate picture of—
“The green lizard, rustling thro’ the grass,
And up the fluted shaft, with short, quick,
spring
To vanish in the chinks which time has made.”2761
CALOTES OPHIOMACHUSThe most beautiful of the race is the green calotes2762, in length about twelve inches,
which, with the exception of a few dark streaks about the head, is
as brilliant as the purest emerald or malachite. Unlike its
congeners of the same family, it never alters this dazzling hue;
whilst many of them possess, but [pg 277] in a less degree, the
power, like the chameleon, of exchanging their ordinary colours for
others less conspicuous. One of the most remarkable features in the
physiognomy of those lizards is the prominence of their cheeks.
This results from the great development of the muscles of the jaws;
the strength of which is such that they can crush the hardest
integuments of the beetles on which they feed. The calotes will
permit its teeth to be broken, rather than quit its hold of a stick
into which it may have struck them. It is not provided, like so
many other tropical lizards, with a gular sac or throat-pouch,
capable of inflation when in a state of high excitement. The tail,
too, is rounded, not compressed, thus clearly indicating that its
habits are those of a land-animal.
The Calotes versicolor; and another, the Calotes
ophioimachus, of which a figure is attached, possess in a
remarkable degree the faculty, above alluded to, of changing their
hue. The head and neck, when the animal is irritated or hastily
swallowing its food, become of a brilliant red (whence the latter
species has acquired the name of the “blood-sucker”), whilst the
usual tint of the rest of the body is converted into pale
yellow.2771 The sitana2772, and a number of others,
exhibit similar phenomena.
The lyre-headed lizard2773,
which is not uncommon in the woods about Kandy, is more bulky than
any of the species of Calotes, and not nearly so active in its
movements.
As usually observed it is of a dull greenish brown, but when
excited its back becomes a rich olive green, leaving the head
yellowish: the underside of the body is of a very pale blue, almost
approaching white. The open mouth exhibits the fauces of an intense
vermilion tint; so that, although extremely handsome, this lizard
presents, from its extraordinarily shaped head and threatening
gestures, a most malignant aspect. It is, however, perfectly
harmless.
Chameleon.—The true chameleon2781 is found, but not in great
numbers, in the dry districts to the north of Ceylon, where it
frequents the trees, in slow pursuit of its insect prey; but
compensated for the sluggishness of its other movements, by the
electric rapidity of its extensible tongue. Apparently sluggish in
its general habits, the chameleon rests motionless on a branch,
from which its varied hues render it scarcely distinguishable in
colour; and there patiently awaits the approach of the insects on
which it feeds. Instantly on their appearance its wonderful tongue
comes into play.
TONGUE OF CHAMELEON.Though ordinarily concealed, it is capable of protrusion till it
exceeds in length the whole body of the creature. No sooner does an
incautious fly venture within reach [pg 279] than the extremity of
this treacherous weapon is disclosed, broad and cuneiform, and
covered with a viscid fluid; and this, extended to its full length,
is darted at its prey with an unerring aim, and redrawn within the
jaws with a rapidity that renders the act almost invisible.2791
Whilst the faculty of this creature to assume all the colours of
the rainbow has attracted the wonder of all ages, sufficient
attention has hardly been given to the imperfect sympathy which
subsists between the two lobes of its brain, and the two sets of
nerves that permeate the opposite sides of its frame. Hence, not
only has each of the eyes an action quite independent of the other,
but one side of its body appears to be sometimes asleep whilst the
other is vigilant and active; one will assume a green tinge whilst
the opposite one is red; and it is said that the chameleon is
utterly unable to swim, from the incapacity of the muscles of the
two sides to act in concert.
Ceratophora.—This which till lately was an unique
lizard, known by only two specimens, one in the British Museum, and
another in that of Leyden, was ascertained by Dr. Kelaart, about
five years ago, to be a native of the higher Kandyan hills, where
it is sometimes seen in the older trees in pursuit of insect
larvæ. The first specimen brought to Europe was called
Ceratophora Stoddartii, after the name of its finder; and
the recent discovery of several others in the National Collection
has enabled me, by the aid of Dr. A. Günther, to add some
important facts to their history.
This lizard is remarkable for having no external ear; and it has
acquired its generic name from the curious horn-like process on the
extremity of the nose. This horn, as it is found in mature males of
ten inches in length, is five lines long, conical, pointed, and
slightly curved; a miniature form of the formidable weapon, from
which the Rhinoceros takes its name. But the comparison does
not hold good either from an anatomical or a physiological point of
view. For, whilst the horn of the rhinoceros is merely a dermal
production, a conglomeration of hairs cemented into one dense mass
as hard as bone, and answering the purpose of a defensive weapon,
besides being used for digging up the roots on which the animal
lives; the horn of the ceratophora is formed of a soft,
spongy substance, coated by the rostral shield, which is produced
into a kind of sheath. Although flexible, it always remains erect,
owing to the elasticity of its substance. Not having access to a
living specimen, which would afford the opportunity of testing
conjecture, we are left to infer from the internal structure of
this horn, that it is an erectile organ which, in moments of
irritation, will swell like the comb of a cock. This opinion as to
its physiological nature is confirmed by the remarkable
circumstance that, like the rudimentary comb of the hen and young
cocks, the female and the immature males of the ceratophora
have the horn exceedingly small. In mature females of eight inches
in length (and the females appear always to be smaller than the
males), the horn is only one half or one line long; while in
immature males five inches in length, it is one line and a
half.
CERATOPHORA TENNENTII and C. STODDARTIIAmong the specimens sent from Ceylon by Dr. Kelaart, and now in
the British Museum, there is one which so remarkably differs from
C. Stoddartii, that it attracted my attention, by the
peculiar form of this rostral appendage. Dr. Günther
pronounced it to be a new [pg 281] species; and Dr. Gray concurring
in this opinion, they have done me the honour to call it
Ceratophora Tennentii. Its “horn” somewhat resembles the
comb of a cock not only in its internal structure, but also in its
external appearance; it is nearly six lines long by two broad,
slightly compressed, soft, flexile, and extensible, and covered
with a corrugated, granular skin. It bears no resemblance to the
depressed rostral hump of Lyriocephalus, and the differences
of the new species from the latter lizard may be easily seen from
the annexed drawing and the notes given below.2811
Geckoes.—The most familiar and attractive of the
lizard class are the Geckoes2812,
that frequent the sitting-rooms, and being furnished with pads to
each toe, they are enabled to ascend perpendicular walls and adhere
to glass and ceilings. Being nocturnal in their habits, the pupil
of the eye, instead of being circular as in the diurnal species, is
linear and vertical like that of the cat. As soon as evening
arrives, the geckoes are to be seen in every house in keen and
crafty pursuit of their prey; emerging from the chinks and recesses
where they conceal themselves [pg 282] during the day, to
search for insects that then retire to settle for the night. In a
boudoir where the ladies of my family spent their evenings, one of
these familiar and amusing little creatures had its hiding-place
behind a gilt picture frame. Punctually as the candles were
lighted, it made its appearance on the wall to be fed with its
accustomed crumbs; and if neglected, it reiterated it sharp, quick
call of chic, chic, chit, till attended to. It was of a
delicate gray colour, tinged with pink; and having by accident
fallen on a work-table, it fled, leaving part of its tail behind
it, which, however, it reproduced within less than a month. This
faculty of reproduction is doubtless designed to enable the
creature to escape from its assailants: the detaching of the limb
is evidently its own act; and it is observable, that when
reproduced, the tail generally exhibits some variation from the
previous form, the diverging spines being absent, the new portion
covered with small square uniform scales placed in a cross series,
and the scuta below being seldom so distinct as in the original
member.2821 In an officer’s quarters in the
fort of Colombo, a geckoe had been taught to come daily to the
dinner-table, and always made its appearance along with the
dessert. The family were absent for some months, during which the
house underwent extensive repairs, the roof having been raised, the
walls stuccoed, and the ceilings whitened. It was naturally
surmised that so long a suspension of its accustomed habits would
have led to the disappearance of the little lizard; but on the
return of its old friends, it made its entrance as usual at their
first dinner the instant the cloth was removed.
Crocodile.—The Portuguese in India, like the
Spaniards in South America, affixed the name of lagarto to
the huge reptiles that infested the rivers and estuaries of both
continents; and to the present day the Europeans in Ceylon apply
the term alligator to what are in reality crocodiles,
which literally swarm in the still waters and tanks in the low
country, but rarely frequent rapid streams, and have never been
found in the marshes among the hills. The differences, however,
between the two, when once ascertained, are sufficiently marked, to
prevent their being afterwards confounded. The head of the
alligator is broader and the snout less prolonged, and the canine
teeth of the under jaw, instead of being received into foramina in
the upper, as in the crocodile, fit into furrows on each side of
it. The legs of the alligator, too, are not denticulated, and the
feet are only semi-palmate.
The following drawing exhibits a cranium of each.
SKULLS OF ALLIGATOR AND CROCODILEThe instincts of the crocodiles in Ceylon do not lead to
[pg
284] any variation from the habits of those found in other
countries. There would appear to be two well-distinguished species
found in the island, the Eli-kimboola2841, the Indian crocodile,
inhabiting the rivers and estuaries throughout the low countries of
the coasts, attaining the length of sixteen or eighteen feet, and
ready to assail man when pressed by hunger; and the
marsh-crocodile2842,
which lives exclusively in fresh water, frequenting the tanks in
the northern and central provinces, and confining its attacks to
the smaller animals: in length it seldom exceeds twelve or thirteen
feet. Sportsmen complain that their dogs are constantly seized by
both species; and water-fowl, when shot, frequently disappear
before they can be secured by the fowler.2843 It is generally believed in
Ceylon that, in the case of larger animals, the crocodile abstains
from devouring them till the commencement of decomposition
facilitates the operation of swallowing. To assist in this, the
natives assure me that the reptile contrives to fasten the carcase
behind the roots of a mangrove or some other convenient tree and
tears off each piece by a backward spring.
There is another popular belief that the crocodile is
exceedingly sensitive to tickling; and that it will relax its hold
of a man, if he can only contrive to reach and rub with his hand
the softer parts of its under side.2844
An [pg
285] incident indicative of some reality in this piece of
folklore, once came under my own observation. One morning, about
sunrise, when riding across the sandy plain near the old fort of
Moeletivoe, we came suddenly upon a crocodile asleep under some
bushes of the Buffalo-thorn, several hundred yards from the water.
The terror of the poor wretch was extreme, when it awoke and found
itself discovered and completely surrounded. It was a hideous
creature, upwards of ten feet long, and evidently of prodigious
strength, had it been in a condition to exert it, but consternation
completely paralysed it. It started to its feet and turned round in
a circle hissing and clanking its bony jaws, with its ugly green
eye intently fixed upon us. On being struck with a stick, it lay
perfectly quiet and apparently dead. Presently it looked cunningly
round, and made a rush towards the water, but on a second blow it
lay again motionless and feigning death. We tried to rouse it, but
without effect, pulled its tail, slapped its back, struck its hard
scales, and teased it in every way, but all in vain; nothing would
induce it to move till accidentally my son, then a boy of twelve
years old, tickled it gently under the arm, and in an instant it
drew the limb close to its side and turned to avoid a repetition of
the experiment. Again it was touched under the other arm, and the
same emotion was exhibited, the great monster twisting about like
an infant to avoid being tickled. The scene was highly amusing, but
the sun was rising high, and we pursued our journey to Moeletivoe,
[pg
286] leaving the crocodile to make its way to the adjoining
lake.
The Singhalese believe that the crocodile can only move swiftly
on sand or smooth clay, its feet being too tender to tread firmly
on hard or stony ground. In the dry season, when the watercourses
begin to fail and the tanks become exhausted, the marsh-crocodiles
have occasionally been encountered in the jungle, wandering in
search of water. During a severe drought in 1844, they deserted a
tank near Kornegalle and traversed the town during the night, on
their way to another reservoir in the suburb; two or three fell
into the wells; others in their trepidation, laid eggs in the
street, and some were found entangled in garden fences and
killed.
Generally, however, during the extreme drought, when unable to
procure their ordinary food from the drying up of the watercourses,
they bury themselves in the mud, and remain in a state of torpor
till released by the recurrence of rains.2861 At Arne-tivoe, in the eastern
province, whilst riding across the parched bed of the tank, I was
shown the recess, still bearing the form and impress of a
crocodile, out of which the animal had been seen to emerge the day
before. A story was also related to me of an officer attached to
the department of the Surveyor-General, who, having pitched his
tent in a similar position, was disturbed during the night by
feeling a movement of the earth below his bed, from which on the
following day a crocodile emerged, making its appearance from
beneath the matting.2862
The fresh water species that inhabits the tanks is essentially
cowardly in it instincts, and hastens to conceal itself on the
appearance of man. A gentleman (who told me the circumstance), when
riding in the jungle, overtook a crocodile, evidently roaming in
search of water. It fled to a shallow pool almost dried by the sun,
and, thrusting its head into the mud till it covered up its eyes,
remained unmoved in profound confidence of perfect concealment. In
1833, during the progress of the Pearl Fishery, Sir Robert Wilmot
Horton employed men to drag for crocodiles in a pond which was
infested by them in the immediate vicinity of Aripo. The pool was
about fifty yards in length, by ten or twelve wide, shallowing
gradually to the edge, and not exceeding four or five feet at the
deepest part. As the party approached the bund, from twenty to
thirty reptiles, which had been basking in the sun, rose and fled
to the water. A net, specially weighted so as to sink its lower
edge to the bottom, was then stretched from bank to bank and swept
to the further end of the pond, followed by a line of men with
poles to drive the crocodiles forward: so complete was the
arrangement, that no individual could have evaded the net, yet, to
the astonishment of the Governor’s party, not one was to be found
when it was drawn on shore, and no means of escape for them was
apparent or possible except by their descending into the mud at the
bottom of the pond.
The lagoon of Batticaloa, and indeed all the still waters of
this district, are remarkable for the numbers and prodigious size
of the crocodiles which infest them. Their teeth are sometimes so
large that the natives mount them with silver lids and use them for
boxes to carry the powdered chunam, which they chew with the betel
leaf. During one of my visits to the lake a crocodile was caught
within a few yards of the government agent’s [pg 288]
residence, a hook having been laid the night before, baited with
the entrails of a goat; and made fast, in the native fashion, by a
bunch of fine cords, which the creature cannot gnaw asunder as it
would a solid rope, since they sink into the spaces between its
teeth. The one taken was small, being only about ten or eleven feet
in length, whereas they are frequently killed from fifteen to
nineteen feet long. As long as it was in the water, it made strong
resistance to being hauled on shore, carrying the canoe out into
the deep channel, and occasionally raising its head above the
surface, and clashing its jaws together menacingly. This action has
a horrid sound, as the crocodile has no fleshy lips; and it brings
its teeth and the bones of the mouth together with a loud crash,
like the clank of two pieces of hard wood. After playing it a
little, the boatmen drew it to land, and when once fairly on the
shore all courage and energy seemed utterly to desert it. It tried
once or twice to regain the water, but at last lay motionless and
perfectly helpless on the sand. It was no easy matter to kill it; a
rifle ball sent diagonally through its breast had little or no
effect, and even when the shot had been repeated more than once, it
was as full of life as ever.2881
It feigned death and lay motionless, with its eye closed; but, on
being pricked with a spear, it suddenly regained all its activity.
It was at last finished by a harpoon, and then opened. Its maw
contained several small tortoises, and a quantity of broken bricks
and gravel, taken medicinally, to promote digestion.
During our journeys we had numerous opportunities of observing
the habits of these hideous creatures, and I am far from
considering them so formidable as they are usually supposed to be.
They are evidently not wantonly destructive; they act only under
the influence of hunger, and even then their motions on land are
awkward and ungainly, their action timid, and their whole demeanour
devoid of the sagacity and courage which characterise other animals
of prey.
TESTUDINATA. Tortoise.—Land tortoises are numerous,
but present no remarkable features beyond the beautiful marking of
the starred variety2891,
which is common in the north-western province around Putlam and
Chilaw, and is distinguished by the bright yellow rays which
diversify the deep black of its dorsal shield. From one of these
which was kept in my garden I took a number of flat ticks
(Ixodes), which adhere to its fleshy neck in such a position
as to baffle any attempt of the animal itself to remove them; but
as they are exposed to constant danger of being crushed against the
plastron during the protrusion and retraction of the head, each is
covered with a horny case almost as resistant as the carapace of
the tortoise itself. Such an adaptation of structure is scarcely
less striking than that of the [pg 290] parasites found on the
spotted lizard of Berar by Dr. Hooker, each of which presents the
distinct colour of the scale to which it adheres.2901
The marshes and pools of the interior are frequented by
terrapins2902,
which the natives are in the habit of keeping alive in wells under
the conviction that they clear them of impurities. These
fresh-water tortoises, the greater number of which are included in
the genus Emys of naturalists, are distinguished by having
their toes webbed. Their shell is less convex than that of their
congeners on land (but more elevated than that of the sea-turtle);
and it has been observed that the more rounded the shell, the
nearer does the terrapin approach to the land-tortoise both in its
habits and in the choice of its food. Some of them live upon animal
as well as vegetable food, and those which subsist exclusively on
the former, are noted as having the flattest shells.
THE THREE-RIDGED TORTOISE (EMYS TRIJUGA)The terrapins lay about thirty eggs in the course of several
weeks, and these are round, with a calcareous shell. They thrive in
captivity, provided that they have a regular supply of water and of
meat, cut into small pieces and thrown to them. The tropical
species, if transferred to a colder climate, should have
arrangements made for enabling them to hybernate during the winter:
they will die in a very short time if exposed to a temperature
below the freezing point.2911
The edible turtle2912
is found on all the coasts of the island, and sells for a few
shillings or a few pence, according to its size and abundance at
the moment. A very repulsive spectacle is exhibited in the markets
of Jaffna by the mode in which the flesh of the turtle is sold
piece-meal, whilst the animal is still alive, by the families of
the Tamil fishermen. The creatures are to be seen in the
market-place undergoing this frightful mutilation; the plastron and
its integuments having been previously removed, and the animal
thrown on its back, so as to display all the motions of the heart,
viscera, and lungs. A broad knife, from twelve to eighteen inches
in length, is first inserted at the left side, and the women, who
are generally the operators, introduce [pg 292] one
hand to scoop out the blood, which oozes slowly. The blade is next
passed round, till the lower shell is detached and placed on one
side, and the internal organs exposed in full action. A customer,
as he applies, is served with any part selected, which is cut off
as ordered, and sold by weight. Each of the fins is thus
successively removed, with portions of the fat and flesh, the
turtle showing, by its contortions, that each act of severance is
productive of agony. In this state it lies for hours, writhing in
the sun, the heart2921
and head being usually the last pieces selected, and till the
latter is cut off the snapping of the mouth, and the opening and
closing of the eyes, show that life is still inherent, even when
the shell has been nearly divested of its contents.
At certain seasons the flesh of turtle on the south-western
coast of Ceylon is avoided as poisonous, and some lamentable
instances are recorded of deaths ascribed to its use. At Pantura,
to the south of Colombo, twenty-eight persons who had partaken of
turtle in October, 1840, were immediately seized with sickness,
after which coma supervened, and eighteen died during the night.
Those who survived said there was nothing unusual in the appearance
of the flesh except that it was fatter than ordinary. Other
similarly fatal occurrences have been attributed to turtle curry;
but as they have never been proved to proceed exclusively from that
source, there is room for believing that the poison may have been
contained in some other ingredient.
In the Gulf of Manaar turtle is frequently found of such a size
as to measure between four and five feet in length; and on one
occasion, in riding along the sea-shore north of Putlam, I saw a
man in charge of some sheep, resting under the shade of a turtle
shell, which he had erected on sticks to protect him from the
sun—almost verifying the statement of Ælian, that in
the seas off Ceylon there are tortoises so large that several
persons may find ample shelter beneath a single shell.2931
The hawksbill-turtle2932,
which supplies the tortoise-shell of commerce, was at former times
taken in great numbers in the vicinity of Hambangtotte during the
season when they came to deposit their eggs. This gave rise to the
trade in tortoise-shell at Point de Galle, where it is still
manufactured into articles of ornament by the Moors; but the shell
they employ is almost entirely imported from the Maldives.
If taken from the animal after death and decomposition, the
colour of the shell becomes clouded and milky, and hence the cruel
expedient is resorted to of seizing the turtles as they repair to
the shore to deposit their eggs, and suspending them over fires
till heat makes the plates on the dorsal shields start from the
bone of the carapace, after which the creature is permitted to
escape to the water.2933
In illustration of the resistless influence [pg 294] of
instinct at the period of breeding, it may be mentioned that the
identical tortoise is believed to return again and again to the
same spot, notwithstanding that at each visit she may have to
undergo a repetition of this torture. In the year 1826, a hawksbill
turtle was taken near Hambangtotte, which bore a ring attached to
one of its fins that had been placed there by a Dutch officer
thirty years before, with a view to establish the fact of these
recurring visits to the same beach.2941
An opportunity is afforded on the sea-shore of Ceylon for
observing a remarkable illustration of instinct in the turtle, when
about to deposit its eggs. As if conscious that if she went and
returned by one and the same line across the sandy beach, her
hiding place would be discovered at its farthest extremity, she
resorts to the expedient of curving her course, so as to regain the
sea by a different track; and after depositing the eggs, burying
them about eighteen inches deep, she carefully smoothes over the
surface to render the precise spot indiscernible. The Singhalese,
aware of this device, sound her line of, march with a rod till they
come upon the concealed nest.
Snakes.—It is perhaps owing to the aversion excited
by the ferocious expression and unusual action of serpents,
combined with an instinctive dread of attack2942, that exaggerated ideas prevail
both as to their numbers in Ceylon, and the danger to be
apprehended from encountering them. The Singhalese profess to
distinguish a great many kinds, of which they say not more than
[pg
295] one half have as yet been scientifically
identified2951;
but so cautiously do serpents make their appearance, that the
surprise of persons long resident is invariably expressed at the
rarity with which they are to be seen; and from my own journeys
through the jungle, often of from two to five hundred miles, I have
frequently returned without observing a single snake. Mr. Bennett,
who resided much in the south-east of the island, ascribes the
rarity of serpents in the jungle to the abundance of the wild
peafowl, whose partiality to young snakes renders them the chief
destroyers of these reptiles. It is likely, too, that they are
killed by the jungle-cocks; for they are frequently eaten by the
common barn-door fowl in Ceylon. This is rendered the more probable
by the fact, that in those districts where the extension of
cultivation, and the visits of sportsmen, have reduced the numbers
of the jungle-cocks and pea-fowl, snakes have perceptibly
increased. The deer also are enemies of the snakes, and the natives
who have had opportunities of watching their encounters assert that
they have seen deer rush upon a serpent and crush it by leaping on
it with all its four feet. As to the venomous powers of snakes, DR.
DAVY, whose [pg 296] attention was carefully directed to
the poisonous serpents of Ceylon2961,
came to the conclusion that but four, out of twenty species
examined by him, were venomous, and that of these only two (the
tic-polonga2962
and cobra de capello2963)
were capable of inflicting a wound likely to be fatal to man. The
third is the carawala2964,
a brown snake of about two feet in length; and for the fourth, of
which only a few specimens have been procured, the Singhalese have
no name in their vernacular—a proof that it is neither deadly
nor abundant. But Dr. Davy’s estimate of the venom of the
carawala is below the truth, as cases have been
authenticated to me, in which death from its bite ensued within a
few days. The effect, however, is not uniformly fatal; a
circumstance which the natives explain by asserting that there are
three varieties of the carawala, named the hil-la, the
dunu, and the mal-carawala; the second being the
largest and the most dreaded.
In like manner, the tic-polonga, particularised by Dr.
Davy, is said to be but one out of seven varieties of that
formidable reptile. The word “tic” means literally the “spotted”
polonga, from the superior clearness of the markings on its scales.
Another, the nidi, or “sleeping” polonga, is so called from
the fact that a person bitten by it is soon prostrated by a
lethargy from which he never awakes.2965
These formidable serpents so infested [pg 297] the
official residence of the District Judge of Trincomalie in 1858, as
to compel his family to abandon it. In another instance, a friend
of mine, going hastily to take a supply of wafers from an open tin
case which stood in his office, drew back his hand, on finding the
box occupied by a tic-polonga coiled within it. During my residence
in Ceylon, I never heard of the death of a European which was
caused by the bite of a snake; and in the returns of coroners’
inquests made officially to my department, such accidents to the
natives appear chiefly to have happened at night, when the animal,
having been surprised or trodden on, inflicted the wound in
self-defence.2971
For these reasons the Singhalese, when obliged to leave their
houses in the dark, carry a stick with a loose ring, the
noise2972 of which as they strike it on
the ground is sufficient to warn the snakes to leave their
path.
Cobra de Capello.—The cobra de capello is the only
one exhibited by the itinerant snake-charmers: and the truth of
Davy’s conjecture, that they control it, not by extracting its
fangs, but by courageously availing themselves of its well-known
timidity and extreme reluctance to use its fatal weapons, received
a painful confirmation during my residence in Ceylon, by the death
of one of these performers, whom his audience had provoked to
attempt some unaccustomed familiarity with the cobra; it bit him on
the wrist, and he expired the same evening. The hill near Kandy, on
which the official residences of the Governor and Colonial
Secretary are built, is covered in many places with the deserted
nests of the white ants (termites), and these are the
favourite retreats of the sluggish and spiritless cobra, which
watches from their apertures the toads and lizards on which it
preys. Here, when I have repeatedly come upon them, their only
impulse was concealment; and on one occasion, when a cobra of
considerable length could not escape, owing to the bank being
nearly precipitous on both sides of the road, a few blows from my
whip were sufficient to deprive it of life.2981
A gentleman who held a civil appointment at Kornegalle, had a
servant who was bitten by a snake, and he informed me that on
enlarging a hole near the foot of the tree under which the accident
occurred, he unearthed a cobra of upwards of three feet long, and
so purely white as to induce him to believe that it was an albino.
With the exception of the rat-snake2991, the cobra de capello is the
only serpent which seems from choice to frequent the vicinity of
human dwellings, doubtless attracted by the young of the domestic
fowl and by the moisture of the wells and drainage.
The young cobras, it is said, in the Sarpa-dosa, are not
venomous till after the thirteenth day, when they shed their coat
for the first time.
The Singhalese remark that if one cobra be destroyed near a
house, its companion is almost certain to be discovered immediately
after,—a popular belief which I had an opportunity of
verifying on more than one occasion. Once, when a snake of this
description was [pg 300] killed in a bath of the Government
House at Colombo, its mate was found in the same spot the day
after; and again, at my own stables, a cobra of five feet long,
having fallen into the well, which was too deep to permit its
escape, its companion of the same size was found the same morning
in an adjoining drain.3001
On this occasion the snake, which had been several hours in the
well, swam with ease, raising its head and hood above water; and
instances have repeatedly occurred of the cobra de capello
voluntarily taking considerable excursions by sea. When the
“Wellington,” a government vessel employed in the conservancy of
the pearl banks, was anchored about a quarter of a mile from the
land, in the bay of Koodremalé, a cobra was seen, about an
hour before sunset, swimming vigorously towards the ship. It came
within twelve yards, when the sailors assailed it with billets of
wood and other missiles, and forced it to return to land. The
following morning they discovered the track which it had left on
the shore, and traced it along the sand till it was lost in the
jungle. On a later occasion, in the vicinity of the same spot, when
the “Wellington” was lying at some distance from the shore, a cobra
was found and killed on board, where it could only have gained
access by climbing up the cable. It was first discovered by a
sailor, who felt the chill as it glided over his foot.
One curious tradition in Ceylon embodies the popular legend,
that the stomach of the cobra de capello occasionally contains a
precious stone of such unapproachable [pg 301]
brilliancy as to surpass all known jewels. This inestimable stone
is called the nāga-mānik-kya; but not one snake in
thousands is supposed to possess such a treasure. The cobra, before
eating, is believed to cast it up and conceal it for the moment;
else its splendour, like a flambeau, would attract all beholders.
The tales of the peasantry, in relation to it, all turn upon the
devices of those in search of the gem, and the vigilance and
cunning of the cobra by which they are baffled; the reptile itself
being more enamoured of the priceless jewel than even its most
ardent pursuers.
In BENNETT’S account of “Ceylon and its Capabilities,”
there is another curious piece of Singhalese folk-lore, to the
effect, that the cobra de capello every time it expends its poison
loses a joint of its tail, and eventually acquires a head
resembling that of a toad. A recent addition to zoological
knowledge has thrown light on the origin of this popular fallacy.
The family of “false snakes” (pseudo typhlops, as Schlegel
names the group) have till lately consisted of but three species,
of which only one was known to inhabit Ceylon. They belong to a
family intermediate between the serpents and that Saurian
group-commonly called Slow-worms or Glass-snakes;
they in fact represent the slow-worms of the temperate regions in
Ceylon. They have the body of a snake, but the cleft of their mouth
is very narrow, and they are unable to detach the lateral parts of
the lower jaw from each other, as the true snakes do when devouring
a prey. The most striking character of the group, however, is the
size and form of the tail; this is very short, and according to the
observations of [pg 302] Professor Peters of Berlin3021, shorter in the female than in
the male. It does not terminate in a point as in other snakes, but
is truncated obliquely, the abrupt surface of its extremity being
either entirely flat, or more or less convex, and always covered
with rough keels. The reptile assists its own movements by pressing
the rough end to the ground, and from this peculiar form of the
tail, the family has received the name of Uropeltidæ,
or “Shield-tails.” Within a very recent period important additions
have been made to this family. which now consists of four genera
and eleven species. Those occurring in Ceylon are enumerated in the
List [pg
303] appended to this chapter. One of these, the
Uropeltis grandis of Kelaart3031,
is distinguished by its dark brown colour, shot with a bluish
metallic lustre, closely approaching the ordinary shade of the
cobra; and the tail is abruptly and flatly compressed as though it
had been severed by a knife. The form of this singular reptile will
be best understood by a reference to the accompanying figure; and
there can, I think, be little doubt that to its strange and
anomalous structure is to be traced the fable of the transformation
of the cobra de capello. The colour alone would seem to identify
the two reptiles, but the head and mouth are no longer those of a
serpent, and the disappearance of the tail might readily suggest
the mutilation which the tradition asserts.
THE UROPELTIS PHILIPPINUS.The Singhalese Buddhists, in their religious abstinence from
inflicting death on any creature, are accustomed, after securing a
venomous snake, to enclose it in a basket woven of palm leaves, and
to set it afloat on a river.
The Python.—The great python3032 (the “boa,” as it is commonly
designated by Europeans, the “anaconda” of Eastern story), which is
supposed to crush the bones of an elephant, and to swallow the
tiger, is found, though not of such portentous dimensions, in the
cinnamon gardens within a mile of the fort of Colombo, where it
feeds on hog-deer, and other smaller animals.
The natives occasionally take it alive, and securing it to a
pole expose it for sale as a curiosity. One that was brought to me
tied in this way measured seventeen feet with a proportionate
thickness: but one more fully grown, which crossed my path on a
coffee estate on the Peacock Mountain at Pusilawa, considerably
exceeded these dimensions. Another which I watched in the garden at
Elie House, near Colombo, surprised me by the ease with which it
erected itself almost perpendicularly in order to scale a wall
upwards of ten feet high.
The Singhalese assert that when it has swallowed a deer, or any
animal of similarly inconvenient bulk, the python draws itself
through the narrow aperture between two trees, in order to crush
the bones and assist in the process of deglutition.
It is a singular fact that the small and innocuous ground-snakes
called Calamariæ, which abound on the continent of
India and in the islands are not to be found in Ceylon; where they
would appear to be replaced by two singular genera, the
Aspidura and Haplocercus, These latter have only one
series of shields below the tail, whilst most other harmless snakes
(Calamaria included) have a double series of sub-candals.
The Aspidura has been known to naturalists for many
years3041; the Haplocercus of
Ceylon has only recently been described by Dr. Günther, and of
it not more than three existing specimens are known: hence
[pg
305] its habits and the extent of its distribution over the
island are still left in uncertainty.3051
Of ten species of snakes that ascend trees in Ceylon to search
for squirrels and lizards, and to rifle the nests of birds, one
half, including the green carawala, and the deadly tic
polonga, are believed by the natives to be venomous; but the
truth of this is very dubious. I have heard of the cobra being
found on the crown of a coco-nut palm, attracted, it was said, by
the toddy which was flowing at the time, it being the season for
drawing it. Surrounding Elie House, near Colombo, in which I
resided, were a number of tall casuarinas and India-rubber
trees, whose branches almost touched the lattices of the window of
the room in which I usually sat. These were a favourite resort of
the tree-snakes, and in the early morning the numbers which clung
to them were sometimes quite remarkable. I had thus an opportunity
of observing the action of these creatures, which seems to me one
of vigilance rather than of effort, the tongue being in perpetual
activity, as if it were an organ of feeling; and in those in which
the nose is elongated, a similar mobility and restlessness,
especially when alarmed, affords evidence of the same faculty.
The general characteristic of the Tree-snake is an exceedingly
thin and delicate body, often adorned with colours exquisite as
those of the foliage amongst which they live concealed. In some of
the South American species the tints vie in brilliancy with those
of the humming-birds; whilst their forms are so flexible and
slender as to justify the name conferred on them of
“whip-snakes.” The Siamese, to denote these combinations of
grace and splendour, call them “Sun-beams.” A naturalist3061, describing a bright green
species in Brazil (Philodryas viridissimus), writes: “I am
always delighted when I find that another tree-snake has settled in
my garden. You look for a bird’s nest, the young ones have gone,
but you find their bed occupied by one of these beautiful
creatures, which will coil up its body of two feet in length within
a space no larger than the hollow of your hand. They appear to be
always watchful; for at the instant you discover one, the quick
playing of the long, black, forked tongue will show you that you
too are observed. On perceiving the slightest sign of your
intention to disturb it, the snake will dart upwards through the
branches and over the leaves which scarcely appear to bend beneath
the weight. A moment more, and you have lost sight of it. Whenever
I return to Europe, you may be sure that in my hot-house those
harmless, lovely creatures shall not be missing.”
TREE SNAKE. Passerita fusca.Ceylon has several species of Tree-snakes, and one of the most
common is the green Passerita, easily recognized from its
bright colour and from the pointed moveable appendage, into which
the snout is prolonged. The snakes of this genus being active
chiefly during the night, the pupil of the eye is linear and
horizontal. They never willingly descend from trees, but prey there
upon nocturnal Saurians, geckoes, small birds and their young; and
they are perfectly harmless, although they often try to bite. It is
strange that none of the numerous specimens which it has been
attempted to bring to Europe have ever fed in captivity; whilst in
South America they take their food freely in confinement, provided
that some green plants are placed in their cage.
In Ceylon I have never seen any specimen of a larger size than
three feet; whilst they are known to attain to more than five on
the Indian Continent.
The inference is obvious, that the green coloration of the
majority of tree-snakes has more or less connection with their
habits and mode of life. Indeed, whenever a green-coloured snake is
observed, it may at once be pronounced, if slender or provided with
a prehensile tail, to be of the kind which passes its life on
trees; but if it be short-bodied then it lives on the prairies.
There are nevertheless tree-snakes which have a very different
coloration; and one of the most remarkable species is the
Passerita fusca or Dryinus fuscus, of which a figure
is annexed. It closely resembles the green Passerita in form, so
that naturalists have considered it to be a mere variety. It is
entirely of a shining brown, shot with purple, and the yellow
longitudinal stripe which runs along the side of the belly of the
green species, is absent in this one. It is much more rare than the
green one, and [pg 308] does not appear to be found in
Hindostan: no intermediate forms have been observed in Ceylon.
Water-Snakes.—The fresh-water snakes, of which
several species3081
inhabit the still waters and pools, are all harmless in Ceylon. A
gentleman, who found near a river an agglutinated cluster of the
eggs of one variety (Tropidophis schistosus), placed them
under a glass shade on his drawing-room table, where one by one the
young reptiles emerged from the shell to the number of twenty.
The sea-snakes of the Indian tropics did not escape the
notice of the early Greek mariners who navigated those seas; and
amongst the facts collected by them, Ælian has briefly
recorded that the Indian Ocean produces serpents with flattened
tails3082,
whose bite, he adds, is to be dreaded less for its venom than the
laceration of its teeth. The first statement is accurate, but the
latter is incorrect, as there is an all but unanimous concurrence
of opinion that every species of this family of serpents is more or
less poisonous. The compression of the tail noticed by Ælian
is one of the principal characteristics of these reptiles, as their
motion through the water is mainly effected by its aid, coupled
with the undulating movement of the rest of the body. Their scales,
instead of being imbricated like those of land-snakes, form
hexagons; and those on the belly, instead of being scutate and
enlarged, are nearly of the same size and form as on other parts of
the body.
Sea-snakes (Hydrophis) are found on all the coasts of
Ceylon. I have sailed through large shoals of them in the Gulf of
Manaar, close to the pearl-banks of Aripo. The fishermen of
Calpentyn on the west live in perpetual dread of them, and believe
their bite to be fatal. In the course of an attempt which was
recently made to place a lighthouse on the great rocks of the
south-east coast, known by seamen as the Basses3091, or Baxos, the workmen
who first landed found the portion of the surface liable to be
covered by the tides, honeycombed, and hollowed into deep holes
filled with water, in which were abundance of fishes and some
molluscs. Some of these cavities also contained sea-snakes from
four to five feet long, which were described as having the head
“hooded like the cobra de capello, and of a light grey colour,
slightly speckled. They coiled themselves like serpents on land,
and darted at poles thrust in among them. The Singhalese who
accompanied the party, said that they not only bit venomously, but
crushed the limb of any intruder in their coils.”3092
Still, sea-snakes, though well-known to the natives, are not
abundant round Ceylon, as compared with their numbers in other
places. Their principal habitat is the ocean between the southern
shores of China and the northern coast of New Holland; and their
western limit appears to be about the longitude of Cape Comorin. It
has long since been ascertained that they frequent the seas that
separate the islands of the Pacific; but they have never yet been
found in the Atlantic, nor even [pg 310] on the western shores of
tropical America. And if, as has been stated3101, they have been seen on a late
occasion in considerable numbers in the Bay of Panama, the fact can
only be regarded as one of the rare instances, in which a change in
the primary distribution of a race of animals has occurred, either
by an active or a passive immigration. Being exclusively
inhabitants of the sea, they are liable to be swept along by the
influence of currents; but to compensate for this they have been
endowed with a wonderful power of swimming. The individuals of all
the groups of terrestrial serpents are observed to be possessed of
this faculty to a greater or a less degree; and they can swim for a
certain distance without having any organs specially modified for
the purpose; except, perhaps, the lung, which is a long sac capable
of taking in a sufficient quantity of air, to keep the body of the
snake above water. Nor do we find any peculiar or specially adapted
organs even in the freshwater-snakes, although they can catch frogs
or fishes while swimming. But in the hydrophids, which are
permanent inhabitants of the ocean, and which in an adult state,
approach the beach only occasionally, and for very short times, the
tail, which is rounded and tapering in the others, is compressed
into a vertical rudder-like organ, similar to, and answering all
the purposes of, the caudal fin in a fish. When these snakes are
brought on shore or on the deck of a ship, they are helpless and
struggle vainly in awkward attitudes. Their food consists
exclusively of such fishes as are found near the surface; a fact
which affords ample proof that they do not descend to great depths,
although [pg 311] they can dive as well as swim. They
are often found in groups during calm weather, sleeping on the sea;
but owing to their extreme caution and shyness, attempts to catch
them are rarely successful; on the least alarm, they suddenly expel
the air from their lungs and descend below the surface; a long
stream of rising air-bubbles marking the rapid course which they
make below. Their poisonous nature has been questioned; but the
presence of a strong perforated tooth and of a venomous gland
sufficiently attest their dangerous powers, even if these had not
been demonstrated by the effects of their bite. But fortunately for
the fishermen, who sometimes find them unexpectedly among the
contents of their nets, sea-snakes are unable, like other venomous
serpents, to open the jaws widely, and in reality they rarely
inflict a wound. Dr. Cantor believes, that, they are blinded by the
light when removed from their own element; and he adds that they
become sluggish and speedily die.3111
SEA SNAKE Hydrophis subloevisThose found near the coasts of Ceylon are generally
small,—from one to three feet in length, and apparently
immature; and it is certain that the largest specimens taken in the
Pacific do not attain to greater length than eight feet. In colour
they are generally of a greenish brown, in parts inclining to
yellow, with occasionally cross bands of black. The species figured
in the accompanying drawing is the Hydrophis subloevis of
Gray; or Hydrus cyanocinctus of Boie.3112 The specimen from which the
drawing is taken, was obtained by Dr. Templeton at Colombo.
The use of the Pamboo-Kaloo, or snake-stone, as a remedy in
cases of wounds by venomous serpents, has probably been
communicated to the Singhalese by the itinerant snake-charmers who
resort to the island from the coast of Coromandel; and more than
one well-authenticated instance of its successful application has
been told to me by persons who had been eye-witnesses to what they
described. On one occasion, in March, 1854, a friend of mine was
riding, with some other civil officers of the Government, along a
jungle path in the vicinity of Bintenne, when he saw one of two
Tamils, who were approaching the party, suddenly dart into the
forest and return, holding in both hands a cobra de capello which
he had seized by the head and tail. He called to his companion for
assistance to place it in their covered basket, but, in doing this,
he handled it so inexpertly that it seized him by the finger, and
retained its hold for a few seconds, as if unable to retract its
fangs. The blood flowed, and intense pain appeared to follow almost
immediately; but, with all expedition, the friend of the sufferer
undid his waistcloth, and took from it two snake-stones, each of
the size of a small almond, intensely black and highly polished,
though of an extremely light substance. These he applied, one to
each wound inflicted by the teeth of the serpent, to which they
attached themselves closely; the blood that oozed from the bites
being rapidly imbibed by the porous texture of the article applied.
The stones adhered [pg 313] tenaciously for three or four
minutes, the wounded man’s companion in the meanwhile rubbing his
arm downwards from the shoulder towards the fingers. At length the
snake-stones dropped off of their own accord; the suffering of the
man appeared to subside; he twisted his fingers till the joints
cracked, and went on his way without concern. Whilst this had been
going on, another Indian of the party who had come up took from his
bag a small piece of white wood, which resembled a root, and passed
it gently near the head of the cobra, which the latter immediately
inclined close to the ground; he then lifted the snake without
hesitation, and coiled it into a circle at the bottom of his
basket. The root by which he professed to be enabled to perform
this operation with safety he called the Naya-thalic Kalanga
(the root of the snake-plant), protected by which he professed his
ability to approach any reptile with impunity.
In another instance, in 1853, Mr. Lavalliere, then District
Judge of Kandy, informed me that he saw a snake-charmer in the
jungle, close by the town, search for a cobra de capello, and,
after disturbing one in its retreat, the man tried to secure it,
but, in the attempt, he was bitten in the thigh till blood trickled
from the wound. He instantly applied the Pamboo-Kaloo, which
adhered closely for about ten minutes, during which time he passed
the root which he held in his hand backwards and forwards above the
stone, till the latter dropped to the ground. He assured Mr.
Lavalliere that all danger was then past. That gentleman obtained
from him the snake-stone he had relied on, and saw him repeatedly
afterwards in perfect health.
The substances used on both these occasions are now [pg 314] in my
possession. The roots employed by the several parties are not
identical. One appears to be a bit of the stem of an Aristolochia;
the other is so dried as to render its identification difficult,
but it resembles the quadrangular stem of a jungle vine. Some
species of Aristolochia, such as the A. serpentaria of North
America, are supposed to act as specifics in the cure of
snakebites; and the A. indica is the plant to which the
ichneumon is popularly believed to resort as an antidote when
bitten3141; but it is probable that the
use of any particular plant by the snake-charmers is a pretence, or
rather a delusion, the reptile being overpowered by the resolute
action of the operator3142,
and not by the influence [pg 315] of any secondary appliance. In
other words, the confidence inspired by the supposed talisman
enables its possessor to address himself fearlessly to his task,
and thus to effect, by determination and will, what is popularly
believed to be the result of charms and stupefaction. Still it is
curious that, amongst the natives of Northern Africa, who lay hold
of the Cerastes without fear or hesitation, impunity is
ascribed to the use of a plant with the juice of which they anoint
themselves before touching the reptile3151;
and Bruce says of the people of Sennar, that they acquire exemption
from the fatal consequences of the bite by chewing a particular
root, and washing themselves with an infusion of certain plants. He
adds that a portion of this root was given him, with a view to test
its efficacy in his own person, but that he had not sufficient
resolution to make the experiment.
As to the snake-stone itself, I submitted one, the application
of which I have been describing, to Mr. Faraday, who has
communicated to me, as the result of his analysis, his belief that
it is “a piece of charred bone which has been filled with blood
perhaps several times, and then carefully charred again. Evidence
of this is afforded, as well by the apertures of cells or tubes on
its surface as by the fact that it yields and breaks, under
pressure; and exhibits an organic structure within. When heated
slightly, water rises from it, and also a little ammonia; and, if
heated still more highly in the air, carbon burns away, and a bulky
white ash is left, retaining the shape and size of the stone.” This
ash, as is evident from inspection, cannot have belonged to
[pg
316] any vegetable substance, for it is almost entirely
composed of phosphate of lime. Mr. Faraday adds that “if the piece
of matter has ever been employed as a spongy absorbent, it seems
hardly fit for that purpose in its present state: but who can say
to what treatment it has been subjected since it was fit for use,
or to what treatment the natives may submit it when expecting to
have occasion to use it?”
The probability is, that the animal charcoal, when
instantaneously applied, may be sufficiently porous and absorbent
to extract the venom from the recent wound, together with a portion
of the blood, before it has had time to be carried into the system;
and that the blood which Mr. Faraday detected in the specimen
submitted to him was that of the Indian on whose person the effect
was exhibited on the occasion to which my informant was an
eye-witness. The snake-charmers from the coast who visit Ceylon
profess to prepare the snake-stones for themselves, and to preserve
the composition a secret. Dr. Davy3161,
on the authority of Sir Alexander Johnston, says the manufacture of
them is a lucrative trade, carried on by the monks of Manilla, who
supply the merchants of India—and his analysis confirms that
of Mr. Faraday. Of the three different kinds which he
examined—one being of partially burnt bone, and another of
chalk, the third, consisting chiefly of vegetable matter, resembled
bezoar,—all of them (except the first, which possessed a
slight absorbent power) were quite inert, and incapable of having
any effect except on the imagination of the patient. Thunberg was
shown the snake-stone used by the boers at the [pg 317] Cape
in 1772, which was imported for them “from the Indies, especially
from Malabar,” at so high a price that few of the farmers could
afford to possess themselves of it; he describes it as convex on
one side, black and so porous that “when thrown into water, it
caused bubbles to rise;” and hence, by its absorbent qualities, it
served, if speedily applied, to extract the poison from the
wound.3171
Coecilia.—The rocky jungle, bordering the higher
coffee estates, provides a safe retreat for a very singular animal,
first introduced to the notice of European naturalists about a
century ago by Linnæus, who gave it the name Coecilia
glutinosa, to indicate two peculiarities manifest to the
ordinary observer—an apparent defect of vision, from the eyes
being so small and embedded as to be scarcely distinguishable; and
a power of secreting from minute pores in the skin a [pg 318]
viscous fluid, resembling that of snails, eels, and some
salamanders. Specimens are rare in Europe owing to the readiness
with which it decomposes, breaking down into a flaky mass in the
spirits in which it is attempted to preserve it.
The creature is about the length and thickness of an ordinary
round desk ruler, a little flattened before and rounded behind. It
is brownish, with a pale stripe along either side. The skin is
furrowed into 350 circular folds, in which are imbedded minute
scales. The head is tolerably distinct, with a double row of fine
curved teeth for seizing the insects and worms on which it is
supposed to live.
Naturalists are most desirous that the habits and metamorphoses
of this creature should be carefully ascertained, for great doubts
have been entertained as to the position it is entitled to occupy
in the chain of creation.
Batrachians.—In the numerous marshes formed by the
overflowing of the rivers in the plains of the low country, there
are many varieties of frogs, which, both by their colours and by
their extraordinary size, are calculated to excite the surprise of
a stranger. In the lakes around Colombo and the still water near
Trincomalie, there are huge creatures of this family, from six to
eight inches in length3181,
of an olive hue, deepening into brown on the back and yellow on the
under side. A Kandyan species, recently described, is of much
smaller dimensions, but distinguished by its brilliant colouring, a
beautiful grass green above and deep orange underneath3182.
In the shrubberies around my house at Colombo the graceful
little tree-frogs3191
were to be found in great numbers, sheltered under broad leaves to
protect them from the scorching sun;—some of them utter a
sharp metallic sound at night, similar to that produced by smacking
the lips.
In the gardens and grounds toads3192
crouch in the shade, and pursue the flies and minute coleoptera. In
Ceylon, as in Europe, these creatures suffer from the bad renown of
injecting a poison into the wound inflicted by their bite.3193 The main calumny is confuted by
the fact that no toad has yet been discovered furnished with any
teeth whatsoever; but the obnoxious repute still attaches to the
milky exudation sometimes perceptible from glands situated on
either side behind the head; nevertheless experiments have shown,
that though acrid, the secretions of the toad are incapable of
exciting more than a slight erythema on the most delicate skins.
The smell is, however, fetid and offensive, and hence toads are
less exposed to the attacks of carnivorous animals and of birds
than frogs, in which such glands do not exist.
In the class of Reptiles, those only are included in the order
of Batrachians which undergo a metamorphosis before attaining
maturity; and as they offer the only example amongst Vertebrate
animals of this marvellous transformation, they are justly
considered as the lowest in the scale, with the exception of
fishes, which remain during life in that stage of development which
is only the commencement of existence to a frog.
In undergoing this change, it is chiefly the organs of
respiration that manifest alteration. In its earliest form the
young batrachian, living in the water, breathes as a fish does by
gills, either free and projecting as in the water-newt, or
partially covered by integument as in the tadpole. But the gills
disappear as the lungs gradually become developed: the duration of
the process being on an average one hundred days from the time the
eggs were first deposited. After this important change, the true
batrachian is incapable any longer of living continuously in water,
and either betakes itself altogether to the land, or seeks the
surface from time to time to replenish its exhausted lungs.3201
The change in the digestive functions during metamorphosis is
scarcely less extraordinary; frogs, for example, which feed on
animal substances at maturity, subsist entirely upon vegetable when
in the condition of larvæ, and the subsidiary organs undergo
remarkable development, the intestinal canal in the earlier stage
being five times its length in the later one.
Of the family of tailed batrachians, Ceylon does not furnish a
single example; but of those without this appendage, the island, as
above remarked, affords many varieties; seven distinguishable
species pertaining to the genus rana, or true frogs with
webs to the hind feet; two to the genus bufo, or true toads,
and five to the Polypedates, or East Indian “tree-frogs;”
besides a few others in allied genera. The “tree-frog,” whose
[pg
321] toes are terminated by rounded discs which assist it in
climbing, possesses, in a high degree, the faculty of changing its
hues; and one as green as a leaf to-day, will be found grey and
spotted like the bark to-morrow. One of these beautiful little
creatures, which had seated itself on the gilt pillar of a lamp on
my dinner-table, became in a few minutes scarcely distinguishable
in colour from the or-molu ornament to which it clung.
List of Ceylon Reptiles.
I am indebted to Dr. Gray and Dr. Günther, of the British
Museum, for a list of the reptiles of Ceylon; but many of those new
to Europeans have been carefully described by the late Dr. Kelaart
in his Prodromus Faunæ Zeylanicæ and its
appendices, as well as in the 13th vol. Magaz. Nat. Hist.
(1854).
SAURA.
- Hydrosaurus
- salvator, Wagler.
- Monitor
- dracæna, Linn.
- Riopa
- punctata, Linn.
- Hardwickii, Gray.
- Brachymeles
- Bonitæ, Dum. & Bib.
- Tiliqua
- rufescens, Shaw.
- Eumeces
- Taprobanius, Kel.
- Nessia
- Burtoni, Gray.
- Acontias
- Layardi, Kelaart.
- Argyrophis
- bramicus, Daud.
- Lygosoma
- fallax, Peters.
- Rhinophis
- oxyrhynchus, Schn.
- punctatus, J. Müll
- philippinus, J. Müll
- homolepis, Hempr.
- planiceps, Peters.
- Blythii, Kelaart.
- melanogaster, Gray.
- Uropeltis
- grandis, Kelaart.
- saffragamus, Kelaart.
- Silybura
- Ceylonica, Cuv.
- Hemidactylus
- frenatus, Schleg.
- Leschenaultii, Dum. & Bib.
- trihedrus, Daud.
- maculatus, Dum. & Bib.
- Piresii, Kelaart.
- Coctoei, Dum. & Bib.
- pustulatus, Dum.
- sublævis, Cantor.
- Peripia
- Peronii, Dum. & Bib.
- Gymnodactylus
- Kandianus, Kelaart.
- Sitana
- Ponticereana, Cuv.
- Lyriocephalus
- scutatus, Linn.
- Ceratophora
- Stoddartii, Gray.
- Tennentii, Günther.
- Otocryptis
- bivittata, Wiegm.
- Salea Jerdoni, Gray.
- Calotes
- ophiomachus, Merr.
- nigrilabris, Peters.
- versicolor, Daud.
- Rouxii, Dum. & Bib.
- mystaceus, Dum.
- Chameleo
- vulgaris, Daud.
OPHIDIA.
- Megæra
- trigonocephala, Latr.
- Trigonocephalus
- hypnalis, Merr.
- Daboia
- elegans, Daud.
- Pelamys
- bicolor, Daud.
- Aturia
- lapemoides, Gray.
- Hydrophis
- sublævis, Gray.
- cyanocinctus, Daud.
- Chersydrus
- granulatus, Schneid.
- Cerberus
- cinereus, Daud.
- Tropidophis
- schistosus, Daud.
- Python
- reticulatus, Gray.
- Cylindrophis
- rufa, Schneid.
- maculata, Linn.
- Aspidura
- brachyorrhos, Boie.
- trachyprocta, Cope.
- Haplocercus
- Ceylonensis, Günth.
- Oligodon
- Simotes
- Russellii, Daud.
- purpurascens, Schleg.
- Ablabes
- collaris, Gray.
- Tropidonotus
- quincunciatus, Schleg.
- var. funebris.
- var. carinatus.
- stolatus, Linn.
- chrysargus, Boie.
- quincunciatus, Schleg.
- Cynophis
- Helena, Daud.
- Coryphodon
- Blumenbachii, Merr.
- Cyclophis
- calamaria, Günth.
- Chrysopelea
- ornata, Shaw.
- Dendrophis
- picta, Gm.
- Passerita
- mycterizans, Linn.
- fusca.
- Dipsadomorphus
- Ceylonensis, Günth.
- Lycodon
- aulicus, Linn.
- Cercaspis
- carinata, Kuhl.
- Bungarus
- fasciatus, Schneid.
- var. Ceylonensis, Gthr.
- Naja
- tripudians, Merr.
CHELONIA.
- Testudo
- stellata, Schweig.
- Emys
- Sebæ, Gray.
- trijuga, Schweigg.
- Caretta
- imbricata, Linn.
- Chelonia
- virgata, Schweigg.
EMYDOSAURI.
- Crocodilus
- biporcatus. Cuv.
- palustris, Less.
BATRACHIA.
- Rana
- hexadactyla, Less.
- Kuhlii, Schleg.
- cutipora, Dum. & Bib.
- tigrina, Daud.
- vittigera, Wiegm.
- Malabarica, Dum. & Bib.
- Kandiana, Kelaart.
- Neuera-elliana, Kel.
- Bufo
- melanostictus, Schneid.
- Kelaartii, Günth.
- Ixalus
- variabilis, Günth.
- leucorhinus, Martens.
- poecilopleurus, Mart.
- aurifasciatus, Schleg.
- schmardanus, Kelaart.
- Polypedates
- maculatus, Gray.
- microtympanum, Gth.
- eques, Günth.
- Limnodytes
- lividus, Blyth.
- macularis, Blyth.
- mutabilis, Kelaart.
- maculatus, Kelaart.
- Kaloula
- pulchra, Gray.
- balteata, var. Günth.
- stellata, Kelaart.
- Adenomus
- badioflavus, Copr.
- Pyxicephalus
- fodiens, Jerd.
- Engystoma
- rubrum, Jerd.
PSEUDOPHIDIA.
- Cæcilia
- glutinosa, Linn.
NOTE.—The following species are peculiar to Ceylon (and
the genera Ceratophora, Otocryptis, Uropeltis, Aspidura. Cercaspis,
and Haplocercus would appear to be similarly
restricted);—Lygosoma fallax; Trimesurus Ceylonensis, T.
nigromarginatus; Megæra Trigonocephala; Trigonocephalus
hypnalis; Daboia elegans; Rhinophis punctatus, Rh. homolepis, Rh.
planiceps, Rh. Blythii, Rh. melanogaster; Uropeltis grandis;
Silybura Ceylonica; Cylindrophis maculata; Aspidura brachyorrhos;
Haplocercus Ceylonensis; Oligodon sublineatus; Cynophis Helena;
Cyclophis calamaria; Dipsadomorphus Ceylonensis; Cercaspis
carinata; Ixalus variabilis, I. leucorhinus, I. poecilopleurus;
Polypedates microtympanum. P. eques.
Footnote 2711: (return)Monitor dracæna, Linn. Among the barbarous nostrums
of the uneducated natives, both Singhalese and Tamil, is the tongue
of the iguana, which they regard as a specific for consumption, if
plucked from the living animal and swallowed whole.
Footnote 2721: (return)Hydrosaurus salvator, Laur. Tail compressed; fingers
long; nostrils near the extremity of the snout. A black band on
each temple; round yellow spots disposed in transverse series on
the back. Teeth with the crown compressed and notched.
Footnote 2722: (return)In the Mahawanso the hero Tissa, is said to have been
“afflicted with a cutaneous complaint which made his skin scaly
like that of the godho.”—Ch. xxiv. p. 148. “Godho” is
the Pali name for the Kabara-goyā.
Footnote 2751: (return)In corroboration of the view propounded elsewhere (see pp. 7,
84, &c), and opposed to the popular belief that Ceylon, at some
remote period, was detached from the continent of India by the
interposition of the sea, a list of reptiles will be found at p.
319, including not only individual species, but whole genera
peculiar to the island, and not to be found on the mainland. See a
paper by Dr. A. G&ÜNTHER on The Geog. Distribution of
Reptiles. Magaz. Nat. Hist. for March, 1859, p. 230.
Footnote 2771: (return)The characteristics by which the Calotes ophiomachus may
be readily recognised, are a small crest formed by long spines
running on each side of the neck to above the ear, coupled with a
green ground-colour of the scales. Many specimens are uniform,
others banded transversely with white, and others again have a
black band on each side of the neck.
Footnote 2791: (return)Prof. RYMER JONES, art. Reptilia, in TODD’S Cyclop. of
Anat. vol. iv. pt. i. p. 292.
Footnote 2811: (return)The specimen in the British Museum is apparently an adult male,
ten inches long, and is, with regard to the distribution of the
scales and the form of the head very similar to C.
Stoddartii. The posterior angles of the orbit are not
projecting, but there is a small tubercle behind them; and a pair
of somewhat larger tubercles on the neck. The gular sac is absent.
There are five longitudinal quadrangular, imbricate scales on each
side of the throat; and the sides of the body present a nearly
horizontal series of similar scales. The scales on the median line
of the back scarcely form a crest; it is, however distinct on the
nape of the neck. The scales on the belly, on the extremities, and
on the tail are slightly keeled. Tail nearly round. This species is
more uniformly coloured than C. Stoddartii; it is greenish,
darker on the sides.
Footnote 2812: (return)Hemidactylus maculatus, Dum. et Bib., H.
Leschenaultii, Dum, et Bib; H. frenatus,
Schlegel. Of these the last is very common in the houses of
Colombo. Colour, grey; sides with small granules; thumb short;
chin-shields four; tail rounded with transverse series of small
spines; femoral and preanal pores in a continuous line. GRAY,
Lizard, p. 155.
Footnote 2843: (return)In Siam the flesh of the crocodile is sold for food in the
markets and bazaars, “Un jour je vis plus de cinquante crocodiles,
petits et grands, attachés aux colonnes de leurs maisons.
Ils es vendent la chair comme on vendrait de la chair de porc, mais
à bien meilleur marché.”-PALLEGOIX, Siam, vol.
i. p. 174.
Footnote 2844: (return)A native gentleman who resided for a long time at Caltura tells
me that in the rivers which flow into the sea, both there and at
Bentotte, crocodiles are frequently caught in corrals, formed of
stakes driven into the ground in shallow water, and so constructed,
that when the reptile enters to seize the bait placed within, the
aperture closes behind and secures him. A professional “crocodile
charmer” then enters muttering a spell, and with one end of a stick
pats the creature gently on the head for a time. The operator then
boldly mounts astride upon its shoulders, and continues to soothe
it with his one hand, whilst with the other he contrives to pass a
rope under its body, by which it is at last dragged on shore. This
story serves to corroborate the narrative of Mr. Waterton and his
alligator.
Footnote 2861: (return)HERODOTUS records the observations of the Egyptians that the
crocodile of the Nile abstains from food during the four winter
months.—Euterpe, lviii.
Footnote 2862: (return)HUMBOLDT relates a similar story as occurring at Calabazo, in
Venezuela.—Personal Narrative, c, xvi.
Footnote 2881: (return)A remarkable instance of the vitality of the common crocodile,
C. biporcatus, was related to me by a gentleman at Galle: he
had caught on a baited hook an unusually large one, which his
coolies disembowelled, the aperture in the stomach being left
expanded by a stick placed across it. On returning in the afternoon
with a view to secure the head, they found that the creature had
crawled for some distance, and made its escape into the water.“A curious incident occurred some years ago on the Maguruganga,
a stream which flows through the Pasdun Corle, to join the Bentolle
river. A man was fishing seated on the branch of a tree that
overhung the water; and to shelter himself from the drizzling rain,
he covered his head and shoulder with a bag folded into a shape
common with the natives. While in this attitude, a leopard sprang
upon him from the jungle, but missing its aim, seized the bag and
not the man, and fell with it into the river. Here a crocodile,
which had been eyeing the angler is despair, seized the leopard as
it fell, and sunk with it to the bottom.”—Letter from
GOONE-RATNE Modliar, interpreter of the Supreme Court, 10th Jany.,
1861.
Footnote 2902: (return)Cryptopus granum, SCHÖPF; DR. KELAART, in his
Prodromus (p. 179), refers this to the common Indian
species, C. punctata; but it is distinct. It is generally
distributed in the lower parts of Ceylon, in lakes and tanks. It is
the one usually put into wells to act the part of a scavenger. By
the Singhalese it is named Kiri-ibba.
Footnote 2911: (return)Of the Emys trijuga, the fresh water tortoise figured on
preceding page, the technical characteristics are;—vertical
plates lozenge-shaped; shell convex and oval; with three more or
less distinct longitudinal keels; shields corrugated; with areola
situated in the upper posterior corner. Shell brown, with the
areolæ and the keels yellowish; head brown, with a yellow
streak over each eye.
Footnote 2921: (return)ARISTOTLE was aware of the fact that the turtle will live after
the removal of the heart.—De Vita et Morte, ch.
ii.
Footnote 2931: (return)[Greek: “Tiktontai de ara en tautê tê
thalattê, kai chelônai megistai, ônper oun ta
elytra orophoi ginontai kai gar esti kai pentekaideka
pêchôn en chelôneion, ôs hypoikein ouk
oligous, kai tous hêlious pyrodestatous apostegei, kai skian
asmenois parechei.”]—Lib. xvi. c. 17. Ælian copied this
statement literatim from MEGASTHESES, Indica Frag. lix. 31.
May not Megasthenes have referred to some tradition connected with
the gigantic fossilised species discovered on the Sewalik Hills,
the remains of which are now in the Museum at the East India
House?
Footnote 2933: (return)At Celebes, whence the finest tortoise-shell is exported to
China, the natives kill the turtle by blows on the head, and
immerse the shell in boiling water to detach the plates. Dry heat
is only resorted to by the unskilful, who frequently destroy the
tortoise-shell in the operation—Journal Indian
Archipel. vol. iii. p. 227, 1849.
Footnote 2951: (return)This is not likely to be true: in a very large collection of
snakes made in Ceylon by Mr. C.R. Butler, and recently examined by
Dr. Günther, of the British Museum, only a single-specimen
proved to be new.There is, however, one venomous snake, of the existence of which
I am assured by a native correspondent in Ceylon, no mention has
yet been made by European naturalists. It is called
Māpilā by the Singhalese; it is described to me as
being about four feet in length, of the diameter of the little
finger, and of a uniform dark brown colour. It is said to be often
seen in company with another snake called in Singhalese Lay
Medilla, a name which implies its deep red hue. The latter is
believed to be venomous. It would be well if some collector in
Ceylon would send home for examination the species which
respectively bear these names.
Footnote 2965: (return)The other varieties are the getta, lay, alu, kunu, and
nil-polongas. I have heard of an eighth, the
palla-polonga.Amongst the numerous pieces of folk-lore in Ceylon in connexion
with snakes, is the belief that a deadly enmity subsists between
the polonga and the cobra de capello, and that the latter, which is
naturally shy and retiring, is provoked to conflicts by the
audacity of its rival. Hence the proverb applied to persons at
enmity, that “they hate like the polonga and cobra.”The Singhalese believe the polonga to be by far the most savage
and wanton of the two, and they illustrate this by a popular
legend, that once upon a time a child, in the absence of its
mother, was playing beside a tub of water, which a cobra, impelled
by thirst during a long-continued drought, approached to drink, the
unconscious child all the while striking it with its hands to
prevent the intrusion. The cobra, on returning, was met by a
tic-polonga, which seeing its scales dripping with delicious
moisture, entreated to be told the way to the well. The cobra,
knowing the vicious habits of the other snake, and anticipating
that it would kill the innocent child which it had so recently
spared, at first refused, and only yielded on condition that the
infant was not to be molested. But the polonga, on reaching the
tub, was no sooner obstructed by the little one, than it stung him
to death.
Footnote 2971: (return)In a return of 112 coroners’ inquests, in cases of death from
wild animals, held in Ceylon in five years, from 1851 to 1855
inclusive, 68 are ascribed to the bites of serpents; and in almost
every instance the assault is set down as having taken place at
night. The majority of the sufferers were children and
women.
Footnote 2972: (return)PLINY notices that the serpent has the sense of hearing more
acute than that of sight; and that it is more frequently put in
motion by the sound of footsteps than by the appearance of the
intruder, “excitatur pede sæpius.”—Lib, viii. c.
36.
Footnote 2981: (return)A Singhalese work, the Sarpadosā, enumerates four
castes of the cobra;—the raja, or king: the
bamunu, or Brahman; the velanda, or trader; and the
gori, or agriculturist. Of these the raja, or “king of the
cobras,” is said to have the head and the anterior half of the body
of so light a colour, that at a distance it seems like a silvery
white. The work is quoted, but not correctly, in the Ceylon
Times for January, 1857. It is more than probable, as the
division represents the four castes of the Hindus, Chastriyas,
Brahmans Vaisyas, and Sudras; that the insertion of the gori
instead of the latter was a pious fraud of some copyist to confer
rank upon the Vellales, the agricultural caste of Ceylon.
Footnote 2991: (return)Coryphodon Blumenbachii. There is a belief in Ceylon that
the bite of the rat-snake, though harmless to man, is fatal to
black cattle. The Singhalese add that it would be equally so to man
were the wound to be touched by cow-dung. WOLF, in the interesting
story of his Life and Adventures in Ceylon, mentions that
rat-snakes were often so domesticated by the native as to feed at
their table. He says: “I once saw an example of this in the house
of a native. It being meal time, he called his snake, which
immediately came forth from the roof under which he and I were
sitting. He gave it victuals from his own dish, which the snake
took of itself from off a fig-leaf that was laid for it, and ate
along with its host. When it had eaten its fill, he gave it a kiss,
and bade it go to its hole.” Major SKINNER, writing to me 12th
Dec., 1858, mentions the still more remarkable case of the
domestication of the cobra de capello in Ceylon. “Did you ever
hear,” he says, “of tame cobras being kept and domesticated about a
house, going in and out at pleasure, and in common with the rest of
the inmates? In one family, near Negombo, cobras are kept as
protectors, in the place of dogs, by a wealthy man who has always
large sums of money in his house. But this is not a solitary case
of the kind. I heard of it only the other day, but from undoubtedly
good authority. The snakes glide about the house, a terror to
thieves, but never attempting to harm the inmates.”
Footnote 3001: (return)PLINY notices the affection that subsists between the male and
female asp; and that if one of them happens to be killed, the other
seeks to avenge its death.—Lib. viii. c. 37.
Footnote 3031: (return)The Uropeltis grandis of Kelaart, which was at first
supposed to be a new species, proves to be identical with U.
Phillippinus of Cuvier. It is doubtful, however, whether this
species be found in the Phillippine Islands, as stated by Cuvier;
and it is more than, probable that the typical specimen came from
Ceylon—a further illustration of the affinity of the fauna of
Ceylon to that of the Eastern Archipelago. The characteristics of
this reptile, as given by Dr. GRAY, are as follows:—”Caudal
disc subcircular, with large scattered tubercles; snout subacute,
slightly produced. Dark brown, lighter below, with some of the
scales dark brown in the centre near the posterior edge. GRAY,
Proceed. Zool. Soc. 1858, p. 262.
Footnote 3051: (return)G&ÜNTH. Col. Snakes, p. 14. In the hope that
some inquirer in Ceylon will be able to furnish such information as
may fill up this blank in the history of the haplocercus, the
following particulars are here appended. The largest of the
specimens in the British Museum is about twenty-five inches in
length; the body thin, and much elongated; the head narrow, and not
distinct from the neck, the tail of moderate length. Forehead
covered by three shields, one anterior and two posterior frontals;
no loreal shield; one small shield before, two behind the eye;
seven shields along the upper lip, the eye being above the fourth.
The scales are disposed in seventeen longitudinal series; they are
lanceolate and strongly keeled. The upper parts are uniform
blackish or brown, with two dorsal rows of small indistinct black
spots; occiput with a whitish collar, edged with darker. The lower
parts uniform yellowish.
Footnote 3081: (return)Chersydrus granulatus, Merr.; Cerberus cinereus.
Daud.; Tropidophis schistosus, Daud.
Footnote 3082: (return)“[Greek: Plateis tas ouras.”
ÆLIAN, L. xvi. c. 8.
Ælian speaks elsewhere of fresh-water snakes. His remark
on the compression of the tail shows that his informants were aware
of this speciality in those that inhabit the sea.
Footnote 3091: (return)The Basses are believed to be the remnants of the great island
of Giri, swallowed up by the sea.—Mahawanso, ch. i. p.
4. They may possibly be the Bassæ of Ptolemy’s map of
Taprobane.
Footnote 3112: (return)Its technical characteristics are as follows,—Body rather
slender; ground colour yellowish with irregular black rings. Scales
nearly smooth; ventral plates broad, six-sided, smooth, some
divided into two, by a slight central groove. Occipital shields
large, triangular, and produced, with a small central shield behind
them; a series of four large temporal shields; chin shields in two
pairs; eyes very small, over the fourth and fifth labials; one
ante-and two post-oculars; the second upper labial shield
elongated.
Footnote 3141: (return)For an account of the encounter between the ichneumon and the
venomous snakes of Ceylon, see Ch. I. p. 39.
Footnote 3142: (return)The following narrative of the operations of a snake-charmer in
Ceylon is contained in a note from Mr. Reyne, of the department of
public works: “A snake-charmer came to my bungalow in 1851,
requesting me to allow him to show me his snakes dancing. As I had
frequently seen them, I told him I would give him a rupee if he
would accompany me to the jungle, and catch a cobra, that I knew
frequented the place. He was willing, and as I was anxious to test
the truth of the charm, I counted his tame snakes, and put a watch
over them until I returned with him. Before going I examined the
man, and satisfied myself he had no snake about his person. When we
arrived at the spot, he played on a small pipe, and after
persevering for some time out came a large cobra from an ant hill,
which I knew it occupied. On seeing the man it tried to escape, but
he caught it by the tail and kept swinging it round until we
reached the bungalow. He then made it dance, but before long it bit
him above the knee. He immediately bandaged the leg above the bite,
and applied a snake-stone to the wound to extract the poison. He
was in great pain for a few minutes, but after that it gradually
went away, the stone falling off just before he was relieved. When
he recovered he held a cloth up which the snake flew at, and caught
its fangs in it; while in that position, the man passed his hand up
its back, and having seized it by the throat, he extracted the
fangs in my presence and gave them to me. He then squeezed out the
poison on to a leaf. It was a clear oily substance, and when rubbed
on the hand produced a fine lather. I carefully watched the whole
operation, which was also witnessed by my clerk and two or three
other persons. Colombo, 13th January 1860.—H.E.
REYNE.”
Footnote 3171: (return)Thunberg, vol. i. p. 155. Since the foregoing account was
published, I have received a note from Mr. HARDY, relative to the
piedra ponsona, the snake-stone of Mexico, in which he gives
the following account of the method of preparing and applying it:
“Take a piece of hart’s horn of any convenient size and shape;
cover it well round with grass or hay, enclose both in a thin piece
of sheet copper well wrapped round them, and place the parcel in a
charcoal fire till the bone is sufficiently charred.“When cold, remove the calcined horn from its envelope, when it
will be ready for immediate use. In this state it will resemble a
solid black fibrous substance, of the same shape and size as before
it was subjected to this treatment.“USE.—The wound being slightly punctured, apply the bone
to the opening, to which it will adhere firmly for the space of two
minutes; and when it falls, it should be received into a basin of
water. It should then be dried in a cloth, and again applied to the
wound. But it will not adhere longer than about one minute. In like
manner it may be applied a third time; but now it will fall almost
immediately, and nothing will cause it to adhere any more.“These effects I witnessed in the case of a bite of a
rattle-snake at Oposura, a town in the province of Sonora, in
Mexico, from whence I obtained my recipe; and I have given other
particulars respecting it in my Travels in the Interior of Mexico,
published in 1830. R.W.H. HARDY. Bath, 30th January,
1860.”
Footnote 3181: (return)A Singhalese variety of the Rana cutipora? and the
Malabar bull-frog, Hylarana Malabarica. A frog named by
BLYTH Rana robusta proves to be a Ceylon specimen of the
R. cutipora.
Footnote 3193: (return)In Ceylon this error is as old as the third century, B.C., when,
as the Mahawanso tells us, the wife of “King Asoka attempted
to destroy the great bo-tree (at Magadha) with, the poisoned
fang of a toad.“—Ch. xx. p. 122.
Footnote 3201: (return)A few Batrachians, such as the Siren of Carolina, the
Proteus of Illyria, the Axolotl of Mexico, and the
Menobranchus of the North American Lakes, retain their gills
during life; but although provided with lungs in mature age, they
are not capable of living out of the water. Such batrachians form
an intermediate link between reptiles and fishes.
CHAP. X.
FISHES.
Hitherto no branch of the zoology of Ceylon has been so
imperfectly investigated as its Ichthyology. Little has been done
in the examination and description of its fishes, especially those
which frequent the rivers and inland waters. Mr. BENNETT, who was
for some years employed in the Civil Service, directed his
attention to the subject, and published in 1830 some portions of a
projected work on the marine fishes of the island3231, but it never proceeded beyond
the description of thirty individuals. The great work of Cuvier and
Valenciennes3232
particularises about one hundred species, specimens of which were
procured from Ceylon by Reynard, Leschenault and other
correspondents; but of these not more than half a dozen belong to
fresh water.
The fishes of the coast, as far as they have been examined,
present few that are not in all probability common to the seas of
Ceylon and India. A series of drawings, including upwards of six
hundred species and varieties of Ceylon fish, all made from
recently-captured specimens, have been submitted to Professor
Huxley, and [pg 324] a notice of their general
characteristics forms an interesting appendix to the present
chapter.3241
Of those in ordinary use for the table the finest by far is the
Seir-fish3242,
a species of Scomberoids, which is called Tora-malu by the
natives. It is in size and form very similar to the salmon, to
which the flesh of the female fish, notwithstanding its white
colour, bears a very close resemblance both in firmness and
flavour.
Mackerel, carp, whitings, mullet both red and striped, perches
and soles are abundant, and a sardine (Sardinella Neohowii,
Val.) frequents the southern and eastern coast in such profusion
that in one instance in 1839, a gentleman who was present saw
upwards of four hundred thousand taken in a haul of the nets in the
little bay of Goyapanna, east of Point-de-Galle. As this vast shoal
approached the shore the broken water became as smooth as if a
sheet of ice had been floating below the surface.3243
Poisonous Fishes.—The sardine has the reputation of
being poisonous at certain seasons, and accidents ascribed to
eating it are recorded in all parts of the island. Whole families
of fishermen who have partaken of it have died. Twelve persons in
the jail of Chilaw were thus poisoned, about the year 1829; and the
deaths of soldiers have repeatedly been ascribed to the same cause.
It is difficult in such instances to say with certainty whether the
fish were in fault; whether there [pg 325] was not a peculiar
susceptibility in the condition of the recipients; or whether the
mischief may not have been occasioned by the wilful administration
of poison, or its accidental occurrence in the brass cooking
vessels used by the natives. The popular belief was, however,
deferred to by an order passed by the Governor in Council in
February, 1824, which, after reciting that “Whereas it appears by
information conveyed to the Government that at three several
periods at Trincomalie, death has been the consequence to several
persons from eating the fish called Sardinia during the months of
January and December,” enacts that it shall not be lawful in that
district to catch sardines during these months, under pain of fine
and imprisonment. This order is still in force, but the fishing
continues notwithstanding.3251
Sharks.—Sharks appear on all parts of the coast,
and instances continually occur of persons being seized by them
whilst bathing even in the harbours of Trincomalie and Colombo. In
the Gulf of Manaar they are taken for the sake of their oil, of
which they yield such a quantity that “shark’s oil” is a recognised
export. A trade also exists in drying their fins, for which, owing
to the gelatine contained in them, a ready market is found in
China; whither the skin of the basking shark is also sent, to be
converted, it is said, into shagreen.
Saw Fish.—The huge Pristis antiquorum3252 infests [pg 326] the
eastern coast of the island, where it attains a length of from
twelve to fifteen feet, including the serrated rostrum from which
its name is derived. This powerful weapon seems designed to
compensate for the inadequacy of the ordinary maxillary teeth which
are unusually small, obtuse, and insufficient to capture and kill
the animals which form the food of this predatory shark. To remedy
this, the fore part of the head and its cartilages are prolonged
into a flattened plate, the length of which is nearly equal to one
third of the whole body, its edges being armed with formidable
teeth, that are never shed or renewed, but increase in size with
the growth of the creature.
HEAD OF THE SAWFISH (PRISTIS ANTIQUORUM)The Rays form a large tribe of cartilaginous fishes in
which, although the skeleton is not osseous, the development of
organs is so advanced that they would appear to be the highest of
the class, approaching nearest to amphibians. They are easily
distinguished from the sharks by their broad and flat body, the
pectoral fins being expanded like wings on each side of the trunk.
They are all inhabitants of the ocean, and some grow to a
prodigious size. Specimens have been caught of twenty feet in
breadth. These, however, are of rare [pg 327] occurrence, as such huge
monsters usually retreat into the depths of the sea, where they are
secure from the molestation of man. It is, generally speaking, only
the young and the smaller species that approach the coasts, where
they find a greater supply of those marine animals which form their
food. The Rays have been divided into several generic groups, and
the one of which a drawing (Aëtobates narinari3271) is given, has very marked
characteristics in its produced snout, pointed and winged-like
pectoral fins, and exceedingly long, flagelliform tail. The latter
is armed with a strong, serrated spine, which is always broken off
by the fishermen immediately on capture, under the impression that
wounds inflicted by it are poisonous. Their fears, however, are
utterly groundless,
THE RAY (AËTOBATES NARINARI).as the ray has no gland for secreting any venomous fluid. The
apprehension may, however, have originated in the fact that a
lacerated wound such as would be produced by a serrated spine, is
not unlikely to assume a serious character, under the influence of
a tropical climate. The species figured on the last page is
brownish-olive on the upper surface, with numerous greenish-white
round spots, darkening towards the edges. The anterior annulations
of the tail are black and white, the posterior entirely black. Its
mouth is transverse and paved with a band of flattened teeth
calculated to crush the hard shells of the animals on which it
feeds. It moves slowly along the bottom in search of its food,
which consists of crustacea and mollusca, and seems to be unable to
catch fishes or other quickly moving animals. Specimens have been
taken near Ceylon, of six feet in width. Like most deep-sea fishes,
the ray has a wide geographical range, and occurs not only in all
the Indian Ocean, but also in the tropical tracts of the
Atlantic.
Another armed fish, renowned since the times of Ælian and
Pliny for its courage in attacking the whale, and even a ship, is
the sword-fish (Xiphias gladius).3281 Like the thunny and bonito, it
is an inhabitant of the deeper seas, and, though known in the
Mediterranean, is chiefly confined to the tropics. The dangerous
weapon with which nature has equipped it is formed by the
prolongation and intertexture of the bones of the upper jaw into an
exceedingly compact cylindrical protuberance, [pg 329]
somewhat flattened at the base, but tapering to a sharp point. In
strange inconsistence with its possession of so formidable an
armature, the general disposition of the sword-fish is represented
to be gentle and inoffensive; and although the fact of its assaults
upon the whale has been incontestably established, yet the motive
for such conflicts, and the causes of its enmity, are beyond
conjecture. Competition for food is out of the question, as the
Xiphias can find its own supplies without rivalry on the part of
its gigantic antagonist; and as to converting the whale itself into
food, the sword-fish, from the construction of its mouth and the
small size of its teeth, is quite incapable of feeding on animals
of such dimensions.
In the seas around Ceylon sword-fishes sometimes attain to the
length of twenty feet, and are distinguished by the unusual height
of the dorsal fin. Those both of the Atlantic and Mediterranean
possess this fin in its full proportions, only during the earlier
stages of their growth. Its dimensions even then are much smaller
than in the Indian species; and it is a curious fact that it
gradually decreases as the fish approaches to maturity; whereas in
the seas around Ceylon, it retains its full size throughout the
entire period of life. They raise it above the water, whilst
dashing along the surface in their rapid course; and there is no
reason to doubt that it occasionally acts as a sail.
The Indian species (which are provided with two long and
filamentous ventral fins) have been formed into the genus
Histiophorus; to which belongs the individual figured on the
next page. It is distinguished from others most closely allied to
it, by having the immense dorsal fin of one uniform dark violet
colour; whilst in its congeners, [pg 330] it is spotted with blue.
The fish from which the engraving has been made, was procured by
Dr. Templeton, near Colombo. The species was previously known only
by a single specimen captured in the Red Sea, by Rüppell, who
conferred upon it the specific designation of
“immaculatus.”3301
THE SWORD FISH (MISMOPHORUS IMMACULATUS).Ælian, in his graphic account of the strange forms
presented by the fishes inhabiting the seas around Ceylon, says
that one in particular is so grotesque in its configuration, that
no painter would venture to depict it; its main peculiarity being
that it has feet or claws rather than fins.3302 The annexed drawing3303 may [pg 331]
probably represent the creature to which the informants of
Ælian referred. It is a cheironectes; one of a group in which
the bones of the carpus form arms that support the pectoral fins,
and enable these fishes to walk along the moist ground, almost like
quadrupeds.
They belong to the family of Lophiads or “anglers,” not
unfrequent on the English coast; which conceal themselves in the
mud, displaying only the erectile ray, situated on the head, which
bears an excrescence on its extremity resembling a worm; by
agitating which, they attract the smaller fishes, that thus become
an easy prey.
CHEIRONECTESOn the rocks in Ceylon which are washed by the surf [pg 332] there
are quantities of the curious little fish, Salarius
alticus3321,
which possesses the faculty of darting along the surface of the
water, and running up the wet stones, with the utmost ease and
rapidity. By aid of the pectoral and ventral fins and gill-cases,
they move across the damp sand, ascend the roots of the mangroves,
and climb up the smooth face of the rocks in search of flies;
adhering so securely as not to be detached by repeated assaults of
the waves. These little creatures are so nimble, that it is almost
impossible to lay hold of them, as they scramble to the edge, and
plunge into the sea on the slightest attempt to molest them. They
are from three to four inches in length, and of a dark brown
colour, almost undistinguishable from the rocks they frequent.
But the most striking to the eye of a stranger are those fishes
whose brilliancy of colouring has won for them the wonder even of
the listless Singhalese. Some, like the Red Sea Perch
(Holocentrum rubrum, Forsk) and the Great Fire Fish3322, are of the deepest scarlet and
flame colour; in others purple predominates, as in the Serranus
flavo-cæruleus; in others yellow, as in the Choetodon
Brownriggii3323,
and Acanthurus vittatus, of [pg 333] Bennett3331, and numbers, from the lustrous
green of their scales, have obtained from the natives the
appropriate name of Giraway, or parrots, of which
one, the Sparus Hardwickii of Bennett, is called the “Flower
Parrot,” from its exquisite colouring, being barred with irregular
bands of blue, crimson, and purple, green, yellow, and grey, and
crossed by perpendicular stripes of black.
Of these richly coloured fishes the most familiar in the Indian
seas are the Pteroids. They are well known on the coast of
Africa, and thence eastward to Polynesia; but they do not extend to
the west coast of America, and are utterly absent from the
Atlantic. The rays of the dorsal and pectoral fins are so
elongated, that when specimens were first brought to Europe it was
conjectured that these fishes have the faculty of flight, and hence
the specific name of “volitans” But this is an error, for,
owing to the deep incisions between the pectoral rays, the pteroids
are wholly unable to sustain themselves in the air. They are not
even bold swimmers, living close to the shore and never venturing
into the deep sea. Their head is ornamented with a number of
filaments and cutaneous appendages, of which one over
PTEROIS VOLITANS.each eye and another at the angles of the mouth are the most
conspicuous. Sharp spines project on the crown and on the side of
the gill-apparatus, as in the other sea-perches, Scorpæna,
Serranus, &c., of which these are only a modified and
ornate form. The extraordinary expansion of their fins is not,
however, accompanied by a similar development of the bones to which
they are attached, simply because they appear to have no peculiar
function, as in flying fishes, or in those where the spines of the
fins are weapons of offence. They attain to the length of twelve
inches, and to a weight of about two pounds; they live on small
marine animals, and by the Singhalese the flesh (of some at least)
is considered good for table. Nine or ten species are known to
occur in [pg 335] the East Indian Seas, and of these
the one figured above is, perhaps, the most common.
Another species known to occur on the coasts of Ceylon is the
Scorpæna miles, Bennett, or Pterois miles,
Günther3351,
of which Bennett has given a figure3352,
but it is not altogether correct in some particulars.
In the fishes of Ceylon, however, beauty is not confined to the
brilliancy of their tints. In some, as in the /Scarus harid,
Forsk3353, the arrangement of the scales
is so graceful, and the effect is so heightened by modifications of
colour, as to present the appearance of tessellation, or mosaic
work.
SCARUS HARID. After Bennett.Fresh-water Fishes.—Of the fresh-water fish, which
inhabit the rivers and tanks, so very little has hitherto been
known to naturalists3354,
that of nineteen drawings [pg 336] sent home by Major Skinner in
1852, although specimens of well-known genera, Colonel Hamilton
Smith pronounced nearly the whole to be new and undescribed
species.
Of eight of these, which were from the Mahawelliganga, and
caught in the vicinity of Kandy, five were carps; two were
Leucisci, and one a Mastacembelus (M. armatus,
Lacep); one was an Ophiocephalus, and one a
Polyacanthus, with no serræ on the gills. Six were
from the Kalanyganga, close to Colombo, of which two were
Helostoma, in shape approaching the Chætodon; two
Ophiocephali, one a Silurus, and one an
Anabas, but the gills were without denticulation. From the
still water of the lake, close to the walls of Colombo, there were
two species of Eleotris, one Silurus with barbels,
and two Malacopterygians, which appear to be
Bagri.
The fresh-water Perches of Europe and of the North of
America are represented in Ceylon and India by several genera,
which bear to them a great external similarity (Lates,
Therapon). They have the same habits as their European allies,
and their flesh is considered equally wholesome, but they appear to
enter salt-water, or at least brackish water, more freely. It is,
however, [pg 337] in their internal organisation that
they differ most from the perches of Europe; their skeletons are
composed of fewer vertebræ, and the air bladder of the
Therapon is divided into two portions, as in the carps. Four
species at least of this genus inhabit the lakes and rivers of
Ceylon, and one of them, of which a figure is given above, has been
but imperfectly described in any ichthyological work3371; it attains to the length of
seven inches.
THERAPON QUADRILINEATUS.In addition to marine eels, in which the Indian coasts abound,
Ceylon has some true fresh-water eels, which never enter the sea.
These are known to the natives under the name of Theliya,
and to naturalists by that of Mastacembelus. They have
sometimes in ichthyological systems been referred to the
Scombridæ and other marine families, from the circumstance
that the dorsal fin anteriorly is composed of spines. But, in
addition to the [pg 338] general shape of the body, their
affinity to the eel is attested, by their confluent fins, by the
absence of ventral fins, by the structure of the mouth and its
dentition, by the apparatus of the gills, which opens with an
inferior slit, and above all by the formation of the skeleton
itself.3381
Their skin is covered with minute scales, coated by a slimy
exudation, and the upper jaw is produced into a soft tripartite
tentacle, with which they are enabled to feel for their prey in the
mud. They are very tenacious of life, and belong, without doubt, to
those fishes which in Ceylon descend during the drought into the
muddy soil.3382
Their flesh very much resembles that of the eel; and is highly
esteemed.3383
They were first made known to European naturalists by Russell3384, who brought to Europe from the
rivers round Aleppo specimens, some of which are still preserved in
the collection of the British Museum. Aleppo is the most western
point of their geographical range, the group being mainly confined
to the East-Indian continent and its islands.
MASTACEMBELUS ARMATUSIn Ceylon only one species appears to occur, the [pg 339]
Mastacembelus armatus.3391
The back is armed with from thirty-five to thirty-nine short, stout
spines; there being three others before the anal fin. The ground
colour of the fish is brown, and the head has two rather irregular
longitudinal black bands; deep-brown spots run along the back as
well as along the dorsal and anal fins; and the sides are
ornamented with irregular and reticulated brown lines. This eel
attains to the length of two feet. The old females do not show any
markings, being of a uniform brown colour.
In the collection of Major Skinner, before alluded to, brought
together without premeditation, the naturalist will be struck by
the preponderance of those genera which are adapted by nature to
endure, a temporary privation of moisture; and this, taken in
connection with the vicissitudes affecting the waters they inhabit,
exhibits a surprising illustration of the wisdom of the Creator in
adapting the organisation of his creatures to the peculiar
circumstances under which they are destined to exist.
So abundant are fish in all parts of the island, that Knox says,
not the running streams alone, but the reservoirs and ponds, “nay,
every ditch and little plash of water but ankle deep hath fish in
it.”3392 But many of these reservoirs
and tanks are, twice in each year, liable [pg 340] to be
evaporated to dryness till the mud of the bottom is converted into
dust, and the clay cleft by the heat into gaping apertures; yet
within a very few days after the change of the monsoon, the natives
are busily engaged in fishing in those very spots and in the
hollows contiguous to them, although the latter are entirely
unconnected with any pool or running streams. Here they fish in the
same way which Knox described nearly 200 years ago, with a
funnel-shaped basket, open at bottom and top, “which,” as he says,
“they jibb down, and the end sticks in the mud, which often happens
upon a fish; which, when they feel beating itself against the
sides, they put in their hands and take it out, and reive a ratan
through their gills, and so let them drag after them.”3401
FROM KNOX’S CEYLON, A.D. 1681This operation may be seen in the lowlands, traversed
[pg
341] by the high road leading from Colombo to Kandy. Before
the change of the monsoon, the hollows on either side of the
highway are covered with dust or stunted grass; but when flooded by
the rains, they are immediately resorted to by the peasants with
baskets, constructed precisely as Knox has stated, in which the
fish are entrapped and taken out by the hand.3411
So singular a phenomenon as the sudden re-appearance of
full-grown fishes in places that a few days before had been
encrusted with hardened clay, has not failed to attract attention;
but the European residents have been content to explain it by
hazarding conjectures, either that the spawn must have lain
imbedded in the dried earth till released by the rains, or that the
fish, so unexpectedly discovered, fall from the clouds during the
deluge of the monsoon.
As to the latter conjecture; the fall of fish during showers,
even were it not so problematical in theory, is too rare an event
to account for the punctual appearance of those found in the
rice-fields, at stated periods of the year. Both at Galle and
Colombo in the south-west monsoon, fish are popularly believed to
have fallen from the clouds during violent showers, but those found
on the occasions that give rise to this belief, consist of the
smallest fry, such as could be caught up by waterspouts, and
vortices analogous to them, or otherwise blown on shore from the
surf; whereas those which [pg 342] suddenly appear in the replenished
tanks and in the hollows which they overflow, are mature and
well-grown fish.3421
Besides, the latter are found, under the circumstances I have
described, in all parts of the interior, whilst the prodigy of a
supposed fall of fish from the sky has been noticed, I apprehend,
only in the vicinity of the sea, or of some inland water.
FISH CORRALThe surmise of the buried spawn is one sanctioned by the very
highest authority. Mr. Yarrell in his “History of British
Fishes,” adverting to the fact that ponds (in India) which had
been previously converted into hardened mud, are replenished with
small fish in a very few days after the commencement of each rainy
season, offers this solution of the problem as probably the true
one: “The impregnated ova of the fish of one rainy season are left
unhatched in the mud through the dry season, and from their low
state of organisation as ova, the vitality is preserved till the
recurrence, and contact [pg 343] of the rain and oxygen in the next
wet season, when vivification takes place from their joint
influence.”3431
This hypothesis, however, appears to have been advanced upon
imperfect data; for although some fish, like the salmon, scrape
grooves in the sand and place their spawn in inequalities and
fissures; yet as a general rule spawn is deposited not beneath but
on the surface of the ground or sand over which the water flows,
the adhesive nature of each egg supplying the means of attachment.
But in the Ceylon tanks not only is the surface of the soil dried
to dust after the evaporation of the water, but earth itself,
twelve or eighteen inches deep, is converted into sun-burnt clay,
in which, although the eggs of mollusca, in their calcareous
covering, are in some instances preserved, it would appear to be as
impossible for the ova of fish to be kept from decomposition as for
the fish themselves to sustain life. Besides, moisture in such
situations is only to be found at a depth to which spawn could not
be conveyed by the parent fish, by any means with which we are yet
acquainted.
But supposing it possible to carry the spawn sufficiently deep,
and to deposit it safely in the mud below, which is still damp,
whence it could be liberated on the return of the rains, a
considerable interval would still be necessary after the
replenishing of the ponds with water to admit of vivification and
growth. Yet so far from this interval being allowed to elapse, the
rains have no sooner fallen than the taking of the fish commences,
and those captured by the natives in wicker cages are mature and
full grown instead of being “small fish” or fry, as supposed by Mr.
Yarrell.
Even admitting the soundness of his theory, and the probability
that, under favourable circumstances, the spawn in the tanks might
be preserved during the dry season so as to contribute to the
perpetuation of their breed, the fact is no longer doubtful, that
adult fish in Ceylon, like some of those that inhabit similar
waters both in the New and Old World, have been endowed by the
Creator with the singular faculty of providing against the
periodical droughts either by journeying overland in search of
still unexhausted water, or, on its utter disappearance, by burying
themselves in the mud to await the return of the rains.
It is an illustration of the eagerness with which, after the
expedition of Alexander the Great, particulars connected with the
natural history of India were sought for and arranged by the
Greeks, that in the works both of ARISTOTLE and THEOPHRASTUS facts
are recorded of the fishes in the Indian rivers migrating in search
of water, of their burying themselves in the mud on its failure, of
their being dug out thence alive during the dry season, and of
their spontaneous reappearance on the return of the rains. The
earliest notice is [pg 345] in ARISTOTLE’S treatise De
Respiratione3451,
where he mentions the strange discovery of living fish found
beneath the surface of the soil, “[Greek: tôn ichthyôn
oi polloi zôsin en tê gê, akinêtizontes
mentoi, kai euriskontai oryttomenoi?]” and in his History of
Animals he conjectures that in ponds periodically dried the ova of
the fish so buried become vivified at the change of the
season.3452 HERODOTUS had previously
hazarded a similar theory to account for the sudden appearance of
fry in the Egyptian marshes on the rising of the Nile; but the
cases are not parallel. THEOPHRASTUS, the friend and pupil of
Aristotle, gave importance to the subject by devoting to it his
essay [Greek: Peri tês tôn ichthyôn en
zêrô diamonês], De Piscibus in sicco
degentibus. In this, after adverting to the fish called
exocoetus, from its habit of going on shore to sleep,
“[Greek: apo tês koitês,]” he instances the small fish
([Greek: ichthydia]), that leave the rivers of India to wander like
frogs on the land; and likewise a species found near Babylon,
which, when the Euphrates runs low, leave the dry channels in
search of food, “moving themselves along by means of their fins and
tail.” He proceeds to state that at Heraclea Pontica there are
places in which fish are dug out of the earth, “[Greek: oryktoi
tôn ichthyôn],” and he accounts for their being found
under such circumstances by the subsidence of the rivers, “when the
water being evaporated the fish gradually descend beneath the soil
in search of moisture; and the surface becoming hard they are
preserved in the damp clay below it, in a state of torpor, but are
capable of vigorous movements when disturbed.” “In, this manner,
too,” adds Theophrastus, “the buried fish [pg 346]
propagate, leaving behind them their spawn, which becomes vivified
on the return of the waters to their accustomed bed.” This work of
Theophrastus became the great authority for all subsequent writers
on this question. ATHENÆUS quotes it3461, and adds the further testimony
of POLYBIUS, that in Gallia Narbonensis fish are similarly dug out
of the ground.3462
STRABO repeats the story3463,
and the Greek naturalists one and all received the statement as
founded on reliable authority.
Not so the Romans. LIVY mentions it as one of the prodigies
which were to be “expiated” on the approach of a rupture with
Macedon, that “in Gallico agro qua induceretur aratrum sub glebis
pisces emersisse,”3464
thus taking it out of the category of natural occurrences.
POMPONIUS MELA, obliged to notice the matter in his account of
Narbon Gaul, accompanies it with the intimation that although
asserted by both Greek and Roman authorities, the story was either
a delusion or a fraud, JUVENAL has a sneer for the
rustic—
“miranti sub aratro
Piscibus inventis.”—Sat. xiii. 63.
And SENECA, whilst he quotes Theophrastus, adds ironically, that
now we must go to fish with a hatchet instead of a hook;
“non cum hamis, sed cum dolabra ire piscatum.” PLINY, who devotes
the 35th chapter of his 9th book to this subject, uses the
narrative of Theophrastus, but with obvious caution, and
universally the Latin writers treated the story as a fable.
In later times the subject received more enlightened attention,
and Beekman, who in 1736 published his [pg 347]
commentary on the collection [Greek: Peri Thaumasiôn
akousmatôn], ascribed to Aristotle, has given a list of the
authorities about his own times,—GEORGIUS AGRICOLA, GESNER,
RONDELET, DALECHAMP, BOMARE, and GRONOVIUS, who not only gave
credence to the assertions of Theophrastus, but adduced modern
instances in corroboration of his Indian authorities.
As regards the fresh-water fishes of India and Ceylon, the fact
is now established that certain of them possess the power of
leaving the rivers and returning to them again after long
migrations on dry land, and modern observation has fully confirmed
their statements. They leave the pools and nullahs in the dry
season, and led by an instinct as yet unexplained, shape their
course through the grass towards the nearest pool of water. A
similar phenomenon is observable in countries similarly
circumstanced. The Doras of Guiana3471
have been seen travelling over land during the dry season in search
of their natural element3472,
in such droves that the negroes fill baskets with them during these
terrestrial excursions. PALLEGOIX in his account of Siam,
enumerates three species of fishes which leave the tanks and
channels [pg 348] and traverse the damp grass3481; and SIR JOHN BOWRING, in his
account of his embassy to the Siamese kings in 1855, states, that
in ascending and descending the river Meinam to Bankok, he was
amused with the novel sight of fish leaving the river, gliding over
the wet banks, and losing themselves amongst the trees of the
jungle.3482
The class of fishes endowed with this power are chiefly those
with labyrinthiform pharyngeal bones, so disposed in plates and
cells as to retain a supply of moisture, which, whilst they are
crawling on land, gradually exudes so as to keep the gills
damp.3483
The individual most frequently seen in these excursions in
Ceylon is a perch called by the Singhalese Kavaya or
Kawhy-ya, and by the Tamils Pannei-eri, or
Sennal. It is closely allied to the Anabas scandens
of Cuvier, the Perca scandens of Daldorf. It grows to about
six inches in length, the head round and covered with scales, and
the edges of the gill-covers strongly denticulated. Aided by the
apparatus already adverted to in its head, this little creature
issues boldly from its native pools and addresses itself to its
toilsome march generally at night or in the early morning, whilst
the grass is still damp with the dew; but in its distress it is
sometimes compelled to move by day, and Mr. E.L. Layard on one
occasion encountered a number of them travelling along a hot and
dusty road under the midday sun.3484
Referring to the Anabas scandens, DR. HAMILTON BUCHANAN
says, that of all the fish with which he was acquainted it is the
most teliacious of life; and he has known boatmen on the Ganges to
keep them for five or six days in an earthen pot without water, and
daily to use what they wanted, finding them as lively and fresh as
when caught.3491
Two Danish naturalists residing at [pg 350] Tranquebar, have
contributed their authority to the fact of this fish ascending
trees on the coast of Coromandel, an exploit from which it acquired
its epithet of Perca scandens. DALDORF, who was a lieutenant
in the Danish East India Company’s service, communicated to Sir
Joseph Banks, that in the year 1791 he had taken this fish from a
moist cavity in the stem of a Palmyra palm, that grew near a lake.
He saw it when already five feet above the ground struggling to
ascend still higher;—”suspending itself by its gill-covers,
and bending its tail to the left, it fixed its anal fin in the
cavity of the bark, and sought by expanding its body to urge its
way upwards, and its march was only arrested by the hand with which
he seized it.”3501
There is considerable obscurity about the story of this ascent,
although corroborated by M. JOHN. Its motive for climbing is not
apparent, since water being close at hand it could not have gone
for sake of the moisture contained in the fissures of the palm; nor
could it be in search of food, as it lives not on fruit but on
aquatic insects.3502
The descent, too, is a question of difficulty.
The position of its fins, and the spines on its gill-covers,
might assist its journey upwards, but the same apparatus would
prove anything but a facility in steadying its journey down. The
probability is, as suggested by Buchanan, that the ascent which was
witnessed by Daldorf was accidental, and ought not to be regarded
as the habit of the animal. In Ceylon I heard of no instance of the
perch ascending trees3511,
but the fact is well established that both it, the pullata
(a species of polyacanthus), and others, are capable of long
journeys on the level ground.3512
Burying Fishes.—But a still more remarkable power
possessed by some of the Ceylon fishes, is that already alluded to,
of secreting themselves in the earth in the dry season, at the
bottom of the exhausted ponds, and there awaiting the renewal of
the water at the change of the monsoon. The instinct of the
crocodile to resort to the same expedient has been already referred
to3513, and in like manner the fish,
when distressed by the evaporation of the tanks, seek relief by
immersing first their heads, [pg 352] and by degrees their
whole bodies, in the mud; sinking to a depth at which they find
sufficient moisture to preserve life in a state of lethargy long
after the bed of the tank has been consolidated by the intense heat
of the sun. It is possible, too, that the cracks which reticulate
the surface may admit air to some extent to sustain their faint
respiration.
The same thing takes place in other tropical regions, subject to
vicissitudes of drought and moisture. The Protopterus3521, which inhabits the Gambia (and
which though demonstrated by Professor Owen to possess all the
essential organisation of fishes, is nevertheless provided with
true lungs), is accustomed in the dry season, when the river
retires into its channel, to bury itself to the depth of twelve or
sixteen inches in the indurated mud of the banks, and to remain in
a state of torpor till the rising of the stream after the rains
enables it to resume its active habits. At this period the natives
of the Gambia, like those of Ceylon, resort to the river, and
secure the fish in considerable numbers as they flounder in the
still shallow water. A parallel instance occurs, in Abyssinia in
relation to the fish of the Mareb, one of the sources of the Nile,
the waters of which are partially absorbed in traversing the plains
of Taka. During the summer its bed is dry, and in the slime at the
depth of more than six feet is found a species of fish without
scales, different from any known to inhabit the Nile.3522
In South America the “round-headed hassar” of Guiana,
Callicthys littoralis, and the “yarrow,” a species of the
family Esocidæ, although they possess no specially modified
respiratory organs, are accustomed to bury themselves in the mud on
the subsidence of water in the pools during the dry season.3531 The Loricaria of
Surinam, another Siluridan, exhibits a similar instinct, and
resorts to the same expedient. Sir R. Schomburgk, in his account of
the fishes of Guiana, confirms this account of the Callicthys, and
says “they can exist in muddy lakes without any water whatever, and
great numbers of them are sometimes dug up from such
situations.”3532
In those portions of Ceylon where the country is flat, and small
tanks are extremely numerous, the natives are accustomed in the hot
season to dig in the mud for [pg 354] fish. Mr. Whiting, the
chief civil officer of the eastern province, informs me that, on
two occasions, he was present accidentally when the villagers were
so engaged, once at the tank of Malliativoe, within a few miles of
Kottiar, near the bay of Trincomalie, and again at a tank between
Ellendetorre and Arnitivoe, on the bank of the Vergel river. The
clay was firm, but moist, and as the men flung out lumps of it with
a spade, it fell to pieces, disclosing fish from nine to twelve
inches long, which were full grown and healthy, and jumped on the
bank when exposed to the sun light.
THE ANABAS OF THE DRY TANKS.Being desirous of obtaining a specimen of fish so exhumed, I
received from the Moodliar of Matura, A.B. Wickremeratne, a fish
taken along with others of the same kind from a tank in which the
water had dried up; it was found at a depth of a foot and a half
where the mud was still moist, whilst the surface was dry and hard.
The fish which the moodliar sent to me is an Anabas, closely
resembling the Perca scandens of Daldorf; but on minute
examination it proves to be a species unknown in India, and
hitherto found only in Boreno and China. It is the A.
oligolepis of Bleek.
But the faculty of becoming torpid at such periods is not
confined in Ceylon to the crocodile sand fishes;—it is also
possessed by some of the fresh-water mollusca and aquatic
coleoptera. One of the former, the Ampullaria glauca, is
found in still water in all parts of the island, not alone in the
tanks, but in rice-fields and the watercourses by which they are
irrigated. When, during the dry season, the water is about to
evaporate, it burrows and conceals itself3551 till the returning rains
restore it to activity, and reproduce its accustomed food. There,
at a considerable depth in the soft mud, it deposits a bundle of
eggs with a white calcareous shell, to the number of one hundred or
more in each group. The Melania Paludina in the same way
retires during the droughts into the muddy soil of the rice lands;
and it can only be by such an instinct that this and other mollusca
are preserved when the tanks evaporate, to re-appear in full growth
and vigour immediately on the return of the rains.3552
Dr. John Hunter3561
has advanced an opinion that hybernation, although a result of
cold, is not its immediate consequence, but is attributable to that
deprivation of food and other essentials which extreme cold
occasions, and against the recurrence of which nature makes a
timely provision by a suspension of her functions. Excessive heat
in the tropics produces an effect upon animals and vegetables
analogous to that of excessive cold in northern regions, and hence
it is reasonable to suppose that the torpor induced by the one may
be but the counterpart of the hybernation which results from the
other. The frost that imprisons the alligator in the Mississippi as
effectually cuts it off from food and action as the drought which
incarcerates the crocodile in the sun-burnt clay of a Ceylon tank.
The hedgehog of Europe enters on a period of absolute torpidity as
soon as the inclemency of winter deprives it of its ordinary supply
of slugs and insects; and the tenrec3562 of Madagascar, its tropical
representative, exhibits the same tendency during the period when
excessive heat produces in that climate a like result.
The descent of the Ampullaria, and other fresh-water
molluscs, into the mud of the tanks, has its parallel in the
conduct of the Bulimi and Helices on land. The
European snail, in the beginning of winter, either buries itself in
the earth or withdraws to some crevice or overarching stone to
await the returning vegetation of spring. So, in the season of
intense heat, the Helix Waltoni of Ceylon, and others of the
same family, before retiring under cover, close the aperture of
their shells with an impervious epiphragm, which effectually
protects their moisture and juices from evaporation during the
period of their æstivation. The Bulimi of Chili have been
found alive in England in a box packed in cotton after an interval
of two years, and the animal inhabiting a land-shell from Suez,
which was attached to a tablet and deposited in the British Museum
in 1846, was found in 1850 to have formed a fresh epiphragm, and on
being immersed in tepid water, it emerged from its shell. It became
torpid again on the 15th November, 1851, and was found dead and
dried up in March, 1852.3571
But exceptions serve to prove the accuracy of Hunter’s opinion
almost as strikingly as accordances, since the same genera of
animals that hybernate in Europe, where extreme cold disarranges
their oeconomy, evince no symptoms of lethargy in the tropics,
provided their food be not diminished by the heat. Ants, which are
torpid in Europe during winter, work all the year round in India,
where sustenance is uniform.3572
The shrews of Ceylon (Sorex montanus and S.
ferrugineus of Kelaart), like [pg 358] those at home, subsist
upon insects, but as they inhabit a region where the equable
temperature admits of the pursuit of their prey at all seasons of
the year, unlike those of Europe, they never hybernate. A similar
observation applies to bats, which are dormant during a northern
winter when insects are rare, but never become torpid in any part
of the tropics. The bear, in like manner, is nowhere deprived of
its activity except when the rigour of severe frost cuts off its
access to its accustomed food. On the other hand, the tortoise,
which in Venezuela immerses itself in indurated mud during the hot
months shows no tendency to torpor in Ceylon, where its food is
permanent; and yet it is subject to hybernation when carried to the
colder regions of Europe.
To the fish in the detached tanks and pools when the heat, by
exhausting the water, deprives them at once of motion and
sustenance, the practical effect must be the same as when the frost
of a northern winter encases them in ice. Nor is it difficult to
believe that they can successfully undergo the one crisis when we
know beyond question that they may survive the other.3581
Hot-water Fishes.—Another incident is striking in
connection with the fresh-water fishes of Ceylon. I have described
elsewhere the hot springs of Kannea3582,
in the [pg
359] vicinity of Trincomalie, the water in which flows at a
temperature varying at different seasons from 85° to 115°.
In the stream formed by these wells M. Reynaud found and forwarded
to Cuvier two fishes which he took from the water at a time when
his thermometer indicated a temperature of 37° Reaumur, equal
to 115° of Fahrenheit. The one was an Apogon, the other an
Ambassis, and to each, from the heat of its habitat, he assigned
the specific name of “thermalis.”3591
List of Ceylon Fishes.
In the following list, the Acanthopterygian fishes of Ceylon has
been prepared for me by Dr. G&ÜNTHER, and will be found
the most complete which has appeared of this order. I am also
indebted to him for the correction of the list of Malacopterygians,
which I hope ere long to render still more extended, as well as
that of the Cartilaginous fishes.
I. OSSEOUS.
ACANTHOPTERYGII
- BERYCIDÆ, Lowe.
- Myripristis murdjan, Forsk.
- Holocentrum rubrum, Forsk.
- spiniferum, Forsk.
- diadema, Lacép.
- PERCIDÆ, Günther.
- *Lates calcarifer, Bl.
- Serranus louti, Forsk.
- pachycentrum, C. & V.
- guttatus, Bl.
- Sonneratii, C. & V.
- angularis, C.& V.
- marginalis, Bl.
- hexagonatis, Forsk.
- flavocoeruleus, Lacép.
- biguttatus, C. & V.
- lemniscatus, C. & V.
- Amboinensis, Bleek.
- boenak, C. & V.
- Grammistes orientalis, Bl.
- Genyoroge Sebæ, C. & V.
- Bengalensis, C. & V.
- marginata, C. & V.
- rivulata, C. & V.
- gibba, Forsk.
- spilura, Benn.
- Mesoprion aurolineatus, C. & V.
- rangus, C. & V.
- quinquelineatus, Rüpp.
- Johnii, Bl.
- annularis, C. & V.
- ?Priacanthus Blochii, Bleek.
- Ambassis n. sp., Günth.
- Commersonii, C. & V.
- thermalis, C. & V.
- Apogon Ceylonicus, C. & V.
- thermalis, C. & V.
- annularis, Rüpp. Var. roseipinnis.
- Chilodipterus quinquelineatus, C. & V.
- PRISTIPOMATIDÆ, Günther.
- Dules Bennettii, Bleek.
- *Therapon servus, Bloch.
- *trivittatus, Buch. Ham.
- quadrilineatus, Bl.
- *Helotes polytænia, Bleek.
- Pristipoma hasta, Bloch.
- maculatum, Bl.
- Diagramma punctatum, Ehrenb.
- orientale, Bl.
- poecilopterum, C. & V.
- Blochii, C. & V.
- lineatum, Gm.
- Radja, Bleek.
- Lobotes auctorum, Günth.
- Gerres oblongus, C & V.
- Scolopsia Japonicus, Bl.
- bimaculatus, Rüpp.
- monogramma, k. & v. H.
- Synagris furcosus, C. & V.
- Pentapus aurolineatus, Lacép.
- Smaris balteatus, C. & V.
- Cæsio coerulaureus, Lacép.
- MULLIDÆ, Gray.
- Upeneus tæniopterus, C. & V.
- Indicus, Shaw.
- cyclostoma, Lacép.
- Upe. trifasciatus, Lacép.
- cinnabarinus, C. & V.
- Upeneoides vittatus, Forsk.
- tragula.
- sulphureus, C. & V.
- Mulloides flavolineatus, Lacép.
- Ceylonicus, C. & V.
- Upeneus tæniopterus, C. & V.
- SPARIDÆ, Günther.
- Lethrinus frenatus, C. & V.
- cinereus, C. & V.
- fasciatus, C. & V.
- ?ramak, Forsk.
- opercularis, C. & V.
- erythrurus, C. & V.
- Pagrus spinifer, Forsk.
- Crysophrys hasta, Bl.
- ?Pimelepterus Ternatensis, Bleek.
- Lethrinus frenatus, C. & V.
- SQUAMIPINNES, Günthier.
- Chætodon Layardi, Blyth.
- oligacanthus, Bleek.
- setifer, Bl.
- vagabundus, L.
- guttatissimus, Benn.
- pictus, Forsk.
- xanthocephalus, Benn.
- Sebæ, C. & V.
- Heniochus macrolepidotus, Artedi.
- Holacanthus annularis, Bl.
- xanthurus, Benn.
- imperator, B1.
- Scatophagus argus, Gm.
- Ephippus orbis, Bl.
- Drepane punctata, Gm.
- Chætodon Layardi, Blyth.
- CIRRHITIDÆ, Gray.
- Cirrhites Forsteri, Schn.
- CATAPHRACTI, Cuv.
- Scorpæna polyprion, Bleek.
- Pterois volitans, L.
- miles, Benn.
- Tetraroge longispinis, C. & V.
- Platycephalus insidiator, Forsk.
- punctatus, C. & V.
- serratus, C. & V.
- tuberculatus, C. & V.
- suppositus, Trosch.
- Dactylopterus orientalis, C. & V.
- TRACHINIDÆ, Günther.
- ?Uranoscopus guttatus, C. & V.
- Percis millepunctata, Günth.
- Sillago siliama, Forsk.
- SCIÆNIDÆ, Günther.
- Sciæna diacantha, Lacép.
- maculata, Schn.
- Dussumieri, C & V.
- Corvina miles, C. & V.
- Otolithus argenteus, k. & v. H.
- Sciæna diacantha, Lacép.
- POLYNEMIDÆ, Günther.
- Polynemus heptadactylus, C. & V.
- hexanemus, C. & V.
- Indicus, Shaw.
- plebeius, Gm.
- tetradactylus, Shaw.
- Polynemus heptadactylus, C. & V.
- SPHYRÆNIDÆ, Agass.
- Sphyræna jello, C. & V.
- obtusata, C. & V.
- Sphyræna jello, C. & V.
- SCOMBRIDÆ, Günther.
- ?Thynnus affinis, Cant.
- Cybium Commersonii, Lacép.
- guttatum, Schn.
- Naucrates ductor, L.
- Elacate nigra, Bl.
- ?n. sp.
- Echeneis remora, L.
- scutata, Günth.
- naucrates, L.
- Stromateus cinereus, Bl.
- niger, Bl.
- Coryphæna hippurus, L.
- Mene maculata, Schn.
- CARANGIDÆ, Günther.
- Caranx Heberi, Benn.
- Rottleri, Bl.
- calla, C.&V.
- xanthurus, K.&v.H.
- talamparoides, Bleek.
- Malabaricus, Schn.
- speciosus, Forsk.
- carangus, Bl.
- hippos, L.
- armatus, Forsk.
- ciliaris, Bl.
- gallus, L.
- Micropteryx chrysurus, L.
- Seriola nigro-fasciata, Rüpp.
- Chorinemus lysan, Forsk.
- Sancti Petri, C. & V.
- Trachynotus oblongus, C. & V.
- ovatus, L.
- Psettus argenteus, L.
- Platax vespertilio, Bl.
- Raynaldi, C.&V.
- Zanclus sp. n.
- Lactarius delicatulus, C. & V.
- Equula fasciata, Lacép.
- edentula, Bl.
- daura, Cuv.
- inlerrupta.
- Gazza minuta, Bl.
- equulæformis, Rüpp.
- Pempheris sp.
- XIPHIIDÆ, Agass.
- Histiophorus immaculatus, Rüpp.
- THEUTYIDÆ, Günther.
- Theutys Javus, L.
- stellata, Forsk.
- nebulosa, A. & G.
- Theutys Javus, L.
- ACRONURIDÆ, Günther.
- Acanthurus triostegus, L.
- nigrofuscus, Forsk.
- lineatus, L.
- Tennentii, Gthr.
- leucosternon, Bennett.
- ctenodon, C.&V.
- rhombeus, Kittl.
- xanthurus, Blyth.
- Acronurus melas, C. & V.
- melanurus, C. & V.
- Naseus unicornis, Forsk,
- brevirostris, C. & V.
- tuberosus, Lacép.
- lituratus, Forster.
- Acanthurus triostegus, L.
- AULOSTOMATA, Cuvier.
- Fistularia serrata, Bl.
- BLENNIIDÆ, Müll.
- Salarias fasclatus, Bl.
- Sal. marmoratus, Benn.
- tridactylus, Schn.
- quadricornis, C.&V.
- GOBIIDÆ, Müll.
- Gobius ornatus, Rüpp.
- giuris, Buch. Ham.
- albopunctatus, C. & V.
- grammepomus, Bleek.
- Apocryptes lanceolatus, Bl.
- Periophthalmus Koelreuteri, Pall.
- Eleotris ophiocephalus, K. & v.H.
- fusca, Bl.
- sexguttata, C. & V.
- muralis, A. & G.
- Gobius ornatus, Rüpp.
- MASTACEMBELIDÆ. Günther.
- Mastacembelus armatus, Lacép.
- PEDICULATI, Cuv.
- Antennarius marmoratus, Günth.
- hispidus, Schn.
- pinniceps, Commers.
- Commersonii, Lacép.
- multiocellatus Günth.
- bigibbus, Lacép.
- Antennarius marmoratus, Günth.
- ATHERINIDÆ, Günther.
- Atherina Forskalii, Rüpp.
- duodecimalis, C. & V.
- Atherina Forskalii, Rüpp.
- MUGILIDÆ, Günther.
- Mugil planiceps, C. & V.
- Waigiensis, A.G.
- Ceylonensis, Günth.
- Mugil planiceps, C. & V.
- OPHIOCEPHALIDÆ, Günther.
- Ophiocephalus punctatus, Bl.
- Kelaartii, Günth.
- striatus, Bl.
- marulius, Ham. Buch.
- Channa orientalis, Schn.
- Ophiocephalus punctatus, Bl.
- LABYRINTHICI, Cuv.
- Anabas oligolepis, Bleek.
- Polyacanthus signatus, Günth.
PHARYNGOGNATHI.
- Amphiprion Clarkii, J. Benn.
- Dascyllus aruanus, C. & V.
- trimaculatus, Rüpp.
- Glyphisodon septem-fasciatus, C. & V.
- Brownrigii, Benn,
- coelestinus, Sol.
- Etroplus Suratensis, Bl.
- Julis lunaris Linn.
- decussatus, W Benn.
- formosus, C.&V.
- quadricolor. Lesson.
- dorsalis, Quoy & Gaim.
- aureomaculatus, W. Benn.
- Cellanicus, E. Benn.
- Finlaysoni, C. & V.
- purpureo-lineatus, C. & V.
- cingulum, C. & V.
- Gomphosus fuscus, C. & V.
- coeruleus, Comm.
- viridis, W. Benn.
- Scarus pepo, W. Benn.
- harid. Forsk.
- Tautoga fasciata, Thunb.
- Hemirhamphus Reynaldi, C. & V.
- Georgii C.& V.
- Exocoetus evolans. Linn.
- Belone annulata, C. & V. [pg 362]
MALACOPTERYGII (ABDOMINALES).
- Bagrus gulio, Buch.
- albilabris, C. & V.
- Plotosus lineatus, C. & V.
- Barbus tor, C. & V.
- Nuria thermoicos, C. & V.
- Leuciscus dandia, C. & V.
- scalpellus, C. & V.
- Ceylonicus, E. Benn.
- thermalis, C. & V.
- Cobitis thermalis, C. & V.
- Chirocentrus dorab, Forsk.
- Elops saurus, L.
- Megalops cundinga, Buch.
- Engraulis Brownii, Gm.
- Sardinella leiogaster, C. & V.
- lineolata, C. & V.
- Neohowii.
- Saurus myops, Val.
- Saurida tombil, Bl.
- Bagrus gulio, Buch.
MALACOPTERYGII (SUB-BRANCHIATI).
- Pleuronectes, L.
MALACOPTERYGII (APODA).
- Muræna.
LOPHOBRANCHI.
- Syngnathus, L.
PLECTOGNATHII.
- Tetraodon ocellatus, W. Benn.
- tepa, Buch.
- argyropleura, E. Bennett.
- argentatus, Blyth.
- Balistes biaculeatus, W. Benn.
- lineatus, Bl.
- Triacanthus biaculeatus, W. Benn.
- Alutarius lævis, Bl.
- Tetraodon ocellatus, W. Benn.
II. CARTILAGINOUS.
- Pristis antiquorum, Lath.
- cuspidatus, Lath.
- pectinatus, Lath.
- Chiloscyllium plagiosum, Benn.
- Stegostoma fasciatum, Bl.
- Carcharias acutus, Rüpp.
- Sphyrna zygæna, L.
- Rhynchobatus lævis, Bl.
- Trygon uarnak, Forsk.
- Pteroplatea micrura, Bl.
- Tæniura lymna, Forsk.
- Myliobatis Nieuhofii, Bl.
- Aëtobates narinari, Bl.
- Pristis antiquorum, Lath.
NOTE (A.)
INSTANCES OF FISHES FALLING FROM THE CLOUDS IN INDIA.
(From the Bombay Times, 1856.)
See Page 343.
The late Dr. Buist, after enumerating cases in which fishes were
said to have been thrown out from volcanoes in South America and
precipitated from clouds in various parts of the world, adduced the
following instances of similar occurrences in India. “In 1824,” he
says, “fishes fell at Meerut, on the men of Her Majesty’s 14th
Regiment, then out at drill, and were caught in numbers. In July,
1826, live fish were seen to fall on the grass at Moradabad during
a storm. They were the common cyprinus, so prevalent in our Indian
waters. On the 19th of February, 1830, at noon, a heavy fall of
fish occurred at the Nokulhatty factory, in the Daccah zillah;
[pg
363] depositions on the subject were obtained from nine
different parties. The fish were all dead; most of them were large;
some were fresh, others were rotten and mutilated. They were seen
at first in the sky, like a flock of birds, descending rapidly to
the ground; there was rain drizzling, but no storm. On the 16th and
17th of May, 1833, a fall of fish occurred in the zillah of
Futtehpoor, about three miles north of the Jumna, after a violent
storm of wind and rain. The fish were from a pound and a half to
three pounds in weight, and of the same species as those found in
the tanks in the neighbourhood. They were all dead and dry. A fall
of fish occurred at Allahabad, during a storm in May, 1835; they
were of the chowla species, and were found dead and dry after the
storm had passed over the district. On the 20th of September, 1839,
after a smart shower of rain, a quantity of live fish, about three
inches in length and all of the same kind, fell at the Sunderbunds,
about twenty miles south of Calcutta. On this occasion it was
remarked that the fish did not fall here and there irregularly over
the ground, but in a continuous straight line, not more than a span
in breadth. The vast multitudes of fish, with which the low grounds
round Bombay are covered, about a week or ten days after the first
burst of the monsoon, appear to be derived from the adjoining pools
or rivulets, and not to descend from the sky. They are not, so far
as I know, found in the higher parts of the island. I have never
seen them, (though I have watched carefully,) in casks collecting
water from the roofs of buildings, or heard of them on the decks or
awnings of vessels in the harbour, where they must have appeared
had they descended from the sky. One of the most remarkable
phenomena of this kind occurred during a tremendous deluge of rain
at Kattywar, on the 25th of July, 1850, when the ground around
Rajkote was found literally covered with fish; some of them were
found on the tops of haystacks, where probably they had been
drifted by the storm. In the course of twenty-four successive hours
twenty-seven inches of rain fell, thirty-five fell in twenty-six
hours, seven [pg 364] inches within one hour and a half,
being the heaviest fall on record. At Poonah, on the 3rd of August,
1852, after a very heavy fall of rain, multitudes of fish were
caught on the ground in the cantonments, full half a mile from the
nearest stream. If showers of fish are to be explained on the
assumption that they are carried up by squalls or violent winds,
from rivers or spaces of water not far away from where they fall,
it would be nothing wonderful were they seen to descend from the
air during the furious squalls which occasionally occur in
June.”
NOTE (B.)
CEYLON FISHES.
(Memorandum by Professor Huxley.)
See Page 324.
The large series of beautifully coloured drawings of the fishes
of Ceylon, which has been submitted to my inspection, possesses an
unusual value for several reasons.
The fishes, it appears, were all captured at Colombo, and even
had those from other parts of Ceylon been added, the geographical
area would not have been very extended. Nevertheless there are more
than 600 drawings, and though it is possible that some of these
represent varieties in different stages of growth of the same
species, I have not been able to find definite evidence of the fact
in any of those groups which I have particularly tested. If,
however, these drawings represent six hundred distinct
species of fish, they constitute, so far as I know, the largest
collection of fish from one locality in existence.
The number of known British fishes may be safely assumed to be
less than 250, and Mr. Yarrell enumerates only 226, Dr. Cantor’s
valuable work on Malayan fishes enumerates not more than 238, while
Dr. Russell has figured only 200 from [pg 365]
Coromandel. Even the enormous area of the Chinese and Japanese seas
has as yet not yielded 800 species of fishes.
The large extent of the collection alone, then, renders it of
great importance: but its value is immeasurably enhanced by the two
circumstances,—first, that every drawing was made
while the fish retained all that vividness of colouring which
becomes lost so soon after its removal from its native element; and
secondly, that when the sketch was finished its subject was
carefully labelled, preserved in spirits, and forwarded to England,
so that at the present moment the original of every drawing can be
subjected to anatomical examination, and compared with already
named species.
Under these circumstances, I do not hesitate to say that the
collection is one of the most valuable in existence, and might, if
properly worked out, become a large and secure foundation for all
future investigation into the ichthyology of the Indian Ocean.
It would be very hazardous to express an opinion as to the
novelty or otherwise of the species and genera figured without the
study of the specimens themselves, as the specific distinctions of
fish are for the most part based upon character—the fin-rays,
teeth, the operculum, &c., which can only be made out by close
and careful examination of the object, and cannot be represented in
ordinary drawings however accurate.
There are certain groups of fish, however, whose family traits
are so marked as to render it almost impossible to mistake even
their portraits, and hence I may venture, without fear of being far
wrong, upon a few remarks as to the general features of the
ichthyological fauna of Ceylon.
In our own seas rather less than a tenth of the species of
fishes belong to the cod tribe. I have not found one represented in
these drawings, nor do either Russell or Cantor mention any in the
surrounding seas, and the result is in general harmony with the
known laws of distribution of these most useful of fishes.
On the other hand, the mackerel family, including the tunnies,
[pg
366] the bonitas, the dories, the horse-mackerels, &c.,
which form not more than one sixteenth of our own fish fauna, but
which are known to increase their proportion in hot climates,
appear in wonderful variety of form and colour, and constitute not
less than one fifth of the whole of the species of Ceylon fish. In
Russell’s catalogue they form less than one fifth, in Cantor’s less
than one sixth.
Marine and other siluroid fishes, a group represented on the
continent of Europe, but doubtfully, if at all, in this country,
constitute one twentieth of the Ceylon fishes. In Russell’s and
Cantor’s lists they form about one thirtieth of the whole.
The sharks and rays form about one seventh of our own fish
fauna. They constitute about one tenth or one eleventh of Russell’s
and Cantor’s lists, while among these Ceylon drawings I find not
more than twenty, or about one thirtieth of the whole, which can be
referred to this group of fishes. It must be extremely interesting
to know whether this circumstance is owing to accident, or to the
local peculiarities of Colombo, or whether the fauna of Ceylon
really is deficient in such fishes.
The like exceptional character is to be noticed in the
proportion of the tribe of flat fishes, or
Pleuronectidæ. Soles, turbots, and the like, form
nearly one twelfth of our own fishes. Both Cantor and Russell give
the flat fishes as making one twenty-second part of their
collection, while in the whole 600 Ceylon drawings I can find but
five Pleuronectidæ.
When this great collection has been carefully studied, I doubt
not that many more interesting distributional facts will be
evolved.
Since receiving this note from Professor Huxley, the drawings in
question have been submitted to Dr. Gray, of the British Museum.
That eminent naturalist, after a careful analysis, has favoured me
with the following memorandum of [pg 367] the fishes they
represent, numerically contrasting them with those of China and
Japan, so far as we are acquainted with the ichthyology of those
seas:—
CARTILAGINEA. | ||
| Ceylon. | China and Japan. | |
| Squali | 12 | 15 |
| Raiæ | 19 | 20 |
| Sturiones | 0 | 1 |
OSTINOPTERYGII. | ||
| Plectognathi. | ||
| tetraodontidæ | 10 | 21 |
| balistidæ | 9 | 19 |
| Lophobranchii. | ||
| syngnathidæ | 2 | 2 |
| pegasidæ | 0 | |
| Ctenobranchii. | ||
| lophidæ | 1 | 3 |
| Cyclopodi. | ||
| echeneidæ | 0 | 1 |
| cyclopteridæ | 0 | 1 |
| gobidæ | 7 | 35 |
| Percini. | ||
| callionymidæ | 0 | 7 |
| uranoscopidæ | 0 | 7 |
| cottidæ | 0 | 13 |
| triglidæ | 11 | 37 |
| polynemidæ | 12 | 3 |
| mullidæ | 1 | 7 |
| perecidæ | 26 | 12 |
| berycidæ | 0 | 5 |
| sillaginidæ | 3 | 1 |
| sciænidæ | 19 | 13 |
| hæmullinidæ | 6 | 12 |
| serranidæ | 31 | 38 |
| theraponidæ | 8 | 20 |
| cirrhitidæ | 0 | 2 |
| mænidiæ | 37 | 25 |
| sparidæ | 16 | 17 |
| acanthuridæ | 14 | 6 |
| chætodontidæ | 25 | 21 |
| fistularidæ | 2 | 3 |
| Periodopharyngi. | ||
| mugilidæ | 5 | 7 |
| anabantidæ | 6 | 15 |
| pomacentridæ | 10 | 11 |
| Pharyngognathi. | ||
| labridæ | 16 | 35 |
| scomberesocidæ | 13 | |
| blenniidæ | 3 | 8 |
| Scomberina. | ||
| zeidæ | 0 | 2 |
| sphyrænidæ | 5 | 4 |
| scomberidæ | 118 | 62 |
| xiphlidæ | 0 | 1 |
| cepolidæ | 0 | 5 |
| Heterosomata. | ||
| platessoideæ | 5 | 22 |
| siluridæ | 31 | 24 |
| cyprinidæ | 19 | 52 |
| scopelinidæ | 2 | 7 |
| salmonidæ | 0 | 1 |
| clupeidæ | 43 | 22 |
| gadidæ | 0 | 2 |
| macruridæ | 1 | 0 |
| Apodes. | ||
| anguillidæ | 8 | 12 |
| murænidæ | 8 | 6 |
| sphagebranchidæ | 8 | 10 |
NOTE (C).
ON THE BORA-CHUNG, OR “GROUND-FISH” OF BHOOTAN.
See P. 353.
In Bhootan, at the south-eastern extremity of the Himalayas, a
fish is found, the scientific name of which is unknown to me, but
it is called by the natives the Bora-chung, and by European
residents the “ground-fish of Bhootan.” It is described in the
Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal for 1839, by a
writer (who had seen it alive), as being about two feet in length,
and [pg
368] cylindrical, with a thick body, somewhat shaped like a
pike, but rounder, the nose curved upwards, the colour olive-green,
with orange stripes, and the head speckled with crimson.3681 This fish, according to the
native story, is caught not in the rivers in whose vicinity it is
found, but “in perfectly dry places in the middle of grassy jungle,
sometimes as far as two miles from the banks.” Here, on finding a
hole four or five inches in diameter, they commence to dig, and
continue till they come to water; and presently the
bora-chung rises to the surface, sometimes from a depth of
nineteen feet. In these extemporised wells these fishes are found
always in pairs, and I when brought to the surface they glide
rapidly over the ground with a serpentine motion. This account
appeared in 1839; but some years later, Mr. Campbell, the
Superintendent of Darjeeling, in a communication to the same
journal3682, divested the story of much of
its exaggeration, by stating, as the result of personal inquiry in
Bhootan, that the bora-chung inhabits the jheels and
slow-running streams near the hills, but lives principally on the
banks, into which it penetrates from one to five or six feet. The
entrance to these retreats leading from the river into the bank is
generally a few inches below the surface, so that the fish can
return to the water at pleasure. The mode of catching them is by
introducing the hand into these holes; and the bora-chungs
are found generally two in each chamber, coiled concentrically like
snakes. It is not believed that they bore their own burrows, but
that they take possession of those made by land-crabs. Mr. Campbell
denies that they are more capable than other fish of moving on dry
ground. From the particulars given, the bora-chung would
appear to be an Ophiocephalus, probably the O. barka
described by Buchanan, as inhabiting holes in the banks of rivers
tributary to the Ganges.
Footnote 3231: (return)A Selection of the most Remarkable and Interesting Fishes
found on the Coast of Ceylon. By J.W. BENNETT, Esp. London,
1830.
Footnote 3243: (return)These facts serve to explain the story told by the friar ODORIC
of Friuli, who visited Ceylon about the year 1320 A.D., and says
there are “fishes in those seas that come swimming towards the said
country in such abundance that for a great distance into the sea
nothing can be seen but the backs of fishes, which casting
themselves on the shore, do suffer men for the space of three daies
to come and to take as many of them as they please, and then they
return again into the sea.”—Hakluyt, vol. ii. p.
57.
Footnote 3251: (return)There are other species of Sardine found at Ceylon besides the
S. Neohowii; such as the S. lineolata, Cuv. and Val.
and the S. leiogaster, Cuv. and Val. xx. 270, which was
found by M. Reynaud at Trincomalie. It occurs also off the coast of
Java. Another Ceylon fish of the same group, a Clupea, is known as
the “poisonous sprat;” the bonito (Thynnus affinis, Cang.),
the kangewena, or unicorn fish (Balistes?), and a number of
others, are more or less in bad repute from the same
imputation.
Footnote 3252: (return)Two other species are found in the Ceylon waters, P.
cuspidatus and P. pectinatus.
Footnote 3271: (return)Raja narinari, Bl. Schn. p. 361. Aëtobates
narinari, Müll. und Henle., Plagiost. p. 179.
Footnote 3281: (return)ÆLIAN tells a story of a ship in the Black Sea, the bottom
of which was penetrated by the sword of a Xiphias (L. xiv.
c. 23); and PLINY (L. xxxii. c. 8) speaks of a similar accident on
the coast of Mauritania. In the British Museum there is a specimen
of a plank of oak, pierced by a sword-fish, and still retaining the
broken weapon.
Footnote 3303: (return)The fish from which this drawing of the Cheironectes was
made, was taken near Colombo, and from the peculiarities which it
presents it is in all probability a new and undescribed species.
Dr. G&ÜNTHER has remarked, that in it, whilst the first
and second dorsal spines are situated as usual over the eye (and
form, one the angling bait of the fish, the other the crest above
the nose), the third is at an unusual distance from the second, and
is not separated, as in the other species, from the soft fin by a
notch.
Footnote 3321: (return)Cuv. and VALEN., Hist. Nat. des Poissons, tom. xi. p.
249. It is identical with S. tridactylus, Schn.
Footnote 3322: (return)Pterois muricata, Cuv. and Val. iv. 363.
Scarpæna miles, Bennett; named, by the Singhalese,
“Maharata-gini,” the Great Red Fire, a very brilliant red
species spotted with black. It is very voracious, and is regarded
on some parts of the coast as edible, while on others it is
rejected.
Footnote 3323: (return)Glyphisodon Brownriggii, Cuv. and Val. v. 484;
Choetodon Brownriggii, Bennett. A very small fish about two
inches long, called Kaha hartikyha by the natives. It is
distinct from Choetodon, in which BENNETT placed it. Numerous
species of this genus are scattered throughout the Indian Ocean. It
derives its name from the fine hair-like character of its teeth.
They are found chiefly among coral reefs, and, though eaten, are
not much esteemed. In the French colonies they are called
“Chauffe-soleil.” One species is found on the shores of the New
World (G. saxatalis), and it is curious that Messrs. QUOY
and GAIMARD found this fish at the Cape de Verde Islands in
1827.
Footnote 3331: (return)This fish has a sharp round spine on the side of the body near
the tail; a formidable weapon, which is generally partially
concealed within a scabbard-like incision. It raises or depresses
this spine at pleasure. The fish is yellow, with several nearly
parallel blue stripes on the back and sides; the belly is white,
the tail and fins brownish green, edged with blue.It is found in rocky places; and according to BENNETT, who has
figured it in his second plate, it is named Seweya. It has
been known, however, to all the old ichthyologists, Valentyn,
Renard, Seba, Artedi, and has been named Chætodon
lineatus, by Linné. It is scarce on the southern coast
of Ceylon.
Footnote 3351: (return)The fish from the Sea of Pinang, described by Dr. CANTOR with
this name (Catal. Mal. Fish. p. 42), is again different, and
belongs to a third species.
Footnote 3353: (return)This is the fish figured by BENNETT as Sparus pepo.
Fishes of Ceylon, Plate xxviii.
Footnote 3354: (return)In extenuation of the little that is known of the fresh-water
fishes of Ceylon, it may be observed that very few of them are used
at table by Europeans, and there is therefore no stimulus on the
part of the natives to catch them. The burbot and grey mullet are
occasionally eaten, but they taste of mud, and are not in
request.Some years ago the experiment was made, with success, of
introducing into Mauritius the Osphromenus olfax of Java,
which has also been taken to French Guiana. In both places it is
now highly esteemed as a fish for table. As it belongs to a family
which possesses the faculty, hereafter alluded to, of surviving in
the damp soil after the subsidence of the water in the tanks and
rivers, it might with equal advantage be acclimated in Ceylon. It
grows to 20 lbs. weight and upwards.
Footnote 3371: (return)Holocentrus quadrilineatus, Bloch. It is allied to
Helotes polytoenia, Bleek., from Halmaheira which it can be
readily distinguished by having only five or six blackish
longitudinal bands, the black humeral spot being between the first
and second; another blackish blotch is in the spinous dorsal fin.
There are two specimens in the British Museum collection, one of
which has recently arrived from Amoy; of the other the locality is
unknown. See G&ÜNTHER, Acanthopt. Fishes, vol. i.
p. 282, where mention of the black humeral spot has been
omitted.
Footnote 3392: (return)Knox’s Historical Relation of Ceylon, Part i. ch. vii.
The occurrence of fish in the most unlooked-for situations, is one
of the mysteries of other eastern countries as well as Ceylon and
India. In Persia irrigation is carried on to a great extent by
means of wells sunk in line in the direction in which it is desired
to lead a supply of water, and these are connected by channels,
which are carefully arched over to protect them from evaporation.
These kanats, as they are called, are full of fish, although
neither they nor the wells they unite have any connection with
streams or lakes.
Footnote 3411: (return)As anglers, the native Singhalese exhibit little expertness; but
for fishing the rivers, they construct with singular ingenuity
fences formed of strong stakes, protected by screens of ratan, that
stretch diagonally across the current; and along these the fish are
conducted into a series of enclosures from which retreat is
impracticable. MR. LAYARD, in the Magazine of Natural
History for May, 1853, has given a diagram of one of these fish
“corrals,” as they are called, of which a copy is shown on the next
page.
Footnote 3421: (return)I had an opportunity, on one occasion only, of witnessing the
phenomenon which gives rise to this popular belief. I was driving
in the cinnamon gardens near the fort of Colombo, and saw a violent
but partial shower descend at no great distance before me. On
coming to the spot I found a multitude of small silvery fish from
one and a half to two inches in length, leaping on the gravel of
the high road, numbers of which I collected and brought away in my
palankin. The spot was about half a mile from the sea, and entirely
unconnected with any watercourse or pool.Mr. Whiting, who was many years resident in Trincomadie, writes
me that he “had often been told by the natives on that side of the
island that it sometimes rained fishes; and on one occasion” (he
adds) “I was taken by them, in 1849, to a field at the village of
Karrancotta-tivo, near Batticaloa, which was dry when I passed over
it in the morning, but, had been covered in two hours by sudden
rain to the depth of three inches, in which there was then a
quantity of small fish. The water had no connection with any pond
or stream whatsoever.” Mr. Cripps, in like manner, in speaking of
Galle, says: “I have seen in the vicinity of the fort, fish taken
from rain-water that had accumulated in the hollow parts of land
that in the hot season are perfectly dry and parched. The place is
accessible to no running stream or tank; and either the fish or the
spawn from which they were produced, must of necessity have fallen
with the rain.”Mr. J. PRINSEP, the eminent secretary to the Asiatic Society of
Bengal, found a fish in the pulviometer at Calcutta, in
1838.—Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, vol. vi. p. 465.A series of instances in which fishes have been found on the
continent of India under circumstances which lead to the conclusion
that they must have fallen from the clouds, have been collected by
the late Dr. BUIST of Bombay, and will be found in the appendix to
this chapter.
Footnote 3431: (return)YARRELL, History of British Fishes, introd. vol. i. p.
xxvi. This too was the opinion of Aristotle, De
Respiratione, c. ix.
Footnote 3472: (return)Sir R. Schomburgk’s Fishes of Guiana, vol. i. pp. 113,
151, 160. Another migratory fish was found by Bose very numerous in
the fresh waters of Carolina and in ponds liable to become dry in
summer. When captured and placed on the ground, “they always,
directed themselves towards the nearest water, which they could not
possibly see, and which they must have discovered by some
internal index. They belong to the genus Hydrargyra and are
called Swampines.—KIRBY, Bridgewater Treatise, vol. i.
p. 143.Eels kept in a garden, when August arrived (the period at which
instinct impels them to go to the sea to spawn) were in the habit
of leaving the pond, and were invariably found moving eastward
in the direction of the sea.—YARRELL, vol. ii. p. 384.
Anglers observe that fish newly caught, when placed out of sight of
water, always struggle towards it to escape.
Footnote 3484: (return)Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist., May, 1853, p. 390. Mr.
Morris, the government-agent of Trincomalie, writing to me on this
subject in 1856, says—”I was lately on duty inspecting the
kind of a large tank at Nade-cadua, which, being out of repair, the
remaining water was confined in a small hollow in the otherwise dry
bed. Whilst there heavy rain came on, and, as we stood on the high
ground, we, observed a pelican on the margin of the shallow pool
gorging himself; our people went towards him and raised a cry of
fish! fish! We hurried down, and found numbers of fish struggling
upwards through the grass in the rills formed by the trickling of
the rain. There was scarcely water enough to cover them, but
nevertheless they made rapid progress up the bank, on which our
followers collected about two bushels of them at a distance of
forty yards from the tank. They were forcing their way up the
knoll, and, had they not been intercepted first by the pelican and
afterwards by ourselves, they would in a few minutes have gained
the highest point and descended on the other side into a pool which
formed another portion of the tank. They were chub, the same as are
found in the mud after the tanks dry up.” In a subsequent
communication in July, 1857, the same gentleman says—”As the
tanks dry up the fish congregate in the little pools till at last
you find them in thousands in the moistest parts of the beds,
rolling in the blue mud which is at that time about the consistence
of thick gruel.”“As the moisture further evaporates the surface fish are left
uncovered, and they crawl away in search of fresh pools. In one
place I saw hundreds diverging in every direction, from the tank
they had just abandoned to a distance of fifty or sixty yards, and
still travelling onwards. In going this distance, however, they
must have used muscular exertion sufficient to have taken them half
a mile on level ground, for at these places all the cattle and wild
animals of the neighbourhood had latterly come to drink; so that
the surface was everywhere indented with footmarks in addition to
the cracks in the surrounding baked mud, into which the fish
tumbled in their progress. In those holes which were deep and the
sides perpendicular they remained to die, and were carried off by
kites and crows.”“My impression is that this migration takes place at night or
before sunrise, for it was only early in the morning that I have
seen them progressing, and I found that those I brought away with
me in chatties appeared quiet by day, but a large proportion
managed to get out of the chatties at night—some escaped
altogether, others were trodden on and killed.”“One peculiarity is the large size of the vertebral column,
quite disproportioned to the bulk of the fish. I particularly
noticed that all in the act of migrating had their gills
expanded.”
Footnote 3501: (return)Transactions Linn. Soc. vol. iii. p. 63. It is
remarkable, however, that this discovery of Daldorf, which excited
so great an interest in 1791, had been anticipated by an Arabian
voyager a thousand years before. Abou-zeyd, the compiler of the
remarkable MS. known since Renaudot’s translation by the title of
the Travels of the Two Mahometans, states that Suleyman, one
of his informants, who visited India at the close of the ninth
century, was told there of a fish which, issuing from the waters,
ascended the coco-nut palms to drink their sap, and returned to the
sea. “On parle d’un poisson de mer qui, sortant de l’eau, monte sur
la cocotier et boit le suc de la plante; ensuite il retourne
á la mer.” See REINAUD, Rélations des Voyages
faits par les Arabes et Persans dans le neuvième
siècle, tom. i. p, 21, tom. ii. p. 93.
Footnote 3502: (return)Kirby says that it is “in pursuit of certain crustaceans that
form its food” (Bridgewater Treatise, vol i. p. 144); but I
am not aware of any crustaceans in the island which ascend the
palmyra or feed upon its fruit. The Birgus latro, which
inhabits Mauritius, and is said to climb the coco-nut for this
purpose, has not been observed in Ceylon.
Footnote 3511: (return)This assertion must be qualified by a fact stated by Mr. E.A.
Layard, who mentions that on visiting one of the fishing stations
on a Singhalese river, where the fish are caught in staked
enclosures, as described at p. 342, and observing that the chambers
were covered with netting, he asked the reason, and was told
“that some of the fish climbed up the sticks and got
over.“—Mag. Nat. Hist, for May 1823, p. 390-1.
Footnote 3512: (return)Strange accidents have more than once occurred at Ceylon arising
from the habit of the native anglers; who, having neither baskets
nor pockets in which to place what they catch, will seize a fish in
their teeth whilst putting fresh bait on their hook. In August,
1853, a man was carried into the Pettah hospital at Colombo, having
a climbing perch, which he thus attempted to hold, firmly imbedded
in his throat. The spines of its dorsal fin prevented its descent,
whilst those of the gill-covers equally forbade its return. It was
eventually extracted by the forceps through an incision in the
oesophagus, and the patient recovered. Other similar cases have
proved fatal.
Footnote 3522: (return)This statement will be found in QUATREMERE’S Mémoires sur
l’Egypte, tom. i. p. 17, on the authority of Abdullah ben Ahmed ben
Solaim Assouany, in his History of Nubia, “Simon,
héritier présomptif du royanme d’Alouah, m’a
assuré que l’on trouve, dans la vase qui couvre fond de
cette rivière, un grand poisson sans écailles, qui ne
ressemble en rien aux poissons du Nil, et que, pour l’avoir, il
faut creuser à une toise et plus de profondeur.” To this
passage, there is appended this note:—”Le patriarche Mendes,
cité par Legrand (Relation Hist. d’ Abyssinie, du P.
LOBO, p. 212-3) rapporte que le fleuve Mareb, après avoir
arrosé une étendue de pays considérable, se
perd sous terre; et que quand les Portugais faisaient la guerre
dans ce pays, ils fouilloient dans le sable, et y trouvoient de la
bonne eau et du ban poisson. An rapport de l’auteur de l’ Ayin
Akbery (tom. ii, p. 146, ed. 1800), dans le Soubah do Caschmir,
pres du lieu nommé Tilahmoulah, est une grande pièce
de terre qui est inondée pendant la saison des pluies.
Lorsque les eaux se sont évaporées, et que la vase
est presque séche, les habitans prennant des bâtons
d’environ une aune do long, qu’ils enfoncent dans la vase, et ils y
trouvent quantité de grands et petits poissons.” In the
library of the British Museum there is an unique MS. of MANOEL DE
ALMEIDA, written in the sixteenth century, from which Balthasar
Tellec compiled his Historia General de Ethiopia alta,
printed at Coimbra in 1660, and in it the above statement of Mendes
is corroborated by Almeida, who says that he was told by
João Gabriel, a Creole Portuguese, born in Abyssinia, who
had visited the Mareb, and who said that the “fish were to be found
everywhere eight or ten palms down, and that he had eaten of
them.”
Footnote 3531: (return)See Paper “on some Species of Fishes and Reptiles in
Demerara,” by J. HANDCOCK, Esq., M.D., Zoological
Journal, vol. iv. p. 243.
Footnote 3532: (return)A curious account of the borachung or “ground fish” of
Bhootan, will be found in Note (C.) appended to this chapter.
Footnote 3551: (return)A knowledge of this fact was turned to prompt account by Mr.
Edgar S. Layard, when holding a judicial office at Point Pedro in
1849. A native who had been defrauded of his land complained before
him of his neighbour, who, during his absence, had removed their
common landmark, diverting the original watercourse and
obliterating its traces by filling it up to a level with the rest
of the field. Mr. Layard directed a trench to be sunk at the
contested spot, and discovering numbers of the Ampullaria, the
remains of the eggs, and the living animal which had been buried
for months, the evidence was so resistless as to confound the
wrong-doer, and terminate the suit.
Footnote 3552: (return)For a similar fact relative to the shells and water beetles in
the pools near Rio Janeiro, see DARWIN’S Nat. Journal, ch.
v. p. 99. BENSON, in the first vol. of Gleanings of Science,
published at Calcutta in 1829, describes a species of
Paludina found in pools, which are periodically dried up in
the hot season but reappear with the rains, p. 363. And in the
Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal for Sept. 1832,
Lieut. HUTTON, in a singularly interesting paper, has followed up
the same subject by a narrative of his own observations at
Mirzapore, wherein June, 1832, after a few heavy showers of rain,
that formed pools on the surface of the ground near a mango grove,
he saw the Paludinæ issuing from the ground, “pushing
aside the moistened earth and coming forth from their retreats; but
on the disappearance of the water not one of them was to be seen
above ground. Wishing to ascertain what had become of them he
turned up the earth at the base of several trees, and invariably
found the shells buried from an inch to two inches below the
surface.” Lieut. Hutton adds that the Ampullariæ and
Planorbes, as well as the Paludinæ are found in
similar situations during the heats of the dry season. The British
Pisidea exibit the same faculty (see a monograph in the
Camb. Phil. Trans. vol. iv.). The fact is elsewhere alluded
to in the present work of the power possessed by the land leech of
Ceylon of retaining vitality even after being parched to hardness
during the heat of the rainless season. LYELL mentions the instance
of some snails in Italy which, when they hybernate, descend to the
depth of five feet and more below the surface. Princip. of
Geology, &c, p. 373.
Footnote 3571: (return)Annals of Natural History, 1860. See Dr. BAIRD’S
Account of Helix desertorum; Excelsior, &c., ch. i. p.
345.
Footnote 3572: (return)Colonel SKYES has described in the Entomological Trans.
the operations of an ant in India which lays up a store of hay
against the rainy season.
Footnote 3581: (return)YARRELL, vol. i. p. 364, quotes the authority of Dr. J. Hunter
in his Animal Oeconomy, that fish, “after being frozen still
retain so much of life as when thawed to resume their vital
actions;” and in-the same volume (Introd. vol. i. p. xvii.)
he relates from JESSE’S Gleanings in Natural History, the
story of a gold fish (Cyprinus auratus), which, together
with the a marble basin, was frozen into one solid lump of ice,
yet, on the water being thawed, the fish became as lively as usual.
Dr. RICHARDSON in the third vol of his Fauna Borealis
Americana, says the grey sucking carp, found in the fur
countries of North America, may be frozen and thawed again without
being killed in the process.
Footnote 3591: (return)CUV. and VAL., vol. iii. p. 363. In addition to the two fishes
above named, a loche Cobitis thermalis, and a carp, Nuria
thermoicos, were found in the hot-springs of Kannea, at a heat
40° Cent., 114° Fahr., and a roach, Leuciscus
thermalis, when the thermometer indicated 50° Cent,
122° Fahr.—Ib. xviii. p. 59, xvi. p. 182, xvii. p.
94. Fish have been taken from a hot spring at Pooree when the
thermometer stood at 112° Fahr., and as they belonged to a
carnivorous genus, they must have found prey living in the same
high temperature.—Journ. Asiatic Soc. of Beng. vol.
vi. p. 465. Fishes have been observed in a hot spring at Manila
which raises the thermometer to 187°, and in another in
Barbary, the usual temperature of which is 172°; and Humboldt
and Bonpland, when travelling in South America, saw fishes thrown
up alive from a volcano, in water that raised the temperature to
210°, being two degrees below the boiling point. PATTERSON’S
Zoology, Pt. ii. p. 211; YARRELL’S History of British
Fishes, vol. i. In. p. xvi.
CHAP. XI.
SHELLS.
Mollusca.—Radiata, &c.
Ceylon has long been renowned for the beauty and variety of the
shells which abound in its seas and inland waters, and in which an
active trade has been organised by the industrious Moors, who clean
them with great expertness, arrange them in satin-wood boxes, and
send them to Colombo and all parts of the island for sale. In
general, however, these specimens are more prized for their beauty
than valued for their rarity, though some of the “Argus”
cowries3691 have been sold as high as
four guineas a pair.
One of the principal sources whence their supplies are derived
is the beautiful Bay of Venloos, to the north of Batticaloa, formed
by the embouchure of the Natoor river. The scenery at this spot is
enchanting. The sea is overhung by gentle acclivities wooded to the
summit; and in an opening between two of these eminences the river
flows through a cluster of little islands covered with mangroves
and acacias. A bar of rocks projects across it, at a short distance
from the shore; and these are frequented all day long by pelicans,
that come at [pg 370] sunrise to fish, and at evening
return to their solitary breeding-places remote from the beach. The
strand is literally covered with beautiful shells in rich
profusion, and the dealers from Trincomalie know the proper season
to visit the bay for each particular description. The entire coast,
however, as far north as the Elephant Pass, is indented by little
rocky inlets, where shells of endless variety may be collected in
great abundance.3701
During the north-east monsoon a formidable surf bursts upon the
shore, which is here piled high with mounds of yellow sand; and the
remains of shells upon the water mark show how rich the sea is in
mollusca. Amongst them are prodigious numbers of the ubiquitous
violet-coloured Ianthina3702,
which rises when the ocean is calm, and by means of its inflated
vesicles floats lightly on the surface.
BULLIA VITTATA
IANTHINA.The trade in shells is one of extreme antiquity in Ceylon. The
Gulf of Manaar has been fished from the earliest times for the
large chank shell, Turbinella [pg 371] rapa, to be exported
to India, where it is still sawn into rings and worn as anklets and
bracelets by the women of Hindustan. Another use for these shells
is their conversion into wind instruments, which are sounded in the
temples on all occasions of ceremony. A chank, in which the whorls,
instead of running from left to right, as in the ordinary shell,
are reversed, and run from right to left, is regarded with such
reverence that a specimen formerly sold for its weight in gold, but
one may now be had for four or five pounds. COSMAS INDICO-PLEUSTES,
writing in the fifth century, describes a place on the west coast
of Ceylon, which he calls Marallo, and says it produced “[Greek:
kochlious],” which THEVENOT translates “oysters;” in which case
Marallo might be conjectured to be Bentotte, near Colombo, which
yields the best edible “oysters” in Ceylon.3711 But the shell in question was
most probably the chank, and Marallo was Mantotte, off which it is
found in great numbers.3712
In fact, two centuries later Abouzeyd, an Arab, who wrote an
account of the trade and productions of India, speaks of these
shells by the name they still bear, which he states to be
schenek3713;
but “schenek” is not an Arabic word, and is merely an attempt to
spell the local term, chank, in Arabic characters.
BERTOLACCI mentions a curious local peculiarity3721 observed by the fishermen in
the natural history of the chank. “All shells,” he says, “found to
the northward of a line drawn from a point about midway from Manaar
to the opposite coast (of India) are of the kind called
patty, and are distinguished by a short flat head; and all
those found to the southward of that line are of the kind called
pajel, and are known from having a longer and more pointed
head than the former. Nor is there ever an instance of deviation
from this singular law of nature. The Wallampory, or
‘right-hand chanks,’ are found of both kinds.”
This tendency of particular localities to re-produce certain
specialities of form and colour is not confined to the sea or to
the instance of the chank shell. In the gardens which line the
suburbs of Galle in the direction of Matura the stems of the
coco-nut and jak trees are profusely covered with the shells of the
beautiful striped Helix hamastoma. Stopping frequently to
collect them, I was led to observe that each separate garden seemed
to possess a variety almost peculiar to itself; in one the mouth of
every individual shell was red; in another, separated from
the first only by a wall, black; and in others (but less
frequently) pure white; whilst the varieties of external
colouring were equally local. In one enclosure they were nearly all
red, and in an adjoining one brown.3722
A trade more ancient by far than that carried on in chanks, and
infinitely more renowned, is the fishery of pearls on the west
coast of Ceylon, bordering the Gulf of Manaar. No scene in Ceylon
presents so dreary an aspect as the long sweep of desolate shore to
which, from time immemorial, adventurers have resorted from the
uttermost ends of the earth in search of the precious pearls for
which this gulf is renowned. On approaching it from sea the only
perceptible landmark is a building erected by Lord Guildford, as a
temporary residence for the Governor, and known by the name of the
“Doric,” from the style of its architecture. A few coco-nut palms
appear next above the low sandy beach, and presently are discovered
the scattered houses which form the villages of Aripo and
Condatchy.
Between these two places, or rather between the Kalaar and
Arrive river, the shore is raised to a height of many feet, by
enormous mounds of shells, the accumulations of ages, the millions
of oysters3731,
robbed of their pearls, having been year after year flung into
heaps, that extend for a distance of many miles.
During the progress of a pearl-fishery, this singular and dreary
expanse becomes suddenly enlivened by the crowds who congregate
from distant parts of India; a town is improvised by the
construction of temporary dwellings, huts of timber and
cajans3732, with tents of palm leaves or
canvas; and bazaars spring up, to feed the multitude on land, as
well as the seamen and divers in the fleets of boats that cover the
bay.
I visited the pearl banks officially in 1848 in company with
Capt. Stenart, the official inspector. My immediate object was to
inquire into the causes of the suspension of the fisheries, and to
ascertain the probability of reviving a source of revenue, the
gross receipts from which had failed for several years to defray
the cost of conservancy. In fact, between 1837 and 1854, the pearl
banks were an annual charge, instead of producing an annual income,
to the colony. The conjecture, hastily adopted, to account for the
disappearance of mature shells, had reference to mechanical causes;
the received hypothesis being that the young broods had been swept
off their accustomed feeding grounds, by the establishment of
unusual currents, occasioned by deepening the narrow passage
between Ceylon and India at Paumbam. It was also suggested, that a
previous Governor, in his eagerness to replenish the colonial
treasury, had so “scraped” and impoverished the beds as to
exterminate the oysters. To me, neither of these suppositions
appeared worthy of acceptance; for, in the frequent disruptions of
Adam’s Bridge, there was ample evidence that the currents in the
Gulf of Manaar had been changed at former times without destroying
the pearl beds: and moreover the oysters had disappeared on many
former occasions, without any imputation of improper management on
the part of the conservators; and returned after much longer
intervals of absence than that which fell under my own notice, and
which was then creating serious apprehension in the colony.
A similar interruption had been experienced between 1820 and
1828: the Dutch had had no fishing for [pg 375]
twenty-seven years, from 1768 till 17963751; and they had been equally
unsuccessful from 1732 till 1746. The Arabs were well acquainted
with similar vicissitudes, and Albyronni (a contemporary of
Avicenna), who served under Mahmoud of Ghuznee, and wrote in the
eleventh century, says that the pearl fishery, which formerly
existed in the Gulf of Serendib, had become exhausted in his time,
simultaneously with the appearance of a fishery at Sofala, in the
country of the Zends, where pearls were unknown before; and hence,
he says, arose the conjecture that the pearl oyster of Serendib had
migrated to Sofala.3752
It appeared to me that the explanation of the phenomenon was to
be sought, not merely in external causes, but also in the instincts
and faculties of the animals themselves, and, on my return to
Colombo, I ventured to renew a recommendation, which had been made
years before, that a scientific inspector should be appointed to
study the habits and the natural history of the pearl-oyster, and
that his investigations should be facilitated by the means at the
disposal of the Government.
Dr. Kelaart was appointed to this office, by Sir H.G. Ward, in
1857, and his researches speedily developed results of great
interest. In opposition to the received opinion that the
pearl-oyster is incapable of voluntary [pg 376]
movement, and unable of itself to quit the place to which it is
originally attached3761,
he demonstrated, not only that it possesses locomotive powers, but
also that their exercise is indispensable to its oeconomy when
obliged to search for food, or compelled to escape from local
impurities. He showed that, for this purpose, it can sever its
byssus, and re-form it at pleasure, so as to migrate and moor
itself in favourable situations.3762
The establishment of this important fact may tend to solve the
mystery of the occasional disappearances of the oyster; and if
coupled with the further discovery that it is susceptible of
translation from place to place, and even from salt to brackish
water, it seems reasonable to expect that beds may be formed with
advantage in positions suitable for its growth and protection.
Thus, like the edible oyster of our own shores, the pearl-oyster
may be brought within the domain of pisciculture, and banks may be
created in suitable places, just as the southern shores of France
are now being colonised with oysters, under the direction of M.
Coste.3763 The operation of sowing the sea
with pearl, should the experiment succeed, would be as gorgeous in
reality, as it is grand in conception: and the wealth of Ceylon, in
her “treasures of the deep,” might eclipse the renown of her gems
when she merited the title of the “Island of Rubies.”
On my arrival at Aripo, the pearl-divers, under the orders of
their Adapanaar, put to sea, and commenced [pg 377] the
examination of the banks.3771
The persons engaged in this calling are chiefly Tamils and Moors,
who are trained for the service by diving for chanks. The pieces of
apparatus employed to assist the diver in his operations are
exceedingly simple in their character: they consist merely of a
stone, about thirty pounds’ weight, (to accelerate the rapidity of
his descent,) which is suspended over the side of the boat, with a
loop attached to it for receiving the foot; and of a net-work
basket, which he takes down to the bottom and fills with the
oysters as he collects them. MASSOUDI, one of the earliest Arabian
geographers, describing, in the ninth century, the habits of the
pearl-divers in the Persian Gulf, says that, before descending,
each filled his ears with cotton steeped in oil, and compressed his
nostrils by a piece of tortoise-shell.3772
This practice continues there to the present day3773; but the diver of Ceylon
rejects all such expedients; he inserts his foot in the “sinking
stone” and inhales a full breath; presses his nostrils with his
left hand; raises his body as high [pg 378] as possible above water,
to give force to his descent: and, liberating the stone from its
fastenings, he sinks rapidly below the surface. As soon as he has
reached the bottom, the stone is drawn up, and the diver, throwing
himself on his face, commences with alacrity to fill his basket
with oysters. This, on a concerted signal, is hauled rapidly to the
surface; the diver assisting his own ascent by springing on the
rope as it rises.
Improbable tales have been told of the capacity which these men
acquire of remaining for prolonged periods under water. The divers
who attended on this occasion were amongst the most expert on the
coast, yet not one of them was able to complete a full minute
below. Captain Steuart, who filled for many years the office of
Inspector of the Pearl Banks, assured me that he had never known a
diver to continue at the bottom longer than eighty-seven seconds,
nor to attain a greater depth than thirteen fathoms; and on
ordinary occasions they seldom exceeded fifty-five seconds in nine
fathom water3781.
The only precaution to which the Ceylon diver devotedly resorts,
is the mystic ceremony of the shark-charmer, whose exorcism is an
indispensable preliminary to every fishery. His power is believed
to be hereditary; nor is it supposed that the value of his
incantations is at all dependent upon the religious faith professed
by the operator, for the present head of the family happens to be a
Roman Catholic. At the time of our visit this mysterious
functionary was ill and unable to attend; but he sent an accredited
substitute, who assured me that although he himself was ignorant of
the grand and mystic secret, the mere fact of his presence, as a
representative of the higher authority, would be recognised and
respected by the sharks.
Strange to say, though the Gulf of Manaar abounds with these
hideous creatures, not more than one well authenticated
accident3791 is known to have occurred from
this source during any pearl fishery since the British have had
possession of Ceylon. In all probability the reason is that the
sharks are alarmed by the unusual number of boats, the multitude of
divers, the noise of the crews, the incessant plunging of the
sinking stones, and the descent and ascent of the baskets filled
with shells. The dark colour of the divers themselves may also be a
protection; whiter skins might not experience an equal impunity.
Massoudi relates that the divers of the Persian Gulf were so
conscious of this advantage of colour, that they were accustomed to
blacken their limbs, in order to baffle the sea monsters.3792
The result of our examination of the pearl banks, on this
occasion, was such as to discourage the hope of an early fishery.
The oysters in point of number were abundant, but in size they were
little more than “spat,” the largest being barely a fourth of an
inch in diameter. As at least seven years are required to furnish
the growth at which pearls may be sought with advantage3793, [pg 380] the inspection served
only to suggest the prospect (which has since been realised) that
in time the income from this source might be expected to
revive;—and, forced to content ourselves with this
anticipation, we weighed anchor from Condatchy, on the 30th March,
and arrived on the following day at Colombo.
The banks of Aripo are not the only localities, nor is the
acicula the only mollusc, by which pearls are furnished. The
Bay of Tamblegam, connected with the magnificent harbour of
Trincomalie, is the seat of another pearl fishery, and the shell
which produces them is the thin transparent oyster (Placuna
placenta). whose clear white shells are used, in China and
elsewhere, as a substitute for window glass. They are also
collected annually for the sake of the diminutive pearls contained
in them. These are exported to the coast of India, to be calcined
for lime, which the luxurious affect to chew with their betel.
These pearls are also burned in the mouths of the dead. So prolific
are the mollusca of the Placuna, that the quantity of shells
taken by the licensed renter in the three years prior to 1858,
could not have been less than eighteen millions.3801 They delight in brackish water,
and on more than one recent occasion, an excess of either salt
water or fresh has proved fatal to great numbers of them.
PEARL OYSTER.
1, 2. The young brood or spat.
3. Four months old.
4. Six months old.
5. One year old.
6. Two years old.
THE PEARL OYSTER. Full Growth.On the occasion of a visit which I made to Batticaloa. in
September, 1848, I made some inquiries relative to a story which
had reached me of musical sounds, said to be often heard issuing
from the bottom of the lake, at several places, both above and
below the ferry opposite the old Dutch Fort; and which the natives
suppose to proceed from some fish peculiar to the locality. The
report was confirmed in all its particulars, and one of the spots
whence the sounds proceed was pointed out between the pier and a
rock that intersects the channel, two or three hundred yards to the
eastward. They were said to be heard at night, and most distinctly
when the moon was nearest the full, and they were described as
resembling the faint sweet notes of an Æolian harp. I sent
for some of the fishermen, who said they were perfectly aware of
the fact, and that their fathers had always known of the existence
of the musical sounds, heard, they said, at the spot alluded to,
but only during the dry season, as they cease when the lake is
swollen by the freshes after the rain. They believed them to
proceed not from a fish, but from a shell, which is known by the
Tamil name of (oorie cooleeroo cradoo, or) the “crying
shell,” a name in which the sound seems to have been adopted as an
echo to the sense. I sent them in search of the shell, and they
returned bringing me some living specimens of different shells,
chiefly littorina and cerithium.3811
CERITHIUM PALUSTRE.In the evening when the moon rose, I took a boat and accompanied
the fishermen to the spot. We rowed about two hundred yards
north-east of the jetty by the fort gate; there was not a breath of
wind, nor a ripple except those caused by the dip of our oars. On
coming to the point mentioned, I distinctly heard the sounds in
question. They came up from the water like the gentle thrills of a
musical chord, or the faint vibrations of a wine-glass when its rim
is rubbed by a moistened finger. It was not one sustained note, but
a multitude of tiny, sounds, each clear and distinct in itself; the
sweetest treble mingling with the lowest bass. On applying the ear
to the woodwork of the boat, the vibration was greatly increased in
volume. The sounds varied considerably at different points, as we
moved across the lake, as if the number of the animals from which
they proceeded was greatest in particular spots; and occasionally
we rowed out of hearing of them altogether, until on returning to
the original locality the sounds were at once renewed.
This fact seems to indicate that the causes of the sounds,
whatever they may be, are stationary at several points; and this
agrees with the statement of the natives, that they are produced by
mollusca, and not by fish. They came evidently and sensibly from
the depth of the lake, and there was nothing in the surrounding
circumstances to support the conjecture that they could be the
reverberation of noises made by insects on the shore conveyed along
the surface of the water; for they were loudest and most distinct
at points where the nature of the land, and the intervention of the
fort and its buildings, forbade the possibility of this kind of
conduction.
Sounds somewhat similar are heard under water at some places on
the western coast of India, especially in the harbour of
Bombay.3831 At Caldera, in Chili, musical
cadences are stated to issue from the sea near the landing-place;
they are described as rising and falling fully four notes,
resembling the tones of harp strings, and mingling like those at
Batticaloa, till they produce a musical discord of great delicacy
and sweetness. The [pg 384] same interesting phenomenon has been
observed at the mouth of the Pascagoula, in the State of
Mississippi, and of another river called the “Bayou coq del Inde,”
on the northern shore of the Gulf of Mexico. The animals from which
they proceed have not been identified at either of these places,
and the mystery remains unsolved, whether the sounds at Batticaloa
are given forth by fishes or by molluscs.
Certain fishes are known to utter sounds when removed from the
water3841, and some are capable of making
noises when under it3842;
but all the circumstances connected with the sounds which I heard
at Batticaloa are unfavourable to the conjecture that they were
produced by either.
Organs of hearing have been clearly ascertained to [pg 385] exist,
mot only in fishes3851,
but in mollusca. In the oyster the presence of an acoustic
apparatus of the simplest possible construction has been
established by the discoveries of Siebold3852, and from our knowledge of the
reciprocal relations existing between the faculties of hearing and
of producing sounds, the ascertained existence of the one affords
legitimate grounds for inferring the coexistence of the other in
animals of the same class.3853
Besides, it has been clearly established, that one at least of
the gasteropoda is furnished with the power of producing sounds.
Dr. Grant, in 1826, communicated to the Edinburgh Philosophical
Society the fact, that on placing some specimens of the Tritonia
arborescens in a glass vessel filled with sea water, his
attention was attracted by a noise which he ascertained to proceed
from these mollusca. It resembled the “clink” of a steel wire on
the side of the jar, one stroke only being given at a time, and
repeated at short intervals.3854
The affinity of structure between the Tritonia and the
mollusca inhabiting the shells brought to me at Batticaloa, might
justify the belief of the natives of Ceylon, that the latter are
the authors of the sounds I heard; and the description of those
emitted by the former as given by Dr. Grant, so nearly resemble
them, that I have always regretted my inability, on the occasion
[pg
386] of my visits to Batticaloa, to investigate the subject
more narrowly. At subsequent periods I have since renewed my
efforts, but without success, to obtain specimens or observations
of the habits of the living mollusca.
The only species afterwards sent to me were Cerithia; but
no vigilance sufficed to catch the desired sounds, and I still
hesitate to accept the dictum of the fishermen, as the same mollusc
abounds in all the other brackish estuaries on the coast; and it
would be singular, if true, that the phenomenon of its uttering a
musical note should be confined to a single spot in the lagoon of
Batticaloa.3861
Although naturalists have long been familiar with the marine
testacea of Ceylon, no successful attempt has yet been made to form
a classified catalogue of the species; and I am indebted to the
eminent conchologist, Mr. Sylvanus Hanley, for the list which
accompanies this notice.
In drawing it up, Mr. Hanley observes that he found it a task of
more difficulty than would at first be surmised, owing to the
almost total absence of reliable data from which to construct it.
Three sources were available: collections formed by resident
naturalists, the contents of the well-known satin-wood boxes
prepared at Trincomalie, and the laborious elimination of locality
from the habitats ascribed to all the known species in the
multitude of works on conchology in general.
But, unfortunately, the first resource proved fallacious. There
is no large collection in this country composed exclusively of
Ceylon shells;—and as the very few cabinets [pg 387] rich
in the marine treasures of the island have been filled as much by
purchase as by personal exertion, there is an absence of the
requisite confidence that all professing to be Singhalese have been
actually captured in the island and its waters.
The cabinets arranged by the native dealers, though professing
to contain the productions of Ceylon, include shells which have
been obtained from other islands in the Indian seas; and the
information contained in books, probably from these very
circumstances, is either obscure or deceptive. The old writers
content themselves with assigning to any particular shell the
too-comprehensive habitat of “the Indian Ocean,” and seldom
discriminate between a specimen from Ceylon and one from the
Eastern Archipelago or Hindustan. In a very few instances, Ceylon
has been indicated with precision as the habitat of particular
shells, but even here the views of specific essentials adopted by
modern conchologists, and the subdivisions established in
consequence, leave us in doubt for which of the described forms the
collective locality should be retained.
Valuable notices of Ceylon shells are to be found in detached
papers, in periodicals, and in the scientific surveys of exploring
voyages. The authentic facts embodied in the monographs of REEVE,
KUSTER, SOWERBY, and KIENER, have greatly enlarged our knowledge of
the marine testacea; and the land and fresh-water mollusca have
been similarly illustrated by the contributions of BENSON and
LAYARD to the Annals of Natural History.
The dredge has been used, but only in a few insulated spots
along the coasts of Ceylon; European explorers have been rare; and
the natives, anxious only to secure the showy and saleable shells
of the sea, have neglected [pg 388] the less attractive ones of the
land and the lakes. Hence Mr. Hanley finds it necessary to premise
that the list appended, although the result of infinite labour and
research, is less satisfactory than could have been wished. “It is
offered,” he says, “with diffidence, not pretending to the merit of
completeness as a shell-fauna of the island, but rather as a form,
which the zeal of other collectors may hereafter elaborate and fill
up.”
Looking at the little that has yet been done, compared with the
vast and almost untried field which invites explorers, an assiduous
collector may quadruple the species hitherto described. The minute
shells especially may be said to be unknown; a vigilant examination
of the corals and excrescences upon the spondyli and pearl-oysters
would signally increase our knowledge of the Rissoæ,
Chemnitziæ, and other perforating testacea, whilst the dredge
from the deep water will astonish the amateur by the wholly new
forms it can scarcely fail to display.
List of Ceylon Shells.
The arrangement here adopted is a modified Lamarckian one, very
similar to that used by Reeve and Sowerby, and by Mr. HANLEY, in
his Illustrated Catalogue of Recent Shells.3881
- Aspergillum Javanum. Brug. Enc. Mét.
- sparsum, Sowerby, Gen. Shells.3891
- clavatum, Chenu, lllust. Conch.
- Teredo nucivorus. Sp Skr. Nat. Sels.3892
- Solen truncatus. Wood, Gen. Couch.
- linearis, Wood, Gen. Conch.
- cultellus, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- radiatus, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- Anatina subrostrata, Lam. Ani. s. Vert.
- Anatinella Nicobarica, Gm. Syst. Nat.
- Lutraria Egyptiaca, Chemn. Couch. Cab.
- Blainvillea vitrea, Chemn. Conch. Cab.3893
- Scrobicularia angulata. Chem. Con. Cab.3894
- Mactra complanata, Desh. Proc. Zl. Soc.3895
- tumida, Chemn. Conch. Cab.
- antiquata, Reeve (as of Spengl.), C. Icon.
- cygnea, Chemn. Conch. Cab.
- Corbiculoides, Deshayes, Pr. Zl. S. 1854.
- Mesodesma
- Layardi, Deshayes, Pr. Zool. Soc. 1854.
- striata, Chemn. Conch. Cab.3896
- Cras-atella rostrata, Lam. Anim. s. Vert.
- sulcata, Lam. Anim. s. Vert.
- Amphidesma
- duplicatum, Sowerby. Species Conch.
- Pandora Ceylanica, Sowerby, Couch. Mis.
- Galeomma Layardi. Desh. Pr. Zl. S. 1856.
- Kellia peculiaris, Adams, Pr. Zl. S. 1856.
- Petricola cultellus, Desh. Pr. Zl. S. 1853.
- Sangumoiaria rosea, Lam. Anim. s. Vert.
- Psammobia rostrata, Lam. Anim. s. Vert.
- Tellina virgata, Linn. Syst. Nat.3903
- rugosa, Born, Test. Mus. Cæs. Vind.
- ostracea, Lam. Anim. s. Vert.
- ala, Hanley, Thesaur. Conch. i.
- inæqualis, Hanley, Thesaur. Conch. i.
- Layardi, Deshayes, P.Z. Soc. 1854.
- callosa, Deshayes, P.Z. Soc. 1854.
- rubra, Deshayes, P.Z. Soc. 1854.
- abbreviata, Deshayes, P.Z. Soc. 1854.
- foliacea, Linn. Systema Naturæ.
- lingua-felis, Linn. Systema Naturæ.
- vulsella, Chemn. Conch. Cab.3904
- Lucina interrupta, Lam. Anim. s. Vert.3905
- Layardi, Deshayes, Pr. Zool. Soc. 1855.
- Donax scortum, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- cuneata, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- faba, Chemn. Conch. Cab.
- spinosa, Gm. Syst. Nat.
- paxillus, Reeve, Conch. Icon.
- Cyrena Ceylanica, Chemn. Conch. Cab.
- Tennentii, Hanley, P.Z. Soc. 1858.
- Cytherea Erycina, Linn. Syst. Nat.3906
- meretrix, Linn. Syst. Nat.3907
- castanea, Lam. Anim. s. Vert.
- castrensis, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- casta, Gm. Syst. Nat.
- costata, Chemn. Conch. Cab.
- læta, Gm. Syst. Nat.
- trimaculata, Lam. Anim. s. Vert.
- Hebræa, Lam. Anim. s. Vert.
- rugifera, Lam. Anim. s. Vert.
- scripta, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- gibbia, Lam. Anim. s. Vert.
- Meroe, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- testudinalis, Lam. Anim. s. Vert.
- seminuda, Anton. Wiegm. A. Nat. 1837.3908
- Venus reticulata, Linn. Syst. Nat.3909
- pinguis, Chemn. Conch. Cab.
- recens, Philippi, Abbild. Neuer Conch.
- thiara, Dillw. Descriptive Cat. Shells.
- Malabarica, Chemn. Conch. Cab.
- Bruguieri, Hanley, Recent Bivalves.
- papilionacea, Lam. Anim. s. Vert.
- Indica, Sowerby, Thesaur. Conch. ii.
- inflata, Deshayes, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1853.39010
- Ceylonensis, Sowerby, Thes. Conch. ii.
- literata, Linn. Systema Naturæ.
- textrix, Chemn. Conch. Cab.39011
- Cardium unedo, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- maculosum, Wood, Gen. Con.
- leucostomum, Born, Tt. M. Cæs. Vind.
- rugosum, Lam. Anim. s. Vert.
- biradiatum, Bruguiere, En. Méth. Vers.
- attenuatum, Sowerby, Conch. Illust.
- enode, Sowerby, Conch. Illust.
- papyraceum, Chemn. Conch. Cab.
- ringiculum, Sowerby, Conch. Illust.
- subrugosum, Sowerby, Conch. Illust.
- latum, Born, Test. Mus. Cæs. Vind.
- Asiaticum, Chemn. Conch. Cab.
- Cardita variegata, Brug. Enc. Méth. Vers.
- bicolor, Lam. Anim. s. Vert.
- Arca rhombea, Born, Test. Mus.
- vellicata, Reeve, Conch. Icon.
- cruciata, Philippi, Ab. Neur Conch.
- decussata, Reeve (as of Sowerby), C.I.39012
- scapha, Meuschen, in Gronov. Zoo.
- Pectunculus nodosus, Reeve, Conch. Icon.
- pectiniformis, Lam. Anim. s. Vert.
- Nucula mitralis, Hinds, Zool. voy. Sul.
- Layardi, Adams, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1856.
- Mauritii (Hanley as of Hinds), Rec. Biv.
- Unio
- corrugatus, Müller, Hist. Verm. Ter.39013
- marginalis, Lam. Anim. s. Vert.
- Lithodomus
- cinnamoneus, Lam. Anim. s. Vert.
- Mytilus viridis, Linn. Syst. Nat.39014
- bilocularis, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- Pinna inflata, Chamn. Conch. Cab.
- cancellata, Mawe, Intr. Lin. Conch.
- Malleus vulgaris, Lam. Anim. s. Vert.
- albus, Lam. Anim. s. Vert.
- Meleagrina margaritifera, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- vexillum, Reeve, Conch. Icon.39015
- Avicula macroptera, Reeve, Conch. Icon.
- Lima squamosa, Linn. Anim. s. Vert.
- Pecten plica, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- radula, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- pleuronectes, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- pallium, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- senator, Gm. Syst. Nat.
- histrionicus, Gm. Syst. Nat.
- Indicus, Deshayes, Voyage Belanger.
- Layardi, Reeve, Conch. Icon.
- Spondylus Layardi, Reeve, Conch. Icon.
- candidus, Reeve (as of Lam.) C. Icon.
- Ostrea hyotis, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- glaucina, Lam. Anim. s. Vert.
- Mytiloides, Lam. Anim. s. Vert.
- cucullata? var., Born, Test. M. Vind.39016
- Vulsella
- Pholadiformis, Reeve, C. Icn. (immat.)
- Placuna placenta, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- Lingula anatina, Lam. Anim. s. Vert. [pg 391]
- Hyalæa tridentata, For. Anim. Orient.3911
- Chiton, 2 species (Layard).
- Patella Reynaudii, Deshayes, Voy. Be.
- testodinaria, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- Emarginula fissurata, Ch. C. Cab.3912 Lam.
- Calyptræa (Crucibulum) violascens, Carpenter,
- Proc. Zool. Soc. 1856.
- Dentalium
- octogonum, Lam Anim. s. Vert.
- aprinum. Linn Syst. Nat.
- Bulla soluta, Chemn Conch. Cab.3913
- vexillum, Chemn Conch. Cab.
- Bruguieri, Adams, Thes. Conch.
- elongata, Adams, Thes. Conch.
- ampulla, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- Lamellaria (as Marsenia Indica, Leach.
- in Brit. Mus.) allied to L. Mauritiana,
- if not it.
- Vaginula maculata, Templ. An. Nat.
- Lunax, 2 sp.
- Parmacella Tennentii, Templ.3914
- Vitrina irradians, Pfeiffer, Mon. Helic.
- Edgariana, Ben. Ann. N.H. 1853 (xii.)
- membranacea, Ben. A.N.H. 1853 (xii.)
- Helix hæmastoma, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- vittata, Müller, Vermium Terrestrium.
- bistrialis, Beck, in Pfeiff. Symb. Helic.
- Tranquebarica, Fabricius, in Pfeiff.
- Monog. Helic.
- Juliana, Gray, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1834.
- Waltoni, Reeve, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1842.
- Skinneri. Reeve, Conch. Icon. vii.
- corylus, Reeve, Conch. Icon. vii.
- umbrina (Reeve, as of Pfeiff..), C. Ic. vii.
- fallaciosa. Férussac, Hist. Mollus.
- Rivolii, Deshayes. Enc. Méth. Vers. ii.
- Charpentieri, Pfeiff. Monog. Helic.
- erronea, Albers. Zeitschr. Mal. 18S3.
- carneola, Pfeiff. Monog. Helic.
- convexiuscula, Pfeiff. Monog. Helic.
- gnoma, Pfeiff. Monog. Helic.
- Chenui, Pfeiff. Monog. Helic.
- semidecussata, Pfeiff. Monog. Helic.
- phoenix, Pfeiff. Monog. Helic.
- superba, Pfeiff. Monog. Helic.
- Ceylanica, Pfeiff. Monog. Helic.
- Gardnerii, Pfeiff. Monog. Helic.
- coriaria, Pfeiff. Monog. Helic.
- Layardi, Pfeiff. Monog. Helic.
- concavospira, Pfeiff. Monog. Helic.
- novella, Pfeiff. Monog. Helic.
- verrucula, Pfeiff. Monog. Helic.
- hyphasma, Pfeiff. Monog. Helic.
- Emiliana, Pfeiff. Monog. Helic.
- Woodiana, Pfeiff. Monog. Helic.
- partita, Pfeiff. Monog. Helic.
- biciliata, Pfeiff. Monog. Helic.
- Isabellina, Pfeiff. Proc. Zool. Soc.
- trifilosa, Pfeiff. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.
- politissima, Pfeiff. Proc. Zool. Sc. 1854.
- Thwaitesii, Pfeiff. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.
- nepos, Pfeiff. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1855.
- subopaca, Pfeiff. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1853.
- subconoidea, Pfeiff. Proc. Zool. S. 18S4.
- ceraria, Benson, An. Nat. H. 1853 (xii.)
- vilipensa, Benson, An. N.H. 1853 (xii.)
- perfucata, Benson, A.N.H. 1853 (xii.)
- puteolus, Benson, An. N.H. 1853 (xii.)
- mononema, Benson, A.N.H. 1853 (xii.)
- marcida, Benson, An. N.H. 1853 (xii.)
- galerus, Benson, A.N.H. 1856 (xviii.)
- albizonata. Dohrn, Proc. Zoo. Soc. 1858.
- Nictneri, Dohrn, MS.3915
- Grevillei, Pfeiff. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1856.
- Streptaxis Layardi, Pfeiff. Mon. Helic.
- Cingalensis, Pfeiff. Monog. Helic.
- Pupa
- muscerda, Benson, A.N.H. 1853 (xii.)
- mimula, Benson, A.N.H. 1856 (xviii.)
- Ceylanica, Pfeiff. Monog. Helic.
- Bulimus
- trifasciatus, Brug. Encycl. Méth. Vers.
- pullus, Gray. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1834.
- gracilis, Hutton, Journ. Asiat. Soc. iii.
- punctatus, Anton, Verzeichn. Conch.
- Ceylanicus, Pfeiff. (?Blævis, iGray,
in - Index Testaceologicus.)
- adumbratus, Pfieff. Monog. Helic.
- intermedius, Pfeiff. Monog. Helic.
- proletarius, Pfeiff. Monog. Helic.
- albizonatus. Reeve, Conch. Icon.
- Mavortius, Reeve, Conch. Icon.
- luscoventris, Ben. A.N.H. 1856 (xviii.)
- rufopictus, Ben. A.N.H. 1856 (xviii.)
- panos, Benson, Ann. Nat. H. 1853 (xii.)
- Achatina nitens, Gray, Spicilegia Zool.
- inornata, Pfeiff. Monog. Helic.
- capillacea, Pfeiff Monog. Helic.
- Ceylanica, Pfeiff Monog. Helic.
- Punctogaliana. Pfeiff Monog. Helic.
- pachycheila, Benson
- veruina, Bens, A. Nat. Hist. 1853 (xii.)
- parabilis, Bens, A.N. Hist. 1856 (xviii.)
- Succinea Ceylanica, Pfeiff Monog. Helic.
- Auricula
- Pythia
- Ceylanica, Pfeiff. Zeits. Malacoz. 1853.
- ovata, Pfeiff. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.
- Truncatella
- Ceylanica, Pfeiff Proc. Zool. Soc. 1856.
- Cyclostoma (Cyclophorus) Ceylanicum,
- Sowerby, Thes. Conch.
- involvulum, Müller, Verm. Terrest.
- Menkeanum, Philippi, Zeit. Mal. 1847.
- punctatum, Gratel. A.L. Bordeaux (xi.)
- loxostoma, Pfeiff. Monog. Pneumon. [pg 392]
- alabastrum, Pfeiff. Monog. Pneumon.
- Bairdii, Pfeiff. Monog. Pneumon.
- Thwaitesii, Pfeiff. Monog. Pneumon.
- annulatum, Trosch. in Pfeiff. M. Pneum.
- parapsis, Bens. An. Nat. Hist. 1853 (xii.)
- parma, Bens. An. Nat. His. 1856 (xviii.)
- cratera, Bens. An. N. Hist. 1856 (xviii.)
- (Leptopoma) halophilum, Benson, Ann. Nat. Hist.
(ser. 2 vii.) 1851.- orophilum, Bens. A.N.H. (ser. 2. xi.)
- apicatum, Bens. A.N.H. 1856 (xviii.)
- conulus, Pfeiff. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.
- flammeum, Pfeiff. Monog. Pneumon.
- semiclausum, Pfeiff. Monog. Pneumon.
- poecilum, Pfeiff. Monog. Pneumon.
- elatum, Pfeiff. Monog. Pneumon.
- Cyclostoma (Aulopoma).
- Iteri, Guérin, Rev. Zool. 1847.
- helicinum, Chemn. Conch. Cab.
- Hoffmeisteri, Troschel, Zeit. Mat. 1847.
- grande, Pfeiff. Monog. Pneumon.
- spheroideum, Dohrn, Malak. Blätter.
- (?) gradatum, Pfeiff. Monog. Pneumon.
- Cyclostoma (Pterocyclos).
- Cingalense, Bens. A.N.H. (ser. 2. xi.)
- Troscheli, Bens. Ann. Nat. Hist. 1851.
- Cumingii, Pfeiff. Monog. Pneumon.
- bifrons, Pfeiff. Monog. Pneumon.
- Cataulus Templemani, Pfeiff. Mon. Pneu.
- eurytrema, Pfeiff. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1852.
- marginatus, Pfeiff. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1853.
- duplicatus, Pfeiff. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.
- aureus, Pfeiff. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1855.
- Layardi, Gray, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1852.
- Austenianus Bens. A.N.H. 1853 (xii.)
- Thwaitesii, Pfeiff. Proc. Zo. Soc. 1852.
- Cumingii, Pfeiff. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1856.
- decorus, Bens. Ann. Nat. Hist. 1853.
- hæmastoma, Pfeiff. Proc. Zo. Soc. 1856.
- Planorbis
- Coromandelianus, Fab. in Dorhn’s MS.
- Stelzeneri, Dohrn, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858.
- elegantulus, Dohrn, Proc. Z. Soc. 1858.
- Limnæa
- tigrina, Dohrn, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858.
- pinguis, Dohrn, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858.
- Melania
- tuberculata, Müller, Verm. Ter.3921
- spinulosa, Lam. Anim. s. Vert.
- corrugata, Lam. Anim. s. Vert.
- rudis, Lea, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1850.
- acanthica, Lea, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1850.
- Zeylanica, Lea, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1850.
- confusa, Dohrn, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858.
- datura, Dohrn, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858.
- Layardi, Dohrn, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858.
- Paludomus
- abbreviatus, Reeve, Pr. Zool. Soc. 1852.
- clavatus, Reeve, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1852.
- dilatatus, Reeve, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1852.
- globulosus, Reeve, Conch. Icon.
- decussatus, Reeve, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1852.
- nigricans, Reeve, Conch. Icon.
- constrictus, Reeve, Proc. Zo. Soc. 1852.
- bicinctus, Reeve, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1852.
- phaslaninus, Reeve, Proc. Zo. Soc. 1852.
- lævis, Layard, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.
- palustris, Layard, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.
- fulguratus, Dohrn, Proc. Zo. Soc. 1857.
- nasutus, Dohrn, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1857.
- sphæricus, Dohrn, Proc. Zo. Soc. 1857.
- solidus, Dohrn, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1857.
- distinguendus, Dohrn, Proc. Z.S. 1857.
- Cumingianus, Dohrn, Proc. Z.S. 1857.
- dromedarius, Dohrn, Proc. Z.S. 1857.
- Skinneri, Dohrn, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1857.
- Swainsoni, Dohrn, Proc. Zo. Soc. 1857.
- nodulosus, Dohrn, Proc. Zo. Soc. 1857.
- Paludomus (Tanalia).
- loricatus, Reeve, Conch. Icon.
- erinaceus, Reeve, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1852.
- æreus, Reeve, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1852.
- Layardi, Reeve, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1852.
- undatus, Reeve, Conch. Icon.
- Gardneri, Reeve, Conch. Icon.
- Tennentii, Reeve, Conch. Icon.
- Reevei, Layard, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.
- violaceus, Layard, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.
- similis, Layard, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.
- funiculatus, Layard, Pr. Z. Soc. 1854.
- Paludomus (Philopotamis).
- sulcatus, Reeve, Conch. Icon.
- regalis, Layard, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.
- Thwaitesii, Layard, P. Zool. Soc. 1854.
- Pirena atra, Linn. Systema Naturæ.
- Paludina melanostoma, Bens.
- Ceylanica, Dohrn, Pr. Zool. Soc. 1857.
- Bythinia stenothyroides, Dohrn, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1857.
- modesta, Dohrn, MS.
- inconspicua, Dohrn, Pr. Zool. Soc. 1857.
- Ampullaria Layardi, Reeve, Conch. Icon.
- moesta, Reeve, Conch. Icon.
- cinerea, Reeve, Conch. Icon.
- Woodwardi, Dohrn, Pr. Zool. Soc. 1858.
- Tischbeini, Dohrn, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858.
- carinata, Swainson, Zool. Illus. ser. 2.
- paludinoides, Cat. Cristofori & Jan.3922
- Malabarica, Philippi, monog. Ampul.3922
- Luzonica, Reeve, Conch. Icon.3922
- Sumatrensis, Philippi, monog. Ampul.3922
- Navicella eximia, Reeve, Conch. Icon.
- reticulata, Reeve, Conch. Icon.
- Livesayi, Dohrn, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858.
- squamata, Dohrn, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1858.
- depressa, Lam. Anim. s. Vert.
- Neritina
- crepidularia, Lam. Anim. s. Vert.
- melanostoma, Trosch. W.A. Nat. 1837.
- triserialis, Sowerby, Conch. Illustr.
- Colombaria, Recluz, Pr. Zool. Soc. 1845.
- Perottetiana, Recluz, Rev. Z. Cuv. 1841.
- Ceylanensis, Recluz, Mag. Conch. 1851.
- Layardi, Reeve, Conch. Icon.
- rostrata, Reeve, Conch. Icon.
- reticulata, Sowerby, Conch. Illustr.
- Nerita plicata, Linn. Systema Naturæ.
- costata, Chemn. Conch. Cab.
- plexa, Chemn. Conch. Cab.3923
- Natica aurantia, Lam. Anim. s. Vert.
- Ianthina prolongata, Blainv., D.S.N. xxiv.
- communis, Kr., (as of L. in part) S.A.M.
- Sigaretus, sp.3934
- Stomatella
- calliostoma, Adams, Thesaur. Conch.
- Haliotis varia, Linn. Systema Naturæ.
- striata, Martini (as of Linn.), C. Cab. i.
- semistriata, Reeve, Conch. Icon.
- Tornatella solidula, Linn. Systema Nat.
- Pyramidella
- maculosa, Lam., Anim. s. Vert.
- Eulima Martini, Adams, Thes. Conch, ii.
- Siliquaria
- muricata, Born, Test. Mus. Cæs. Vind.
- Scalaria raricostata, Lam., Anim. s. Vert.
- Delphinula laciniata, Lam., Anim. s. Vert.
- distorta, Linn., Syst. Nat.3935
- Solarium perdix, Hinds., Proc. Zool. Soc.
- Layardi, Adams, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.3936
- Rotella vestiaria, Linn., Syst. Nat.
- Phorus pallidulus, Reeve, Conch. Icon. i.
- Trochus
- elegantulus, Gray, Index Tes. Suppl.
- Niloticus, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- Monodonta labio, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- canaliculata, Lam. Anim. s. Vert.
- Turbo versicolor, Gm. Syst. Nat.
- princeps, Philippi.3937
- Planaxis undulatus, Lam. Anim. s. Vert.3938
- Littorina angulifera, Lam. Anim. s. Vert.
- melanostoma, Gray, Zool., Beech. Voy.3939
- Chemnitzia
- trilineata, Adams, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1853.
- lirata, Adams, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1853.
- Phasianella
- lineolata, Gray, Index Test. Suppl.
- Turritella
- bacillum, Kiener, Coquilles Vivantes.
- columnaris, Kiener, Coquilies Vivantes.
- duplicata, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- attenuata, Reeve, Syst. Nat.
- Cerithium fluviatile, Potrez & Michaud, Galerie
Douai. - Layardi (Cerithidea), Adams, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.
- palustre, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- aluco, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- asperula, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- telescopium, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- palustre obeliscus, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- fasciatum, Brug., Encycl. Méth. Vers.
- rubus, Sower. (as of Mart.), Thes. C. ii.
- Sowerbyi, Kiener, Coquilles Vivantes (teste Sir E.
Tennent).
- Pleurotoma Indica, Deshayes, Voyage Belanger.
- virgo, Lam. Anim. s. Vert.
- Turbinella pyrum, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- rapa, Lam. Anim. s. Vert. (the Chank.)
- cornigera, Lam. Anim. s. Vert.
- spirillus, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- Cancellaria
- trigonostoma, Lam. Anim. s. Vert.39310
- scalata, Sowerby, Thesaur. Conch.
- articularis, Sowerby, Thesaur. Conch.
- Littoriniformis, Sowerby, Thes. Conch.
- contabulata, Sowerby, Thes. Conch.
- Fasciolaria
- filamentosa, Lam. Anim. s. Vert.
- trapezium, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- Fusus longissimus, Lam. Anim. s. Vert.
- colus, Linn. Mus. Lud. Ulricæ.
- toreuma, Deshayes, (as Mur. t. Martyn).39311
- laticostatus, Deshayes, Mag. Zool. 1831.
- Blosvillei, Deshayes, E. Méth. Vers., ii.
- Pyrula rapa, Linn. Syst. Nat.39312
- citrina, Lam. Anim. s. Vert.
- pugilina, Born, Test. Mus. Vind.39313
- ficus, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- ficoides, Lam. Anim. s. Vert.
- Ranella crumena, Lam. Anim. s. Vert.
- spinosa, Lam. Anim. s. Vert.
- rana, Linn. Syst. Nat.39314
- margaritula, Deshayes, Voy. Belanger.
- Murex baustellum, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- adustus, Lam. Anim. s. Vert.
- microphyllus, Lam. Anim. s. Vert.
- anguliferus, Lam. Anim. s. Vert.
- palmarosæ, Lam. Anim. s. Vert.
- ternispina, Kiener, (as of Lam.), Coquilles
Vivantes. - tenuispina, Lam. Anim. s. Vert.
- ferrugo, Mawe, Index. Test. Suppl.39315
- Reeveanus, Shuttleworth, (teste Cuming)
- Triton anus, Linn. Syst. Nat.39316
- mulus, Dillwyn, Descript. Cat. Shells.
- retusus, Lam. Anim. s. Vert.
- pyrum, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- clavator, Chemn. Conch. Cab.
- Ceylonensis, Sowerby, Proc. Zool. Soc.
- lotorium, Lam. (not Linn.), An. s. Vert.
- lampas, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- Pterocera lambis, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- millepeda, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- Strombus canarium, Linn. Syst. Nat.39317
- Cassis glauca, Linn. Syst. Nat.3941
- canaliculata, Lam. Anim. s. Vert.
- Zeylanica, Lam. Anim. s. Vert.
- areola, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- Ricinula albolabris, Blainv. Nouv. Ann. Mus. H. N.
i.3942- horrida, Lam. Anim. s. Vert.
- morus, Lam. Anim. s. Vert.
- Purpura tiscella, Chemn. Conch. Cab.
- Persica, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- hystrix, Lam. (not Linn.) An. s. Vert.
- granatina, Deshayes, Voy. Belanger.
- mancinella, Lam. (as of Linn.) An. s.V.
- buto, Lam. Anim. s. Vert.
- carinitera, Lam. Anim. s. Vert.
- Harpa conoldalis, Lam. Anim, s. Vert.
- minor, Lam. Anim. s. Vert.
- Dolium pomum, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- olearium, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- perdix, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- maculatum, Lam. Anim. s. Vert.
- Nassa ornata, Kiener, Coq. Vivantes. 3943
- verrucosa, Brug. Encycl. Méth. Vers.
- crenulata, Brug. Encycl. Méth. Vers.
- olivacea, Brug. Encycl. Méth. Vers.
- glans, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- arcularia, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- papillosa, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- Phos virgatus, Hinds. Zool. Sul. Moll.
- retecosus, Hinds, Zool. Sulphur, Moll.
- senticosus, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- Buccinum melanostoma, Sowerby, App. to Tankerv. Cat.
- erythrostoma, Reeve, Conch. Icon.
- Proteus, Reeve, Conch. Icon.
- rubiginosum, Reeve, Conch. Icon.
- Eburna spirata, Linn. Syst. Nat.3944
- canaliculata, Schumacher, S.A. s. V.3945
- Ceylanica, Bruguiere, En. Méth. Vers.
- Bullia vittata, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- lineolata, Sowerby, Tankerv. Cat.3946
- Melanoides, Deshayes, Voy. Belan.
- Terebra chlorata, Lam. Anim. s. Vert.
- muscaria, Lam. Anim. s. Vert.
- lævigata, Gray, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1834.
- maculata, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- subulata, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- concinna, Deshayes, ed. Lam. A. s. V.
- myurus, Lam. Anim. s. Vert.
- tigrina, Gm. Syst. Nat.
- cerithina, Lam. Anim. s. Vert.
- Columbella flavida, Lam. Anim. s. Vert.
- fulgurans, Lam. Anim. s. Vert.
- mendicaria, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- scripta, Lam. Anim. s. Vert. (Teste Jay).
- Mitra
- episcopalis, Dillwyn, Des. Cat. Shells.
- cardinalis, Lam. Anim. s. Vert.
- crebrilirata, Reeve, Conch. Icon.
- punctostriata, Adams, Proc. Zool. So. 1854.
- insculpta, Adams, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.
- Layardi, Adams, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.3947
- Voluta vexillum, Chemn. Conch. Cab.
- Lapponica, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- Melo Indicus, Gm. Syst. Nat.
- Marginella Sarda, Kiener, Coq. Vivantes.
- Ovulum ovum, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- verrucosum, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- pudicum, Adams, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1854.
- Cypræa Argus, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- Arabica, Linn. Syst Nat.
- Mauritiana, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- hirundo, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- Lynx, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- asellus, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- erosa, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- vitellus, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- stolida, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- mappa, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- helvola, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- errones, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- cribraria, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- globulus, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- clandestina, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- ocellata, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- caurica, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- tabescens, Soland. in Dillwyn Des. C. Sh.
- gangrenosa, Soland. in Dillw. D.C. Sh.
- interrupta, Gray, Zool. Journ. i.
- lentiginosa, Gray, Zool. Journ. i.
- pyriformis, Gray, Zool. Journ. i.
- nivosa, Broderip, Zool. Journ. iii.
- poraria, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- testudinaria, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- Terebellum
- subulatum, Lam. Anim. s. Vert.
- Ancillaria glabrata, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- candida, Lam. Anim. s. Vert.
- Oliva Maura, Lam. Anim. s. Vert,
- erythrostoma, Lam. Anim. s. Vert.
- gibbesa, Born, Test. Mus. Cæs.3948
- nebulosa, Lam. Anim. s. Vert.
- Macleayana, Duclos, Monogr. of Oliva.
- episcopalis, Lam. Anim. s. Vert.
- elegans, Lam. Anim. s. Vert.
- ispidula, Linn. Syst. Nat. (partly).3949
- Zeilanica, Lam. Anim. s. Vert.
- undata, Lam. Anim. s. Vert.
- irisans, Lam. Anim. s. Vert. (teste Duclos).
- Conus miles, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- generalis, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- betulinus, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- stercus-muscarum, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- Hebræus, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- virgo, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- geographicus, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- aulicus, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- figutinus, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- striatus, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- senator, Linn. Syst. Nat.39410
- literatus, Linn. Syst. Nat. [pg 395]
- imperialis, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- textile, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- terebra, Born, Test. Must. Cæs. Vind.
- tessellatus, Born, Test. Mus. Cæs. Vind.
- augur, Bruguiere, Encycl. Méth. Vers.
- obesus, Bruguiere, Encycl. Méth. Vers.
- araneosus, Brug. Encycl. Méth. Vers.
- gubernator, Brug. Encycl. Méth. Vers.
- monite, Brug. Encycl. Méth. Vers.
- nimbosus, Brug. Encycl. Méth. Vers.
- eburneus, Brug. Encycl. Méth. Vers.
- vitulinus, Brug. Encycl. Méth. Vers.
- quercinus Brug. Encycl. Méth. Vers.
- lividus, Brug. Encycl. Méth. Vers.
- Omaria, Brug. Encycl. Méth. Vers.
- Maldivus, Brug. Encycl. Méth. Vers.
- nocturnus, Brug. Encycl. Méth. Vers.
- Ceylonensis, Brug. Encycl. Méth. Vers.
- arenatus, Brug. Encycl. Méth. Vers.
- Nicobaricus, Brug. Encycl. Méth. Vers.
- glans, Brug. Encycl. Méth. Vers.
- Amadis, Chemn. Conch. Cab.
- punctatus, Chemn. Conch. Cab.
- minimus, Reeve. (as of Linn), C. Icon.
- terminus, Lam. Anim. s. Vert.
- lineatus, Chemn. Conch. Cab.
- episcopus, Brug. Encycl. Méth. Vers.
- verriculum, Reeve. Conch. Cab.
- zonatus, Brug. Encycl. Méth. Vers.
- rattus. Brug. En. Mth. V. (teste Chemn.)
- pertusus, Brug. Encycl. Méth. Vers.
- Nussatella, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- lithoglyphus, Brug. En. Méth. Vers.
- tulipa, Linn. Syst. Nat.
- Ammiralis, var. Linn. teste Brug.
- Spirula Peronii, Lam. Anim. s. Vert.
- Sepia Hieredda, Rang. M.Z., ser. i. p. 100.
- Sepioteuthis, Sp.
- Loligo, Sp.
A conclusion not unworthy of observation may be deduced from
this catalogue; namely, that Ceylon was the unknown, and hence
unacknowledged, source of almost every extra-European shell which
has been described by Linnæus without a recorded habitat.
This fact gives to Ceylon specimens an importance which can only be
appreciated by collectors and the students of Mollusca.
2. RADIATA.
The eastern seas are profusely stocked with radiated animals,
but it is to be regretted that they have as yet received but little
attention from English naturalists. Recently, however, Dr. Kelaart
has devoted himself to the investigation of some of the Singhalese
species, and has published his discoveries in the Journal of the
Ceylon Branch of the Asiatic Society for 1856-8. Our information
respecting the radiata on the confines of the island is, therefore,
very scanty; with the exception of the genera3951 examined by him. Hence the
notice of this extensive class of animals must be limited to
indicating a few of those which exhibit striking peculiarities, or
which admit of the most common observation.
Star Fish.—Very large species of
Ophiuridæ are to be met with at Trincomalie, crawling
busily about, and insinuating their long serpentine arms into the
irregularities and perforations in the rocks. To these they attach
themselves with such a firm grasp, especially when they perceive
that they have attracted attention, that it is almost impossible to
procure unmutilated specimens without previously depriving them of
life, or at least modifying their muscular tenacity. The upper
surface is of a dark purple colour, and coarsely spined; the arms
of the largest specimens are more than a foot in length, and very
fragile.
The star fishes, with immovable rays3961, are by no means rare; many
kinds are brought up in the nets, or maybe extracted from the
stomachs of the larger market fish. One very large species3962, figured by Joinville in the
manuscript volume in the library at the India House, is not
uncommon; it has thick arms, from which and the disc numerous large
fleshy cirrhi of a bright crimson colour project downwards, giving
the creature a remarkable aspect. No description of it, so far as I
am aware, has appeared in any systematic work on zoology.
Sea Slugs.—There are a few species of
Holothuria, of which the trepang is the best known example.
It is largely collected in the Gulf of Manaar, and dried in the sun
to prepare it for export to China. A good description and figures
of its varieties are still desiderata.
Parasitic Worms.—Of these entozoa, the Filaria
medinensis, or Guinea-worm, which burrows in the [pg 397]
cellular tissue under the skin, is well known in the north of the
island, but rarely found in the damper districts of the south and
west. In Ceylon, as elsewhere, the natives attribute its occurrence
to drinking the waters of particular wells; but this belief is
inconsistent with the fact that its lodgment in the human body is
almost always effected just above the ankle. This shows that the
minute parasites are transferred to the skin of the leg from the
moist vegetation bordering the footpaths leading to wells. At this
period the creatures are very small, and the process of insinuation
is painless and imperceptible. It is only when they attain to
considerable size, a foot or more in length, that the operation of
extracting them is resorted to, when exercise may have given rise
to inconvenience and inflammation.
These pests in all probability received their popular name of
Guinea-worms, from the narrative of Bruno or Braun, a
citizen and surgeon of Basle, who about the year 1611 made several
voyages to that part of the African coast, and on his return
published, amongst other things, an account of the local
diseases.3971
But Linschoten, the Dutch navigator, had previously observed the
same worms at Ormus in 1584, and they are thus described, together
with the method of removing them, in the English version of his
voyage.
“There is in Ormus a sickenesse or common plague of wormes,
which growe in their legges, it is thought that they proceede of
the water that they drink. These wormes are like, unto lute
strings, and about two or three fadomes longe, which they must
plucke out and winde them aboute a straw or a feather, everie day
some [pg
398] part thereof, so longe as they feele them creepe; and
when they hold still, letting it rest in that sort till the next
daye, they bind it fast and annoynt the hole, and the swelling from
whence it commeth foorth, with fresh butter, and so in ten or
twelve dayes, they winde them out without any let, in the meanetime
they must sit still with their legges, for if it should breake,
they should not, without great paine get it out of their legge, as
I have seen some men doe.” 3981
The worm is of a whitish colour, sometimes inclining to brown.
Its thickness is from a half to two-thirds of a line, and its
length has sometimes reached to ten or twelve feet. Small specimens
have been found beneath the tunica conjunctiva of the eye; and one
species of the same genus of Nematoidea infests the cavity
of the eye itself.3982
Planaria.—In the journal already mentioned, Dr.
Kelaart has given descriptions of fifteen species of planaria, and
four of a new genus, instituted by him for the reception of those
differing from the normal kinds by some peculiarities which they
exhibit in common. At Point Pedro, Mr. Edgar Layard met with one on
the bark of trees, after heavy rain, which would appear to belong
to the subgenus geoplana.3983
Acalephæ.—Acalephæ3984 are plentiful, so much so,
indeed, that they occasionally tempt the larger cetacea into the
Gulf of Manaar. In the calmer months of the year, when the sea is
glassy, and for hours together [pg 399] undisturbed by a ripple,
the minute descriptions are rendered perceptible by their beautiful
prismatic tinting. So great is their transparency that they are
only to be distinguished from the water by the return to the eye of
the reflected light that glances from their delicate and polished
surfaces. Less frequently they are traced by the faint hues of
their tiny peduncles, arms, or tentaculæ; and it has been
well observed that they often give the seas in which they abound
the appearance of being crowded with flakes of half-melted snow.
The larger kinds, when undisturbed in their native haunts, attain
to considerable size. A faintly blue medusa, nearly a foot across,
may be seen in the Gulf of Manaar, where, no doubt, others of still
larger growth are to be found.
PHYSALUS URTICULUS.Occasionally after storms, the beach at Colombo is strewn with
the thin transparent globes of the “Portuguese Man of War,”
Physalus urticulus, which are piled upon the lines left by
the waves, like globules of glass delicately tinted with purple and
blue. They sting, as their trivial name indicates, like a nettle
when incautiously touched.
Red infusoria.—On both sides of the island (but
most frequently on the west), during the south-west monsoon, a
broad expanse of the sea assumes a red tinge, considerably brighter
than brick-dust; and this is confined to a space so distinct that a
line seems to separate it from the green water which flows on
either side. Observing at Colombo that the whole area so tinged
changed its position without parting with any portion of its
colouring, I had some of the water brought on shore, and, on
examination with the microscope, found it to be filled with
infusoria, probably similar to those which have been noticed
near the shores of South America, and whose abundance has imparted
a name to the “Vermilion Sea” off the coast of California.4001
The remaining orders, including the corals, madrepores,
[pg
401] and other polypi, have yet to find a naturalist to
undertake their investigation, but in all probability the new
species are not very numerous.
NOTE.
TRITONIA ARBORESCENS.
The following is the letter of Dr. Grant, referred to at page
385:—
Sir,—I have perused, with much interest, your remarkable
communication received yesterday, respecting the musical sounds
which you heard proceeding from under water, on the east coast of
Ceylon. I cannot parallel the phenomenon you witnessed at
Batticaloa, as produced by marine animals, with anything with which
my past experience has made me acquainted in marine zoology.
Excepting the faint clink of the Tritonia arborescens,
repeated only once every minute or two, and apparently produced by
the mouth armed with two dense horny laminæ, I am not aware
of any sounds produced in the sea by branchiated invertebrata. It
is to be regretted that in the memorandum you have not mentioned
your observations on the living specimens brought you by the
sailors as the animals which produced the sounds. Your
authentication of the hitherto unknown fact, would probably lead to
the discovery of the same phenomenon in other common accessible
paludinæ, and other allied branchiated animals, and to the
solution of a problem, which is still to me a mystery, even
regarding the tritonia.
My two living tritonia, contained in a large clear
colourless glass cylinder, filled with pure sea water, and placed
on the central table of the Wernerian Natural History Society of
Edinburgh, around which many members were sitting, continued
[pg
402] to clink audibly within the distance of twelve feet
during the whole meeting. These small animals were individually not
half the size of the last joint of my little finger. What effect
the mellow sounds of millions of these, covering the shallow bottom
of a tranquil estuary, in the silence of night, might produce, I
can scarcely conjecture.
In the absence of your authentication, and of all geological
explanation of the continuous sounds, and of all source of fallacy
from the hum and buzz of living creatures in the air or on the
land, or swimming on the waters, I must say that I should be
inclined to seek for the source of sounds so audible as those you
describe rather among the pulmonated vertebrata, which swarm in the
depths of these seas—as fishes, serpents (of which my friend
Dr. Cantor has described about twelve species he found in the Bay
of Bengal), turtles, palmated birds, pinnipedous and cetaceous
mammalia, &c.
The publication of your memorandum in its present form, though
not quite satisfactory, will, I think, be eminently calculated to
excite useful inquiry into a neglected and curious part of the
economy of nature.
I remain, Sir,
Yours most respectfully,
ROBERT E. GRANT.
Sir J. Emerson Tennent, &c. &c.
Footnote 3701: (return)In one of these beautiful little bays near Catchavelly, between
Trincomalie and Batticaloa, I found the sand within the wash of the
sea literally covered with mollusca and shells, and amongst others
a species of Bullia (B. vittata, I think), the inhabitant of
which, has the faculty of mooring itself firmly by sending down its
membranous foot into the wet sand, where, imbibing the water, this
organ expands horizontally into a broad, fleshy disc, by which the
animal anchors itself, and thus secured, collects its food in the
ripple of the waves. On the slightest alarm, the water is
discharged, the disc collapses into its original dimensions, and
the shell and its inhabitant disappear together beneath the
sand.
Footnote 3712: (return)At Kottiar, near Trincomalie, I was struck with the prodigious
size of the edible oysters, which were brought to us at the
rest-house. The shell of one of these measured a little more than
eleven inches in length, by half as many broad: thus unexpectedly
attesting the correctness of one of the stories related by the
historians of Alexander’s expedition, that in India they had found
oysters a foot long. PLINY says: “In Indico mari Alexandri rerum
auctores pedalia inveniri prodidere.”—Nat. Hist. lib.
xxxii. ch. 31. DARWIN says, that amongst the fossils of Patagonia,
he found “a massive gigantic oyster, sometimes even a foot in
diameter.”—Nat. Voy., ch. viii.
Footnote 3713: (return)—ABOUZEYD, Voyages Arabes, &c., t. i. p. 6;
REINAUD, Mémoire sur l’Inde, &c p. 222.
Footnote 3722: (return)DARWIN, in his Naturalist’s Voyage, mentions a parallel
instance of the localised propagation of colours amoungst the
cattle which range the pasturage of East Falkland Island: “Round
Mount Osborne about half of some of the herds were mouse-coloured,
a tint no common anywhere else,—near Mount Pleasant
dark-brown prevailed; whereas south of Choiseul Sound white beasts
with black heads and feet were common.”—Ch. ix. p. 192.
Footnote 3731: (return)It is almost unnecessary to say that the shell fish which
produces the true Oriental pearls is not an oyster, but belongs to
the genus Avicula, or more correctly, Meleagrina. It is the
Meleagrina Margaritifera of Lamarck.
Footnote 3751: (return)This suspension was in some degree attributable to disputes with
the Nabob of Arcot and other chiefs, and the proprietors of temples
on the opposite coast of India, who claimed, a right to participate
in the fisheries of the Gulf of Manaar.
Footnote 3752: (return)“Il y avait autrefois dans le Golfe de Serendyb, une
pêcherie de perles qui s’est épuiseé de notre
temps. D’un autre côté il s’est formé une
pêcherie de Sofala dans le pays des Zends, là ou il
n’en existait pas auparavant—on dit que c’est la
pêcherie de Serendyb qui s’est transportée à
Sofala.”—ALBYROUNI, in RENAUD’S Fragmens Arabes,
&c, p. 125; see also REINAUD’S Mémoire sur
l’Inde, p. 228.
Footnote 3761: (return)STEUART’S Pearl Fisheries of Ceylon, p. 27: CORDINER’S
Ceylon, &c, vol. ii. p. 45.
Footnote 3762: (return)See Dr. KELAART’S Report on the Pearl Oyster in the Ceylon
Calendar for 1858—Appendix, p. 14.
Footnote 3771: (return)Detailed accounts of the pearl fishery of Ceylon and the conduct
of the divers, will be found in PERCIVAL’s Ceylon, ch. iii.:
and in CORDINER’S Ceylon, vol. ii. ch. xvi. There is also a
valuable paper on the same subject by Mr. LE BECK, in the
Asiatic Researches, vol. v. p. 993; but by far the most able
and intelligent description is contained in the Account of the
Pearl Fisheries of Ceylon, by JAMES STEUART, Esq., Inspector of
the Pearl Banks, 4to. Colombo, 1843.
Footnote 3772: (return)MASSOUDI says that the Persian divers, as they could not breathe
through their nostrils, cleft the root of the ear for that
purpose: “Ils se fendaient la racine de l’oreille pour
respirer; en effet, ils ne peuvent se servir pour cet objet des
narines, vu qu’ils se les bouchent avec des morceaux
d’écailles de tortue marine on bien avec des morceaux de
corne ayant la forme d’un fer de lance. En même temps ils se
mettent dans l’oreille du coton trempé dans de
l’huile.”—Moroudj-al-Dzeheb, &c., REINAUD,
Mémoire sur l’Inde, p. 228.
Footnote 3773: (return)Colonel WILSON says they compress the nose with horn, and close
the ears with beeswax. See Memorandum on the Pearl Fisheries in
Persian Gulf.—Journ. Geogr. Soc. 1833, vol. iii. p.
283.
Footnote 3781: (return)RIBEYRO says that a diver could remain below whilst two
credos were being repeated: “Il s’y tient l’espace de deux
credo.”—Lib. i. ch. xxii. p. 169. PERCIVAL says the
usual time for them to be under water was two minutes, but that
some divers stayed four or five, and one six
minutes,—Ceylon p. 91; LE BECK says that in 1797 he
saw a Caffre boy from Karical remain down for the space of seven
minutes.—Asiat. Res vol. v. p. 402.
Footnote 3792: (return)“Ils s’enduisaient les pieds et les jambes d’une substance
noirâtre, atin de faire peur aux monstres marins, que, sans
cela, seraient tentés de les
dévorer.”—Moroudj-al-Dzekeb, REINAUD,
Mém. sur l’Inde, p. 228.
Footnote 3793: (return)Along with this two plates are given from drawings made for the
Official Inspector, and exhibiting the ascertained size of the
pearl oyster at every period of its growth, from the “spat” to the
mature shell. The young “brood” are shown at Nos. 1 and 2. The
shell at four months old, No. 3, No. 4. six months, No. 5. one
year, No. 6, two years. The second plate exhibits the shell at its
full growth.
Footnote 3811: (return)Littorina lævis. Cerithium palustre. Of the latter
the specimens brought to me were dwarfed and solid, exhibiting in
this particular the usual peculiarities that distinguish (1) shells
inhabiting a rocky locality from (2) their congeners in a sandy
bottom. Their longitudinal development was less, with greater
breadth, and increased strength and weight.
Footnote 3831: (return)These sounds are thus described by Dr. BUIST in the Bombay
Times of January 1847: “A party lately crossing from the
promontory in Salsette called the ‘Neat’s Tongue,’ to near Sewree,
were, about sunset, struck by hearing long distinct sounds like the
protracted booming of a distant bell, the dying cadence of an
Æolian harp, the note of a pitchpipe or pitch-fork, or any
other long-drawn-out musical note. It was, at first, supposed to be
music from Parell floating at intervals on the breeze; then it was
perceived to come from all directions, almost in equal strength,
and to arise from the surface of the water all around the vessel.
The boatmen at once intimated that the sounds were produced by
fish, abounding in the muddy creeks and shoals around Bombay and
Salsette; they were perfectly well known, and very often heard.
Accordingly, on inclining the ear towards the surface of the water;
or, better still, by placing it close to the planks of the vessel,
the notes appeared loud and distinct, and followed each other in
constant succession. The boatmen next day produced specimens of the
fish—a creature closely resembling, in size and shape the
fresh-water perch of the north of Europe—and spoke of them as
plentiful and perfectly well known. It is hoped they may be
procured alive, and the means afforded of determining how the
musical sounds are produced and emitted, with other particulars of
interest supposed new in Ichthyology. We shall be thankful to
receive from our readers any information they can give us in regard
to a phenomenon which does not appear to have been heretofore
noticed, and which cannot fail to attract the attention of the
naturalist. Of the perfect accuracy with which the singular facts
above related have been given, no doubt will be entertained when it
is mentioned that the writer was one of a party of five intelligent
persons, by all of whom they were most carefully observed, and the
impressions of all of whom in regard to them were uniform. It is
supposed that the fish are confined to particular
localities—shallows, estuaries, and muddy creeks, rarely
visited by Europeans; and that this is the reason why hitherto no
mention, so far as we know, has been made of the peculiarity in any
work on Natural History.”This communication elicited one from Vizagapatam, relative to
“musical sounds like the prolonged notes on the harp” heard to
proceed from under water at that station. It appeared in the
Bombay Times of Feb. 13, 1849.
Footnote 3841: (return)The Cuckoo Gurnard (Triglia cuculus) and the maigre
(Sciæna aquila) utter sounds when taken out of the
water (YARRELL, vol. i. p. 44, 107); and herrings when the net has
just been drawn have been observed to do the same. This effect has
been attributed to the escape of air from the air bladder, but no
air bladder has been found in the Cottus, which makes a
similar noise.
Footnote 3842: (return)The fishermen assert that a fish about five inches in length,
found in the lake at Colombo, and called by them “magoora,”
makes a grunt when disturbed under water. PALLEGOIX, in his account
of Siam, speaks of a fish resembling a sole, but of brilliant
colouring with black spots, which the natives call the “dog’s
tongue,” that attaches itself to the bottom of a boat, “et fait
entendre un bruit très-sonore et même
harmonieux.”—Tom. i. p. 194. A Silurus, found in the
Rio Parana, and called the “armado,” is remarkable for making a
harsh grating noise when caught by hook or line, which can be
distinctly heard when the fish is beneath the water. DARWIN,
Nat. Journ. ch. vii. Aristotle and Ælian were aware of
the existence of this faculty in some of the fishes of the
Mediterranean. ARISTOTLE, De Anim., lib. iv. ch. ix.;
ÆLIAN, De Nat. Anim., lib. x. ch. xi.; see also PLINY,
lib. ix. ch. vii.. lib. xi. ch. cxiii.; ATHENÆUS, lib. vii.
ch. iii. vi. I have heard of sounds produced under water at
Baltimore, and supposed to be produced by the “cat-fish;” and at
Swan River in Australia, where they are ascribed to the
“trumpeter.” A similar noise heard in the Tagus is attributed by
the Lisbon fishermen to the “Corvina“—but what fish is
meant by that name, I am unable to tell.
Footnote 3852: (return)It consists of two round vesicles containing fluid, and
crystalline or elliptical calcareous particles or otolites,
remarkable for their oscillatory action in the living or recently
killed animal. OWEN’S Lectures on the Comparative Anatomy and
Physiology of the Invertebrate Animals, 1855, p. 511-552.
Footnote 3853: (return)I am informed that Professor M&ÜLLER read a paper on
“Musical fishes” before the Academy of Berlin, in 1856. It will
probably be found in the volume of M&ÜLLER’S Archiv.
für Physiologie for that year; but I have not had an
opportunity of reading it.
Footnote 3854: (return)Edinburgh Philosophical Journ., vol. xiv. p. 188. See
also the Appendix to this chapter.
Footnote 3861: (return)The letter which I received from Dr. Grant on this subject, I
have placed in a note to the present chapter, in the hope that it
may stimulate some other inquirer in Ceylon to prosecute the
investigation which I was unable to carry out successfully.
Footnote 3881: (return)Below will be found a general reference to the Works or Papers
in which are given descriptive notices of the shells contained in
the following list; the names of the authors (in full or
abbreviated) being, as usual, annexed to each species.ADAMS, Proceed. Zool. Soc. 1853, 54, 56; Thesaur.
Conch. ALBERS, Zeitsch. Malakoz. 1853. ANTON, Wiegm.
Arch. Nat. 1837; Verzeichn. Conch. BECK in Pfeiffer,
Symbol. Helic. BENSON, Ann. Nat. Hist. vii. 1851; xii.
1853, xviii, 1856. BLAINVILLE, Dict. Sc. Nat.; Nouv. Ann. Mus.
His. Nat. i. BOLTEN, Mus. BORN, Test. Mus.
Cæcs. Vind. BRODERIP, Zool. Journ. i. iii.
BRUGUIERE, Encyc. Méthod. Vers. CARPENTER, Proc.
Zool. Soc. 1856. CHEMNITZ, Conch. Cab. CHENU, Illus.
Conch. DESHAYES. Encyc. Méth. Vers.; Mag. Zool. 1831;
Voy. Belanger; Edit. Lam. An. s. Vert.; Proceed. Zool. Soc.
1853, 54, 55. DILLWYN. Deser. Cat. Shells. DOHRN, Proc.
Zool. Soc. 1857, 58; Malak. Blätter; Land and
Fluviatile Shells of Ceylon. DUCLOS, Monog. of Oliva.
FABRICIUS, in Pfeiffer Monog. Helic.; in Dohrn’s MSS.
FÉRUSSAC, Hist. Mollusques. FORSKAL, Anim.
Orient. GMELIN, Syst. Nat. GRAY, Proc. Zool. Soc.
1834, 52; Index Testaceologicus Suppl.; Spicilegia Zool.; Zool.
Journ. i.; Zool. Beechey Voy. GRATELOUP, Act. Linn.
Bordeaux, xi. GUERIN, Rev. Zool. 1847. HANLEY,
Thesaur. Conch, i.; Recent Bivalves; Proc. Zool. Soc.
1858. HINDS, Zool. Voy. Sulphur; Proc. Zool. Soc. HUTTON,
Journ. As. Soc. KARSTEN, Mus. Lesk. KIENER,
Coquilles Vivantes. KRAUSS, Sud-Afrik Mollusk.
LAMARCK, An. sans Vertéb. LAYARD, Proc. Zool.
Soc. 1854. LEA, Proceed. Zool. Soc. 1850. LINNÆUS,
Syst. Nat. MARTINI, Conch. Cab. MAWE. Introd.
Linn. Conch.; Index Test. Suppl. MEUSCHEN, in Gronor.
Zoophylac. MENKE, Synop. Mollus. MULLER, Hist. Verm.
Terrest. PETIT, Pro. Zool. Soc. 1842. PFEIFFER,
Monog. Helic.: Monog. Pneumon.; Proceed. Zool. Soc. 1852,
53, 54, 55. 56; Zeitschr. Malacoz. 1853. PHILIPPI,
Zeitsch. Mal. 1846, 47: Abbild. Neuer Conch. POTIEZ
et MICHAUD. Galeric Douai. RANG, Mag. Zool. ser. i.
p. 100. RÉCLUZ, Proceed. Zool. Soc. 1845; Revue
Zool. Cur. 1841: Mag. Conch. REEVE, Conch. Icon.;
Proc. Zool. Soc: 1842, 52. SCHUMACHER. Syst.
SHUTTLEWORTH. SOLANDER. in Dillwyn’s Desc. Cat. Shells;
SOWERBY, Genera Shells; Species Conch.; Conch. Misc.; Thesaur.
Conch.; Conch. Illus.; Proc. Zool. Soc.; App. to Tankerrille
Cat. SPENGLER, Skrivt. Nat. Selsk. Kiobenhav. 1792.
SWAINSON, Zool. Illust. ser. ii. TEMPLETON, Ann. Nat.
Hist. 1858. TROSCHEL, in Pfeiffer, Mon. Pneum; Zeitschr.
Malak. 1847; Wiegm. Arch. Nat. 1837. WOOD, General
Conch.
Footnote 39013: (return)Mr. Cuming informs me that he has forwarded no less than six
distinct Uniones from Ceylon to Isaac Lea, of Philadelphia,
for determination or description.
Footnote 39016: (return)The specimens are not in a fitting state for positive
determination. They are strong, extremely narrow, with the beak of
the lower valve much produced, and the inner edge of the upper
valve denticulated throughout. The muscular impressions are dusky
brown.
Footnote 3914: (return)P. Tennentii. “Greyish brown, with longitudinal rows of rufous
spots, forming interrupted bands along the sides. A singularly
handsome species, having similar habits to Limax. Found in
the valleys of the Kalany Ganga, near
Ruanwellé.”—Templeton MSS.
Footnote 3915: (return)Not far from bistrialis and Ceylanica. The manuscript species of
Mr. Dohrn will shortly appear in his intended work upon the land
and fluviatile shells of Ceylon.
Footnote 3934: (return)A species (possibly Javanicus) is known to have been collected.
I have not seen it.
Footnote 39312: (return)P. papyracea, Lam. In mixed collections I have seen the
Chinese P. bezoar of Lamarck as from Ceylon.
Footnote 39317: (return)S. incisus of the Index Testaceologicus (urceus, var.
Sow. Thesaur.) is found in mixed Ceylon collections.
Footnote 3941: (return)C. plicaria of Lamarck, and C. coronulata of
Sowerby, are also said to be found in Ceylon.
Footnote 3951: (return)Actinia, 9 sp.; Anthea, 4 sp.; Actinodendron, 3 sp.; Dioscosoma,
1 sp.; Peechea, 1 sp.; Zoanthura, 1 sp.
Footnote 3981: (return)JOHN HUIGHEN VAN LINSCHOTEN his Discours of Voyages into the
Easte and West Indies. London, 1599, p, 16.
Footnote 3983: (return)“A curious species, which is of a light brown above, white
underneath; very broad and thin, and has a peculiarly shaped tail,
half-moon-shaped in fact, like a grocer’s cheese knife.”
Footnote 4001: (return)The late Dr. BUIST, of Bombay, in commenting on this statement,
writes to the Athenæum that: “The red colour with
which the sea is tinged, round the shores of Ceylon, during a part
of the S.W. monsoon is due to the Proto-coccus nivalis, or
the Himatta-coccus, which presents different colours at different
periods of the year—giving us the seas of milk as well as
those of blood. The coloured water at times is to be seen all along
the coast north to Kurrachee, and far out, and of a much more
intense tint in the Arabian Sea. The frequency of its appearance in
the Red Sea has conferred on it its name.”
CHAP. XII.
INSECTS.
Owing to the favourable combination of heat, moisture, and
vegetation, the myriads of insects in Ceylon form one of the
characteristic features of the island. In the solitude of the
forests there is a perpetual music from their soothing and
melodious hum, which frequently swells to a startling sound as the
cicada trills his sonorous drum on the sunny bark of some tall
tree. At morning the dew hangs in diamond drops on the threads and
gossamer which the spiders suspend across every pathway; and above
the pool dragon-flies, of more than metallic lustre, flash in the
early sunbeams. The earth teems with countless ants, which emerge
from beneath its surface, or make their devious highways to ascend
to their nests in the trees. Lustrous beetles, with their golden
elytra, bask on the leaves, whilst minuter species dash through the
air in circles, which the ear can follow by the booming of their
tiny wings. Butterflies of large size and gorgeous colouring,
flutter over the endless expanse of flowers, and at times the
extraordinary sight presents itself of flights of these delicate
creatures, generally of a white or pale yellow hue, apparently
miles in breadth, and of such prodigious extension as to occupy
hours, and even days, uninterruptedly in their passage—whence
coming no one [pg 404] knows; whither going no one can
tell.4041 As day declines, the moths
issue from their retreats, the crickets add their shrill voices to
swell the din; and when darkness descends, the eye is charmed with
the millions of emerald lamps lighted up by the fire-flies amidst
the surrounding gloom.
As yet no attempt has been made to describe the insects of
Ceylon systematically, much less to enumerate the prodigous number
of species that abound in every locality. Occasional observers
have, from time to time, contributed notices of particular families
to the Scientific Associations of Europe, but their papers remain
undigested, and the time has not yet arrived for the preparation of
an Entomology of the island.
What DARWIN remarks of the Coleoptera of Brazil is nearly as
applicable to the same order of insects in Ceylon: “The number of
minute and obscurely coloured beetles is exceedingly great; the
cabinets of Europe can as yet, with partial exceptions, boast only
of the larger species from tropical climates, and it is sufficient
to disturb the composure of an entomologist to look forward to the
future dimensions of a catalogue with any pretensions to
completeness.”4042
M. Nietner, a German entomologist, who has spent some years in
Ceylon, has recently published, in one of the local [pg 405]
periodicals, a series of papers on the Coleoptera of the island, in
which every species introduced is stated to be previously
undescribed.4051
COLEOPTERA.—Buprestidæ; Golden
Beetles.—In the morning the herbaceous plants, especially
on the eastern side of the island, are studded with these gorgeous
beetles, whose golden wing-cases4052
are used to enrich the embroidery of the Indian zenana, whilst the
lustrous joints of the legs are strung on silken threads, and form
necklaces and bracelets of singular brilliancy.
These exquisite colours are not confined to one order, and some
of the Elateridæ4053
and Lamellicorns exhibit hues of green and blue, that rival the
deepest tints of the emerald and sapphire.
LONGICORN BEETLE (BATEROCERA RUBUS).Scavenger Beetles.—Scavenger beetles4054 are to be seen wherever the
presence of putrescent and offensive matter affords opportunity for
the display of their repulsive but most curious instincts;
fastening on it with eagerness, severing it into lumps
proportionate to their strength, and rolling it along in search of
some place sufficiently soft in which to bury it, after having
deposited their eggs in the centre. I had frequent opportunities,
especially in traversing the sandy jungles in the level plains to
the north of the island, of observing the unfailing appearance of
these creatures instantly on the dropping of horse dung, or any
other substance [pg 406] suitable for their purpose; although
not one was visible but a moment before. Their approach on the wing
is announced by a loud and joyous booming sound, as they dash in
rapid circles in search of the desired object, led by their sense
of smell, and evidently little assisted by the eye in shaping their
course towards it. In these excursions they exhibit a strength of
wing and sustained power of flight, such as is possessed by no
other class of beetles with which I am acquainted, but which is
obviously indispensable [pg 407] for the due performance of the useful
functions they discharge.
The Coco-nut Beetle.—In the luxuriant forests of
Ceylon the extensive family of Longicorns4071 and Passalidæ live
in destructive abundance. To the coco-nut planters the ravages
committed by beetles are painfully familiar.4072 The larva of one species of
Dynastida, the Oryctes rhinoceros, called by the
Singhalese “Gascooroominiya,” makes its way into the younger
trees, descending from the top, and after perforating them in all
directions, forms a cocoon of the gnawed wood and sawdust, in which
it reposes during its sleep as a pupa, till the arrival of the
period when it emerges as a perfect beetle. Notwithstanding the
repulsive aspect of the large pulpy larvæ of these beetles,
they are esteemed a luxury by the Malabar coolies, who so far avail
themselves of the privilege accorded by the Levitical law, which
permitted the Hebrews to eat “the beetle after his kind.”4073
Amongst the superstitions of the Singhalese arising out of their
belief in demonology, one remarkable one is connected with the
appearance of a beetle when observed on the floor of a
dwelling-house after nightfall. The popular belief is that in
obedience to a certain form of incantation (called
cooroominiya-pilli) a demon [pg 408] in the shape of a beetle
is sent to the house of some person or family whose destruction it
is intended to compass, and who presently falls sick and dies. The
only means of averting this catastrophe is, that some one, himself
an adept in necromancy, should perform a counter-charm, the effect
of which is to send back the disguised beetle to destroy his
original employer; for in such a conjuncture the death of one or
the other is essential to appease the demon whose intervention has
been invoked. Hence the discomfort of a Singhalese on finding a
beetle in his house after sunset, and his anxiety to expel but not
to kill it.
Tortoise Beetles.—There is one family of insects,
the members of which cannot fail to strike the traveller by their
singular beauty, the Cassididæ or tortoise beetles, in
which the outer shell overlaps the body, and the limbs are
susceptible of being drawn entirely within it. The rim is
frequently of a different tint from the centre, and one species
which I have seen is quite startling from the brilliancy of its
colouring, which gives it the appearance of a ruby enclosed in a
frame of pearl; but this wonderful effect disappears immediately on
the death of the insect.
ORTHOPTERA. Leaf-insects.—But in relation to the
insects of Ceylon the admiration of their colours is still less
exciting than the astonishment created by the forms in which some
of the families present themselves; especially the “soothsayers”
(Mantidæ) and “walking leaves.” The latter4081, exhibiting the most cunning of
all nature’s devices for the preservation of her creatures, are
found in the jungle in all varieties of hues, from the pale yellow
of an opening bud to the rich green of [pg 409] the
full-blown leaf, and the withered tint of decay. So perfect is the
imitation of a leaf in structure and articulation, that this
amazing insect when at rest is almost undistinguishable from the
foliage around: not only are the wings modelled to resemble ribbed
and fibrous follicles, but every joint of the legs is expanded into
a broad plait like a half-opened leaflet.
STICK INSECT AND MANTISIt rests on its abdomen, the legs serving to drag it slowly
along, and thus the flatness of its attitude serves still further
to add to the appearance of a leaf. One of the most marvellous
incidents connected with its organisation was exhibited by one
which I kept under a glass shade on my table, it laid a quantity of
eggs, that, in colour and shape, were not to be distinguished from
seeds. They were brown, and pentangular, with a short stem,
and slightly punctured at the intersections.
The “soothsayer,” on the other hand (Mantis
superstitiosa. Fab.4101),
little justifies by its propensities the appearance of gentleness,
and the attitudes of sanctity, which have obtained for it the title
of the “praying mantis.” Its habits are carnivorous, and degenerate
into cannibalism, as it preys on the weaker individuals of its own
species. Two which I enclosed in a box were both found dead a few
hours after, literally severed limb from limb in their encounter.
The formation of the foreleg enables the tibia to be so closed on
the sharp edge of the thigh as to amputate any slender substance
grasped within it.
The Stick-insect.—The Phasmidæ or
spectres, another class of orthoptera, present as close a
resemblance to small branches or leafless twigs as their congeners
do to green leaves. The wing-covers, where they exist, instead of
being expanded, are applied so closely to the body as to detract
nothing from its rounded form, and [pg 411] hence the name which
they have acquired of “walking-sticks.” Like the
Phyllium, the Phasma lives exclusively on vegetables,
and some attain the length of several inches.
Of all the other tribes of the Orthoptera Ceylon
possesses many representatives; in swarms of cockroaches,
grasshoppers, locusts, and crickets.
NEUROPTERA. Dragon-flies.—Of the Neuroptera,
some of the dragon-flies are pre-eminently beautiful; one species,
with rich brown-coloured spots upon its gauzy wings, is to be seen
near every pool.4111
Another4112, which dances above the
mountain streams in Oovah, and amongst the hills descending towards
Kandy, gleams in the sun as if each of its green enamelled wings
had been sliced from an emerald.
The Ant-Lion.—Of the ant-lion, whose larvæ
have earned a bad renown from their predaceous ingenuity, Ceylon
has, at least, four species, which seem peculiar to the
island.4113 This singular creature,
preparatory to its pupal transformation, contrives to excavate a
conical pitfall in the dust to the depth of about an inch, in the
bottom of which it conceals itself, exposing only its open
mandibles above the surface; and here every ant and soft-bodied
insect which curiosity tempts to descend, or accident may
precipitate into the trap, is ruthlessly seized and devoured by its
ambushed inhabitant.
The White Ant.—But of the insects of this order the
most noted are the white ants or termites (which are ants
only by a misnomer). They are, unfortunately, at once ubiquitous
and innumerable in every spot where [pg 412] the climate is not too
chilly, or the soil too sandy, for them to construct their domed
edifices.
These they raise from a considerable depth under ground,
excavating the clay with their mandibles, and moistening it with
tenacious saliva4121
until it assume the appearance, and almost the consistency, of
sandstone. So delicate is the trituration to which they subject
this material, that the goldsmiths of Ceylon employ the powdered
clay of the ant hills in preference to all other substances in the
preparation of crucibles and moulds for their finer castings: and
KNOX says, “the people use this finer clay to make their earthen
gods of, it is so pure and fine.”4122
These structures the termites erect with such perseverance and
durability that they frequently rise to the height of ten or twelve
feet from [pg 413] the ground, with a corresponding
diameter. They are so firm in their texture that the weight of a
horse makes no apparent indentation on their solidity; and even the
intense rains of the monsoon, which no cement or mortar can long
resist, fail to penetrate the surface or substance of an ant
hill.4131 In their earlier stages the
termites proceed with such energetic rapidity, that I have seen a
pinnacle of moist clay, six inches in height and twice as large in
diameter, constructed underneath a table between sitting down to
dinner and the removal of the cloth.
As these lofty mounds of earth have all been carried up from
beneath the surface, a cave of corresponding dimensions is
necessarily scooped out below, and here, under the multitude of
miniature cupolas and pinnacles which canopy it above, the termites
hollow out the royal chamber for their queen, with spacious
nurseries surrounding it on all sides; and all are connected by
arched galleries, long passages, and doorways of the most intricate
and elaborate construction. In the centre and underneath the
spacious dome is the recess for the queen—a hideous creature,
with the head and thorax of an ordinary termite, but a body swollen
to a hundred [pg 414] times its usual and proportionate
bulk, and presenting the appearance of a mass of shapeless pulp.
From this great progenitrix proceed the myriads that people the
subterranean hive, consisting, like the communities of the genuine
ants, of labourers and soldiers, which are destined never to
acquire a fuller development than that of larvæ, and the
perfect insects which in due time become invested with wings and
take their departing flight from the cave. But their new equipment
seems only destined to facilitate their dispersion from the parent
nest, which takes place at dusk; and almost as quickly as they
leave it they divest themselves of their ineffectual wings, waving
them impatiently and twisting them in every direction till they
become detached and drop off, and the swarm, within a few hours of
their emancipation, become a prey to the night-jars and bats, which
are instantly attracted to them as they issue in a cloud from the
ground. I am not prepared to say that the other insectivorous birds
would not gladly make a meal of the termites, but, seeing that in
Ceylon their numbers are chiefly kept in check by the crepuscular
birds, it is observable, at least as a coincidence, that the
dispersion of the swarm generally takes place at twilight.
Those that escape the caprimulgi fall a prey to the crows,
on the morning succeeding their flight.
The strange peculiarity of the omnivorous ravages of the white
ants is that they shrink from the light; in all their expeditions
for providing food they construct a covered pathway of moistened
clay, and their galleries above ground extend to an incredible
distance from the central nest. No timber, except ebony and
ironwood, which are too hard, and those which are strongly
impregnated [pg 415] with camphor or aromatic oils, which
they dislike, presents any obstacle to their ingress. I have had a
case of wine filled, in the course of two days, with almost solid
clay, and only discovered the presence of the white ants by the
escape from the corks. I have had a portmanteau in my tent so
peopled with them in the course of a single night that the contents
were found worthless in the morning. In an incredibly short time a
detachment of these pests will destroy a press full of records,
reducing the paper to fragments; and a shelf of books will be
tunnelled into a gallery if it happen to be in their line of march.
The timbers of a house when fairly attacked are eaten from within
till the beams are reduced to an absolute shell, so thin that it
may be punched through with the point of the finger: and even
kyanized wood, unless impregnated with an extra quantity of
corrosive sublimate, appears to occasion them no inconvenience. The
only effectual precaution for the protection of furniture is
incessant vigilance—the constant watching of every article,
and its daily removal from place to place, in order to baffle their
assaults.
They do not appear in the hills above the elevation of 4000 or
5000 feet. One species of white ant, the Termes Taprobanes,
was at one time believed by Mr. Walker to be peculiar to the
island, but it has recently been found in Sumatra and Borneo, and
in some parts of Hindustan.
There is a species of Termes in Ceylon (T. monoceros),
which always builds its nest in the hollow of an old tree; and,
unlike the others, carries on its labours without the secrecy and
protection of a covered way. A marching column of these creatures
may be observed at early [pg 416] morning in the vicinity of their
nest, returning laden with the spoils collected during their
foraging excursions. These consist of comminuted vegetable matter,
derived, it may be, from a thatched roof, if one happens to be
within reach, or from the decaying leaves of a coco-nut. Each
little worker in the column carries its tiny load in its jaws; and
the number of individuals in one of these lines of march must be
immense, for the column is generally about two inches in width, and
very densely crowded. One was measured which had most likely been
in motion for hours, moving in the direction of the nest, and was
found to be upwards of sixty paces in length. If attention be
directed to the mass in motion, it will be observed that flanking
it on each side throughout its whole length are stationed a number
of horned soldier termites, whose duty it is to protect the
labourers, and to give notice of any danger threatening them. This
latter duty they perform by a peculiar quivering motion of the
whole body, which is rapidly communicated from one to the other for
a considerable distance: a portion of the column is then thrown
into confusion for a short time, but confidence soon returns, and
the progress of the little creatures goes on with steadiness and
order as before. The nest is of a black colour, and resembles a
mass of scoriæ; the insects themselves are of a pitchy
brown.4161
HYMENOPTERA. Mason Wasp.—In Ceylon as in all other
countries, the order of hymenopterous insects arrests us less by
the beauty of their forms than the marvels of their sagacity and
the achievements of their [pg 417] instinct. A fossorial wasp of the
family of Sphegidæ,4171
which is distinguished by its metallic lustre, enters by the open
windows, and converts irritation at its movements into admiration
of the graceful industry with which it stops up the keyholes and
similar apertures with clay in order to build in them a cell. Into
this it thrusts the pupa of some other insect, within whose body it
has previously introduced its own eggs. The whole is surrounded
with moistened earth, through which the young parasite, after
undergoing its transformations, gnaws its way into light, to emerge
as a four-winged fly.4172
A formidable species (Sphex ferruginea of St. Fargeau),
which is common to India and most of the eastern islands, is
regarded with the utmost dread by the unclad natives, who fly
precipitately on finding themselves [pg 418] in the vicinity4181 of its nests. These are of such
ample dimensions, that when suspended from a branch, they often
measure upwards of six feet in length.4182
Bees.—Bees of several species and genera, some
unprovided with stings, and some in size scarcely exceeding a
house-fly, deposit their honey in hollow trees, or suspend their
combs from a branch. The spoils of their industry form one of the
chief resources of the uncivilised Veddahs, who collect the wax in
the upland forests, to be bartered for arrow points and clothes in
the lowlands.4183 I
have never heard of an instance of persons being attacked by the
bees of Ceylon, and hence the natives assert, that those most
productive of honey are destitute of stings.
The Carpenter Bee.—The operations of one of the
most interesting of the tribe, the Carpenter bee4184, I have watched with admiration
from the window of the Colonial [pg 419] Secretary’s official
residence at Kandy. So soon as the day grew warm, these active
creatures were at work perforating the wooden columns which
supported the verandah. They poised themselves on their shining
purple wings, as they made the first lodgment in the wood,
enlivening the work with an uninterrupted hum of delight, which was
audible to a considerable distance. When the excavation had
proceeded so far that the insect could descend into it, the music
was suspended, but renewed from time to time, as the little
creature came to the orifice to throw out the chips, to rest, or to
enjoy the fresh air. By degrees, a mound of saw-dust was formed at
the base of the pillar, consisting of particles abraded by the
mandibles of the bee. These, when the hollow was completed to the
depth of several inches, were partially replaced in the excavation
after being agglutinated to form partitions between the eggs, as
they were deposited within. The mandibles4191 of these bees are admirably
formed for the purpose of working out the tunnels required, being
short, stout, and usually furnished at the tip with two teeth which
are rounded somewhat into the form of cheese-cutters.
THE CARPENTER BEEThese when brought into operation cut out the wood in the same
way as a carpenter’s double gouge, the teeth being more or less
hollowed out within. The female alone is furnished with these
powerful instruments. In the males the mandibles are slender as
compared with those of the females. The bores of some of these bees
are described as being from twelve to fourteen inches in
length.
Ants.—As to ants, I apprehend that, notwithstanding
their numbers and familiarity, information is very imperfect
relative to the varieties and habits of these marvellous insects in
Ceylon.4201 In point of multitude it is
scarcely an exaggeration to apply to them the figure of “the sands
of the sea.” They are everywhere; in the earth, in the houses, and
on the trees; they are to be seen in every room and cupboard, and
almost on every plant in the jungle. To some of the latter they
are, perhaps, attracted by the sweet juices secreted by the aphides
and coccidæ.4202
Such is the passion [pg 421] of the ants for sugar, and their
wonderful faculty of discovering it, that the smallest particle of
a substance containing it is quickly covered with them, though
placed in the least conspicuous position, where not a single one
may have been visible a moment before. But it is not sweet
substances alone that they attack; no animal or vegetable matter
comes amiss to them: no aperture appears too small to admit them;
it is necessary to place everything which it may be desirable to
keep free from their invasion, under the closest cover, or on
tables with cups of water under every foot. As scavengers, they are
invaluable; and as ants never sleep, but work without cessation
during the night as well as by day, every particle of decaying
vegetable or putrid animal matter is removed with inconceiveable
speed and certainty. In collecting shells, I have been able to turn
this propensity to good account; by placing them within their
reach, the ants in a few days removed every vestige of the mollusc
from the innermost and otherwise inaccessible whorls; thus avoiding
all risk of injuring the enamel by any mechanical process.
But the assaults of the ants are not confined to dead animals
alone, they attack equally such small insects as they can overcome,
or find disabled by accidents or wounds; and it is not unusual to
see some hundreds of them surrounding a maimed beetle, or a bruised
cockroach, and hurrying it along in spite of its struggles. I have,
on more than one occasion, seen a contest between, them and one of
the viscous ophidians, Cæcilia, glutinosa4211, a reptile resembling an
enormous earthworm, common in the Kandyan hills, of an inch in
diameter, [pg 422] and nearly two feet in length. On
these occasions it would seem as if the whole community had been
summoned and turned out for such a prodigious effort; they surround
their victim literally in tens of thousands, inflicting wounds on
all parts, and forcing it along towards their nest in spite of
resistance. In one instance to which I was a witness, the conflict
lasted for the latter part of a day, but towards evening the
Coecilia was completely exhausted, and in the morning it had
totally disappeared, having been carried away either whole or
piecemeal by its assailants.
The species I here allude to is a very small ant, which the
Singhalese call by the generic name of Koombiya. There is a
species still more minute, and evidently distinct, which frequents
the caraffes and toilet vessels. A third, probably the Formica
nidificans of Jerdan, is black, of the same size as that last
mentioned, and, from its colour, called the Kalu koombiga by
the natives. In the houses its propensities and habits are the same
as those of the others; but I have observed that it frequents the
trees more profusely, forming small paper cells for its young, like
miniature wasps’ nests, in which it deposits its eggs, suspending
them from a twig.
The most formidable of all is the great red ant or Dimiya.4221 It is particularly abundant in
gardens, and on fruit trees; it constructs its dwellings by glueing
the leaves of such species as are suitable from their shape and
pliancy into hollow balls, and these it lines with a kind of
transparent paper, like that manufactured by the wasp. I have
watched them at the interesting operation of forming these
dwellings;—a line of ants standing on the edge of one leaf
bring another into contact [pg 423] with it, and hold both together
with their mandibles till their companions within attach them
firmly by means of their adhesive paper, the assistants outside
moving along as the work proceeds. If it be necessary to draw
closer a leaf too distant to be laid hold of by the immediate
workers, they form a chain by depending one from the other till the
object is reached, when it is at length brought into contact, and
made fast by cement.
Like all their race, these ants are in perpetual motion, forming
lines on the ground along which they pass, in continual procession
to and from the trees on which they reside. They are the most
irritable of the whole order in Ceylon, biting with such intense
ferocity as to render it difficult for the unclad natives to
collect the fruit from the mango trees, which the red ants
especially frequent. They drop from the branches upon travellers in
the jungle, attacking them with venom and fury, and inflicting
intolerable pain both upon animals and man. On examining the
structure of the head through a microscope, I found that the
mandibles, instead of merely meeting in contact, are so hooked as
to cross each other at the points, whilst the inner line is sharply
serrated throughout its entire length; thus occasioning the intense
pain of their bite, as compared with that of the ordinary ant.
To check the ravages of the coffee bug4231 (Lecanium coffeæ,
Walker), which for some years past has devastated some of the
plantations in Ceylon, the experiment was made of introducing the
red ants, who feed greedily on the Coccus. But the remedy
threatened to be attended with some inconvenience, for the Malabar
Coolies, with bare and oiled skins, were so frequently and fiercely
assaulted by the ants as to endanger their stay on the estates.
The ants which burrow in the ground in Ceylon are generally, but
not invariably, black, and some of them are of considerable size.
One species, about the third of an inch in length, is abundant in
the hills, and especially about the roots of trees, where they pile
up the earth in circular heaps round the entrance to their nests,
and in doing this I have observed a singular illustration of their
instinct. To carry up each particle of sand by itself would be an
endless waste of labour, and to carry two or more loose ones
securely would be to them embarrassing, if not impossible. To
overcome the difficulty they glue together with their saliva so
much earth or sand as is sufficient for a burden, and each ant may
be seen hurrying up from below with his load, carrying it to the
top of the circular heap outside, and throwing it over, the mass
being so strongly attached as to roll to the bottom without
breaking asunder.
The ants I have been here describing are inoffensive, differing
in this particular from the Dimiya and another of similar size and
ferocity, which is called by the Singhalese Kaddiya. They
have a legend illustrative of their alarm for the bites of the
latter, to the effect that the cobra de capello invested the
Kaddiya with her own venom in admiration of the singular courage
displayed by these little creatures.4241
LEPIDOPTERA. Butterflies.—In the interior of the
island butterflies are comparatively rare, and, contrary to the
ordinary belief, they are seldom to be seen in the sunshine. They
frequent the neighbourhood of the jungle, and especially the
vicinity of the rivers and [pg 425] waterfalls, living mainly in the
shade of the moist foliage, and returning to it in haste after the
shortest flights, as if their slender bodies were speedily dried up
and exhausted by exposure to the intense heat.
Among the largest and most gaudy of the Ceylon Lepidoptera is
the great black and yellow butterfly (Ornithoptera darsius,
Gray); the upper wings of which measure six inches across, and are
of deep velvet black, the lower ornamented by large particles of
satiny yellow, through which the sunlight passes. Few insects can
compare with it in beauty, as it hovers over the flowers of the
heliotrope, which furnish the favourite food of the perfect fly,
although the caterpillar feeds on the aristolochia and the betel
leaf, and suspends its chrysalis from its drooping
tendrils.
Next in size as to expanse of wing, though often exceeding it in
breadth, is the black and blue Papilio Polymnestor, which
darts rapidly through the air, alighting on the ruddy flowers of
the hibiscus, or the dark green foliage of the citrus, on which it
deposits its eggs. The larvæ of this species are green with
white bands, and have a hump on the fourth or fifth segment. From
this hump the caterpillar, on being irritated, protrudes a singular
horn of an orange colour, bifurcate at the extremity, and covered
with a pungent mucilaginous secretion. This is evidently intended
as a weapon of defence against the attack of the ichneumon flies,
that deposit their eggs in its soft body, for when the grub is
pricked, either by the ovipositor of the ichneumon, or by any other
sharp instrument, the horn is at once protruded, and struck upon
the offending object with unerring aim.
Amongst the more common of the larger butterflies [pg 426] is the
P. Hector, with gorgeous crimson spots set in the black
velvet of the inferior wings; these, when fresh, are shot with a
purple blush, equalling in splendour the azure of the European
“Emperor.“
The Spectre Butterfly.—Another butterfly, but
belonging to a widely different group, is the “sylph” (Hestia
Jasonia), called by the Europeans by the various names of
Floater, Spectre, and Silver-paper fly, as indicative
of its graceful flight. It is found only in the deep shade of the
damp forest, usually frequenting the vicinity of pools of water and
cascades, about which it sails heedless of the spray, the moisture
of which may even be beneficial in preserving the elasticity of its
thin and delicate wings, that bend and undulate in the act of
flight.
The Lycanidæ4261,
a particularly attractive group, abound near the enclosures of
cultivated grounds, and amongst the low shrubs edging the patenas,
flitting from flower to flower, inspecting each in turn, as if
attracted by their beauty, in the full blaze of sun-light; and
shunning exposure less sedulously than the other diurnals. Some of
the more robust kinds4262
are magnificent in the bright light, from the splendour of their
metallic blues and glowing purples, but they yield in elegance of
form and variety to their tinier and more delicately-coloured
congeners.
Short as is the eastern twilight, it has its own peculiar forms,
and the naturalist marks with interest the small, but strong,
Hesperidæ4263,
hurrying, by abrupt and jerking flights, to the scented blossoms of
the champac or [pg 427] the sweet night-blowing moon-flower;
and, when darkness gathers around, we can hear, though hardly
distinguish amid the gloom, the humming of the powerful wings of
innumerable hawk moths, which hover with their long proboscides
inserted into the starry petals of the periwinkle.
Conspicuous amidst these nocturnal moths is the richly-coloured
Acherontia Satanas, one of the Singhalese representatives of
our Death’s-head moth, which utters a sharp and stridulous cry when
seized. This sound has been conjectured to be produced by the
friction of its thorax against the abdomen;—Reaumur believed
it to be caused by the rubbing of the palpi against the tongue. I
have never been able to observe either motion, and Mr. E.L. Layard
is of opinion that the sound is emitted from two apertures
concealed by tufts of wiry bristles thrown out from each side of
the inferior portion of the thorax.4271
Moths.—Among the strictly nocturnal
Lepidoptera are some gigantic species. Of these the
cinnamon-eating Atlas, often attains the dimensions of
nearly a foot in the stretch of its superior wings. It is very
common in the gardens about Colombo, and its size, and the
transparent talc-like spots in its wings, cannot fail to strike
even the most careless saunterer. But little inferior to it in size
is the famed Tusseh silk moth4272,
which feeds on the country almond (Terminalia catappa) and
the palma Christi or Castor-oil plant; it is easily distinguishable
from the Atlas, which has a triangular wing, whilst its is
falcated, and the transparent spots are covered with a curious
thread-like division drawn across them.
Towards the northern portions of the island this valuable
species entirely displaces the other, owing to the fact that the
almond and palma Christi abound there. The latter plant
springs up spontaneously on every manure-heap or neglected spot of
ground; and might be cultivated, as in India, with great advantage,
the leaf to be used as food for the caterpillar, the stalk as
fodder for cattle, and the seed for the expression of castor-oil.
The Dutch took advantage of this facility, and gave every
encouragement to the cultivation of silk at Jaffna4281, but it never attained such a
development as to become an article of commercial importance.
Ceylon now cultivates no silkworms whatever, notwithstanding this
abundance of the favourite food of one species; and the rich silken
robes sometimes worn by the Buddhist priesthood are imported from
China and the continent of India.
In addition to the Atlas moth and the Mylitta, there are many
other Bombycidæ; in Ceylon; and, though the
[pg
429] silk of some of them, were it susceptible of being
unwound from the cocoon, would not bear a comparison with that of
the Bombyx mori, or even of the Tusseh moth, it might still
prove to be valuable when carded and spun. If the European
residents in the colony would rear the larvæ of these
Lepidoptera, and make drawings of their various changes, they would
render a possible service to commerce, and a certain one to
entomological knowledge.
Stinging Caterpillars.—The Dutch carried to their
Eastern settlements two of their home propensities, which
distinguish and embellish the towns of the Low Countries; they
indulged in the excavation of canals, and they planted long lines
of trees to diffuse shade over the sultry passages in their Indian
fortresses. For the latter purpose they employed the Suriya
(Hibiscus populneus), whose broad umbrageous leaves and
delicate yellow flowers impart a delicious coolness, and give to
the streets of Galle and Colombo the fresh and enlivening aspect of
walks in a garden.
In the towns, however, the suriya trees are productive of one
serious inconvenience. They are the resort of a hairy greenish
caterpillar4291,
longitudinally striped, great numbers of which frequent them, and
at a certain stage of growth descend by a silken thread to the
ground and hurry away, probably in search of a suitable spot in
which to pass through their metamorphoses. Should they happen to
alight, as they often do, upon some lounger below, and find their
way to his unprotected skin, they inflict, if molested, a sting as
pungent, but far more lasting, than that of a nettle or a
star-fish.
Attention being thus directed to the quarter whence an assailant
has lowered himself down, the caterpillars above will be found in
clusters, sometimes amounting to hundreds, clinging to the branches
and the bark, with a few straggling over the leaves or suspended
from them by lines. These pests are so annoying to children as well
as destructive to the foliage, that it is often necessary to singe
them off the trees by a flambeau fixed on the extremity of a pole;
and as they fall to the ground they are eagerly devoured by the
crows and domestic fowls.4301
The Wood-carrying Moth.—There is another family of
insects, the singular habits of which will not fail to attract the
traveller in the cultivated tracts of Ceylon—these are moths
of the genus Oiketicus4302,
of which the females are devoid of wings, and some possess no
articulated feet. Their larvæ construct for themselves cases,
which they suspend to a branch frequently of the pomegranate4303, surrounding them with the
stems of leaves, and thorns or pieces of twigs bound together by
threads, till the whole presents the appearance of a bundle of rods
about an inch and a half long; and, from the resemblance of this to
a Roman fasces, one [pg 431] African species has obtained the name
of “Lictor.” The German entomologists denominated the group
Sackträger, the Singhalese call them Dara-kattea
or “billets of firewood,” and regard the inmates as human beings,
who, as a punishment for stealing wood in some former state of
existence, have been condemned to undergo a metempsychosis under
the form of these insects.
THE WOOD-CARRYING MOTH.The male, at the close of the pupal rest, escapes from one end
of this singular covering, but the female makes it her dwelling for
life; moving about with it at pleasure, and entrenching herself
within it, when alarmed, by drawing together the purse-like
aperture at the open end. Of these remarkable creatures there are
five ascertained species in Ceylon: Psyche Doubledaii,
Westw.; Metisa plana; Walker; Eumeta Cramerii,
Westw.; [pg 432] E. Templetonii, Westw.; and
Cryptothelea consorta, Temp.
All the other tribes of minute Lepitoptera have abundant
representatives in Ceylon; some of them most attractive from the
great beauty of their markings and colouring. The curious little
split-winged moth (Pterophorus) is frequently seen in the
cinnamon gardens and in the vicinity of the fort, hid from the
noon-day heat among the cool grass shaded by the coco-nut topes.
Three species have been captured, all characterised by the same
singular feature of having the wings fan-like, separated nearly
their entire length into detached sections, resembling feathers in
the pinions of a bird expanded for flight.
HOMOPTERA. Cicada.—Of the Homoptera, the one
which will most frequently arrest attention is the cicada, which,
resting high up on the bark of a tree, makes the forest re-echo
with a long-sustained noise so curiously resembling that of a
cutler’s wheel that the creature producing it has acquired the
highly-appropriate name of the “knife-grinder.”
CICADA—”THE KNIFE GRINDER.”In the jungle which adjoined the grounds attached to my official
residence at Kandy, the shrubs were frequented by an insect covered
profusely with a snow-white powder, arranged in delicate filaments
that curl like [pg 433] a head of dressed celery. These it
moves without dispersing the powder: but when dead they fall
rapidly to dust. I regret that I did not preserve specimens, but I
have reason to think that they are the larvæ of the Flata
limbata, or of some other closely allied species4331, though I have not seen in
Ceylon any of the wax produced by the flata.
HEMIPTERA. Bugs.—On the shrubs in his compound the
newly-arrived traveller will be attracted by an insect of a pale
green hue and delicately-thin configuration, which, resting from
its recent flight, composes its scanty wings, and moves languidly
along the leaf. But experience will teach him to limit his
examination to a respectful view of its attitudes; it is one of a
numerous family of bugs, (some of them most attractive4332 in their colouring,) which are
inoffensive if unmolested, but if touched or irritated, exhale an
odour that, once endured, is never afterwards forgotten.
POECILOPTERA TENNENTINA.
ELIDIPTERA EMERSONIANA.APHANIPTERA. Fleas.—Fleas are equally numerous, and
may be seen in myriads in the dust of the streets or skipping in
the sunbeams which fall on the clay floors of the cottages. The
dogs, to escape them, select for their sleeping places spots where
a wood fire has been previously kindled; and here prone on the
white ashes, [pg 434] their stomachs close to the earth,
and their hind legs extended behind, they repose in comparative
coolness, and bid defiance to their persecutors.
DIPTERA. Mosquitoes.—But of all the insect pests
that beset an unseasoned European the most provoking by far is the
truculent mosquito.4341
Next to the torture which it inflicts, its most annoying
peculiarities are the booming hum of its approach, its cunning, its
audacity, and the perseverance with which it renews its attacks
however frequently repulsed. These characteristics are so
remarkable as fully to justify the conjecture that the mosquito,
and not the ordinary fly, constituted the plague inflicted upon
Pharaoh and the Egyptians.4342
Even in the midst of endurance from their onslaughts one cannot
but be amused by the ingenuity of their movements; as if aware of
the risk incident to an open assault, a favourite mode of attack
is, when concealed by a table, to assail the ankles through the
meshes of the stocking, or the knees which are ineffectually
protected by a fold of Russian duck. When you are reading, a
mosquito will rarely settle on that portion of your hand which is
within range of your eyes, but cunningly stealing by the underside
of the book fastens on the wrist or little finger, and noiselessly
inserts his proboscis there. I have tested the classical expedient
recorded by Herodotus, who states that the fishermen inhabiting the
fens of Egypt, cover their beds with their nets, knowing that the
mosquitoes, although they bite through linen robes, will not
venture through a net.4351
But, notwithstanding the opinion of Spence4352, that nets with meshes an inch
square will effectually exclude them, I have been satisfied by
painful experience that (if the theory be not altogether
fallacious) at least the modern mosquitoes of Ceylon are
uninfluenced by the same considerations which restrained those of
the Nile under the successors of Cambyses.
The Coffee-Bug.—Allusion has been made in a
previous passage to the coccus known in Ceylon as the “Coffee-Bug”
(Lecanium Caffeæ, Wlk.), which of late years has made
such destructive ravages in the plantations in the Mountain
Zone.4361 The first thing that attracts
attention on looking at a coffee tree infested by it, is the number
of brownish wart-like bodies that stud the young shoots and
occasionally the margins on the underside of the leaves.4362 Each of these warts or scales
is a transformed female, containing a large number of eggs which
are hatched within it.
When the young ones come out from their nest, they run about
over the plant like diminutive wood-lice, and at this period there
is no apparent distinction between male and female. Shortly after
being hatched the males seek the underside of the leaves, while the
females prefer the young shoots as a place of abode. If the under
surface of a leaf be examined, it will be found to be studded,
particularly on its basil half, with minute yellowish-white specks
of an oblong form.4363
These are the larvæ of the males undergoing transformation
into pupæ, beneath their own skins; some of these specks are
always in a more advanced state than the others, the full-grown
ones being whitish and scarcely a line [pg 437] long.
Some of this size are translucent, the insect having escaped; the
darker ones still retain it within, of an oblong form, with the
rudiment of a wing on each side attached to the lower part of the
thorax and closely applied to the sides; the legs are six in
number, the four hind ones being directed backwards, the anterior
forwards (a peculiarity not common in other insects); the two
antennæ are also inclined backwards, and from the tail
protrude three short bristles, the middle one thinner and longer
than the rest.
When the transformation is complete, the mature insect makes its
way from beneath the pellucid case4371,
all its organs having then attained their full size: the head is
sub-globular, with two rather prominent black eyes, and two
antennæ, each with eleven joints, hairy throughout, and a
tuft of rather longer hairs at the apices; the legs are also
covered with hairs, the wings are horizontal, of an obovate oblong
shape, membranous, and extending a little farther than the bristles
of the tail. They have only two nerves, neither of which reaches so
far as the tips; one of them runs close to the costal margin, and
is much thicker than the other, which branches off from its base
and skirts along the inner margin; behind the wings is attached a
pair of minute halteres of peculiar form. The possession of wings
would appear to be the cause why the full-grown male is more rarely
seen on the coffee bushes than the female.
The female, like the male, attaches herself to the surface of
the plant, the place selected being usually [pg 438] the
young shoots; but she is also to be met with on the margins of the
undersides of the leaves (on the upper surface neither the male nor
female ever attach themselves); but, unlike the male, which derives
no nourishment from the juices of the tree (the mouth being
obsolete in the perfect state), she punctures the cuticle with a
proboscis (a very short three-jointed promuscis), springing
as it were from the breast, but capable of being greatly porrected,
and inserted in the cuticle of the plant, and through this she
abstracts her nutriment. In the early pupa state the female is
easily distinguishable from the male, by being more elliptical and
much more convex. As she increases in size her skin distends and
she becomes smooth and dry; the rings of the body become effaced;
and losing entirely the form of an insect, she presents, for some
time, a yellowish pustular shape, but ultimately assumes a roundish
conical form, of a dark brown colour.4381
THE COFFEE BUG. Lecanium Coffeæ.
Until she has nearly reached her full size, she still possesses
the power of locomotion, and her six legs are easily
distinguishable in the under surface of her corpulent body; but at
no period of her existence has she wings. It is about the time of
her obtaining full size that impregnation takes place4382; after which the scale becomes
somewhat more conical, assumes a darker [pg 439]
colour, and at length is permanently fixed to the surface of the
plant, by means of a cottony substance interposed between it and
the vegetable cuticle to which it adheres. The scale, when full
grown, exactly resembles in miniature the hat of a Cornish
miner4391, there being a narrow rim at
the base, which gives increased surface of attachment. It is about
1/8 inch in diameter, by about 1/12 deep, and it appears perfectly
smooth to the naked eye; but it is in reality studded over with a
multitude of very minute warts, giving it a dotted appearance.
Except the margin, which is ciliated, it is entirely destitute of
hairs. The number of eggs contained in one of the scales is
enormous, amounting in a single one to 691. The eggs are of an
oblong shape, of a pale flesh colour, and perfectly smooth.4392 In some of the scales, the eggs
when laid on the field of the microscope resemble those masses of
life sometimes seen in decayed cheese.4393 A
few small yellowish maggots are sometimes found with them, and
these are the larvæ4394
of insects, the eggs of which have been deposited in the female
while the scale was soft. They escape when mature by cutting a
small round hole in the dorsum of the scale.
It is not till after this pest has been on an estate for two or
three years that it shows itself to an alarming extent. During the
first year a few only of the ripe scales are seen scattered over
the bushes, generally on the younger shoots; but that year’s crop
does not suffer much, and the appearance of the tree is little
altered.
The second year, however, brings a change for the worse; if the
young shoots and the underside of the leaves he now examined, the
scales will be found to have become much more numerous, and with
them appear a multitude of white specks, which are the young scales
in a more or less forward state. The clusters of berries now assume
a black sooty look, and a great number of them fall off before
coming to maturity; the general health of the tree also begins to
fail, and it acquires a blighted appearance. A loss of crop is this
year sustained, but to no great extent.
The third year brings about a more serious change, the whole
plant acquires a black hue, appearing as if soot had been thrown
over it in great quantities; this is caused by the growth of a
parasitic fungus4401
over the shoots and the upper surface of the leaves, forming a
fibrous coating, somewhat resembling velvet or felt. This never
makes its appearance till the insect has been a considerable time
on the bush, and probably owes its existence there to an unhealthy
condition of the juices of the leaf, consequent on the irritation
produced by the coccus, since it never visits the upper surface of
the leaf until the latter has fully established itself on the
lower. At this period the young shoots have an exceedingly
disgusting look from the dense mass of yellow pustular bodies
forming on them, the leaves get shrivelled, and the infected trees
become conspicuous in the row. The black ants are assiduous in
their visits to them. Two-thirds of the crop is lost, and on many
trees not a single berry forms.
This Lecanium, or a very closely allied species, has been
observed in the Botanic Garden at Peradenia, on the Citrus
acida, Psidium pomiferum, Myrtus Zeylanica, Rosa Indica, Careya
arborea, Vitex Negundo, and other plants. The coffee coccus has
generally been first observed in moist, hollow places sheltered
from the wind; and thence it has spread itself even over the driest
and most exposed parts of the island. On some estates, after
attaining a maximum, it has generally declined, but has shown a
liability to reappear, especially in low sheltered situations, and
it is believed to prevail most extensively in wet seasons. While in
its earlier stages, it is easily transmitted from one estate to
another, on the clothes of human beings, and in various other ways,
which will readily suggest themselves. Dr. Gardner, after a careful
consideration and minute examination of estates, arrived at the
conclusion, that all remedies suggested up to that time had utterly
failed, and that none at once cheap and effectual was likely to be
discovered. He seems also to have been of opinion that the insect
was not under human control; and that even if it should disappear,
it would only be when it should have worn itself out as other
blighte have been known to do in some mysterious way. Whether this
may prove to be the case or not, is still very uncertain, but every
thing observed by Dr. Gardner tends to indicate the permanency of
the pest.
List of Ceylon Insects.
For the following list of the insects of the island, and the
remarks prefixed to it, I am indebted to Mr. F. Walker, by whom it
has been prepared after a careful inspection of the collections
made by Dr. Templeton, Mr. E.L. Layard, and others: as well as of
those in the British Museum and in the Museum of the East India
Company.4421
“A short notice of the aspect of the island will afford the best
means of accounting, in some degree, for its entomological Fauna:
first, as it is an island, and has a mountainous central region,
the tropical character of its productions, as in most other cases,
rather diminishes, and somewhat approaches that of higher
latitudes.
“The coast-region of Ceylon, and fully one-third of its northern
part, have a much drier atmosphere than that of the rest of its
surface; and their climate and vegetation are nearly similar to
those of the Carnatic, with which this island may have been
connected at no very remote period.4422
But if, on the contrary, the land in Ceylon is gradually rising,
the difference of its Fauna from that of Central Hindustan is less
remarkable. The peninsula of the Dekkan might then be conjectured
to have been nearly or wholly separated from the central part of
Hindustan, and confined to the range of mountains along the eastern
coast; the insect-fauna of which is as yet almost unknown, but will
probably be found to have more resemblance to that of Ceylon than
to the insects of northern and western India—just as the
insect-fauna of Malaya appears more to resemble the similar
productions of Australasia than those of the more northern
continent.
“Mr. Layard’s collection was partly formed in the dry northern
province of Ceylon; and among them more Hindustan insects are to be
observed than among those collected by Dr. Templeton, and found
wholly in the district between Colombo and Kandy. According to this
view the faunas of the Nilgherry Mountains, of Central Ceylon, of
the peninsula of Malacca, and of Australasia would be found to form
one group;—while those of Northern Ceylon, of the western
Dekkan, and of the level parts of Central Hindustan would form
another of more recent origin. The insect-fauna of the Carnatic is
also probably similar to that of the lowlands of Ceylon; but it is
still unexplored. The regions of Hindustan in which species have
been chiefly collected, such as Bengal, Silbet, and the Punjaub,
are at the distance of from 1300 to 1600 miles from Ceylon, and
therefore the insects of the latter are fully as different from
those of the above regions as they are from those of Australasia,
to which Ceylon is as near in point of distance, and agrees more
with regard to latitude.
“Dr. Hagen has remarked that he believes the fauna of the
mountains of Ceylon to be quite different from that of the plains
and of the shores. The south and west districts have a very moist
climate, and as their vegetation is like that of Malabar, their
insect-fauna will probably also resemble that of the latter
region.
“The insects mentioned in the following list are thus
distributed:—
“Order COLEOPTERA.
“The recorded species of Cicindelidæ inhabit the
plains or the coast country of Ceylon, and several of them are also
found in Hindustan.
“Many of the species of Carabidæ and of
Staphylinidæ, especially those collected by Mr.
Thwaites, near Kandy, and by M. Nietner at Colombo, have much
resemblance to the [pg 444] insects of these two families in
North Europe; in the Scydmænid, Ptiliadæ,
Phalacridæ, Nitidulidæ, Colydiadæ, and
Lathridiadæ the northern form is still more striking,
and strongly contrasts with the tropical forms of the gigantic
Copridæ, Buprestidæ, and Cerambycidæ, and
with the Elateridæ, Lampyridæ, Tenebrionidæ,
Helopidæ, Meloidæ, Curculionidæ, Prionidæ,
Cerambycidæ, Lamiidæ, and
Endomychidæ.
“The Copridæ, Dynastidæ, Melolonthidæ,
Cetoniadæ, and Passalidæ are well
represented on the plains and on the coast, and the species are
mostly of a tropical character.
“The Hydrophilidæ have a more northern aspect, as
is generally the case with aquatic species.
“The order Strepsiptera is here considered as belonging
to the Mordellidæ, and is represented by the genus
Myrmecolax, which is peculiar, as yet, to Ceylon.
“In the Curculionidæ the single species of
Apion will recall to mind the great abundance of that genus
in North Europe.
“The Prionidæ and the two following families have
been investigated by Mr. Pascoe, and the Hispidæ, with
the five following families, by Mr. Baly; these two gentlemen are
well acquainted with the above tribes of beetles, and kindly
supplied me with the names of the Ceylon species.
Order ORTHOPTERA.
“These insects in Ceylon have mostly a tropical aspect. The
Physapoda, which will probably be soon incorporated with
them, are likely to be numerous, though only one species has as yet
been noticed.
Order NEUROPTERA.
“The list here given is chiefly taken from the catalogue
published by Dr. Hagen, and containing descriptions of the species
named by him or by M. Nietner. They were found in the most elevated
parts of the island, near Rangbodde, and Dr. Hagen informs me that
not less than 500 species have been noticed in Ceylon, but that
they are not yet recorded, with [pg 445] the exception of the
species here enumerated. It has been remarked that the
Trichoptera and other aquatic Neuroptera are less
local than the land species, owing to the more equable temperature
of the habitation of their larvæ, and on account of their
being often conveyed along the whole length of rivers. The species
of Psocus in the list are far more numerous than those yet
observed in any other country, with the exception of Europe.
Order HYMENOPTERA.
“In this order the Formicidæ and the
Poneridæ are very numerous, as they are in other damp
and woody tropical countries. Seventy species of ants have been
observed, but as yet few of them have been named. The various other
families of aculeate Hymenoptera are doubtless more abundant
than the species recorded indicate, and it may be safely reckoned
that the parasitic Hymenoptera in Ceylon far exceed one
thousand species in number, though they are yet only known by means
of about two dozen kinds collected at Kandy by Mr. Thwaites.
Order LEPIDOPTERA.
“The fauna of Ceylon is much better known in this order than in
any other of the insect tribes, but as yet the Lepidoptera
alone in their class afford materials for a comparison of the
productions of Ceylon with those of Hindustan and of Australasia;
nine hundred and thirty-two species have been collected by Dr.
Templeton and by Mr. Layard in the central, western, and northern
parts of the island. All the families, from the
Papilionidæ to the Tineidæ, abound, and
numerous species and several genera appear, as yet, to be peculiar
to the island. As Ceylon is situate at the entrance to the eastern
regions, the list in this volume will suitably precede the
descriptive catalogues of the heterocerous Lepidoptera of
Hindustan, Java, Borneo, and of other parts of Australasia, which
are being prepared for publication. In some of the heterocerous
families several species are common to Ceylon and to Australasia,
and in various cases the faunas of Ceylon and of [pg 446]
Australasia seem to be more similar than those of Ceylon and of
Hindustan. The long intercourse between those two regions may have
been the means of conveying some species from one to the other.
Among the Pyralites, Hymenia recurvalis inhabits also the
West Indies, South America, West Africa, Hindustan, China,
Australasia, Australia, and New Zealand; and its food-plant is
probably some vegetable which is cultivated in all those regions;
so also Desmia afflictalis is found in Sierra Leone,
Abyssinia, Ceylon, and China.
Order DIPTERA.
“About fifty species were observed by Dr. Templeton, but most of
those here recorded were collected by Mr. Thwaites at Kandy, and
have a great likeness to North European species. The mosquitoes are
very annoying on account of their numbers, as might be expected
from the moisture and heat of the climate. Culex laniger is
the coast species, and the other kinds here mentioned are from
Kandy. Humboldt observed that in some parts of South America each
stream had its peculiar mosquitoes, and it yet remains to be seen
whether the gnats in Ceylon are also thus restricted in their
habitation. The genera Sciara, Cecidomyia, and
Simulium, which abound so exceedingly in temperate
countries, have each one representative species in the collection
made by Mr. Thwaites. Thus an almost new field remains for the
Entomologist in the study of the yet unknown Singhalese Diptera,
which must be very numerous.
Order HEMIPTERA.
“The species of this order in the list are too few and too
similar to those of Hindustan to need any particular mention.
Lecanium coffeæ may be noticed, on account of its
infesting the coffee plant, as its name indicates, and the ravages
of other species of the genus will be remembered, from the fact
that one of them, in other regions, has put a stop to the
cultivation of the orange as an article of commerce.
“In conclusion, it may be observed that the species of insects
in Ceylon may be estimated as exceeding 10,000 in number, of which
about 2000 are enumerated in this volume.
Class ARACHNIDA.
“Four or five species of spiders, of which the specimens cannot
be satisfactorily described; one Ixodes and one
Chelifer have been forwarded to England from Ceylon by Mr.
Thwaites.”
NOTE.—The asterisk prefixed denotes the species discovered
in Ceylon since Sir J.E. Tennent’s departure from the Island in
1849.
Order COLEOPTERA, Linn.
Fam. CICINDELIDÆ, Steph.
- Cicindela, Linn.
- flavopunctata, Aud.
- discrepans, Wlk.
- aurofasciaca, Guér.
- quadrilineata, Fabr.
- biramosa, Fabr.
- catena, Fabr.
- *insignificans, Dohrn.
- Tricondyla, Latr.
- femorata, Wlk.
- *tumidula, Wlk.
- *scitiscabra, Wlk.
- *concinna, Dohrn.
Fam. CARABIDÆ, Leach.
- Casnonia, Latr.
- *punctata, Niet.
- *pilifera, Niet.
- Ophionea, Klug.
- *cyanocephala, Fabr.
- Euplynes, Niet.
- Dohrni, Niet.
- Heteroglossa, Niet.
- *elegans, Niet.
- *ruficollis, Niet.
- *bimaculata, Niet.
- Zuphium, Latr.
- *pubescens, Niet.
- Pheropsophos, Solier.
- Cateisei, Dej.
- bimaculatus, Fabr.
- Cymindis, Latr
- rufiventris, Wlk.
- Anchisia, Niet.
- *modesta, Niet.
- Dromius, Bon.
- marginiter, Wlk.
- repandens, Wlk.
- Lebia, Latr.
- *bipars, Wlk,
- Creagris, Niet.
- labrosa, Niet.
- Elliotia, Niet.
- paltipes, Niet.
- Maraga, Wlk.
- planigera, Wlk.
- Catascopus, Kirby.
- facialis, Wied.
- reductus, Wlk.
- Scarites, Fabr.
- obliterans, Wlk.
- subsignans, Wlk.
- designans, Wlk.
- *minor, Wlk.
- Clivina, Latr.
- *rugosifrons, Niet.
- *elongatula, Niet.
- *maculata, Niet.
- recta, Wlk.
- Leistus, Fræhl.
- linearis, Wlk.
- Isotarsus, Laferlé
- quadrimaculatus, Oliv.
- Panagæus, Latr.
- retractus, Wlk.
- Chlænius, Bon.
- bimaculatus, Dej.
- diffinis, Reiche.
- *Ceylanicus, Niet.
- *quinque-maculatus, Niet.
- pulcher, Niet.
- cupricollis, Niet.
- ruginosus, Niet.
- Anchomenus, Bon.
- illocatus, Wlk.
- Agonum, Bon.
- placidulum, Wlk.
- Corpodes?, Macl.
- marginicallis, Wlk.
- Argutor, Meg.
- degener, Wlk.
- relinquens, Wlk.
- Simphyus, Niet.
- *unicolor, Niet.
- Bradytus, Steph.
- stolidus, Wlk.
- Curtonotus, Steph.
- comnostus, Wlk.
- Harpalus, Latr.
- *advolans, Niet.
- dispellens, Wlk.
- Calodromus, Niet.
- *exornatus, Niet.
- Megaristerus, Niet.
- *mandibularis, Niet.
- *stenolophoides, Niet.
- *Indicus, Niet.
- Platysma, Bon.
- retinens, Wlk.
- Morio, Latr.
- trogositoides, Wlk.
- cucujoides, Wlk.
- Barysomus, Dej.
- *Gyllenhalii, Dej.
- Oodes, Bon.
- *piceus, Niet.
- Selenophorus, Dej.
- inuxus, Wlk.
- Orthogonius, Dej.
- femoratus, Dej.
- Helluodes, Westw.
- Taprobanæ, Westw.
- Physocrotaphus, Parry.
- Ceylonicus, Parry.
- *minax, West.
- Physodera, Esch.
- Eschscholtzii, Parry.
- Omphra, Latr.
- *ovipennis, Reiche.
- Planetes, Macl.
- bimaculatus, Macleay.
- Cardiaderus, Dej.
- scitus, Wlk.
- Distrigus, Dej.
- *costatus, Niet.
- *submetallicus, Niet.
- rufopiceus, Niet.
- *æneus, Niet.
- *Dejeani, Niet.
- Drimostoma, Dej.
- Cyclosomus, Latr.
- flexuosus, Fabr.
- Ochthephilus, Niet.
- *Ceylanicus, Niet.
- Spathinus, Niet.
- *nigriceps, Niet.
- Acuparpus, Latr.
- derogatus, Wlk.
- extremus, Wlk.
- Bembidium, Latr.
- finitimum, Wlk.
- *opulentum, Niet.
- *truncatum, Niet.
- *tropicum, Niet.
- *triangulare, Niet.
- *Ceylanicum, Niet.
- Klugii, Niet.
- *ebeninum, Niet.
- *orientale, Niet.
- *emarginatum, Niet.
- *ornatum, Niet.
- *scydmænoides, Niet.
Fam. PAUSSIDÆ, Westw.
- Cerapterus, Swed.
- latipes, Swed.
- Pleuropterus, West.
- Westermanni, West.
- Paussus, Linn.
- pacificus, West.
Fam. DYTISCIDÆ, Macl.
- Cybister, Curt.
- limbatus, Fabr.
- Dytiscus, Linn.
- extenuans, Wlk.
- Eunectes, Erich.
- griseus, Fabr.
- Hydaticus, Leach.
- festivus, Ill.
- vittatus, Fabr.
- dislocans, Wlk.
- fractifer, Wlk.
- Colymbetes, Clairv.
- interclusus, Wlk.
- Hydroporus, Clairv.
- interpulsus, Wlk.
- intermixtus, Wlk.
- lætabilis, Wlk.
- *inefficiens, Wlk.
Fam. GYRINIDÆ, Leach.
- Dineutes, Macl.
- spinosus, Fabr.
- Porrorhynchus, Lap.
- indicans, Wlk.
- Gyretes, Brullé.
- discifer, Wlk.
- Gyrinus, Linn.
- nitidulus, Fabr.
- obliquus, Wlk.
- Orectochilus, Esch.
- *lenocinium, Dohrn.
Fam. STAPHILINIDÆ, Leach.
- Ocypus, Kirby.
- longipennis, Wlk.
- congruus, Wlk.
- punctilinea, Wlk.
- *lineatus, Wlk.
- Philonthus, Leach.
- *pedestris, Wlk.
- Xantholinus, Dahl.
- cinctus, Wlk.
- *inclinans, Wlk.
- Sunius, Leach.
- *obliquus, Wlk.
- Oedichirus, Erich.
- *alatus, Niet.
- Poederus, Fabr.
- alternans, Wlk.
- Stenus, Latr.
- *barbatus, Niet.
- *lærtoides, Niet.
- Osorius? Leach.
- *compactus, Wlk.
- Prognatha, Latr.
- decisi, Wlk.
- *tenuis, Wlk.
- Leptochirus, Perty.
- *piscinus, Erich.
- Oxytelus, Grav.
- rudis, Wlk.
- productus, Wlk.
- *bicolor, Wlk.
- Trogophloeus, Mann.
- *Taprobanæ, Wlk.
- Omalium, Grav.
- filiforme, Wlk.
- Aleochara, Grav.
- postica, Wlk.
- *translata, Wlk.
- *subjecta, Wlk.
- Dinarda, Leach.
- serricornis, Wlk.
Fam. PSELAPHIDÆ, Leach.
- Pselaphanax, Wlk.
- setosus, Wlk.
Fam. SCYDMÆNIDÆ, Leach.
- Erineus, Wlk.
- monstrosus, Wlk.
- Scydmænus, Latr.
- *megamelas, Wlk.
- *alatus, Niet.
- *femoralis, Niet.
- *Ceylanicus, Niet.
- *intermedius, Niet.
- *pselaphoides, Niet.
- *advolans, Niet.
- *pubescens, Niet.
- *pygmæus, Niet.
- *glanduliferus, Niet.
- *graminicola, Niet.
- *pyriformis, Niet.
- *angusticeps, Niet.
- *ovatus, Niet.
Fam. PTILIADÆ, Wo.
- Trichopteryx, Kirby.
- *cursitans, Niet.
- *immatura, Niet.
- *invisibilis, Niet.
- Ptilium, Schüpp.
- *subquadratum, Niet.
- Ptenidium, Erich.
- *macrocephalum, Niet.
Fam. PHALACRIDÆ, Leach.
- Phalacrus, Payk.
- conjiciens, Wlk.
- confectus, Wlk.
Fam. NITUDULIDÆ, Leach.
- Nitidula, Fabr.
- contigens, Wlk.
- intendens, Wlk.
- significans, Wik.
- tomentifera, Wlk.
- *submaculata, Wlk.
- *glabricula, Dohrn.
- Nitidulopsis, Wlk.
- æqualis, Wlk.
- Meligethes, Kirby.
- *orientalis, Niet.
- *respondens, Wlk.
- Rhizophagus, Herbst.
- parallelus, Wlk.
Fam. COLYDIADÆ, Woll.
- Lyctus, Fabr.
- retractus, Wlk.
- disputans, Wlk.
- Ditoma, Illig.
- rugicollis, Wlk.
Fam. TROGOSITIDÆ, Kirby.
- Trogosita, Oliv.
- insinuans, Wlk.
- *rhyzophagoides, Wlk.
Fam. CUCUJIDÆ, Steph.
- Loemophloeus, Dej.
- ferrugineus, Wlk.
- Cucujus? Fabr.
- *incommodus, Wlk.
- Silvanus, Latr.
- retrahens, Wlk.
- *scuticollis, Wlk.
- *Porrectus, Wlk.
- Brontes, Fabr.
- *orientalis, Dej.
Fam. LATHRIDIANÆ, Wall.
- Lathridius, Herbst.
- perpusillus, Wlk.
- Corticaria, Marsh.
- resecta, Wlk.
- Monotoma, Herbst.
- concinnula, Wlk.
Fam. DERMESTIDÆ, Leach.
- Dermestes, Linn.
- vulpinus, Fabr.
- Attagenus, Latr.
- detectus, Wlk.
- rufipes, Wlk.
- Trinodes, Meg.
- hirtellus, Wlk.
Fam. BYRRHIDÆ, Leach.
- Inclica, Wlk.
- solida, Wlk.
Fam. HISTERIDÆ, Leach.
- Hister, Linn.
- Saprinus, Erich.
- semipunctatus, Fabr.
- Platysoma, Leach.
- atratum? Erichs.
- desmens, Wlk.
- restoratum, Wlk.
- Dendrophilus, Leach.
- finitimus, Wlk.
Fam. APHODIADÆ, Macl.
- Aphodius, Illig.
- robustus, Wlk.
- dynastoides, Wlk.
- pallidicornis, Wlk.
- mutans, Wlk.
- sequens, Wlk.
- Psammodius, Gyll.
- inscitus, Wlk.
Fam. TROGIDÆ, Macl.
- Trox, Fabr.
- inclusus, Wlk.
- cornutus, Fabr.
Fam. COPRIDÆ, Leach.
- Ateuchus, Weber.
- sacer, Linn.
- Gymnopleurus, Illig
- smaragdifer, Wlk.
- Koenigii, Fabr.
- Sisyphus, Latr.
- setosulus Wlk.
- subsideus, Wlk.
- Orepanocerus, Kirby.
- Taprobanæ, West.
- Cobris, Geoffr.
- Pirmal, Fabr.
- sagax, Quens.
- capucinus, Fabr.
- cribricollis, Wlk.
- repertus, Wlk.
- sodalis, Wlk.
- signatus, Wlk.
- diminutivus, Wlk.
- Onthophagus, Latr.
- Bonassus, Fabr.
- cervicornis, Fabr.
- prolixus, Wlk.
- gravis, Wlk.
- difficilis, Wlk.
- lucens, Wlk.
- negligens, Wlk.
- moerens, Wlk.
- turbatus. Wlk.
- Onitis, Fabr.
- Philemon, Fabr.
Fam. DYNASTIDÆ, Macl.
- Oryctes, Illig.
- rhinoceros, Linn.
- Xylotrupes, Hope.
- Gideon, Linn.
- reductus, Wlk.
- solidipes, Wlk.
- Phileurus, Latr.
- detractus, Wlk.
- Orphnus, Macl.
- detegens, Wlk.
- scitissimus, Wlk.
Fam. GECTRUPIDÆ, Leach.
- Bolboceras, Kirby.
- lineatus, Westw.
Fam. MELOLONTHIDÆ, Macl.
- Melolontha, Fabr.
- nummicudens, Newm.
- rubiginosa, Wlk.
- ferruginosa, Wlk.
- seriata, Hope.
- pinguis, Wlk.
- setosa, Wlk.
- Rhizotrogus, Latr.
- hirtipectus, Wlk.
- æqualis, Wlk.
- costatus, Wlk.
- inductus, Wlk.
- exactus, Wlk.
- sulcifer, Wlk.
- Phyllopertha, Kirby.
- transversa, Burm.
- Silphodes, Westw.
- Indica, Westw.
- Trigonostoma, Dej.
- assimile, Hope.
- compressum? Weid.
- nanum, Wlk.
- Serica, Macl.
- pruinosa, Hope.
- Popilia, Leach.
- marginicollis, Newm.
- cyanella, Hope.
- discalis, Wlk.
- Scricesthis, Dej.
- rotundata, Wlk.
- subsignata, Wlk.
- mollis, Wlk.
- confirmata, Wlk.
- Plectris, Lep. & Serv.
- solida, Wlk.
- punctigera, Wlk.
- glabsilinea, Wlk.
- Isonychus, Mann.
- ventralis, Wlk.
- pectoralis, Wlk.
- Omaloplia, Meg.
- fracta, Wlk.
- interrupta, Wlk.
- semicincta, Wlk.
- *hamifera, Wlk.
- *picta, Dohrn.
- *nana, Dohrn.
- Apogenia, Kirby.
- nigricans, Hope.
- Phytalos Erich.
- eurystomus, Burm.
- Ancylon cha. Dej.
- Reynaudii, Blanch.
- Leucopholis, Dej.
- Mellei, Guer.
- pinguis, Burm.
- Anomala, Meg.
- elata, Fabr.
- humeralis, Wlk.
- discalis, Wlk.
- varicolor, Sch.
- conformis, Wlk.
- similis, Hope.
- punctatissima, Wlk.
- infixa, Wlk.
- Mimela, Kirby.
- variegata, Wlk.
- mundissima, Wlk.
- Parastasia, Westw.
- rufopic a. Westw.
- Euchlora, Macl.
- viridis, Fabr.
- perplexa, Hope.
Fam. CETONIADÆ, Kirby.
- Glycyphana, Burm.
- versicolor, Fabr.
- luctuosa, Gory.
- variegata, Fabr.
- marginicollis, Gory.
- Clinteria, Burm.
- imperalis, Schaum.
- incerta, Parry.
- chloronota, Blanch.
- Tæniodera, Burm.
- Malabariensis, Gory.
- quadrivittata, White.
- alboguttata, Vigors.
- Protætia, Burm.
- maculata, Fabr.
- Whitehousii, Parry.
- Agestrata, Erich.
- nigrita, Fabr.
- orichalcea, Linn.
- Coryphocera, Burm.
- elegans, Fabr.
- Nacronota, Hoffm.
- quadrivittata, Sch.
Fam. TRICHIADÆ, Leach.
- Valgus, Scriba.
- addendus, Wlk.
Fam. LUCANIDÆ, Leach.
- Odontolabis, Burm.
- Bengalensis, Parry.
- emarginatus, Dej.
- Ægus, Macl.
- acuminatus, Fabr.
- lunatus, Fabr.
- Singuala, Blanch.
- tenella, Blanch.
Fam. PASSALIDÆ, Macl.
- Passalus, Fabr.
- transversus, Dohrn.
- interstitialis, Perch.
- punctiger? Lefeb.
- bicolor, Fabr.
Fam. SPHÆRIDIADÆ, Leach.
- Sphæridium, Fabr.
- tricolor, Wlk.
- Cercyon, Leach.
- *vicinale, Wlk.
Fam. HYDROPHILIDÆ, Leach.
- Hydrous, Leach.
- Hydrobius, Leach.
- stultus, Wlk.
- Philydrus, Solier.
- esurieus, Wlk.
- Berosus, Leach.
- *decrescens, Wlk.
- Hydrochus, Germ.
- *lacustris, Niet.
- Georyssus, Latr.
- *gemma, Niet.
- *insularis, Dohrn.
- Dastareus, Wlk.
- porosus, Wlk.
Fam. BUPRESTIDIE, Steph.
- Sternocera, Esch.
- chrysis, Linn.
- sternicornis, Linn.
- Chrysochroa, Solier.
- ignita, Linn.
- Chinensis, Lap.
- Rajah, Lap.
- *cyaneocephala, Fabr.
- Chyrsodema, Lap
- sulcata, Thunb.
- Belionota, Esch.
- scutellaris, Fabr.
- *Petiri, Gory.
- Chrysobothris, Esch.
- suturalis, Wlk.
- Agrilus, Meg.
- sulcicollis, Wlk.
- *cupreiceps, Wlk.
- *cupreicollis, Wlk.
- *armatus, Fabr.
Fam. ELATERIDÆ, Leach.
- Campsosternos, Latr.
- Templetonii, Westw.
- aureolus, Hope.
- Bohemannii, Cand.
- venustulus, Cand.
- pallidipes, Cand.
- Agrypnus, Esch.
- fuscipes, Fabr.
- Alaus, Esch.
- speciosus, Linn.
- sordidus, Westw.
- Cardiophorus, Esch.
- humerifer, Wlk.
- Corymbites, Latr.
- dividens, Wlk.
- divisa, Wlk.
- *bivittava, Wlk.
- Lacon, Lap.
- *obesus, Cand.
- Athous, Esch.
- punctosus, Wlk.
- inapertus, Wlk.
- decretus, Wlk.
- inefficiens, Wlk.
- Ampedus, Meg.
- *acutifer, Wlk.
- *discicollis, Wlk.
- Legna, Wlk.
- idonea, Wlk.
Fam. LAMPYRIDÆ, Leach.
- Lycus, Fabr.
- triangularis, Hope.
- geminus, Wlk.
- astutus, Wlk.
- fallix, Wlk.
- planicornis, Wlk.
- melanopterus, Wlk.
- pubicornis, Wlk.
- duplex, Wlk.
- costifer, Wlk.
- revocans, Wlk.
- dispellens, Wlk.
- *pubipennis, Wlk.
- *humerifer, Wlk.
- expansicornis, Wlk.
- divisus, Wlk.
- Dictyopterus, Latr.
- internexus, Wlk.
- Lampyris, Geoff.
- tenebrosa, Wlk.
- diffinis, Wlk.
- lutescens, Wlk.
- *vitrifera, Wlk.
- Colophotia, Dej.
- humeralis, Wlk.
- [vespertina, Febr.
- perplexa, Wlk.?
- intricata, Wlk.
- extricans, Wlk.
- promelas, Wlk.
- Harmatelia, Wlk.
- discalis, Wlk
- bilinea, Wlk.
Fam. TELEPHORIDÆ, Leach.
- Telephorus, Schäff.
- dimidiatus, Fabr.
- malthinoides, Wlk.
- Eugeusis, Westw.
- palpator, Westw.
- gryphus, Hope.
- olivaceus, Hope.
Fam. CEBRIONIDÆ, Steph.
- Callirhipis, Latr.
- Templetonii, Westw.
- Championii, Westw.
Fam. MERLYRIDÆ, Leach.
- Malachius, Fabr.
- plagiatus, Wlk.
- Malthinus, Latr.
- *forticornis, Wlk.
- *retractus, Wlk.
- fragilis, Dohrn.
- Enciopus, Steph.
- proficiens, Wlk.
- Honosca, Wlk.
- necrobioides, Wlk.
Fam. CLERIDÆ, Kirby.
- Cylidrus, Lap.
- sobrinus, Dohrn.
- Stigmatium, Gray.
- elaphroides, Westw.
- Necrobia, Latr.
- rufipes, Fabr.
- aspera, Wlk.
Fam. PTINIDÆ, Leach.
- Ptinus, Linn.
- *nigerrimus, Boield.
Fam. DIAPERIDÆ, Leach.
- Diaperis, Geoff.
- velutina, Wlk.
- fragilis, Dohrn.
Fam. TENEBRIONIDÆ, Leach.
- Zophobas, Dej.
- errans? Dej.
- clavipes, Wlk.
- ?solidus, Wlk.
- Pseudoblaps, Guer.
- nigrita, Fabr.
- Tenebrio, Linn.
- rubripes, Hope.
- retenta, Wlk.
- Trachyscelis, Latr.
- brunnea, Dohrn.
Fam. OPATRIDÆ, Shuck.
- Opatrum, Fabr.
- contrahens, Wlk.
- bilineatum, Wlk.
- planatum, Wlk.
- serricolle, Wlk.
- Asida, Latr.
- horrida, Wlk.
- Crypticus, Latr.
- detersus, Wlk.
- longipennis, Wlk.
- Phaleria, Latr.
- rutipes, Wlk.
- Toxicum, Latr.
- oppugnans, Wlk.
- biluna, Wlk.
- Boletophagus, Ill.
- *inorosus, Dohrn.
- *exasperatus, Dohrn.
- Uloma, Meg.
- scita, Wlk.
- Alphitophagus, Steph.
- subFascia, Wlk.
Fam. HELOPIDÆ, Steph.
- Osdara, Wlk.
- picipes, Wlk.
- Cholipus, Dej.
- brevicornis, Dej.
- parabolicus, Wlk.
- læviusculus, Wlk.
- Helops, Fabr.
- ebeninus, Wlk.
- Camaria, Lep. & Serv.
- amethystina, L.&S.
- Amarygmus, Dalm.
- chrysomeloides, Dej.
Fam. MELOIDÆ, Woll.
- Epicanta, Dej.
- nigrifinis, Wlk.
- Cissites, Latr.
- testaceus, Febr.
- Mylabris, Fabr.
- humeralis, Wlk.
- alterna, Wlk.
- *recognita, Wlk.
- Atratocerus, Pal., Bv.
Fam. OEDEMERIDÆ, Steph.
- Cistela, Fabr.
- congrua, Wlk.
- *falsifica, Wlk.
- Allecula, Fabr.
- fusiformis, Wlk.
- elegans, Wlk.
- *flavifemur, Wlk.
- Sora, Wlk.
- *marginata, Wlk.
- Thaceona, Wlk.
- dimelas, Wlk.
Fam. MORDELLIDÆ, Steph.
- Acosmas, Dej.
- languidus, Wlk.
- Rhipiphorus, Fabr.
- *tropicus, Niet.
- Mordella, Linn.
- composita, Wlk.
- *detectiva, Wlk.
- Myrmecolax, Westir.
- *Nietneri, Westir.
Fam. ANTHICIDÆ, Wlk.
- Anthicus, Payk.
- *quisquilairius, Niet.
- *insularius, Niet.
- *sticticollis, Wlk.
Fam. CISSIDÆ, Leach.
- Cis, Latr.
- contendens, Wlk.
Fam. TOMICIDÆ, Shuck.
- Apate, Fabr.
- submedia, Wlk.
- Bostrichus, Geoff.
- mutuatus, Wlk.
- *vertens, Wlk.
- *moderatus, Wlk..
- *testaceus, Wlk.
- *exiguns, Wlk.
- Platypus, Herbst.
- minex, Wlk.
- solidus, Wlk.
- *latifinis, Wlk.
- Hylurgus, Latr.
- determinans, Wlk.
- *concinnulus, Wlk.
- Hylesinus, Fahr.
- curvifer, Wlk.
- despectus, Wlk.
- irresolutus, Wlk.
Fam. CURCULIONIDÆ, Leach.
- Bruchus, Linn.
- scutellaris, Fabr.
- Spermophagus, Steven.
- convolvuli, Thunb.
- figuratus, Wlk.
- Cisti, Fabr.
- incertus, Wlk.
- decretus, Wlk.
- Dendropemon, Schön.
- *melancholicus, Dohrn.
- Dendrotrogus, Jek.
- Dohrnii, Jek.
- discrepans, Dohrn.
- Eucorynus, Schön.
- colligendus, Wlk.
- colligens, Wlk.
- Basitropis, Jek.
- *disconotatus, Jek.
- Litocerus, Schön.
- punctulatus, Dohrn.
- Tropideres, Sch.
- punctulifer, Dohrn.
- tragilis, Wlk.
- Cedus, Waterh.
- *cancellatus, Dohrn.
- Xylinades, Latr.
- sobrinulus, Dohrn.
- indignus, Wlk.
- Xenocerus, Germ.
- anguliterus, Wlk.
- revocans, Wlk.
- *anchoralis, Dohrn.
- Callistocerus, Dohrn.
- *Nietneri, Dohrn.
- Anthribus, Geoff.
- longicornis, Fabr.
- apicalis, Wlk.
- facilis, Wlk.
- Aræcerus, Schön.
- coffeæ, Fabr.
- *insidiosus, Fabr.
- *musculus, Dohrn.
- *intangens, Wlk.
- *bifovea, Wlk.
- Dipieza, Pasc.
- *insignis, Dohrn.
- Apolecta, Pasc.
- *Nietneri, Dohrn.
- *musculus, Dohrn.
- Arrhenodes, Steven.
- miles, Sch.
- pilicornis, Sch.
- dentirosiris, Jek.
- approximans, Wlk.
- Veneris, Dohrn.
- Cerobates, Schön.
- thrasco, Dohrn.
- aciculatus, Wlk.
- Ceocephalus, Schön.
- cavus, Wlk.
- reticulatus, Fabr.
- Nemocephalus, Latr.
- sulcirostris, De Haan.
- planicollis, Wlk.
- spinirostris, Wlk.
- Apoderus, Oliv.
- longicollis? Fabr.
- Tranquebaricus, Fabr.
- cygneus, Fabr.
- scitulus, Wlk.
- *triangularis, Fabr.
- *echinatus, Sch.
- Rhynchites, Herbst.
- suffundens, Wlk.
- *restituens, Wlk.
- Apion, Herbst.
- *Cingalense, Wlk.
- Strophosomus, Bilbug.
- *suturalis, Wlk.
- Piazomias, Schön.
- æqualis, Wlk.
- Astycus, Schön.
- lateralis, Fabr.?
- ebeninus, Wlk.
- *immunis, Wlk.
- Cleonus, Schön.
- inducens, Wlk.
- Myllocerus, Schön.
- transmarinus, Herbst.?
- spurcatus, Wlk.
- *retrahens, Wlk.
- *posticus, Wlk.
- Phyllobius, Schön.
- *mimicus, Wlk.
- Episomus, Schön.
- pauperatus, Fabr.
- Lixus, Fabr.
- nebulitascia, Wlk.
- Aclees, Schön.
- cribratus, Dej.
- Alcides, Dalm.
- signatus, Boh.
- obliquus, Wlk.
- transversus, Wlk.
- *clausus, Wlk.
- Acienemis, Fairm.
- Ceylonicus, Jek.
- Apotomorhinus, Schön.
- signatus, Wlk.
- alboater, Wlk.
- Cryptorhynchus, Illig.
- ineffectus, Wlk.
- assimilans, Wlk.
- declaratus, Wlk.
- notabilis, Wlk.
- vexatus, Wlk.
- Camptorhinus, Schön.?
- reversus, Wlk.
- *indiscretus, Wlk.
- Desmidophorus, Chevr.
- hebes, Fabr.
- communicans, Wlk.
- strenuus, Wlk.
- *discriminans, Wlk.
- inexpertus, Wlk.
- fasciculicollis, Wlk.
- Sipaius, Schön.
- granulatus, Fabr.
- porosus, Wlk.
- tinctus, Wlk.
- Mecopus, Dalm.
- *Waterhousei, Dohrn.
- Rhynchophorus, Herbst.
- ferrugineus, Fabr.
- introducens, Wlk.
- Protocerus, Schön.
- molossus? Oliv.
- Sphænophorus, Schön.
- glabridiscus, Wlk.
- exquisitus, Wlk.
- Debaani?, Jek.
- cribricollis, Wlk.
- ?panops, Wlk.
- Cossonus, Clairv.
- *quadrimacula, Wlk.
- ?hebes, Wlk.
- ambiguus, Sch.?
- Scitophilus, Schön.
- orizæ, Linn.
- disciferus, Wlk.
- Mecinus, Germ.
- *?relictus, Wlk.
Fam. PRIONIDÆ, Leach.
- Trictenotoma, G.R. Gray. [pg 452]
- Templetoni, Westw.
- Prionomina, White.
- orientalis, Oliv.
- Acanthophorus, Serv.
- serraticornis, Oliv.
- Cnemoplites, Newm.
- Rhesus, Motch.
- Ægosoma, Serv.
- Cingalense, White.
Fam. CERAMBYCIDÆ, Kirby.
- Cerambyx, Linn.
- indutus, Newm.
- vernicosus, Pasc.
- consocius, Pasc.
- versutus, Pasc.
- nitidus, Pasc.
- macilentus, Pasc.
- venustus, Pasc.
- torticollis, Dohrn.
- Sebasmia, Pasc.
- Templetoni, Pasc.
- Callichroma, Latr.
- trogoninum, Pasc.
- telephoroides, Westw.
- Homalomelas, White.
- gracilipes, Parry.
- zonatus, Pasc.
- Colobus, Serv.
- Cingalensis, White.
- Thramus, Pasc.
- gibbosus, Pasc.
- Deuteromina, Pasc.
- mutica, Pasc.
- Obrium, Meg.
- laterale, Pasc.
- moestum, Pasc.
- Psilomerus, Blanch.
- macilentus, Pasc.
- Clytus, Fabr.
- vicinus, Hope.
- ascendens, Pasc.
- Walkeri, Pasc.
- annularis, Fabr.
- *aurilinea, Dohrn.
- Rhaphuma, Pasc.
- leucoscutellata, Hope.
- Ceresium, Newm.
- cretatum, White.
- Zeylanicum, White.
- Stromatium, Serv.
- barbatum, Fabr.
- maculatum, White.
- Hespherophanes, Muls.
- simplex, Gyll.
Fam. LAMIDIÆ, Kirby.
- Nyphona, Muls.
- cylindracea, White.
- Mesosa, Serv.
- columba, Pasc.
- Coptops, Serv.
- bidens, Fabr.
- Xylorhiza, Dej.
- adusta, Wied.
- Cacia, Newm.
- triloba, Pasc.
- Batocera, Blanch.
- rubus, Fabr.
- ferruginea, Blanch.
- Monohammus, Meg.
- tistulator, Germ.
- crucifer, Fabr.
- nivosus, White.
- commixtus, Pasc.
- Cereposius, Dup.
- patronus, Pasc.
- Pelargoderus, Serv.
- tigrinus, Chevr.
- Olenocamptus, Chevr.
- bilobus, Fabr.
- Praonetha, Dej.
- annulata, Chevr.
- posticalis, Pasc.
- Apomecyna, Serv.
- histrio, Fabr., var.?
- Ropica, Pasc.
- præusta, Pasc.
- Hathlia, Serv.
- procera, Pasc.
- Iolea, Pasc.
- proxima, Pasc.
- histrio, Pasc.
- Glenea, Newm.
- sulphurella, White.
- commissa, Pasc.
- scapitera, Pasc.
- vexator, Pasc.
- Stibara, Hope.
- nigricornis, Fabr.
Fam. HISPIDÆ, Kirby.
- Oncocephala, Dohrn.
- deltoides, Dohrn.
- Leptispa, Baly.
- pygmæa, Baly.
- Amplistea, Baly.
- Döhrnii, Baly.
- Estigmena, Hope.
- Chinensis, Hope.
- Hispa, Linn.
- hystrix, Fabr.
- erinacea, Fabr.
- nigrina, Dohrn.
- *Walkeri, Baly.
- Platypria, Guér.
- echidna, Guér.
Fam. CASSIDIDÆ, Westw.
- Episticia, Boh.
- matronula, Boh.
- Hoplionota, Hope.
- tetraspilota, Baly.
- rubromarginata, Boh.
- horrifica, Boh.
- Aspidomorpha, Hope.
- St. crucis, Fabr.
- miliaris, Fabr.
- pallidimarginata, Baly.
- dorsata, Fabr.
- calligera, Boh.
- micans, Fabr.
- Cassida, Linn.
- clathrata, Fabr.
- timefacta, Boh.
- farinosa, Boh.
- Laccoptera, Boh.
- 14-notata, Boh.
- Coptcycla, Chevr.
- sex-notata, Fabr.
- 13-signata, Boh.
- 13-notata, Boh.
- ornata, Fabr.
- Ceylonica, Boh.
- Balyi, Boh.
- trivittata, Fabr.
- 15-punctuata, Boh.
- catenata, Dej.
Fam. SAGRIDÆ, Kirby.
- Sagra, Fabr.
- nigrita, Oliv.
Fam. DONACIDÆ, Lacord.
- Donacia, Fabr.
- Delesserti, Guér.
- Coptocephala, Chev.
- Templetoni, Baly.
Fam. EUMOLFIDÆ, Baly.
- Corynodes, Hope.
- cyaneus, Hope.
- æneus, Baly.
- Glyptoscelis, Chevr.
- Templetoni, Baly.
- pyrospilotus, Baly.
- micans, Baly.
- cupreus, Baly.
- Eumolpus, Fabr.
- lemoides, Wlk.
Fam. CRYPTOCEPHALIDÆ, Kirby.
- Cryptocephalus, Geoff.
- sex-punctatus, Fabr.
- Walkeri, Baly.
- Diapromorpha, Lac.
- Turcica, Fabr.
Fam. CHRYSOMELIDÆ, Leach.
- Chalcolampa, Baly.
- Templetoni, Baly.
- Lina, Meg.
- convexa, Baly.
- Chrysomela, Linn.
- Templetoni, Baly.
Fam. GALERUCIDÆ, Steph.
- Galeruca, Geoff.
- *pectinata, Dohrn.
- Graphodera, Chevr.
- cyanea, Fabr.
- Monolepta, Chevr.
- pulchella, Baly.
- Thyamis, Steph.
- Ceylonicus, Baly.
Fam. COCCINELLIDÆ, Latr.
- Epilachna, Chevr.
- 28-punctata, Fabr.
- Delessortii, Guér.
- pubescens, Hope.
- innuba, Oliv.
- Coccinella, Linn.
- Neda, Muls.
- tricolor, Fabr.
- Coelophora, Muls.
- 9-maculata, Fabr.?
- Chilocorus, Leach.
- opponens, Wlk.
- Scymnus, Kug.
- varibilis, Wlk.
Fam. EROTYLIDÆ, Leach.
- Fatua, Dej.
- Nepalensis, Hope.
- Triplax, Payk.
- decorus, Wlk.
- Tritoma, Fabr.
- *bilactes, Wlk.
- *preposita, Wlk.
- Ischyrus, Cherz.
- grandis, Fabr.
Fam. ENDOMYCHIDÆ, Leach.
- Eugonius, Gerst.
- annularis, Gerst.
- lunulatus, Gerst.
- Eumorphus, Weber.
- pulcripes, Gerst.
- *tener, Dohrn.
- Stenotarsus, Perty.
- Nietneri, Gerst.
- *castaneus, Gerst.
- *tormentosus, Gerst.
- *vallatus, Gerst.
- Lycoperdina, Latr.
- glabrata, Wlk.
- Ancylopus, Gerst.
- melanocephalus, Oliv.
- Saula, Gerst.
- *nigripes, Gerst.
- *ferruginea, Gerst.
- Mycerina, Gerst.
- castanea, Gerst.
Order ORTHOPTERA, Linn.
Fam. FORFICULIDÆ, Steph.
- Forficula, Linn.
- ——?
Fam. BLATTIDÆ, Steph.
- Panesthia, Serv.
- Javanica, Serv.
- plagiata, Wlk.
- Polyxosteria, Burm.
- larva.
- Corydia, Serv.
- Petiveriana, Linn.
- Fam. MANTIDÆ, Leach.
- Empusa, Illig.
- gongylodes, Linn.
- Harpax, Serv.
- signiter, Wlk.
- Schizocephala, Serv.
- bicornis, Linn.
- Mantis, Linn.
- superstitiosa, Fabr.
- aridifolia, Stoll.
- extensicollis, ? Serv.
Fam. PHASMIDÆ, Serv.
- Acrophylla, Gray.
- systropedon, Westw.
- Phasma, Licht.
- sordidium, DeHaan.
- Phyllium, Illig.
- siccifolium, Linn.
Fam. GRYLLIDÆ, Steph.
- Acheta, Linn.
- bimaculata, Deg.
- supplicans, Wlk.
- æqualis, Wlk.
- confirmata, Wlk.
- Platydactylus, Brull.
- crassipes, Wlk.
- Steirodon, Serv.
- lanceolatum, Wlk.
- Phyllophora, Thunb.
- falsifolia, Wlk.
- Acanthodis, Serv.
- rugosa, Wlk.
- Phaneroptera, Serv.
- attenuata, Wlk.
- Phymateus, Thunb.
- miliaris, Linn.
- Truxalis, Linn.
- exaltata, Wlk.
- porrecta, Wlk.
- Acridium, Geoffr.
- extensum, Wlk.
- deponens, Wlk.
- rutitibia, Wlk.
- cinctifemur, Wlk.
- respondens, Wlk.
- nigrifascia, Wlk.
Order PHYSAPODA, Dum.
- Thrips, Linn.
- stenomeras, Wlk.
Order NEUROPTERA, Linn.
Fam. SERICOSTOMIDÆ, Steph.
- Mormonia, Curt.
- *ursina, Hagen.
Fam. LEPTOCERIDÆ, Leach.
- Macronema, Pict.
- multifarium, Wlk.
- *splendidum, Hagen.
- *nebulosum, Hagen.
- *obliquum, Hagen.
- *Ceylanicum, Niet.
- *annulicorne, Niet.
- Molanna, Curt.
- mixta, Hagen.
- Setodes, Ramb.
- *Iris, Hagen.
- *Ino, Hagen.
Fam. PSYCHOMIDÆ, Curt.
- Chimarra, Leach.
- *aurieps, Hagen.
- *tunesta, Hagen.
- *sepulcralis, Hagen.
Fam. HYDROPSYCHIDÆ, Curt.
- Hydropsyche, Pict.
- *Taprobanes, Hagen.
- *mitis, Hagen.
Fam. RHYACOPHILIDÆ, Steph.
- Rhyacophila, Pict.
- *castanea, Hagen.
Fam. PERLIDÆ, Leach.
- Perla, Geoffr.
- angulata, Wlk.
- *testacea, Hagen.
- *limosa, Hagen.
Fam. SILIDÆ, Westw.
- Dilar, Ramb.
- *Nietneri, Hagen.
Fam. HEMEROBIDÆ, Leach.
- Mantispa, Illig.
- *Indica, Westw.
- mutata, Wlk.
- Chrysopa, Leach.
- invaria, Wlk.
- *tropica, Hagen.
- auritera, Wlk.
- *punctata, Hagen.
- Micromerus, Ramb.
- *linearis, Hagen.
- *australis, Hagen.
- Hemerobius, Linn.
- *frontalis, Hagen.
- Coniopteryx, Hal.
- *cerata, Hagen.
Fam. MYRMELEONIDÆ, Leach.
- Palpares, Ramb.
- contrarius, Wlk.
- Acanthoclisis, Ramb.
- *—n. s. Hagen.
- *molestus, Wlk.
- Myrmeleon, Linn.
- gravis, Wlk.
- nirus, Wlk.
- barbarus, Wlk.
- Ascalaphus, Fabr.
- nugax, Wlk.
- incusans, Wlk.
- *cervinus, Niet.
Fam. PSOCIDÆ, Leach.
- Psocus, Latr. [pg 454]
- *Taprobanes, Hagen.
- *oblitus, Hagen.
- *consitus, Hagen.
- *trimaculatus, Hagen.
- *obtusus, Hagen.
- *elongatus, Hagen.
- *chloroticus, Hagen.
- *aridus, Hagen.
- *coleoptratus, Hagen.
- *dolabratus, Hagen.
- *infelix, Hagen.
Fam. TERMITIDÆ, Leach.
- Termes, Linn.
- Taprobanes, Wlk.
- fatalis, Koen.
- monocerous, Koen.
- *umbilicatus, Hagen.
- *n. s., Jouv.
- *n. s., Jouv.
Fam. EMBIDÆ, Hagen.
- Oligotoma, Westw.
- *Saundersii, Westw.
Fam. EPHEMERIDÆ, Leach.
- Bætis, Leach.
- Taprobanes, Wlk.
- Potamanthus, Pict.
- *fasciatus, Hagen.
- *annulatus, Hagen.
- *femoralis, Hagen.
- Cloe, Burm.
- *tristis, Hagen.
- *consueta, Hagen.
- *solida, Hagen.
- *sigmata, Hagen.
- *marginalis, Hagen.
- Cænis, Steph.
- perpusida, Wlk.
Fam. LIBELLULIDÆ.
- Calopteryx, Leach.
- Chinensis, Linn.
- Euphoea, Selys.
- splendens, Hagen.
- Micromerus, Ramb.
- lineatus, Burm.
- Trichoenemys, Selys.
- *serapica, Hagen.
- Lestes, Leach.
- *elata, Hagen.
- *gracilis, Hagen.
- Agrion, Fabr.
- *Coromandelianum, F.
- *tenax, Hagen.
- *hilare, Hagen.
- *velare, Hagen.
- *delicatum, Hagen.
- Gynacantha, Ramb.
- subinterrupta, Ramb.
- Epophthalmia, Burm.
- vittata, Burm.
- Zyxomma, Ramb.
- petiolatum, Ramb.
- Acisoma, Ramb.
- panorpoides, Ramb.
- Libellula, Linn.
- Marcia, Drury.
- Tillarga, Fabr.
- variegata, Linn.
- flavescens, Fabr.
- Sabina, Drury.
- viridula, Pal. Beauv.
- congener, Ramb.
- soror, Ramb.
- Aurora, Burm.
- violacea, Niet.
- perla, Hagen.
- sanguinea, Burm.
- trivialis, Ramb.
- contaminata, Fabr.
- equestris, Fabr.
- nebulosa, Fabr.
Order HYMENOPTERA, Linn.
Fam. FORMICIDÆ, Leach.
- Formica, Linn.
- smaragdina, Fabr.
- mitis, Smith.
- *Taprobane, Smith.
- *variegata, Smith.
- *exercita, Wlk.
- *exundans, Wlk.
- *meritans, Wlk.
- *latebrosa, Wlk.
- *pangens, Wlk.
- *ingruens, Wlk.
- *detorquens, Wlk.
- *diffidens, Wlk.
- *obscurans, Wlk.
- *indeflexa, Wlk.
- consultans, Wlk.
- Polyrhachis, Smith.
- *illandatus, Wlk.
Fam. PONERIDÆ, Smith.
- Odontomachus, Latr.
- simillimus, Smith.
- Typhlopone, Westw.
- Curtisii, Shuck.
- Myrmica, Latr.
- basalis, Smith.
- contigua, Smith.
- glyciphila, Smith.
- *consternens, Wlk.
- Crematogaster, Lund.
- *pellens, Wlk.
- *deponens, Wlk.
- *forticulus, Wlk.
- Pseudomyrma, Guré.
- *atrata, Smith.
- allaborans, Wlk.
- Atta, St. Farg.
- didita, Wlk.
- Pheidole, Westw.
- Janus, Smith.
- *Taprobanæ, Smith.
- *rugosa, Smith.
- Meranopius, Smith.
- *dimicans, Wlk.
- Cataulacus, Smith.
- Taprobanæ, Smith.
Fam. MUTILLIDÆ, Leach.
- Mutilla, Linn.
- *Sibylla, Smith.
- Tiphia, Fabr.
- *decrescens, Wlk.
Fam. EUMENIDÆ, Westw.
- Odynerus, Latr.
- *tinctipennis, Wlk.
- *intendens, Wlk.
- *intendens, Wlk.
- Scolia, Fabr.
- auricollis, St. Farg.
Fam. CRABRONIDÆ, Leach.
- Philanthus, Fabr.
- basalis, Smith.
- Stigmus, Jur.
- *congruus, Wilk.
Fam. SPHEGIDÆ, Steph.
- Ammophila, Kirby.
- atripes, Smith.
- Pelopæus, Latr.
- spinolæ, St. Farg.
- Sphex, Fabr.
- ferruginea, St. Farg.
- Ampulex, Jur.
- compressa, Fabr.
Fam. LARRIDÆ, Steph.
- Larrada, Smith.
- *extensa, Wlk.
Fam. POMPILIDÆ, Leach.
- Pompilus, Fabr.
- analis, Fabr.
Fam. APIDÆ, Leach.
- Andrena, Fabr.
- *exagens, Wlk.
- Nomia, Latr.
- rustica, Westw.
- *vincta, Wlk.
- Allodaps, Smith.
- *marginata, Smith.
- Ceratina, Latr.
- viridis, Guér.
- picta, Smith.
- *similliana, Smith.
- Coelioxys, Latr.
- capitata, Smith.
- Croeisa, Jur.
- *ramosa, St. Farg.
- Stelis, Panz.
- carbonaria, Smith.
- Anthophora, Latr.
- zonarta, Smith.
- Xylocopa, Latr.
- tenuiscatia, Westw.
- latipes, Drury.
- Apis, Linn.
- Indica, Smith.
- Trigona, Jur.
- iridipennis, Smith.
- *præterita, Wlk.
Fam. CHRYSIDÆ, Wlk.
- Stilbum, Spin.
- splendidum, Dahl.
Fam. DORYLIDÆ, Shuck.
Fam. ICHNEUONIDÆ, Leach.
- Cryptus, Fabr.
- *onustus, Wlk.
- Hemiteles?, Grav.
- *varius, Wlk.
- Porizon, Fabr.
- *dominans, Wlk.
- Pimpla, Fabr.
- albopicta, Wlk.
Fam. BRACONIDÆ, Hal.
- Microgaster, Latr.
- *recusans, Wlk.
- *significans, Wlk.
- *subducens, Wlk.
- *detracta, Wlk.
- Spathius, Nees.
- *bisignatus, Wlk.
- *signipennis, Wlk.
- Heratemis, Wlk.
- *tilosa, Wlk.
- Nebartha, Wlk.
- *macropoides, Wlk.
- Psyttalia, Wlk.
- *testacea, Wlk.
Fam. CHALCIDIÆ, Spin.
- Chalcis, Fabr.
- *dividens, Wlk.
- *pandens, Wlk.
- Halticella, Spin.
- *rufimanus, Wlk.
- *inticiens, Wlk.
- Dirrhinus, Dalm.
- *anthracia, Wlk.
- Eurytoma, Ill.
- *contraria, Wlk.
- indefensa, Wlk.
- Eucharis, Latr.
- *convergens, Wlk.
- *deprivata, Wlk.
- Pteromalus, Swed.
- *magniceps, Wlk.
- Encyrtus, Latr.
- *obstructus, Wlk.
Fam. DIAPRIDÆ, Hal.
- Diapria, Latr.
- apicalis, Wlk.
Order LEPIDOPTERA, Linn.
Fam. PAPILIONIDÆ, Leach.
- Ornithoptera, Boisd.
- Darsius, G.R. Gray.
- Papilio, Linn.
- Diphilus, Esp.
- Jophon, G.R. Gray.
- Hector, Linn.
- Romulus, Cram.
- Polymnestor, Cram.
- Crino, Fabr.
- Helenus, Linn.
- Pammon, Linn.
- Polytes, Linn.
- Erithonius, Cram.
- Antipathis, Cram.
- Agamemnon, Linn.
- Eurypilus, Linn.
- Bathycles, Zinck-Som.
- Sarpedon, Linn.
- dissimilis, Linn.
- Pontia, Fabr.
- Nina, Fabr.
- Pleris, Schr.
- Eucharis, Drury.
- Coronis, Cram.
- Epicharis, Godt.
- Nama, Doubl.
- Remba, Moore.
- Mesentina, Godt.
- Severina, Cram.
- Namouna, Doubl.
- Phryne, Fabr.
- Paulina, Godt.
- Thestylis, Doubl.
- Callosune, Doubl.
- Eucharis, Fabr.
- Danaë, Fabr.
- Etrida, Boisd.
- Idmais, Boisd.
- Calais, Cram.
- Thestias, Boisd.
- Marianne, Cram.
- Pirene, Linn.
- Hebomoia, Hübn.
- Glaucippe, Linn.
- Eronia, Hübn.
- Valeria, Cram.
- Callidryas, Boisd.
- Philippina, Boisd.
- Pyranthe, Linn.
- Hilaria, Cram.
- Alcmeone, Cram.
- Thisorella, Boisd.
- Terias, Swain.
- Drona, Horsf.
- Hecabe, Linn.
Fam. NYMPHALIDÆ, Swain.
- Euploea, Fabr.
- Prothoe, Godt.
- Core, Cram.
- Alcathoë, Godt.
- Danais, Latr.
- Chrysippus, Linn.
- Plexippus, Linn.
- Aglæ, Cram.
- Melissa, Cram.
- Limniacæ, Cram.
- Juventa, Cram.
- Hestia, Hübn.
- Jasonia, Westw.
- Telchinia, Hübn.
- violæ, Fabr.
- Cethosia, Fabr.
- Cyane, Fabr.
- Messarus, Doubl.
- Erymanthis, Drury.
- Atella, Doubl.
- Phalanta, Drury.
- Argychis, Fabr.
- Niphe, Linn.
- Clagia, Godt.
- Ergolis, Boisd.
- Taprobana, West.
- Vanessa, Fabr.
- Charonia, Drury.
- Libythea, Fabr.
- Medhavina, Wlk.
- Pushcara, Wlk.
- Pyrameis, Hübn.
- Charonia, Drury.
- Cardui, Linn.
- Callirhoë, Hübn.
- Junonia, Hübn.
- Limomas, Linn.
- Oenone, Linn.
- Orithia, Linn.
- Laomedia, Linn.
- Asterie, Linn.
- Precis, Hübn.
- Iphita, Cram.
- Cynthia, Fabr.
- Arsinoe, Cram.
- Parthenos, Hübn.
- Gambrisius, Fabr.
- Limenitis, Fabr.
- Calidusa, Moore.
- Neptis, Fabr.
- Heliodore, Fabr.
- Columelia, Cram.
- aceris, Fabr.
- Jumbah, Moore.
- Hordonia, Stoll.
- Diadema, Boisd.
- Auge, Cram.
- Bolina, Linn.
- Symphædra, Hubn.
- Thyelia, Fabr.
- Adolias, Boisd.
- Evelina, Stoll.
- Lutentina, Fabr.
- Vasanta, Moore.
- Garuda, Moore.
- Nymphalis, Latr.
- Psaphon, Westw.
- Bernardus, Fabr.
- Athamas, Cram.
- Fabius, Fabr.
- Katlima, Doubl.
- Philarchus, Westw.
- Melanitis, Fabr.
- Banksia, Fabr.
- Leda, Linn.
- Casiphone, G.R. Gray.
- undularis, Boisd.
- Ypththima, Hübn.
- Lysandra, Cram.
- Parthalis, Wlk.
- Cyllo, Boisd.
- Gorya, Wlk.
- Cathæna, Wlk.
- Embolima, Wlk.
- Neilgherriensis, Guér.
- Purimata, WLk.
- Pushpamitra, Wlk.
- Mycalesis, Hübn.
- Patnia, Moore.
- *Gamaliba, Wlk.
- Dosaron, Wlk.
- Samba, Moore.
- Cænonympha, Hübn.
- Euaspla, Wlk.
- Emesis, Fabr.
- Echerius, Stoll.
Fam. LYCÆNIDÆ, Leach.
- Anops, Boisd. [pg 456]
- Bulis, Boisd.
- Thetys, Drury.
- Loxura, Horsf.
- Atymnus, Cram.
- Myrina, Godt.
- Schumous, Doubled.
- Triopas, Cram.
- Amblypodia, Horsf.
- Longinus, Fabr.
- Narada, Horsf.
- pseudocentaurus, Do.
- quercetorum, Boisd.
- Aphnæus, Hübn.
- Pindarus, Fabr.
- Etolus, Cram.
- Hephæstos, Doubled.
- Crotus, Doubled.
- Dipsas, Doubled.
- chrysomallus, Hübn.
- Isocrates, Fabr.
- Lycæna, Fabr.
- Alexis, Stoll.
- Boetica, Linn.
- Chejus, Horsf.
- Rosimon, Fabr.
- Theophrasius, Fabr.
- Pluto, Fabr.
- Parana, Horsf.
- Nyseus, Guér.
- Ethion, Basd.
- Celeno, Cram.
- Kandarpa, Horsf.
- Elpis, Godt.
- Chimonas, Wlk.
- Gandara, Wlk.
- Chorienis, Wlk.
- Geria, Wlk.
- Doanas, Wlk.
- Sunya, Wlk.
- Audhra, Wlk.
- Polyommatus, Latr.
- Akasa, Horsf.
- Puspa, Horsf.
- Laius, Cram.
- Ethion, Boisd.
- Cataigara, Wlk.
- Gorgippia, Wlk.
- Lucia, Westw.
- Epius, Westw.
- Pithecops, Horsf.
- Hylax, Fabr.
Fam. HESPERIDÆ, Steph.
- Goniloba, Westw.
- Iapetus, Cram.
- Pyrgus, Hübn.
- Superna, Moore.
- Danna, Moore.
- Genta, Wlk.
- Sydrus, Wlk.
- Nisoniades, Hübn.
- Diocles, Boisd.
- Salsala, Moore.
- Toides, Wlk.
- Pamphila, Fabr.
- Angias, Linn.
- Achylodes, Hübn.
- Temata, Wlk.
- Hesperia, Fabr.
- Indrani, Moore.
- Chaya, Moore.
- Cinnara, Moore.
- gremius, Latr.
- Ceodochates, Wlk.
- Tiagara, Wlk.
- Cetiaris, Wlk.
- Sigala, Wlk.
Fam. SPHINGIDÆ, Leach.
- Sesia, Fabr.
- Hylas, Linn.
- Macroglossa, Ochs.
- Stenatarum, Linn.
- gyrans, Borsd.
- Corythus, Borsd.
- divergens, Wlk.
- Calymina, Borsd.
- Panopus, Cram.
- Choerocampa, Dup.
- Thyslia, Linn.
- Nyssus, Drury.
- Clotho, Drury.
- Oldenlandiæ, Fabr.
- Lycetus, Cram.
- Silhetensis, Boisd.
- Pergesa, Wlk.
- Acteus, Cram.
- Panacia, Wlk.
- vigil, Guér.
- Daphnis, Hübn.
- Nern, Linn.
- Zonitia, Boisd.
- Morpheus, Cram.
- Macrosila, Boisd.
- ordiqua, Wlk.
- discistriga, Wlk.
- Sphinx, Linn.
- convolvuli, Linn.
- Acherontia, Ochs.
- Satanas, Boisd.
- Smerintinis, Latr.
- Dryas, Boisd.
Fam. CASTNIIDÆ, Wlk.
- Eusemia, Dalm.
- beliatrix, Westw.
- Ægocera, Latr.
- Venuia, Cram.
- bimacula, Wlk.
Fam. ZYGÆNIDÆ, Leach.
- Syntomis, Ochs.
- Schoenherri, Boisd.
- Creusa, Linn.
- Imaoa, Cram.
- Glaucopis, Fabr.
- subaurata, Wlk.
- Enchiomia, Hübn.
- Polymena, Cram.
- diminuta, Wlk.
Fam. LITHOSIIDÆ, Steph.
- Scaptesyle, Wlk.
- bicolor, Wlk.
- Nyctemera, Hübn.
- lacticima, Cram.
- latistriga, Wlk.
- Coleta, Cram.
- Euschema, Hübn.
- subrepleta, Wlk.
- transversa, Wlk.
- vilis, Wlk.
- Chalcosia, Hübn.
- Tiberina, Cram.
- venosa, Anon.
- Eterusia, Hope.
- Ædea, Linn.
- Trypanophora, Koll.
- Taprobanes, Wlk.
- Heteropan, Wlk.
- scintillans, Wlk.
- Hypsa, Hübn.
- plana, Wlk.
- caricæ, Fabr.
- ficus, Fabr.
- Vitessa, Moor.
- Zeinire, Cram.
- Lithosia, Fabr.
- autica, Wlk.
- brevipennis, Wlk.
- Setina, Schr.
- semitascia, Wlk.
- solita, Wlk.
- Doliche, Wlk.
- hilaris, Wlk.
- Pitane, Wlk.
- conserta, Wlk.
- Æmene, Wlk.
- Taprobanes, Wlk.
- Dirade, Wlk.
- attacoides, Wlk.
- Cyllene, Wlk.
- transversa, Wlk.
- *spoliata, Wlk.
- Bizone, Wlk.
- subornata, Wlk.
- peregrina, Wlk.
- Delopeia, Steph.
- pulcella, Linn.
- Astrea, Drury.
- Argus, Kodar.
Fam. ARCHTIIDÆ, Leach.
- Alope, Wlk.
- ocellitera, Wlk.
- Sangalida, Cram.
- Tinolius, Wlk.
- eburneigutta, Wlk.
- Creatonotos, Hübn.
- interrupta, Linn.
- emitteus, Wlk.
- Acmonia, Wlk.
- Etnosioides, Wlk.
- Spilosoma, Steph.
- subtascia, Wlk.
- Cycnia, Hübn.
- rubida, Wlk.
- sparsigutta, Wlk.
- Antheua, Wlk.
- discalis, Wlk.
- Atoa, Wlk.
- lactmea, Cram.
- candidula, Wlk.
- erisa, Wlk.
- Amerila, Wlk.
- Melipithus, Wlk.
- Ammotho, Wlk.
- cunionotatus, Wlk.
Fam. LIPARIDÆ, Wlk.
- Artaxa, Wlk.
- Acyphas, Wlk.
- viridescens, Wlk.
- Lacida, Wlk.
- rotundata, Wlk.
- antica, Wlk.
- subnotata, Wlk.
- complens, Wlk.
- promittens, Wlk.
- strigulitera, Wlk.
- Amsacta? Wlk.
- tenebrosa, Wlk.
- Antipha, Wlk.
- costalis, Wlk.
- Anaxila, Wlk.
- norata, Wlk.
- Procodeca, Wlk.
- angulifera, Wlk.
- Redoa, Wlk.
- submarginata, Wlk.
- Euproctis, Hübn.
- virguncula, Wlk.
- bimaculata, Wlk.
- lunata, Wlk.
- tinctifera, Wlk.
- Cispia, Wlk.
- plagiata, Wlk.
- Dasychira, Hübn.
- pudibunda, Linn.
- Lymantria, Hühn.
- grandis, Wlk.
- marginata, Wlk.
- Enome, Wlk.
- ampla, Wlk.
- Dreata, Wlk.
- plumipes, Wlk.
- geminata, Wlk.
- mutans, Wlk.
- mollifera, Wlk.
- Pandala, Wlk.
- dolosa, Wlk.
- Charnidas, Wlk.
- junctifera, Wlk.
Fam. PSYCHIDÆ, Bru.
- Psyche, Schr.
- Doubledaii, Westw.
- Metisa, Wlk.
- plana, Wlk.
- Eumeta, Wlk.
- Cramerii, Westw.
- Templetonii, Westw.
- Cryptothelea, Templ.
- consorta, Templ.
Fam. NOTODONTIDÆ, St.
- Cerura, Schr.
- liturata, Wlk.
- Stauropus, Germ.
- alternans, Wlk.
- Nioda, Wlk.
- fusiformis, Wlk.
- transversa, Wlk.
- Rilia, Wlk.
- lanceolata, Wlk.
- basivitta, Wlk.
- Ptilomacra, Wlk.
- juvenis, Wlk.
- Elavia, Wlk.
- metaphæa, Wlk.
- Notodonta, Ochs.
- ejecta, Wlk.
- Ichthyura, Hübn.
- restituens, Wlk.
Fam. LIMACODIDÆ, Dup.
- Scopelodes, Westw.
- unicolor, Westw.
- Messata, Wlk.
- rubiginosa, Wlk.
- Miresa, Wlk.
- argeutifera, Wlk.
- aperiens, Wlks.
- Nyssia, Herr Sch.
- læta, Westw.
- Neæra, Herr. Sch.
- graciosa, Westw.
- Narosa, Wlk.
- conspersa, Wlk.
- Naprepa, Wlk.
- varians, Wlk.
Fam. DREPANULIDÆ, Wlk.
- Oreta, Wlk.
- suffusa, Wlk.
- extensa, Wlk.
- Arna, Wlk.
- apicaus, Wlk.
- Ganisa, Wlk.
- postica, Wlk.
Fam. SATURINIDÆ, Wlk.
- Attacus, Linn.
- Atlas, Linn.
- lunula, Anon.
- Antheræa, Hübn.
- Mylitta, Drury.
- Assama, Westw.
- Tropæa, Hübn.
- Selene, Hübn.
Fam. BOMBYCIDÆ, Steph.
- Trabala, Wlk.
- basalis, Wlk.
- prasina, Wlk.
- Lasiocampa, Schr.
- trifascia, Wlk.
- Megasoma, Boisd.
- venustum, Wlk.
- Lebeda, Wlk.
- repanda, Wlk.
- plagiata, Wlk.
- bimaculata, Wlk.
- scriptiplaga, Wlk.
Fam. COSSIDÆ, Newm.
- Cossus, Fabr.
- quadrinotatus, Wlk.
- Zeuzera, Latr.
- leuconota, Steph.
- pusilla, Wlk.
Fam. HEPIALIDÆ, Steph.
- Phassus, Steph.
- signifer, Wlk.
Fam. CYMATOPHORIDÆ, Herr. Sch.
- Thyatira, Ochs.
- repugnans, Wlk.
Fam. BRYOPHILIDÆ, Guén.
- Bryophila, Treit.
- semipars, Wlk.
Fam. BOMBYGOIDÆ, Guén.
- Diphtera, Ochs.
- deceptura, Wlk.
Fam. LEUCANIDÆ, Guén.
- Leucania, Ochs.
- confusa, Wlk.
- exempta, Wlk.
- interens, Wlk.
- collecta, Wlk.
- Brada, Wlk.
- truncata, Wlk.
- Crambopsis, Wlk.
- excludens, Wlk.
Fam. GLOTTULIDÆ, Guén.
- Polytela, Guén.
- gloriosa, Fabr.
- Glottula, Guén.
- Dominic, Cram.
- Chasmma, Wlk.
- pavo, Wlk.
- cygnus, Wlk.
Fam. APAMIDÆ, Guén.
- Laphygma, Guér.
- obstans, Wlk.
- trajiciens, Wlk.
- Prodenia, Guén.
- retina, Friv.
- glaucistriga, Wlk.
- apertura, Wlk.
- Calogramma, Wlk.
- festiva, Don.
- Heliophobus, Boisd.
- discrepans, Wlk.
- Hydræcia, Guér.
- lampadifera, Wlk.
- Apamea, Ochs.
- undecilia, Wlk.
- Celæna, Steph.
- serva, Wlk.
Fam. CARADRINIDÆ, Guér.
- Amyna, Guér.
- selenampha, Guér.
Fam. NOCTUIDÆ, Guér.
- Agrotis, Ochs.
- aristifera, Guér.
- congrua, Wlk.
- punctipes, Wlk.
- mundata, Wlk.
- transducta, Wlk.
- plagiata, Wlk.
- plagifera, Wlk.
Fam. HADENIDÆ, Guén.
- Eurois, Hübn.
- auriplena, Wlk.
- inclusa, Wlk.
- Epiceia, Wlk.
- subsignata, Wlk.
- Hadena, Treit.
- Ansa, Wlk.
- filipalpis, Wlk.
Fam. XYLINIDÆ, Guén.
- Ragada, Wlk.
- pyrorchroma, Wlk.
- Cryassa, Wlk.
- bifacies, Wlk.
- Egelista, Wlk.
- rudivitta, Wlk.
- Xylina, Ochs.
- deflexa, Wlk.
- inchoans, Wlk.
Fam. HELIOTHIDÆ, Guén.
- Heliothis, Ochs.
- armigera, Hübn.
Fam. HEMEROSIDÆ, Guén.
- Ariola, Wlk.
- coelisigna, Wlk.
- dilectissima, Wlk.
- saturata, Wlk.
Fam. ACONTIDÆ, Guén.
- Xanthodes, Guén.
- intersepta, Guén.
- Acontia, Ochs.
- tropica, Guén.
- olivacea, Wlk.
- fasciculosa, Wlk.
- signifera, Wlk.
- turpis, Wlk.
- mianöides, Wlk.
- approximans, Wlk.
- divulsa, Wlk.
- *egens, Wlk.
- plenicosta, Wlk.
- determinata, Wlk.
- hypætroides, Wlk.
- Chlumetia, Wlk.
- multilinea, Wlk.
Fam. ANTHOPILIDÆ, Guén.
- Micra, Guén.
- destituta, Wlk.
- derogata, Wlk.
- simplex, Wlk.
Fam. ERIOPIDÆ, Guén.
- Callopistria, Hübn.
- exotiac, Guén.
- rivularis, Wlk.
- duplicans, Wlk.
Fam. EURHIPIDÆ, Guén.
- Penicillaria, Guén.
- nugatrix, Guén.
- resoluta, Wlk.
- solida, Wlk.
- lodatrix, Wlk.
- Rhesala, Wlk.
- imparata, Wlk.
- Eutelia, Hübn.
- favillatrix, Wlk.
- thermesiides, Wlk.
Fam. PLUSIIDÆ, Boisd.
- Abrostola, Ochs.
- transfixa, Wlk.
- Plusia, Ochs.
- aurilera, Hübn.
- verticillata, Guén.
- agramma, Guén.
- obtusisigna, Wlk.
- nigriluna, Wlk.
- signata, Wlk.
- dispellens, Wlk.
- propulsa, Wlk.
Fam. CALPIDÆ, Guén.
- Calpe, Treit.
- minuticornis, Guén.
- Oroesia, Guén.
- emarginata, Fabr.
- Deva, Wlk.
- conducens, Wlk.
Fam. HEMICERIDÆ, Guén.
- Westermannia, Hübn.
- supberba, Hübn.
Fam. HYBLÆIDÆ, Guén.
- Hyblæa, Guén.
- Puera, Cram.
- constellica, Guén.
- Nolasena, Wlk.
- ferrifervens, Wlk.
Fam. GONOPTERIDÆ, Guén.
- Cosmophila, Boisd.
- Indica, Guén.
- xanthindvina, Boisd.
- Anomis, Hübn.
- fulvida, Guén.
- icomea, Wlk.
- Gonitis, Guén.
- combinans, Wlk.
- albitibia, Wlk.
- mesogona, Wlk.
- guttanivis, Wlk.
- involuta, Wlk.
- basalis, Wlk.
- Eporedia, Wlk.
- damnipennis, Wlk.
- Rusicada, Wlk.
- nigritarsis, Wlk.
- Pasipeda, Wlk.
- rutipalpis, Wlk.
Fam. TOXOCAMPIDÆ, Guén.
- Toxocampa, Guén.
- metaspila, Wlk.
- sexlinea, Wlk.
- quinquelina, Wlk.
- Albonica, Wlk.
- reversa, Wlk.
Fam. POLYDESMIDÆ, Guén.
- Polydesma, Boisd.
- boarmoides, Wlk.
- erubescens, Wlk.
Fam. HOMOPTERIDÆ, Bois.
- Alamis, Guén.
- spoliata, Wlk.
- Homoptera, Boisd.
- basipallens, Wlk.
- retrahens, Wlk.
- costifera, Wlk.
- divisistriga, Wlk.
- procumbens, Wlk.
- Diacuista, Wlk.
- homopteroides, Wlk.
- Daxata, Wlk.
- bijungens, Wlk.
Fam. HYPOGRAMMIDÆ, Guén.
- Briarda, Wlk.
- precedens, Wlk.
- Brana, Wlk.
- calopasa, Wlk.
- Corsa, Wlk.
- lignicolor, Wlk.
- Avatha, Wlk.
- includens, Wlk.
- Gadirtha, Wlk.
- decrescens, Wlk.
- impingens, Wlk.
- spurcata, Wlk.
- rectifera, Wlk.
- duplicans, Wlk.
- intrusa, Wlk.
- Ercheia, Wlk.
- diversipennis, Wlk.
- Plotheia, Wlk.
- frontalis, Wlk.
- Diomea, Wlk.
- rotundata, Wlk.
- chloromela, Wlk.
- orbicularis, Wlk.
- muscosa, Wlk.
- Dinumma, Wlk.
- placens, Wlk.
- Lusia, Wlk.
- geometroids, Wlk.
- perficita, Wlk.
- replusa, Wlk.
- Abunis, Wlk.
- trimesa, Wlk.
Fam. CATEPHIDÆ, Guén.
- Cocytodes, Guén.
- coerula, Guén.
- modesta, Wlk.
- Catephia, Ochs.
- linteola, Guén.
- Anophia, Guén.
- acronyctoids, Guén.
- Steiria, Wlk.
- subobliqua, Wlk.
- trajiciens, Wlk.
- Aucha, Wlk.
- velans, Wlk.
- Ægilia, Wlk.
- describens, Wlk.
- Maceda, Wlk.
- mansueta, Wlk.
Fam. HYPOCALIDÆ, Guén.
- Hypocala, Guén.
- efflorescens, Guén.
- subsatura, Guén.
Fam. CATOCALIDÆ, Boisd.
Fam. OPHIDERIDÆ, Guén.
- Ophideres, Boisd.
- Materna, Linn.
- fullonica, Linn.
- Cajeta, Cram.
- Ancilla, Cram.
- Salaminia, Cram.
- Hypermnestra, Cram.
- multiscripta, Wlk.
- bilineosa, Wlk.
- Potamophera, Guén.
- Maulia, Cram.
- Lygniodes, Guén.
- reducens, Wlk.
- disparans, Wlk.
- hypolenca, Guén.
Fam. EREBIDÆ, Guén.
- Oxyodes, Guén.
- Clytia, Cram.
Fam. OMMATOPHORIDÆ, Guén.
- Speiredonia, Hübn.
- retrahens, Wlk.
- Sericia, Guén.
- atrops, Guén.
- parvipennis, Wlk.
- Patula, Guén.
- macrops, Linn.
- Argiva, Hübn.
- hieroglyphica, Drury.
- Beregra, Wlk.
- replenens, Wlk.
Fam. HYPOPYRIDÆ, Guén.
- Spiramia, Guén.
- Heliconia, Hübn.
- triloba, Guén.
- Hypopyra, Guén.
- vespertilio, Fabr.
- Ortospana, Wlk.
- connectens, Wlk.
- Entomogramma, Guén.
- fautrix, Guén.
Fam. BENDIDÆ, Guén.
- Homæa, Guén.
- clathrum, Guén.
- Hulodes, Guén.
- caranea, Cram.
- palumba, Guén.
Fam. OPHIUSIDÆ, Guén.
- Sphingomorpha, Guén.
- Chlorea, Cram.
- Lagoptera, Guén.
- honesta, Hübn.
- magica, Hübn.
- dotata, Fabr.
- Ophiodes, Guén.
- discriminans, Wlk.
- basistigma, Wlk.
- Cerbia, Wlk.
- fugitiva, Wlk.
- Ophisma, Guén.
- lætabilis, Guén.
- deficiens, Wlk.
- gravata, Wlk.
- circumferens, Wlk.
- terminans, Wlk.
- Achæa, Hübn.
- Melicerta, Drury.
- Mezentia, Cram.
- Cyllota, Guén.
- Cyllaria, Cram.
- fusifera, Wlk.
- signivitta, Wlk.
- reversa, Wlk.
- combinans, Wlk.
- expectans, Wlk.
- Serrodes, Guén.
- campana, Guén.
- Naxia, Guén.
- absentimacula, Guén.
- Onelia, Guén.
- calefaciens, Wlk.
- calorifica, Wlk.
- Catesia, Guén.
- hoemorrhoda, Guén.
- Hypætra, Guén.
- trigonifera, Wlk.
- curvifera, Wlk.
- condita, Wlk.
- complacens, Wlk.
- divisa, Wlk.
- Ophiusa, Ochs.
- myops, Guén.
- albivitta, Guén.
- Achatina, Sulz.
- fulvotænia, Guén.
- simillima, Guén.
- festinata, Wlk.
- pallidilinea, Wlk.
- luteipalpis, Wlk.
- Fodina, Guén.
- stola, Guén.
- Grammodes, Guén.
- Ammonia, Cram.
- Mygdon, Cram.
- stolida, Fabr.
- mundicolor, Wlk.
Fam. EUCLIDIDÆ, Guén.
- Trigonodes, Guén.
- Hippasia, Cram.
Fam. REMIGIDÆ, Guén.
- Remigia, Guén.
- Archesia, Cram.
- frugalis, Fabr.
- pertendens, Wlk.
- congregata, Wlk.
- opturata, Wlk.
Fam. FOCILLIDÆ, Guén.
- Focilla, Guén.
- submemorans, Wlk.
Fam. AMPHIGANIDÆ, Guén.
- Lacera, Guén.
- capella, Guén.
- Amphigonia, Guén.
- hepatizans, Guén.
Fam. THERMISIDÆ, Guén.
- Sympis, Guén.
- rutibasis, Guén.
- Thermesia, Hübn.
- finipalpis, Wlk.
- soluta, Wlk.
- Azazia, Wlk.
- rubricans, Boisd.
- Selenis, Guén.
- nivisapex, Wlk.
- multiguttata, Wlk.
- semilux, Wlk.
- Ephyrodes, Guén.
- excipiens, Wlk.
- crististera, Wlk.
- lineitera, Wlk.
- Capnodes, Guén.
- *maculicosta, Wlk.
- Ballatha, Wlk.
- atrotumens, Wlk.
- Daranissa, Wlk.
- digramma, Wlk.
- Darsa, Wlk.
- detectissima, Wlk.
Fam. URAPTERYDÆ, Guén.
- Lagyra, Wlk.
- Talaca, Wlk.
Fam. ENNOMIDÆ, Guén.
- Hyperythra, Guén.
- limbolaria, Guén.
- Orsonoba, Wlk.
- Rajaca, Wlk.
- Fascelima, Wlk.
- chromataria, Wlk.
- Laginia, Wlk.
- bractiaria, Wlk.
Fam. BOARMIDÆ, Guén.
- Amblychia, Guén.
- angeronia, Guén.
- poststrigaria, Wlk.
- Boarmia, Treit.
- sublavaria, Guén.
- admissaria, Guén.
- raptaria, Wlk.
- Medasina, Wlk.
- Bhurmitra, Wlk.
- Suiasasa, Wlk.
- diffluaria, Wlk.
- caritaria, Wlk.
- exclusaria, Wlk.
- Hypochroma, Guén.
- minimaria, Guén.
- Gnophos, Treit.
- Pulinda, Wlk.
- Culataria, Wlk.
- Hemerophila, Steph.
- vidhisara, Wlk.
- Agathia, Guén.
- blandiaria, Wlk.
- Bulonga, Wlk.
- Ajaia, Wlk.
- Chacoraca, Wlk.
- Chandubija, Wlk.
Fam. GEOMETRIDÆ, Guén.
- Geometra, Linn. [pg 460]
- specularia, Guén.
- Nanda, Wlk.
- Nemoria, Hubn.
- caudularia, Guên.
- solidaria, Guén.
- Thalassodes, Guén.
- quadraria, Guén.
- catenaria, Wlk.
- immissaria, Wlk.
- Sisunaga, Wlk.
- adornataria, Wlk.
- meritaria, Wlk.
- coelataria, WlK.
- gratularia, Wlk.
- chlorozonaria, Wlk.
- læsaria, Wlk.
- simplicaria, Wlk.
- immissaria, Wlk.
- Comibæna, Wlk.
- Divapala, Wlk.
- impulsaria, Wlk.
- Celenna, Wlk.
- saturaturia, Wlk.
- Pseudoterpna, Wlk.
- Vivilaca, Wlk.
- Amaurima, Guén.
- rubrolimbaria, Wlk.
Fam. PALYADÆ, Guén.
- Eumelea, Dunc.
- ludovicata, Guén.
- aureliata, Guén.
- *carnearia, Wlk.
Fam. EPHYRIDÆ, Guén.
- Ephyra, Dap.
- obrinaria, Wlk.
- decursaria, Wlk.
- Cacavena, Wlk.
- abhadraca, Wlk.
- Vasudeva, Wlk.
- Susarmana, Wlk.
- Vutumana, Wlk.
- inæquata, Wlk.
Fam. ACIDALIDÆ, Guén.
- Drapetodes, Guén.
- mitaria, Guén.
- Pomasia, Guén.
- Psylaria, Guén.
- Sunandaria, Wlk.
- Acidaria, Treit.
- obliviaria, Wlk.
- adeptaria, Wlk.
- nexiaria, Wlk.
- addictaria, Wlk.
- actiosaria, Wlk.
- defamataria, Wlk.
- negataria, Wlk.
- actuaria, Wlk.
- cæsaria, Wlk.
- Cabera, Steph.
- falsaria, Wlk.
- decussaria, Wlk.
- famularia, Wlk.
- nigrarenaria, Wlk.
- Hyria, Steph.
- elataria, Wlk.
- marcidaria, Wlk.
- oblataria, Wlk.
- grataria, Wlk.
- rhodinaria, Wlk.
- Timandra, Dup.
- Ajura, Wlk.
- Vijura, Wlk.
- Agyris, Guén.
- deharia, Guén.
- Zanclopteryx, Herr. Sch.
- saponaria, Herr. Sch.
Fam. MICRONIDÆ, Guén.
- Micronia, Guén.
- caudata, Fabr.
- aculeata, Guén.
Fam. MACARIDÆ, Guén.
- Macaria, Curt.
- Eleonora, Cram.
- Varisara, Wlk.
- Rhagivata, Wlk.
- Palaca, Wlk.
- honestaria, Wlk.
- Sangata, Wlk.
- honoraria, Wlk.
- cessaria, Wlk.
- subcandaria, Wlk.
- Doava, Wlk.
- adjutaria, Wlk.
- figuraria, Wlk.
Fam. LARENTIDÆ, Guén.
- Sauris, Guén.
- hirudinata, Guén.
- Camptogramma, Steph.
- baceata, Guén.
- Blemyia, Wlk.
- Bataca, Wlk.
- blitiaria, Wlk.
- Corenna, Guén.
- Comatina, Wlk.
- Lobophora, Curt.
- Salisnea, Wlk.
- Ghosha, Wlk.
- contributaria, Wlk.
- Mesogramma, Steph.
- lactularia, Wlk.
- scitaria, WLk.
- Eupithecia, Curt.
- recensitaria, Wlk.
- admixtaria, Wlk.
- immixtaria, Wlk.
- Gathynia, Wlk.
- miraria, Wlk.
Fam. PLATYDIDÆ, Guén.
- Trigonia, Guén.
- Cydoniatis, Cram.
Fam. HYPENIDÆ, Herr.
- Dichromia, Guén.
- Orosialis, Cram.
- Hypena, Schr.
- rhombalis, Guén.
- jocosalis, Wlk.
- mandatalis, Wlk.
- quæsitalis, Wlk.
- laceratalis, Wlk.
- iconicalis, Wlk.
- labatalis, Wlk.
- obacerralis, Wlk.
- pactalis, Wlk.
- raralis, Wlk.
- paritalis, Wlk.
- surreptalis, Wlk.
- detersalis, Wlk.
- ineffectalis, Wlk.
- incongrualis, Wlk.
- rubripunctum, Wlk.
- Gesonia, Wlk.
- *obeditalis, Wlk.
- duplex, Wlk.
Fam. HERMINIDÆ, Dup.
- Herminia, Latr.
- Timonaris, Wlk.
- diffusalis, Wlk.
- interstans, Wlk.
- Adrapsa, Wlk.
- ablualis, Wlk.
- Bertula, Wlk.
- abjudicalis, Wlk.
- raptatalis, Wlk.
- contigens, Wlk.
- Bocana, Wlk.
- jutalis, Wlk.
- manifestalis, Wlk.
- ophinsalis, Wlk.
- vagalis, Wlk.
- turpatalis, Wlk.
- hypernalis, Wlk.
- gravatalis, Wlk.
- tomodalis, Wlk.
- Orthaga, Wlk.
- Euadrusalis, Wlk.
- Hipoepa, Wlk.
- lapsalis, Wlk.
- Lamura, Wlk.
- oberratans, Wlk.
- Echana, Wlk.
- abavalis, Wlk.
- Dragana, Wlk.
- pansalis, Wlk.
- Pingrasa, Wlk.
- accuralis, Wlk.
- Egnasia, Wlk.
- ephiradalis, Wlk.
- accingalis, Wlk.
- participalis, Wlk.
- usurpatalis, Wlk.
- Berresa, Wlk.
- natalis, Wlk.
- Imma, Wlk.
- rugosalis, Wlk.
- Chusaris, Wlk.
- retatalis, Wlk.
- Corgatha, Wlk.
- zonalis, Wlk.
- Catada, Wlk.
- glomeralis, Wlk.
- captiosalis, Wlk.
Fam. PYRALADÆ, Guén.
- Pyralis, Linn.
- igniflualis, Wlk.
- Palesalis, Wlk.
- reconditalis, Wlk.
- Idahalis, Wlk.
- Janassalis, Wlk.
- Aglossa, Latr.
- Labanda, Wlk.
- herbealis, Wlk.
Fam. ENNYCHIDÆ, Dup.
- Pyrausta. Schr.
- *absistalis, Wlk.
Fam. ASOPIDÆ, Guén
- Desmia, Westw.
- afflictalis, Guén.
- concisalis, Wlk.
- Ædiodes, Guén..
- flavibasalis. Guén.
- effertalis, Wlk.
- Samea, Guén.
- gratiosalis, Wlk.
- Asopia. Guén.
- vulgalis, Guén.
- falsidicalis, Wlk.
- abruptalis, Wlk.
- latim orginalis, Wlk.
- præteritalis, Wlk.
- Eryxelis, Wlk.
- rofidalis, Wlk.
- Agathodes, Guén.
- ostentalis, Geyer.
- Leucinades, Guén.
- orbonalis, Guén.
- Hymenia, Hübn.
- recurvalis, Fabr.
- Agrotera, Schr.
- suffusalis, Wlk.
- decessalis, Wlk.
- Isopteryx, Guén.
- *melaleucalis, Wlk.
- *impulsalis, Wlk.
- *spromelalis, Wlk.
- acclaralis, Wlk.
- abnegatalis, Wlk.
Fam. HYDROCAMPIDÆ, Guén.
- Oligostigma, Guén.
- obitalis, Wlk.
- votalis, Wlk.
- Cataclysia, Herr Sch.
- diaicidalis, Guén.
- bisectalis, Wlk.
- blaudialis, Wlk.
- elutalis, Wlk.
Fam. SPILOMELIDÆ, Guén.
- Lepyrodes, Guén.
- geometralis, Guén.
- lepidalis, Wlk.
- peritalis, Wlk.
- Phalangiodes, Guén.
- Neptisalis, Cram.
- Spilomela, Guén.
- meritalis, Wlk.
- abdicatis, Wlk.
- decussalis, Wlk.
- Nistra, Wlk.
- coelatalis, Wlk.
- Pagyda. Wlk.
- salvalis, Wlk.
- Massepha, Wlk.
- absolutalis, Wlk.
Fam. MARGORODIDÆ, Guén.
- Glyphodes, Guén.
- diurnalis, Guén.
- decretalis, Guén.
- coesalis, Wlk.
- univocalis, Wlk.
- Phakellura, L. Guild.
- gazorialis, Guén.
- Margarodes, Guén.
- psittæalis, Hübn.
- pomonalis, Guén.
- hilaralis, Wlk.
- Pygospila, Guén.
- Tyresalis, Cram.
- Neurina, Guén.
- Procopalis, Cram.
- ignibasalis, Wlk.
- Hurgia, Wlk.
- detamalis, Wlk.
- Maruca, Wlk.
- ruptalis, Wlk.
- caritalis, Wlk.
Fam. BOTYDÆ, Guén.
- Botys, Latr.
- marginalis, Cram.
- sillalis, Guén.
- multilineatis, Guén.
- admensalis, Wlk.
- abjungalis, Wlk.
- rutilalis, Wlk.
- admixtalis, Wlk.
- celatalis, Wlk.
- deductalis, Wlk.
- celsalis, Wlk.
- vulsalis, Wlk.
- ultimalis, Wlk.
- tropicalis, Wlk.
- abstrusalis, Wlk.
- ruralis, Wlk.
- adhoesalis, Wlk.
- illisalis, Wlk.
- stultalis, Wlk.
- adductalis, Wlk.
- histricalis, Wlk.
- illectalis, Wlk.
- suspictalis, Wlk.
- Janassalis, Wlk.
- Cynaralis, Wlk.
- Dialis, Wlk.
- Thaisalis, Wlk.
- Dryopealis, Wlk.
- Myrinalis, Wlk.
- phycidalis, Wlk.
- annulalis, Wlk.
- brevilinealis, Wlk.
- plagiatalis, Wlk.
- Ebulea, Guén.
- aberratalis, Wlk.
- Camillalis, Wlk.
- Pionea, Guén.
- actualis, Wlk.
- Optiletalis, Wlk.
- Jubesalis, Wlk.
- brevialis, Wlk.
- suffusalis, Wlk.
- Scopula, Schr.
- revocatalis, Wlk.
- turgidalis, Wlk.
- volutatalis, Wlk.
- Godara, Wlk.
- pervasalis, Wlk.
- Herculia, Wlk.
- bractialis, Wlk.
- Mecyna. Guén.
- deprivalis, Wlk.
Fam. SCOPARIDÆ, Guén.
- Scoparia. Haw.
- murificalis, Wlk.
- congestalis, Wlk.
- Alconalis, Wlk.
- Davana. Wlk.
- Phalantalis, Wlk.
- Darsania, Wlk.
- Niobesalis, Wlk.
- Dosara. Wlk.
- coelatella, Wlk.
- lapsalis, Wlk.
- immeritalis, Wlk.
Fam. CHOREUTIDÆ, Staint.
- Niaccaba. Wlk.
- sumptialis, Wlk.
- Simæthis. Leach.
- Clatella, Wlk.
- Damonella, Wlk.
- Bathusella, Wlk.
Fam. PHYCIDÆ, Staint.
- Myelois, Hübn.
- actiosella, Wlk.
- bractiatella, Wlk.
- cantella, Wlk.
- adaptella, Wlk.
- illusella, Wlk.
- basifuscella, Wlk.
- Ligeralis, Wlk.
- Marsyasalis, Wlk.
- Dascusa, Wlk.
- Valensalis, Wlk.
- Daroma, Wlk.
- Zeuxoalis, Wlk.
- Epulusalis, Wlk.
- Timeusalis, Wlk.
- Homoesoma, Curt.
- gratella, Wlk.
- Getusella, Wlk.
- Nephopteryx, Hübn.
- Etolusalis, Wlk.
- Cyllusalis, Wlk.
- Hylasalis, Wlk.
- Acisalis, Wlk.
- Harpaxalis, Wlk.
- Æolusalis, Wlk.
- Argiadesalis, Wlk.
- Philiasalis, Wlk.
- Pempelia, Hübn.
- laudatella, Wlk.
- Prionapteryx, Steph.
- Lincusalis, Wlk.
- Pindicitora, Wlk.
- Acreonalis, Wlk.
- Annusalis, Wlk.
- Thysbesalis, Wlk.
- Linceusalis, Wlk.
- Lacipea, Wlk.
- muscosella, Wlk.
- Araxes, Steph. [pg 462]
- admotella, Wlk.
- decusella, Wlk.
- celsella, Wlk.
- admigratella, Wlk.
- coesella, Wlk.
- candidatella, Wlk.
- Catagela, Wlk.
- adjurella, Wlk.
- acricuella, Wlk.
- lunulella, Wlk.
Fam. CRAMBIDÆ, Dup.
- Crambus, Fabr.
- concinellus, Wlk.
- Darbhaca, Wlk.
- inceptella, Wlk.
- Jartheza, Wlk.
- honosella, Wlk.
- Bulina, Wlk.
- solitella, Wlk.
- Bembina, Wlk.
- Cyanusalis, Wlk.
- Chilo, Zinck.
- dodatella, Wlk.
- gratiosella, Wlk.
- aditella, Wlk.
- blitella, Wlk.
- Dariausa, Wlk.
- Eubusalis, Wlk.
- Arrhade, Wlk.
- Ematheonalis, Wlk.
- Darnensis, Wlk.
- Strephonella, Wlk.
Fam. CHLOEPHORIDÆ. Staint.
- Thagora, Wlk.
- tigurans, Wlk.
- Earias, Hübn.
- chromatana, Wlk.
Fam. TORTRICIDÆ, Steph.
- Lozotænia, Steph.
- retractana, Wlk.
- Peronea, Curt.
- divisana, Wlk.
- Lithogramma, Steph.
- flexilineana, Wlk.
- Dictyopteryx, Steph.
- punctana, Wlk.
- Homona, Wlk.
- fasciculana, Wlk.
- Hemonia, Wlk.
- obiterana, Wlk.
- Achroia, Hübn.
- tricingulana, Wlk.
Fam. YPONOMEUTIDÆ, Steph.
- Atteva, Wlk.
- niveigutta, Wlk.
Fam. GELICHIDÆ, Staint.
- Depressaria, Haw.
- obligatella, Wlk.
- fimbriella, Wlk.
- Decuaria, Wlk.
- mendicella, Wlk.
- Gelechia, Hübn.
- nugatella, Wlk.
- calatella, Wlk.
- deductella, Wlk.
- Perionella, Wlk.
- Gizama, Wlk.
- blandiella, Wlk.
- Enisima, Wlk.
- falsella, Wlk.
- Gapharia, Wlk.
- recitatella, Wlk.
- Goesa. Wlk.
- decusella, Wlk.
- Cimitra, Wlk.
- secinsella, Wlk.
- Ficulea, Wlk.
- blandinella, Wlk.
- Fresilia, Wlk.
- nesciatella, Wlk.
- Gesontha, Wlk.
- cantiosella, Wlk.
- Aginis, Wlk.
- hilariella, Wlk.
- Cadra, Wlk.
- delectella, Wlk.
Fam. GLYPHYPTIDÆ, Staint.
- Glyphyteryx, Hübn.
- scitulella, Wlk.
- Hybele, Wlk.
- mansuetella, Wlk.
Fam. TINEIDÆ, Leach.
- Tinea, Linn.
- tapetzella, Linn.
- receptella, Wlk.
- pelionella, Linn.
- plagiferella, Wlk.
Fam. LYONETIDÆ, Staint.
- Cachura, Wlk.
- objectella, Wlk.
Fam. PTEROPHORIDÆ, Zell.
- Pterophorus, Geoffr.
- leucadacivius, Wlk.
- oxydactylus, Wlk.
- anisodactylus, Wlk.
Order DIPTERA, Linn.
Fam. MYCETOPHILIDÆ, Hal.
- Sciara, Meig.
- *valida, Wlk.
Fam. CECIDOMYZIDÆ, Hal.
- Cecidomyia, Latr.
- *primaria, Wlk.
Fam. SIMULIDÆ, Hal.
- Simulium, Latr.
- *destinatum, Wlk.
Fam. CHIRONOMIDÆ, Hal.
- Ceratopogon, Meig.
- *albocinctus, Wlk.
Fam. CULICIDÆ, Steph.
- Culex, Linn.
- regius, Thwaites.
- fuscanns, Wlk.
- circumvolans, Wlk.
- contrahens, Wlk.
Fam. TIPULIDÆ, Hal.
- Ctenophora, Fabr.
- Taprobanes, Wlk.
- Gymnoplistia? Westw.
- hebes, Wlk.
Fam. STRATIOMIDÆ, Latr.
- Ptilocera, Wied.
- quadridentata, Fabr.
- tastuosa, Geist.
- Pachygaster, Meig.
- rutitarsis, Macq.
- Acanthina, Wied.
- azurea, Geist.
Fam. TABANIDÆ, Leach.
- Pangonia, Latr.
- Taprobanes, Wlk.
Fam. ASILIDÆ, Leach.
- Trupanea, Macq.
- Ceylanica Macq.
- Asilus, Linn.
- flavicornis, Macq.
- Barium, Wlk.
Fam. DOLICHOPIDÆ, Leach.
- Psilopus, Meig.
- *procuratus, Wlk.
Fam. MUSCIDÆ, Latr.
- Tachina? Fabr.
- *tenebrosa, Wlk.
- Musca. Linn.
- domestica, Linn.
- Dacus, Fabr.
- *interclusus, Wlk.
- *nigroæneus, Wlk.
- *detentus, Wlk.
- Ortalis, *Fall.
- *confundens, Wlk.
- Sciomyza, Fall.
- eucotelus, Wlk.
- Drosophila, *Fall.
- *restituens, Wlk.
Fam. NYCTERIBIDÆ, Leach.
- Nycteribia, Latr.
- ——? a species
- parasitic on Scatophilus
- Coromandelicus,
- Bligh.
- ——? a species
Order HEMIPTERA, Linn.
Fam. PACHYCORIDÆ, Dall.
Fam. EURYGASTERIDÆ, Dall.
- Trigonosoma, Lap.
- Destontainii, Fabr.
Fam. PLATASPIDÆ, Dall.
- Coptosoma, Lap.
- laticeps, Dall.
Fam. HALYDIDÆ, Dall.
- Halys, Fabr.
- dentata, Fabr.
Fam. PENTATOMIDÆ, Steph.
- Pentatoma, Oliv.
- Timorensis, Hope.
- Taprobanensis, Dall.
- Catacanthus, Spin.
- Incarnatus, Drury.
- Rhaphigaster, Lap.
- congrua, Wlk.
Fam. EDESSIDÆ, Dall.
- Aspongopus, Lap.
- anus, Fabr.
- Tesseratoma, Lep. & Serv.
- papillosa, Drury.
- Cyclopelta, Am. & Serv.
- siccifolia, Hope.
Fam. PHYLLOCEPHALIDÆ, Dall.
- Phyllocephala, Lap.
- Ægyptiaca, Lefeb.
Fam. MICTIDÆ, Dall.
- Mictis, Leach.
- castanea, Dall.
- valida, Dall.
- punctum, Hope.
- Crinocerus, Burm.
- ponderosus, Wlk.
Fam. ANISOSCELIDÆ, Dall.
- Leptoscelis, Lap.
- ventralis, Dall.
- turpis, Wlk.
- marginalis, Wlk.
- Serinetha, Spin.
- Taprobanensis, Dall.
- abdominalis, Fabr.
Fam. ALYDIDÆ, Dall.
- Alydus, Fabr.
- linearis, Fabr.
Fam. STENOCEPHALIDÆ, Dall.
- Leptocorisa, Latr.
- Chinensis, Dall.
Fam. COREIDÆ, Steph.
- Rhopalus, Schill.
- interruptus, Wlk.
Fam. LYGÆIDÆ, Westw.
- Lygæus, Fabr.
- lutescens, Wlk.
- figuratus, Wlk.
- discifer, Wlk.
- Rhyparochromus, Curt.
- testacelpes, Wlk.
Fam. ARADIDÆ, Wlk.
- Piestosoma, Lap.
- pierpes, Wlk.
Fam. TINGIDÆ, Wlk.
- Calloniana, Wlk.
- *elegans, Wlk.
Fam. CIMICIDÆ, Wlk.
- Cimex, Linn.
- lectularius, Linn.?
Fam. REDUVIIDÆ, Steph.
- Pirates, Burm.
- marginatus, Wlk.
- Acanthaspis, Am. & Serv.
- sanguimpes, Wlk.
- fulvispina, Wlk.
Fam. HYDROMETRIDÆ, Leach.
- Ptilomera, Am. & Serv.
- laticanda, Hardw.
Fam. NEPIDÆ, Leach.
- Belostoma, Latr.
- Indicum, St. Farg.
- Nepa, Linn.
- minor, Wlk.
Fam. NOTONECTIDÆ, Steph.
- Notonecta, Linn.
- abbreviata, Wlk.
- simplex, Wlk.
- Corixa, Geoff.
- *subjacens, Wlk.
Order HOMOPTERA, Latr.
Fam. CICADIDÆ, Westw.
- Dundubia, Am. & Serv.
- stipata, Wlk.
- Clonia, Wlk.
- Larus, Wlk.
- Cicada, Linn.
- limitaris, Wlk.
- nubifurca, Wlk.
Fam. FULGORIDÆ, Schaum.
- Hotinus, Am. & Serv.
- maculatus, Oliv.
- fulvirostris, Wlk.
- coccineus, Wlk.
- Pyrops, Spin.
- punctata, Oliv.
- Aphæna, Guér.
- sanguinalis, Westw.
- Elidiptera, Spin.
- Emersoniana, White.
Fam. CIXIIDÆ, Wlk.
- Eurybrachys, Guér.
- tomentosa, Fabr.
- dilatata, Wlk.
- crudelis, Westw.
- Cixius, Latr.
- *nubilus, Wlk.
Fam. ISSIDÆ, Wlk.
- Hemisphærius, Schaum.
- *Schaumi, Staf.
- *bipustulatus, Wlk.
Fam. DERBIDÆ, Schaum.
- Thracia, Westw.
- pterophorides, Westw.
- Derbe, Fabr.
- *furcato-vittata, Stal.
Fam. FLATTIDÆ, Schaum.
- Flatoides, Guér.
- hyalinus, Fabr.
- tenebrosus, Wlk.
- Ricania, Germ.
- Hemerobii, Wlk.
- Poeciloptera, Latr.
- pulvernlenta, Guér.
- stellaris, Wlk.
- Tennentina, White.
Fam. MEMBRACIDÆ, Wlk.
- Oxyrhachis, Germ.
- *indicans, Wlk.
- Centrotus, Fabr.
- *reponens, Wlk.
- *malleus, Wlk.
- substitutus, Wlk.
- *decipiens, Wlk.
- *relinquens, Wlk.
- *imitator, Wlk.
- *repressus, Wlk.
- *terminalis, Wlk.
Fam. CERCOPIDÆ, Leach.
- Cercopis, Fabr.
- inclusa, Wlk.
- Ptyelus, Lep. & Serv.
- costalis, Wlk.
Fam. TETTIGONIIDÆ, Wlk.
- Tettigonia, Latr.
- paulula, Wlk.
Fam. SCARIDÆ, Wlk.
- Ledra, Fabr.
- rugosa, Wlk.
- conica, Wlk.
- Gypona, Germ.
- prasina, Wlk.
Fam. IASSIDÆ, Wlk.
- Acocephalus, Germ.
- porrectus, Wlk.
Fam. PSYLLIDÆ, Latr.
- Psylla, Goff.
- *marginalis, Wlk.
Fam. COCCIDÆ, Leach.
- Lecanium, Illig.
- Coffeæ, Wlk.
Footnote 4041: (return)The butterflies I have seen in these wonderful migrations in
Ceylon were mostly Callidryas Hilariæ, C. Alcmeone,
and C. Pyranthe, with straggling individuals of the genus
Euplæa, E. Coras, and E. Prothoe. Their passage
took place in April and May, generally in a north-easterly
direction. The natives have a superstitious belief that their
flight is ultimately directed to Adam’s Peak, and that their
pilgrimage ends on reaching the sacred mountain. A friend of mine
travelling from Kandy to Kornegalle, drove for nine miles through a
cloud of white butterflies, which were passing across the road by
which he went.
Footnote 4053: (return)Of the family of Elateridæ, one of the finest is a
Singhalese species, the Campsosternus Templetonii, of an
exquisite golden green colour, with blue reflections (described and
figured by Mr. WESTWOOD in his Cabinet of Oriental
Entomology, pl. 35, f. 1). In the same work is figured another
species of large size, also from Ceylon, this is the Alaus
sordidus.—WESTWOOD, l. c. pl. 35, f. 9.
Footnote 4071: (return)The engraving on the preceding page represents in its various
transformations one of the most familiar and graceful of the
longicorn beetles of Ceylon, the Batocera rubus.
Footnote 4072: (return)There is a paper in the Journ. of the Asiat. Society of
Ceylon, May, 1845, by Mr. CAPPER, on the ravages perpetrated by
these beetles. The writer had recently passed through several
coco-nut plantations, “varying in extent from 20 to 150 acres, and
about two to three years old: and in these he did not discover a
single young tree untouched by the cooroominiya.”—P. 49.
Footnote 4101: (return)M. aridifolia and M. extensicollis, as well as
Empusa gongylodes, remarkable for the long leaf-like head,
and dilatations on the posterior thighs, are common in the
island.
Footnote 4113: (return)Palpares contrarius, Walker; Myrmeleon gravis,
Walker; M. dirus, Walker; M. barbarus, Walker.
Footnote 4121: (return)It becomes an interesting question whence the termites derive
the large supplies of moisture with which they not only temper the
clay for the construction of their long covered ways above ground,
but for keeping their passages uniformly damp and cool below the
surface. Yet their habits in this particular are unvarying, in the
seasons of droughts as well as after rain; in the driest and least
promising positions, in situations inaccessible to drainage from
above, and cut off by rocks and impervious strata from springs from
below. Dr. Livingstone, struck with this phenomenon in Southern
Africa, asks: “Can the white ants possess the power of combining
the oxygen and hydrogen of their vegetable food by vital force so
as to form water?”—Travels, p. 22. And he describes at
Angola, an insect4123
resembling the Aphrophora spumaria; seven or eight
individuals of which distil several pints of water every
night.—P. 414. It is highly probable that the termites are
endowed with some such faculty: nor is it more remarkable that an
insect should combine the gases of its food to produce water, than
that a fish should decompose water in order to provide itself with
gas. FOURCROIX found the contents of the air-bladder in a carp to
be pure nitrogen.—Yarrell, vol. i. p. 42. And the
aquatic larva of the dragon-fly extracts air for its respiration
from the water in which it is submerged. A similar mystery pervades
the inquiry whence plants under peculiar circumstances derive the
water essential to vegetation.
Footnote 4131: (return)Dr. HOOKER, in his Himalayan Journal (vol. i. p. 20) is
of opinion that the nests of the termites are not independent
structures, but that their nucleus is “the debris of clumps of
bamboos or the trunks of large trees which these insects have
destroyed.” He supposes that the dead tree falls leaving the stump
coated with sand, which the action of the weather soon fashions
into a cone. But independently of the fact that the “action of
the weather” produces little or no effect on the closely cemented
clay of the white ants’ nest, they may be daily seen constructing
their edifices in the very form of a cone, which they ever after
retain. Besides which, they appear in the midst of terraces and
fields where no trees are to be seen: and Dr. Hooker seems to
overlook the fact that the termites rarely attack a living tree;
and although their nests may be built against one, it continues to
flourish not the less for their presence.
Footnote 4161: (return)For these particulars of the termes monoceros, I am
indebted to Mr. Thwaites, of the Roy. Botanic Garden at Kandy.
Footnote 4171: (return)It belongs to the genus Pelopæus, P. Spinolæ,
of St. Fargean. The Ampulex compressa, which drags about the
larvæ of cockroaches into which it has implanted its eggs,
belongs, to the same family.
Footnote 4172: (return)Mr. E.L. Layard has given an interesting account of this Mason
wasp in the Annals and Magazine of Nat. History for May,
1853. “I have frequently,” he says, “selected one of these flies
for observation, and have seen their labours extend over a period
of a fortnight or twenty days; sometimes only half a cell was
completed in a day, at others as much as two. I never saw more than
twenty cells in one nest, seldom indeed that number, and whence the
caterpillars were procured was always to me a mystery. I have seen
thirty or forty brought in of a species which I knew to be very
rare in the perfect state, and which I had sought for in vain,
although I knew on what plant they fed.“Then again how are they disabled by the wasp, and yet not
injured so as to cause their immediate death? Die they all do, at
least all that I have ever tried to rear, after taking them from
the nest.“The perfected fly never effects its egress from the closed
aperture, through which the caterpillars were inserted, and when
cells are placed end to end, as they are in many instances, the
outward end of each is always selected. I cannot detect any
difference in the thickness in the crust of the cell to cause this
uniformity of practice. It is often as much as half an inch
through, of great hardness, and as far as I can see impervious to
air and light. How then does the enclosed fly always select the
right end, and with what secretion is it supplied to decompose this
mortar?”
Footnote 4181: (return)It ought to be remembered in travelling in the forests of Ceylon
that sal volatile applied immediately is a specific for the sting
of a wasp.
Footnote 4182: (return)At the January (1839) meeting of the Entomological Society, Mr.
Whitehouse exhibited portions of a wasps’ nest from Ceylon, between
seven and eight feet long and two feet in diameter, and showed that
the construction of the cells was perfectly analogous to those of
the hive bee, and that when connected each has a tendency to assume
a circular outline. In one specimen where there were three cells
united the outer part was circular, whilst the portions common to
the three formed straight walls. From this Singhalese nest Mr.
Whitehouse demonstrated that the wasps at the commencement of their
comb proceed slowly, forming the bases of several together, whereby
they assume the hexagonal shape, whereas, if constructed
separately, he thought each single cell would be circular. See
Proc. Ent. Soc., vol. iii. p. 16.
Footnote 4183: (return)A gentleman connected with the department of the
Surveyor-General writes to me that he measured a honey-comb which
he found fastened to the overhanging branch of a small tree in the
forest near Adam’s Peak, and found it nine links of his chain or
about six feet in length and a foot in breadth where it was
attached to the branch, but tapering towards the other extremity.
“It was a single comb with a layer of cells on either side, but so
weighty that the branch broke by the strain.”
Footnote 4184: (return)Xylocopa tenuiscapa, Westw.; Another species found in
Ceylon is the X. latipes, Drury.
Footnote 4201: (return)Mr. Jerdan, in a series of papers in the thirteenth volume of
the Annals of Natural History, has described forty-seven
species of ants in Southern India. But M. Nietner has recently
forwarded to the Berlin Museum upwards of seventy species taken by
him in Ceylon, chiefly in the western province and the vicinity of
Colombo. Of these many are identical with those noted by Mr. Jerdan
as belonging to the Indian continent. One (probably
Drepanognathus saltator of Jerdan) is described by M.
Nietner as occasionally “moving by jumps of several inches at a
spring.”
Footnote 4202: (return)Dr. DAVY, in a paper on Tropical Plants, has introduced the
following passage relative to the purification of sugar by
ants:“If the juice of the sugar-cane—the common syrup as
expressed by the mill—be exposed to the air, it gradually
evaporates, yielding a light-brown residue, like the ordinary
muscovado sugar of the best quality. If not protected, it is
presently attacked by ants, and in a short time is, as it were,
converted into white crystalline sugar, the ants having refined it
by removing the darker portion, probably preferring that part from
it containing azotized matter. The negroes, I may remark, prefer
brown sugar to white: they say its sweetening power is greater; no
doubt its nourishing quality is greater, and therefore as an
article of diet deserving of preference. In refining sugar as in
refining salt (coarse bay salt containing a little iodine), an
error may be committed in abstracting matter designed by nature for
a useful purpose.”
Footnote 4271: (return)There is another variety of the same moth in Ceylon which
closely resembles it in its markings, but in which I have never
detected the uttering of this curious cry. It is smaller than the
A. Satanas, and, like it, often enters dwellings at night,
attracted by the lights; but I have not found its larvæ,
although that of the other species is common on several widely
different plants.
Footnote 4281: (return)The Portuguese had made the attempt previous to the arrival of
the Dutch, and a strip of land on the banks of the Kalany river
near Colombo, still bears the name of Orta Seda, the silk garden.
The attempt of the Dutch to introduce the true silkworm, the
Bombyx mori, took place under the governorship; of Ryklof
Van Goens, who, on handing over the administration to his successor
in A.D. 1663, thus apprises him of the initiation of the
experiment:—”At Jaffna Palace a trial has been undertaken to
feed silkworms, and to ascertain whether silk may be reared at that
station. I have planted a quantity of mulberry trees, which grow
well there, and they ought to be planted in other
directions.”—VALENTYN, chap. xiii. The growth of the mulberry
trees is noticed the year after in a report to the governor-general
of India, but the subject afterwards ceased to be attended to.
Footnote 4291: (return)The species of moth with which it is identified has not yet been
determined, but it most probably belongs to a section of
Boisduval’s genus Bombyx allied to Cnethocampa,
Stephens.
Footnote 4301: (return)Another caterpillar which feeds on the jasmine flowering
Carissa, stings with such fury that I have known a gentleman to
shed tears while the pain was at its height. It is short and broad,
of a pale green, with fleshy spines on the upper surface, each of
which seems to be charged with the venom that occasions this acute
suffering. The moth which this caterpillar produces, Neæra
lepida, Cramer; Limacodes graciosa, Westw., has dark
brown wings, the primary traversed by a broad green band. It is
common in the western side of Ceylon. The larvæ of the genus
Adolia are also hairy, and sting with virulence.
Footnote 4303: (return)The singular instincts of a species of Thecla, Dipsas
Isocrates, Fab., in connection with the fruit of the
pomegranate, were fully described by Mr. Westwood, in a paper read
before the Entomological Society of London in 1835.
Footnote 4331: (return)Amongst the specimens of this order which I brought from Ceylon,
two proved to be new and undescribed, and have been named by Mr. A.
WHITE Elidiptera Emersoniana and Poeciloptera
Tennentina.
Footnote 4332: (return)Such as Cantuo ocellatus, Leptoscelis Marginalis, Callidea
Stockerius, &c. &c. Of the aquatic species, the
gigantic Belostoma Indicum cannot escape notice, attaining a
size of nearly three inches.
Footnote 4341: (return)Culex laniger? Wied. In Kandy Mr. Thwaites finds C.
fuscanns, C. circumcolans, &c., and one with a most
formidable hooked proboscis, to which he has assigned the
appropriate name C. Regius.
Footnote 4342: (return)The precise species of insect by means of which the Almighty
signalised the plague of flies, remains uncertain, as the Hebrew
term arob or oror which has been rendered in one
place. “Divers sorts of flies,” Ps. cv. 31; and in another, “swarms
of flies,” Exod. viii. 21, &c., means merely “an assemblage.” a
“mixture” or a “swarm,” and the expletive. “of flies” is an
interpolation of the translators. This, however, serves to show
that the fly implied was one easily recognisable by its habit of
swarming; and the further fact that it bites, or
rather stings, is elicited from the expression of the Psalmist, Ps.
lxxviii. 45, that the insects by which the Egyptians were tormented
“devoured them,” so that here are two peculiarities inapplicable to
the domestic fly, but strongly characteristic of gnats and
mosquitoes.Bruce thought that the fly of the fourth plague was the “zimb”
of Abyssinia which he so graphically describes: and WESTWOOD, in an
ingenious passage in his Entomologist’s Text-book. p. 17,
combats the strange idea of one of the bishops, that it was a
cockroach! and argues in favour of the mosquito. This view he
sustains by a reference to the habits of the creature, the swarms
in which it invades a locality, and the audacity with which it
enters the houses; and he accounts for the exemption of “the land
of Goshen in which the Isrælites dwelt,” by the fact of its
being sandy pasture above the level of the river; whilst the
mosquitoes were produced freely in the rest of Egypt, the soil of
which was submerged by the rising of the Nile.In all the passages in the Old Testament in which flies are
alluded to, otherwise than in connection with the Egyptian
infliction, the word used in the Hebrew is zevor, which the
Septuagint renders by the ordinary generic term for flies in
general, [Greek: muia], “musca” (Eccles. x. 1, Isaiah vii.
10); but in every instance in which mention is made of the miracle
of Moses, the Septuagint says that the fly produced was the [Greek:
kunomyia], the “dog-fly.” What insect was meant by this name it is
not now easy to determine, but ÆLIAN intimates that the
dogfly both inflicts a wound and emits a booming sound, in both of
which particulars it accords with the mosquito (lib. iv, 51); and
PHILO-JUDÆUS, in his Vita Mosis, lib. i. ch. xxiii.,
descanting on the plague of flies, and using the term of the
Septuagint, [Greek: kunomyia], describes it as combining the
characteristic of “the most impudent of all animals, the fly and
the dog, exhibiting the courage and the cunning of both, and
fastening on its victim with the noise and rapidity of an
arrow”—[Greek: meta roizou kathaper belos]. This seems to
identify the dog-fly of the Septuagint with the description of the
Psalmist, Ps. lxxviii. 45, and to vindicate the conjecture that the
tormenting mosquito, and not the house-fly, was commissioned by the
Lord to humble the obstinacy of the Egyptian tyrant.
Footnote 4361: (return)The following notice of the “coffee-bug,” and of the singularly
destructive effects produced by it on the plants, has been prepared
chiefly from a memoir presented to the Ceylon Government by the
late Dr. Gardner, in which he traces the history of the insect from
its first appearance in the coffee districts, until it had
established itself more or less permanently in all the estates in
full cultivation throughout the island.
Footnote 4363: (return)Figs. 2, and 3 and 5 in the engraving, where these and all the
other figures are considerably enlarged.
Footnote 4371: (return)Fig. 4. Mr. WESTWOOD, who observed the operation in one species,
states that they escape backwards, the wings being extended flatly
over the head.
Footnote 4381: (return)Figs. 6 and 7. There are many other species of the Coccus tribe
in Ceylon, some (Pseudococcus?) never appearing as a scale, the
female wrapping herself up in a white cottony exudation; many
species nearly allied to the true Coccus infest common plants about
gardens, such as the Nerium Oleander, Plumeria Acuminata, and
others with milky juices; another subgenus (Ceroplastes?), the
female of which produces a protecting waxy material, infests the
Gendurassa Vulgaris, the Furrcæa Gigantea, the Jak Tree,
Mango, and other common trees.
Footnote 4382: (return)REAUMUR has described the singular manner in which this occurs.
Mem. tom. iv.
Footnote 4394: (return)Of the parasitic Chalcididiæ, many genera of which are
well known to deposit their eggs in the soft Coccus, viz.:
Encystus, Coccophagus, Pteromalus, Mesosela, Agonioneurus; besides
Aphidius, a minutely sized genus of Ichneumonidæ. Most, if
not all, of these genera are Singhalese.
Footnote 4401: (return)Racodium? Species of this genus are not confined to the
coffee plant alone in Ceylon, but follow the “bugs” in their
attacks on other bushes. It appears like a dense interlaced mesh of
fibres, each made up of a single series of minute oblong vesicles
applied end to end.
Footnote 4421: (return)The entire of the new species contained in this list have been
described in a series of papers by Mr. WALKER in successive numbers
of the Annals of Natural History (1858-61): those, from Dr.
TEMPLETON’S collection of which descriptions have been taken, have
been at his desire transferred to the British Museum for future
reference and comparison.
CHAP. XIII.
ARTICULATA.
Arachinida—Myriopoda—Crustacea, etc.
With a few striking exceptions, the true spiders of
Ceylon resemble in oeconomy and appearance those we are accustomed
to see at home;—they frequent the houses, the gardens, the
rocks and the stems of trees, and along the sunny paths, where the
forest meets the open country, the Epeira and her congeners,
the true net-weaving spiders, extend their lacework, the grace of
the designs being even less attractive than the beauty of the
creatures that elaborate them.
Such of them as live in the woods select with singular sagacity
the bridle-paths and narrow passages for expanding their nets;
perceiving no doubt that the larger insects frequent these openings
for facility of movement through the jungle; and that the smaller
ones are carried towards them by currents of air. Their nets are
stretched across the path from four to eight feet above the ground,
suspended from projecting shoots, and attached, if possible, to
thorny shrubs; and they sometimes exhibit the most remarkable
scenes of carnage and destruction. I have taken down a ball as
large as a man’s head consisting of successive layers rolled
together, in the heart of which was the original den of the family,
[pg
465] whilst the envelope was formed, sheet after sheet, by
coils of the old web filled with the wings and limbs of insects of
all descriptions, from large moths and butterflies to mosquitoes
and minute coleoptera. Each layer appeared to have been originally
hung across the passage to intercept the expected prey; and, when
it had become surcharged with carcases, to have been loosened,
tossed over by the wind or its own weight, and wrapped round the
nucleus in the centre, the spider replacing it by a fresh sheet, to
be in turn detached and added to the mass within.
Spider
Separated by marked peculiarities both of structure and
instinct, from the spiders which live in the open air, and busy
themselves in providing food during the day, the Mygale
fasciata is not only sluggish in its habits, but disgusting in
its form and dimensions. Its colour is a gloomy brown, interrupted
by irregular blotches and faint bands (whence its trivial name); it
is sparingly sprinkled with hairs, and its limbs, when expanded,
stretch over an area of six to eight inches in diameter. It is
familiar to Europeans in Ceylon, who have given it the name, and
ascribed to it the fabulous propensities, of the Tarentula.4651
The Mygale is found abundantly in the northern and eastern parts
of the island, and occasionally in dark unfrequented apartments in
the western province; but its inclinations are solitary, and it
shuns the busy traffic of towns.
The largest specimens I have seen were at Gampola in the
vicinity of Kandy, and one taken in the store-room [pg 466] of the
rest-house there, nearly covered with its legs an ordinary-sized
breakfast plate.4661
This hideous creature does not weave a broad web or spin a net
like other spiders, but nevertheless it forms a comfortable mansion
in the wall of a neglected building, the hollow of a tree, or under
the eave of an overhanging stone. This it lines throughout with a
tapestry of silk of a tubular form; and of a texture so exquisitely
fine and closely woven, that no moisture can penetrate it. The
extremity of the tube is carried out to the entrance, where it
expands into a little platform, stayed by braces to the nearest
objects that afford a firm hold. In particular situations, where
the entrance is exposed to the wind, the mygale, on the approach of
the monsoon, extends the strong tissue above it so as to serve as
an awning to prevent the access of rain.
The construction of this silken dwelling is exclusively designed
for the domestic luxury of the spider; it serves no purpose in
trapping or securing prey, and no external disturbance of the web
tempts the creature to sally out to surprise an intruder, as the
epeira and its congeners would.
By day it remains concealed in its den, whence it issues at
night to feed on larvæ and worms, devouring cockroaches and
their pupæ, and attacking the millepeds, gryllotalpæ,
and other fleshy insects.
Mr. EDGAR L. LAYARD has described4662
an encounter between a Mygale and a cockroach, which he witnessed
in the madua of a temple at Alittane, between Anarajapoora and
Dambool. When about a yard apart, each [pg 467]
discerned the other and stood still, the spider with his legs
slightly bent and his body raised, the cockroach confronting him
and directing his antennæ with a restless undulation towards
his enemy. The spider, by stealthy movements, approached to within
a few inches and paused, both parties eyeing each other intently;
then suddenly a rush, a scuffle, and both fell to the ground, when
the blatta’s wings closed, the spider seized it under the throat
with his claws, and dragged it into a corner, when the action of
his jaws was distinctly audible. Next morning Mr. Layard found that
the soft parts of the body had been eaten, nothing but the head,
thorax, and clytra remaining.
But, in addition to minor and ignoble prey, the Mygale rests
under the imputation of seizing small birds and feasting on their
blood. The author who first gave popular currency to this story was
Madame MERIAN, a zoological artist of the last century, many of
whose drawings are still preserved in the Museums of St.
Petersburg, Holland, and England. In a work on the Insects of
Surinam, published in 17054671,
she figured the Mygale aricularia, in the act of devouring a
humming-bird. The accuracy of her statement has since been
impugned4672 by a correspondent of the
Zoological Society of London, on the ground that the mygale makes
no net, but lives in recesses, to which no humming-bird would
resort; and hence, the writer somewhat illogically declares, that
he “disbelieves the existence of any bird-catching spider.”
Some years later, however, the same writer felt it incumbent on
him to qualify this hasty conclusion4681,
in consequence of having seen at Sydney an enormous spider, the
Epeira diadema, in the act of sucking the juices of a bird
(the Zosterops dorsalis of Vigors and Horsfield), which, it
had caught in the meshes of its geometrical net. This circumstance,
however, did not in his opinion affect the case of the
Mygale; and even as regards the Epeira, Mr. MacLeay,
who witnessed the occurrence, was inclined to believe the instance
to be accidental and exceptional; “an exception indeed so rare,
that no other person had ever witnessed the fact.”
Subsequent observation has, however, served to sustain the story
of Madame Merian.4682
Baron Walckenær and Latreille both corroborated it by other
authorities; and M. Moreau da Jonnès, who studied the habits
of the Mygale in Martinique, says it hunts far and wide in search
of its prey, conceals itself beneath leaves for the purpose of
surprising them, and climbs the branches of trees to devour the
young of the humming-bird, and of the Certhia flaveola. As
to its mode of attack, M. Jonnès says that when it throws
itself on its victim it clings to it by the double hooks of its
tarsi, and strives to reach the back of the head, to insert its
jaws between the skull and the vertebræ.4683
For my own part, no instance came to my knowledge in Ceylon of a
mygale attacking a bird; but PERCIVAL, who wrote his account of the
island in 1805, describes an enormous spider (possibly an Epeirid)
thinly covered with hair which “makes webs strong enough to
entangle and hold even small birds that form its usual food.”4691
The fact of its living on millepeds, blattæ, and crickets,
is universally known; and a lady who lived at Marandahn, near
Colombo, told me that she had, on one occasion, seen a little
house-lizard (gecko) seized and devoured by one of these
ugly spiders.
Walckenær has described a spider of large size, under the
name of Olios Taprobanius, which is very common in Ceylon,
and conspicuous from the fiery hue of the under surface, the
remainder being covered with gray hair so short and fine that the
body seems almost denuded. It spins a moderate-sized web, hung
vertically between two sets of strong lines, stretched one above
the other athwart the pathways. Some of the threads thus carried
horizontally from tree to tree at a considerable height from the
ground are so strong as to cause a painful check across the face
when moving quickly against them; and more than once in riding I
have had my hat lifted off my head by one of these cords.4692
An officer in the East India Company’s Service4701, in a communication to the
Asiatic Society of Bengal, describes the gigantic web of a black
and red spider six inches in diameter, (his description of which,
both in colour and size, seems to point to some species closely
allied to the Olios Taprobanius,) which he saw near Monghyr
on the Ganges; in this web “a bird was entangled, and the young
spiders, eight in number, and entirely of a brick red colour, were
feeding on the carcase.”4702
The voracious Galeodes has not yet been noticed in
Ceylon; but its carnivorous propensities are well known in those
parts of Hindustan, where it is found, and where it lives upon
crickets, coleoptera and other insects, as well as small lizards
and birds. This “tiger of the insect world,” as it has aptly been
designated by a gentleman who was a witness to its ferocity4703, was seen to attack a young
sparrow half grown, and seize it by the thigh, which it sawed
through. The “savage then caught the bird by the throat, and
put an end to its sufferings by cutting off its head.” “On another
occasion,” says the same authority, “Dr. Baddeley confined one of
these spiders under a glass wall-shade with two young musk-rats
(Sorex Indicus), both of which it destroyed.” It must be
added, however, that neither in the instance of the bird, of the
lizard, or the rats, did the galeodes devour its prey after killing
it.
In the hills around Pusilawa, I have seen the haunts of a
curious species of long-legged spiders4711,
popularly called “harvest-men,” which congregate in hollow trees
and in holes in the banks by the roadside, in groups of from fifty
to a hundred, that to a casual observer look like bunches of
horse-hair. This appearance is produced by the long and slender
legs of these creatures, which are of a shining black, whilst their
bodies, so small as to be mere specks, are concealed beneath them.
The same spider is found in the low country near Galle, but there
it shows no tendency to become gregarious. Can it be that they thus
assemble in groups in the hills for the sake of accumulated warmth
at the cool altitude of 4000 feet?
Ticks.—Ticks are to be classed among the
intolerable nuisances to the Ceylon traveller. They live in immense
numbers in the jungle4712,
and attaching themselves to the [pg 472] plants by the two
forelegs, lie in wait to catch at unwary animals as they pass. A
shower of these diminutive vermin will sometimes drop from a
branch, if unluckily shaken, and disperse themselves over the body,
each fastening on the neck, the ears, and eyelids, and inserting a
barbed proboscis. They burrow, with their heads pressed as far as
practicable under the skin, causing a sensation of smarting, as if
particles of red hot sand had been scattered over the flesh. If
torn from their hold, the suckers remain behind and form an ulcer.
The only safe expedient is to tolerate the agony of their
penetration till a drop of coco-nut oil or the juice of a lime can
be applied, when these little furies drop off without further ill
consequences. One very large species, dappled with grey, attaches
itself to the buffaloes.
Mites.—The Trombidium tinctorum of Hermann
is found about Aripo, and generally over the northern
provinces,—where after a shower of rain or heavy night’s dew,
they appear in countless myriads. It is about half an inch long,
like a tuft of crimson velvet, and imparts its colouring matter
readily to any fluid in which it may be immersed. It feeds on
vegetable juices, and is perfectly innocuous. Its European
representative, similarly tinted, and found in garden mould, is
commonly called the “Little red pillion.”
MYRIAPODS.—The certainty with which an accidental pressure
or unguarded touch is resented and retorted by a bite, makes the
centipede, when it has taken up its temporary abode, within a
sleeve or the fold of a dress, by far the most unwelcome of all the
Singhalese assailants. The great size, too (little short of a foot
in length), [pg 473] to which it sometimes attains,
renders it formidable, and, apart from the apprehension of
unpleasant consequences from a wound, one shudders at the bare idea
of such a hideous creature crawling over the skin, beneath the
innermost folds of one’s garments.
CERMATIA.At the head of the Myriapods, and pre-eminent from a
superiorly-developed organisation, stands the genus
Cermatia: singular-looking objects; mounted upon slender
legs, of gradually increasing length from front to rear, the hind
ones in some species being amazingly prolonged, and all handsomely
marked with brown annuli in concentric arches. These myriapods are
harmless, excepting to woodlice, spiders, and young cockroaches,
which form their ordinary prey. They are rarely to be seen; but
occasionally at daybreak, after a more than usually abundant
repast, they may be observed motionless, and resting with their
regularly extended limbs nearly flat against the walls. On being
disturbed they dart away with a surprising velocity, to conceal
themselves in chinks until the return of night.
But the species to be really dreaded are the true
Scolopendræ, which are active and carnivorous, living
in holes in old walls and other gloomy dens. One [pg 474]
species4741 attains to nearly the length of
a foot, with corresponding breadth; it is of a dark purple colour,
approaching black, with yellowish legs and antennæ, and in
its whole aspect repulsive and frightful. It is strong and active,
and evinces an eager disposition to fight when molested. The
Scolopendræ are gifted by nature with a rigid
coriaceous armour, which does not yield to common pressure, or even
to a moderate blow; so that they often escape the most
well-deserved and well-directed attempts to destroy them, seeking
refuge in retreats which effectually conceal them from sight.
There is a smaller species4742,
that frequents dwelling-houses; it is about one quarter the size of
the preceding, and of a dirty olive colour, with pale ferruginous
legs. It is this species that generally inflicts the wound, when
persons complain of being bitten by a scorpion; and it has a
mischievous propensity for insinuating itself into the folds of
dress. The bite at first does not occasion more suffering than
would arise from the penetration of two coarsely-pointed needles;
but after a little time the wound swells, becomes acutely painful,
and if it be over a bone or any other resisting part, the sensation
is so intolerable as to produce fever. The agony subsides after a
few hours’ duration. In some cases the bite is unattended by any
particular degree of annoyance, and in these instances it is to be
supposed that the contents of the poison gland had become exhausted
by previous efforts, since, if much tasked, the organ requires rest
to enable it to resume its accustomed functions and to secrete a
supply of venom.
The Fish-insect.—The chief inconvenience of a
[pg
475] residence in Ceylon, both on the coast and in the
mountains, is the prevalence of damp, and the difficulty of
protecting articles liable to injury from this cause. Books,
papers, and manuscripts rapidly decay; especially during the
south-west monsoon, when the atmosphere is saturated with moisture.
Unless great precautions are taken, the binding fades and yields,
the leaves grow mouldy and stained, and letter-paper, in an
incredibly short time, becomes so spotted and spongy as to be unfit
for use. After a very few seasons of neglect, a book falls to
pieces, and its decomposition attracts hordes of minute insects,
that swarm to assist in the work of destruction. The concealment of
these tiny creatures during daylight renders it difficult to watch
their proceedings, or to discriminate the precise species most
actively engaged; but there is every reason to believe that the
larvæ of the death-watch and numerous acari are amongst the
most active. As nature seldom peoples a region supplied with
abundance of suitable food, without, at the same time, taking
measures of precaution against the disproportionate increase of
individuals; so have these vegetable depredators been provided with
foes who pursue and feed greedily upon them. These are of widely
different genera; but instead of their services being gratefully
recognised, they are popularly branded as accomplices in the work
of destruction. One of these ill-used creatures is a tiny,
tail-less scorpion (Chelifer4751),
and another is the pretty [pg 476] little silvery creature
(Lepisma), called by Europeans the “fish-insect.”4761
The latter, which is a familiar genus, comprises several
species, of which only two have as yet been described; one is of a
large size, most graceful in its movements, and singularly
beautiful in appearance, owing to the whiteness of the pearly
scales from which its name is derived. These, contrasted with the
dark hue of the other parts, and its tri-partite tail, attract the
eye as the insect darts rapidly along. Like the chelifer, it shuns
the light, hiding in chinks till sunset, but is actively engaged
throughout the night feasting on the acari and soft-bodied insects
which assail books and papers.
Millepeds.—In the hot dry season, and more
especially in the northern portions of the island, the eye is
attracted along the edges of the sandy roads by fragments of the
dislocated rings of a huge species of millepede4762, lying in short curved tubes,
the cavity admitting the tip of the little finger. When perfect the
creature is two-thirds of a foot long, of a brilliant jet black,
and with above a hundred yellow legs, which, when moving onward,
present the appearance of a series of undulations from rear to
front, bearing the [pg 477] animal gently forwards. This
Julus is harmless, and may be handled with perfect impunity.
Its food consists chiefly of fruits and the roots and stems of
succulent vegetables, its jaws not being framed for any more
formidable purpose. Another and a very pretty species4771, quite as black, but with a
bright crimson band down the back, and the legs similarly tinted,
is common in the gardens about Colombo and throughout the western
province.
CRUSTACEA.—The seas around Ceylon abound with marine
articulata; but a knowledge of the crustacea of the island is at
present a desideratum; and with the exception of the few commoner
species that frequent the shores, or are offered in the markets, we
are literally without information, excepting the little that can be
gleaned from already published systematic works.
CALLING CRAB OF CEYLON.In the bazaars several species of edible crabs are exposed for
sale; and amongst the delicacies at the tables of Europeans,
curries made from prawns and lobsters are the triumphs of the
Ceylon cuisine. Of these latter the fishermen sometimes exhibit
specimens4772
of extraordinary dimensions and of a beautiful purple hue,
variegated with white. Along the level shore north and south of
Colombo, and in no less profusion elsewhere, the nimble little
Calling Crabs4773
scamper over the moist sands, carrying aloft the enormous hand
(sometimes larger than the [pg 478] rest of the body), which is their
peculiar characteristic, and which, from its beckoning gesture has
suggested their popular name. They hurry to conceal themselves in
the deep retreats which they hollow out in the banks that border
the sea.
Sand Crabs.—In the same localities, or a little
farther inland, the Ocypode4781
burrows in the dry soil, making deep excavations, bringing up
literally armfulls of sand; which with a spring in the air, and
employing its other limbs, it jerks far from its burrows,
distributing it in a circle to the distance of several feet.4782 So inconvenient are the
operations of these industrious pests that men are kept regularly
employed at Colombo in filling up the holes formed by them on the
surface of the Galle face. This, the only equestrian promenade of
the capital, is so infested by these active little creatures that
accidents often occur through horses stumbling in their troublesome
excavations.
Painted Crabs.—On the reef of rocks which lies to
the south of the harbour at Colombo, the beautiful little painted
crabs4783, distinguished by dark red
markings on a yellow ground, may be seen all day long running
nimbly in the spray, and ascending and descending in security the
almost perpendicular sides of the rocks which are washed by the
waves. Paddling Crabs4784,
with the hind pair of legs terminated by flattened plates to assist
them in swimming, are brought up in the fishermen’s nets. Hermit
Crabs take possession of the deserted shells of the univalves,
and crawl in pursuit of garbage along the moist beach. Prawns and
shrimps furnish delicacies [pg 479] for the breakfast table; and the
delicate little pea crab, Pontonia inflata4791, recalls its Mediterranean
congener4792, which attracted the attention
of Aristotle, from taking up its habitation in the shell of the
living pinna.
ANNELIDÆ.—The marine Annelides of the island
have not as yet been investigated; a cursory glance, however,
amongst the stones, on the beach at Trincomalie and in the pools
that afford convenient basins for examining them, would lead to the
belief that the marine species are not numerous; tubicole genera,
as well as some nereids, are found, but there seems to be little
diversity, though it is not impossible that a closer scrutiny might
be repaid by the discovery of some interesting forms.
LAND LEECHES IN PURSUITLeeches.—Of all the plagues which beset the
traveller in the rising grounds of Ceylon, the most detested are
the land leeches.4793
They are not frequent in the plains, [pg 480] which are too hot and
dry for them; but amongst the rank vegetation in the lower ranges
of the hill country, [pg 481] which is kept damp by frequent
showers, they are found in tormenting profusion. They are
terrestrial, never visiting ponds or streams. In size they are
about an inch in length, and as fine as a common knitting needle;
but they are capable of distension till they equal a quill in
thickness, and attain a length of nearly two inches. Their
structure is so flexible that they can insinuate themselves through
the meshes of the finest stocking, not only seizing on the feet and
ankles, but ascending to the back and throat and fastening on the
tenderest parts of the body. In order to exclude them, the coffee
planters, who live amongst these pests, are obliged to envelope
their legs in “leech gaiters” made of closely woven cloth. The
natives smear their bodies with oil, tobacco ashes, or lemon
juice4811; the latter serving not only to
stop the flow of blood, but to expedite the healing of the wounds.
In moving, the land leeches have the power of planting one
extremity on the earth and raising the other perpendicularly to
watch for their victim. Such is their vigilance and instinct, that
on [pg
482] the approach of a passer-by to a spot which they
infest, they may be seen amongst the grass and fallen leaves on the
edge of a native path, poised erect, and preparing for their attack
on man and horse. On descrying their prey they advance rapidly by
semi-circular strides, fixing one end firmly and arching the other
forwards, till by successive advances they can lay hold of the
traveller’s foot, when they disengage themselves from the ground
and ascend his dress in search of an aperture to enter. In these
encounters the individuals in the rear of a party of travellers in
the jungle invariably fare worst, as the leeches, once warned of
their approach, congregate with singular celerity. Their size is so
insignificant, and the wound they make is so skilfully punctured,
that both are generally imperceptible, and the first intimation of
their onslaught is the trickling of the blood or a chill feeling of
the leech when it begins to hang heavily on the skin from being
distended by its repast. Horses are driven wild by them, and stamp
the ground in fury to shake them from their fetlocks, to which they
hang in bloody tassels. The bare legs of the palankin bearers and
coolies are a favourite resort; and, as their hands are too much
engaged to be spared to pull them off, the leeches hang like
bunches of grapes round their ankles; and I have seen the blood
literally flowing over the ledge of a European’s shoe from their
innumerable bites. In healthy constitutions the wounds, if not
irritated, generally heal, occasioning no other inconvenience than
a slight inflammation and itching; but in those with a bad state of
body, the punctures, if rubbed, are liable to degenerate into
ulcers, which may lead to the loss of limb or even of life. Both
Marshall and Davy mention, that during [pg 483] the
march of troops in the mountains, when the Kandyans were in
rebellion, in 1818, the soldiers, and especially the Madras sepoys,
with the pioneers and coolies, suffered so severely from this cause
that numbers perished.4831
One circumstance regarding these land leeches is remarkable and
unexplained; they are helpless without moisture, and in the hills
where they abound at all other times, they entirely disappear
during long droughts;—yet re-appear instantaneously on the
very first fall of rain; and in spots previously parched, where not
one was visible an hour before, a single shower is sufficient to
reproduce them in thousands, lurking beneath the decaying leaves,
or striding with rapid movements across the gravel. Whence do they
re-appear? Do they, too, take a “summer sleep,” like the reptiles,
molluscs, and tank fishes? or may they, like the Rotifera,
be dried up and preserved for an indefinite period, resuming their
vital activity on the mere recurrence of moisture?4832
Besides a species of the medicinal leech, which4833 is [pg 484] found
in Ceylon, nearly double the size of the European one, and with a
prodigious faculty of engorging blood, there is another pest in the
low country, which is a source of considerable annoyance, and often
of loss, to the husbandman. This is the cattle leech4841, which infests the stagnant
pools, chiefly in the alluvial lands around the base of the
mountain zone, whither the cattle resort by day, and the wild
animals by night, to quench their thirst and to bathe. Lurking
amongst the rank vegetation that fringes these deep pools, and hid
by the broad leaves, or concealed among the stems and roots covered
by the water, there are quantities of these pests in wait to attack
the animals on their approach to drink. Their natural food consists
of the juices of lumbrici and other invertebrata; but they
[pg
485] generally avail themselves of the opportunity afforded
by the dipping of the muzzles of the animals in the water to fasten
on their nostrils, and by degrees to make their way to the deeper
recesses of the nasal passages, and the mucous membranes of the
throat and gullet. As many as a dozen have been found attached to
the epiglottis and pharynx of a bullock, producing such irritation
and submucous effusion that death has eventually ensued; and so
tenacious are the leeches that even after death they retain their
hold for some hours.4851
ARTICULATA.
APTERA.
THYSANURA.
- Podura albicollis.
- atricollis.
- viduata.
- pilosa.
- Archoreutes coccinea.
- Lepisma nigrofasciara, Temp.
- nigra.
ARACHNIDA.
- Buthus afer. Linn.
- Ceylonicus, Koch.
- Scorpio linearis.
- Chelifer librorum.
- oblongus.
- Obisium crassifemur.
- Phrynus lunatus, Pall.
- Thelyphonus caudatus, Linn.
- Phalangium bisignatum.
- Mygale fasciata, Walck.
- Olios taprobanius, Walck.
- Nephila … ?
- Trombidium tinctorum, Herm.
- Oribata … ?
- Ixodes … ?
MYRIAPODA.
- Cermatia dispar.
- Lithobius umbratilis.
- Scolopendra crassa.
- spinosa, Newp.
- pallipes.
- Grayii? Newp.
- tuberculidens, Newp.
- Ceylonensis, Newp.
- flava, Newp.
- olivacea.
- abdominalis,
- Cryptops sordidus.
- assimilis.
- Geophilus tegularius.
- speciosus.
- Julus ater.
- carnifex, Fabr.
- pallipes.
- fiaviceps.
- pallidus.
- Craspedosoma juloides.
- præusta.
- Polydesmus granulatus.
- Cambala catenulata.
- Zephronia conspicua.
CRUSTACEA.
DECAPODA BHACHTUEA.
- Polybius.
- Neptunus pelagicus, Linn.
- sanguinolentus, Herbst.
- Thalamlta … ?
- Thelphusa Indica, Latr.
- Cardisoma … ?
- Ocypoda ceratophthalmus, Pall,
- macrocera, Edw.
- Gelasimus tetragonon, Edw.
- annulipes, Edw.
- Macrophthalmus carinimanus, Latr.
- Grapsus messor, Forsk.
- strigosus, Herbst.
- Plagusia depressa, Fabr.
- Calappa philargus, Linn.
- tuberculata, Fabr.
- Matota victor, Fabr.
- Leucosia fugax, Fabr.
- Dorippe.
DECAPODA ANOMURA.
- Dromia … ?
- Hippa Asiatica, Edw.
- Pagurus affinis, Edw.
- punctulatus, Oliv.
- Porcellana … ?
DECAPODA MACRURA.
- Scyllarus orientalis, Fabr.
- Palinurus ornatus, Fabr.
- affinis, N.S.
- Crangon … ?
- Alpheus … ?
- Pomonia inflata, Edw.
- Palæmon carcinus, Fabr.
- Steaopus … ?
- Peneus …?
STOMATOPODA.
- Squilla … ?
- Gonodactylus chiragra, Fabr.
CIRRHIPEDIA.
- Lepas.
- Balanus.
ANNELIDA.
- Tubicolæ.
- Dorsibranchiata.
- Abranchia.
- Hirudo sanguisorba.
- Thwaitesii.
- Hæmopsis paludum.
- Hæmadipsa Ceylana. Blainv.
- Hirudo sanguisorba.
- Lumbricus … ?
NOTE
ON THE FACULTY OF REPEATED RE-VIVIFICATION POSSESSED BY THE
ROTIFERA, ETC.
The Rotifer, a singular creature, although it can only
truly live in water, inhabits the moss on house-tops, dying each
time the sun dries up its place of retreat, to revive as often as a
shower of rain supplies it with the moisture essential to its
existence; thus employing several years to exhaust the eighteen
days of life which nature has allotted to it. These creatures were
discovered by LEUWENHOECK, and have become the types of a class
already numerous, which undergo the same conditions of life, and
possess the same faculty. Besides the Rotifera, the
Tardigrades, (which belong to the Acari,) and certain
paste-eels, all exhibit a similar phenomenon. [pg 487] But
although these different species may die and be resuscitated
several times in succession, this power has its limits, and each
successive experiment generally proves fatal to one or more
individuals. SPALLANZANI, in his experiments on the
Rotifera, did not find that any survived after the sixteenth
alternation of desiccation and damping, but paste-eels bore
seventeen of those vicissitudes.
SPALLANZANI, after thoroughly drying sand rich in
Rotifera, kept it for more than three years, moistening
portions taken from it every five or six months. BAKER went further
still in his experiments on paste-eels, for he kept the paste from
which they had been taken, without moistening it in any way, for
twenty-seven years, and at the end of that time the eels revived on
being immersed in a drop of water. If they had exhausted their
lives all at once and without these intermissions, these Rotifera
and paste-eels would not have lived beyond sixteen or eighteen
consecutive days.
To remove all doubt as to the complete desiccation of the
animalcules experimented on by SPALLANZANI and BAKER, M.
DOYÈRE has published, in the Annales des Sciences
Naturales for 1842, the results of his own observation, in
cases in which the mosses containing the insects were dried under
the receiver of an air-pump and left there for a week; after which
they were placed in a stove heated to 267° Fahr., and yet, when
again immersed in water, a number of the Rotifera became as
lively as ever.
Further particulars of these experiments will be found in the
Appendix to the Rambles of a Naturalist, &c., by M.
QUARTREFAGE.
Footnote 4651: (return)Species of the true Tarentula are not uncommon in Ceylon;
they are all of very small size, and perfectly harmless.
Footnote 4671: (return)Dissertatio de Generatione et Metamorphosibus Insectorum
Surinamensium, Amst. 1701. Fol.
Footnote 4672: (return)By Mr. MACLEAY in a paper communicated to the Zoological Society
of London, Proc. 1834, p. 12.
Footnote 4682: (return)See authorities quoted by Mr. SHUCKARD in the Ann. and Mag.
of Nat. Hist. 1842, vol. viii. p. 436, &c.
Footnote 4683: (return)At a meeting of the Entomological Society, July 20, 1855, a
paper was read by Mr. H.W. BATES, who stated that in 1849 at Cameta
in Brazil, he “was attracted by a curious movement of the large
grayish brown Mygale on the trunk of a vast tree: it was close
beneath a deep crevice or chink in the tree, across which this
species weaves a dense web, at one end open for its exit and
entrance. In the present instance the lower part of the web was
broken, and two small finches were entangled in its folds. The
finch was about the size of the common Siskin of Europe, and he
judged the two to be male and female; one of them was quite dead,
but secured in the broken web; the other was under the body of the
spider, not quite dead, and was covered in parts with a filthy
liquor or saliva exuded by the monster. “The species of spider,”
Mr. Bates says, “I cannot name; it is wholly of a gray brown
colour, and clothed with coarse pile.” “If the Mygales,” he adds,
“did not prey upon vertebrated animals, I do not see how they could
find sufficient subsistence.”—The Zoologist, vol.
xiii. p. 480.
Footnote 4692: (return)Over the country generally are scattered species of
Gasteracantha, remarkable for their firm shell-covered
bodies, with projecting knobs arranged in pairs. In habit these
anomalous-looking Epeirdæ appear to differ in no
respect from the rest of the family, waylaying their prey in
similar situations and in the same manner.Another very singular subgenus, met with in Ceylon, is
distinguished by the abdomen being dilated behind, and armed with
two long spines, arching obliquely backwards. These abnormal kinds
are not so handsomely coloured as the smaller species of typical
form.
Footnote v3: (return)Capt. Hutton. See a paper on the Galeodes voræ in
the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, vol. xi. Part
11. p. 860.
Footnote 4712: (return)Dr. HOOKER, in his Himalayan Journal, vol. i. p. 279, in
speaking of the multitude of those creatures in the mountains of
Nepal, wonders what they tend to feed on, as in these humid forests
in which they literally swarmed, there was neither pathway nor
animal life. In Ceylon they abound everywhere in the plains on the
low brush-wood; and in the very driest seasons they are quite as
numerous as at other times. In the mountain zone, which is more
humid, they are less prevalent. Dogs are tormented by them: and
they display something closely allied to cunning in always
fastening on an animal in those parts where they cannot be torn off
by his paws; on his eye-brows, the tips of his ears, and the back
of his neck. With a corresponding instinct I have always observed
in the gambols of the Pariah dogs, that they invariably commence
their attentions by mutually gnawing each other’s ears and necks,
as if in pursuit of ticks from places from which each is unable to
expel them for himself. Horses have a similar instinct; and when
they meet, they apply their teeth to the roots of the ears of their
companions, to the neck and the crown of the head. The buffaloes
and oxen are relieved of ticks by the crows which rest on their
backs as they browse, and free them from these pests. In the low
country the same acceptable office is performed by the
“cattle-keeper heron” (Ardea bubulcus), which is “sure to be
found in attendance on them while grazing; and the animals seem to
know their benefactors, and stand quietly, while the birds peck
their tormentors from their flanks.”—Mag. Nat. Hist.
p. 111, 1844.
Footnote 4751: (return)Of the first of these, three species have been noticed in
Ceylon, all with the common characteristics of being nocturnal,
very active, very minute, of a pale chesnut colour, and each armed
with a crab-like claw. They areChelifer Librorum, Temp.
Chelifer oblongus, Temp.
Chelifer acaroides, Hermann.
Dr. Templeton appears to have been puzzled to account for the
appearance of the latter species in Ceylon, so far from its native
country, but it has most certainly been introduced from Europe, in
Dutch or Portuguese books.
Footnote 4761: (return)Lepisma niveo-fasciata, Templeton, and L. niger,
Temp. It was called “Lepisma” by Fabricius, from its fish-like
scales. It has six legs, filiform antenna, and the abdomen
terminated by three elongated setæ, two of which are placed
nearly at right angles to the central one. LINNÆUS states
that the European species, with which book collectors are familiar,
was first brought in sugar ships from America. Hence, possibly,
these are more common in seaport towns in the South of England and
elsewhere, and it is almost certain that, like the chelifer, one of
the species found on book-shelves in Ceylon, has been brought
thither from Europe.
Footnote 4793: (return)Hæmadipsa Ceylanica. Bose. Blainv. These pests are
not, however, confined to Ceylon, they infest the lower ranges of
the Himalaya.—HOOKER, vol. i. p. 107; vol. ii. p. 54.
THUNBERG, who records (Travels, vol. iv. p. 232) having seen
them in Ceylon, likewise met with them in the forests and slopes of
Batavia. MARSDEN (Hist. p. 311) complains of them dropping
on travellers in Sumatra. KNORR found them at Japan; and it is
affirmed that they abound in islands farther to the eastward. M.
GAY encountered them in Chili.—(MOQUIN-TANDON,
Hirudinées, p. 211, 346). It is very doubtful,
however, whether all these are to be referred to one species. M. DE
BLAINVILLE, under H. Ceylanica, in the Dict. de Scien.
Nat. vol. xlvii. p. 271, quotes M. Bosc as authority for the
kind, which that naturalist describes being “rouges et
tachetées;” which is scarcely applicable to the Singhalese
species. It is more than probable therefore, considering the period
at which M. BOSC wrote, that he obtained his information from
travellers to the further east, and has connected with the habitat
universally ascribed to them from old KNOX’S work (Part 1. chap.
vi.) a meagre description, more properly belonging to the land
leech of Batavia or Japan. In all likelihood, therefore, there may
be a H. Boscii, distinct from the H. Ceylanica. That
which is found in Ceylon is round, a little flattened on the
inferior surface, largest at the anal extremity, thence gradually
tapering forward, and with the anal sucker composed of four rings,
and wider in proportion than in other species.EYES AND TEETH OF THE LAND LEECH OF CEYLON
It is of a clear brown colour, with a yellow stripe the entire
length of each side, and a greenish dorsal one. The body is formed
of 100 rings; the eyes, of which there are five pairs, are placed
in an arch on the dorsal surface; the first four pairs occupying
contiguous rings (thus differing from the water-leeches, which have
an unoccupied ring betwixt the third and fourth); the fifth pair
are located on the seventh ring, two vacant rings intervening. To
Mr. Thwaites, Director of the Botanic Garden at Peradenia, who at
my request examined their structure minutely, I am indebted for the
following most interesting particulars respecting them. “I have
been giving a little time to the examination of the land leech. I
find it to have five pairs of ocelli, the first four seated on
corresponding segments, and the posterior pair on the seventh
segment or ring, the fifth and sixth rings being eyeless
(fig. A). The mouth is very retractile, and the aperture is
shaped as in ordinary leeches. The serratures of the teeth, or
rather the teeth themselves, are very beautiful. Each of the three
‘teeth,’ or cutting instruments, is principally muscular, the
muscular body being very clearly seen. The rounded edge in which
the teeth are set appears to be cartilaginous in structure; the
teeth are very numerous, (fig. B); but some near the base
have a curious appendage, apparently (I have not yet made this out
quite satisfactorily) set upon one side. I have not yet been able
to detect the anal or sexual pores. The anal sucker seems to be
formed of four rings, and on each side above is a sort of crenated
flesh-like appendage. The tint of the common species is
yellowish-brown or snuff-coloured, streaked with black, with a
yellow-greenish dorsal, and another lateral line along its whole
length. There is a larger species to be found in this garden with a
broad green dorsal fascia; but I have not been able to procure one
although I have offered a small reward to any coolie who will bring
me one.” In a subsequent communication Mr. Thwaites remarks “that
the dorsal longitudinal fascia is of the same width as the lateral
ones, and differs only in being perhaps slightly more green; the
colour of the three fasciæ varies from brownish-yellow to
bright green.” He likewise states “that the rings which compose the
body are just 100, and the teeth 70 to 80 in each set, in a single
row, except to one end, where they are in a double row.”
Footnote 4811: (return)The Minorite friar, ODORIC of Portenau. writing in A.D. 1320,
says that the gem-finders who sought the jewels around Adam’s Peak,
“take lemons which they peel, anointing themselves with the juice
thereof, so that the leeches may not be able to hurt
them.”—HAKLUYT, Voy. vol. ii. p. 58.
Footnote 4832: (return)See an account of the Rotifera and their faculty of
repeated vivifaction, in the note appended to this chapter.
Footnote 4833: (return)Hirudo sanguisorba. The paddi-field leech of Ceylon, used
for surgical purposes, has the dorsal surface of blackish olive,
with several longitudinal striæ, more or less defined; the
crenated margin yellow. The ventral surface is fulvous, bordered
laterally with olive; the extreme margin yellow. The eyes are
ranged as in the common medicinal leech of Europe; the four
anterior ones rather larger than the others. The teeth are 140 in
each series, appearing as a single row; in size diminishing
gradually from one end, very close set, and about half the width of
a tooth apart. When full grown, these leeches are about two inches
long, but reaching to six inches when extended. Mr. Thwaites, to
whom I am indebted for these particulars, adds that he saw in a
tank at Kolona Korle leeches which appeared to him flatter and of a
darker colour than those described above, but that he had not an
opportunity of examining them particularly.DORSAL. VENTRAL
Mr. Thwaites states that there is a smaller tank leech of an
olive-green colour, with some indistinct longitudinal striæ
on the upper surface; the crenated margin of a pale
yellowish-green; ocelli as in the paddi-field leech; length, one
inch at rest, three inches when extended.Mr. E.L. LAYARD informs us, Mag. Nat. Hist. p. 225, 1853,
that a bubbling spring at the village of Tonniotoo, three miles
S.W. of Moeletivoe, supplies most of the leeches used in the
island. Those in use at Colombo are obtained in the immediate
vicinity.
Footnote 4841: (return)Hæmopsis paludum. In size the cattle leech of
Ceylon is somewhat larger than the medicinal leech of Europe: in
colour it is of a uniform brown without bands, unless a rufous
margin may be so considered. It has dark striæ. The body is
somewhat rounded, flat when swimming, and composed of rather more
than ninety rings. The greatest dimension is a little in advance of
the anal sucker; the body thence tapers to the other extremity,
which ends in an upper lip projecting considerably beyond the
mouth. The eyes, ten in number, are disposed as in the common
leech. The mouth is oval, the biting apparatus with difficulty
seen, and the teeth not very numerous. The bite is so little acute
that the moment of attachment, and the incision of the membrane is
scarcely perceived by the sufferer from its attack.
Footnote 4851: (return)Even men, when stooping to drink at a pool, are not safe from
the assault of the cattle leeches. They cannot penetrate the human
skin, but the delicate membrane of the mucous passages is easily
ruptured by their serrated jaws. Instances have come to my
knowledge of Europeans into whose nostrils they had gained
admission and caused serious disturbance.
INDEX.
- ABOU-ZEYD, his account of fish on dry land, 350 n.
- Abyssinia, fishes of, 352.
- Acalephæ, 398. See
Radiata. - Acanthopterygii, 360.
- Accipitres, 245.
- Acherontia Sathanas, 427
- Adam’s Peak, elephants on the summit, 109.
- Ælian’s account of the mermaid, 69.
- his statement as to the export of elephants from Ceylon,
77 n., 209n. - error as to the shedding of the elephant’s tusks, 79 n.
- describes elephants killing criminals with their knees.87 n.
- error as to elephants’ joints, 102.
- his account of Ceylon tortoises, 293.
- his account of the superiority of the elephants of Ceylon,
209 n. - his description of the performances of the trained elephants at
Rome, 237. - his account of the sword-fish, 328.
- describes a Cheironectes, 331.
- his statement as to the export of elephants from Ceylon,
- African elephant, its peculiarities, 65.
- not inferior to the Indian in tractability, 208.
- Albino buffalo, 57.
- deer, 59.
- Albyrouni, on the pearl oyster, 375.
- Alce, described by Pliny and Cæsar, 101 n.
- Alexandria, story of the dogs at, 34.
- Alligator, 283. See
Crocodile. - Almeida, Manoel de, on burying fishes, 353 n.
- Amboina, mermaids at, 70.
- Ampullaria, its faculty of burying itself, 355.
- Anabas, 354.
- Angling bad in Ceylon, 335 n.,
341. - Annelidæ, leeches, 479.
- Anseres, 260.
- Ansted, Prof., on the geology of Ceylon, 61.
- his statement as to the height of Indian elephants, 100 n.
- Antiochus, elephants used by, 208.
- Antipater, the first to bring the Indian elephant to Europe,
207. - Ant-lion, 411. See Insects.
- Ants, 420 See Insects.
- Armandi’s work on the use of elephants in war, 208 n.
- Aphaniptera, 433.
- Arachnidæ, spiders, 464.
- Argus cowrie, 369.
- Aripo, the sea-shore, 373.
- Aristotle, account of fishes migrating overland, 344.
- Armitage, Mr., story of an elephant on his estate, 139.
- Articulata, list of, 485.
- Athenæus, anecdotes of fishes on dry land, 346. [pg 490]
- Avicula, 373. See Pearl
Fishery. - Avitchia, story of, 244. See
Jackdaw. - Ayeen Akbery, elephant stomach described in, 128.
- Baker, Mr., his theory of the passion for sporting, 142 n.
- its accuracy questionable, 142
n.
- its accuracy questionable, 142
- Badger, the Ceylon, 38. See
Mongoos. - Bandicoot rat, 44.
- Barbezieux, on the elephant, 104.
- Batocera rubus, 406.
- Batrachia, 318.
- Bats, 13 See Mammalia and
Cheiroptera. - Batticaloa, musical fish, 380.
- Bears, 22. See Mammalia.
- Beaters for elephants, 150.
- Beaver, on African elephant, 234.
- Beckman’s account of fishes on dry land, 346.
- Bees, 419. See Insects.
- Beetles, 405. See Insects.
- Bell, Sir Charles, on the elephant’s shoulder, 108.
- Benary, his derivation of the word elephant, 76 n.
- Bengal mode of taking elephants, 164.
- Bennett’s account of Ceylon, Introd.
- work on its Ichthyology, 323.
- Bernier, on the Ceylon elephant, 209.
- Bertolacci, on form of chank shell, 372.
- Bestiaries, 104.
- Bicho de Mar. See Holothuria.
- Birds of Ceylon, 241.
- their number and character, ib.
- few songsters, 242.
- pea-fowl, 244.
- eagles and hawks, 245.
- owls, devil bird, 246. 247.
- swallows, 248.
- edible bird’ nests, 248.
- kingfisher, sun birds, 249.
- bulbul, tailor bird, weaver bird, 251.
- crows, anecdotes of, 253.
- paroquets, 256.
- pigeons, 257.
- jungle-fowl, 259.
- grallæ, flamingoes, 260.
- list of Ceylon birds, 265.
- Bird-eating spiders, 469.
- Birds’ nests, edible, 248.
- Blainville, De, on the age of the elephant, 232.
- Blair, on the anatomy of the elephant, 123 n.
- Bles, Marcellus, on the elephants of Ceylon, 113 n., 215
n. - Blood-suckers, 275.
- Blyth, Mr., of Calcutta, his cultivation of zoology, 4.
- his revision of this work, Introd.
- Boa, 303. See Python.
- Boar, wild, 59.
- Bochart, 68.
- his derivation of the word “elephant,” 76
n.
- his derivation of the word “elephant,” 76
- Bora-chung, a curious fish, 367.
- Bosquez, Demas, account of a mermaid, 70.
- Bowring, Sir John, on the fishes of Siam, 348.
- Broderip, on the elephant, 122.
- Browne, Sir Thomas, vulgar errors, 100. 105.
- error as to elephants’ joints, 102.
- Brun, Le, account of the elephants at Colombo, 77 n.
- Bruno or Braun, his account of the Guinea worm, 397.
- Buchanan, story of buffalo “rogues,” 115
n. - Buffalo, 54. See Mammalia.
- Buffon, on the elephant, 113 n.,
215. - Bugs, 433. See Insects and
Coffee-bug. - Buist, Dr., account of fish fallen from clouds, 362.
- Bulbul, 251. See Birds.
- Bulimi, their vitality, 357.
- Bullia, curious property of, 370.
- Bullocks for draught, 50.
- Burying fishes, 351.
- Butterflies, 403. 425. See Insects.
- Cæcilia, 317. See
Reptiles. - Cæsar’s description of the “alce,” 100 n.
- Cajan, 373 n.
- Caldera, in Chili, musical sounds under water, 383.
- Calotes, the green, 276.
- Camel, attempt to domesticate in Ceylon, 53 n.
- Camper, on the anatomy of the elephant’s stomach, 125.
- Carawala, 296. See Reptiles.
- Carnivora, 74. [pg 491]
- Carpenter bee, 418. See
Insects. - Caterpillars, stings of, 429.
- Cats attracted by the Cuppa-may-niya, 33.
- Centipede, 474. See Myriapoda
and Scolopendræ. - Ceratophora, 279.
- Cerithia, 381.
- probably musical, 381 n.
- Cermatia, 473. See
Myriapoda. - Cetacea, 68. 74.
- described by Megasthenes and Ælian, 69.
- Chameleon, 278. See
Reptiles. - Chank shell, Turbinella rapa, 371.
See [Greek: Kochlious] and Schenek. - Cheetah, 26. See Leopard.
- Cheironectes, described by Ælian, 331.
- Cheiroptera, 13. 74.
- Chelifer, 475.
- Chelonia, 322.
- Chena cultivation, 130.
- Cicada, 432. See Insects.
- Cirrhipeda, 486.
- Cissa, 252.
- Civet, 32. See Genette.
- Climbing fish (Anabas scandens), 349.
- Cluverius, 68.
- Cobra de Capello, anecdotes of, 297.
- Cobra-tel, poison, 272. See
Kabara-tel. - Coecilia glutinosa, 317.
- attacked and killed by ants, 422.
- Coco-nut beetle, 407.
- Coffee-bug, Lecanium Caffeæ, 436.
- Coffee rat, 43.
- Coleoptera, 405.
- Columbidæ, 257.
- Conchology. See Shells.
- Cooroowe, elephant catchers, 181.
- Corral for taking elephants, 156.
164. See Elephant. - Corse, Mr., account of elephants, 114.
- Cosmas Indico pleustes, his reference to chanks at Marallo,
371. - Cotton-thief, 250. See
Tchitrea. - Crabs, 477. See Crustacea.
- Cripps, Mr., on sounds produced by elephants, 98.
- Crocodile, 282. See Reptiles.
- Crows, 233. See Birds.
- Cruelty to turtle, &c., 291.
- Crustacea, calling crabs, 477.
- Ctesias’ error as to the elephant’s knee, 101.
- Cumming, Mr. Gordon, on the power of the elephant in
overturning trees, 218 n. - Cuppa-moy niya plant, its attraction for cats, 33 n.
- Cuvier, on the elephant, 133.
- Daldorf’s account of climbing fish, 350.
- his story doubted, 350.
- Darwin, burying-place of llamas and goats, 236 n.
- on the coleoptera of Brazil, 405.
- Davy, Dr. John, describes the reptiles of
- Dawson, Captain, story of an elephant, 107.
- Deafness frequent in elephants, 98.
- Death’s-head moth, 427.
- Decoy elephants, 157.
- Decapoda brachyura, 486.
- Deer, 57.
- Demon-worship, anecdote of, 408.
- Denham, error as to height of elephants, 99.
- Devil-bird, 246. See Owls.
- Mr. Mitford’s account of, 247
n.
- Mr. Mitford’s account of, 247
- Diard, M., sends home an elephant for dissection, 123 n.
- Dicuil on the elephant, 103.
- Diptera, 434.
- Dogs, 33.
- Donne, on the elephant, 105.
- Doras, fish of Guiana, 347.
- Dragon-flies, 411. See
Insects. - Dugong, 68. 69.
- Dutch belief in the mermaid, 70.
- Eagles, 245. See Birds.
- Edentata, 46. 74.
- Edrisi, the Arabian geographer, his account of musk, 32 n.
- Eels, 337. 347
n. - Eginhard, life of Charlemagne, 103.
- Elephant, 64. 75.
- Sumatran species, 64.
- points of distinction, 65.
- those of Ceylon extolled, 209.
- elephants on Adam’s Peak, 109.
- numbers in Ceylon, 76.
- [Greek: Elephas], derivation of the word, 76 n.
- antiquity of the trade in, 77.
- numbers diminishing, 77.
- mode of poisoning, 77 n.
- tusks and their uses, 78.
- disposition gentle, 81.
- accidents from, 81.
- antipathy to other animals, 82; to the
horse, 83. - jealousy of each other, 86.
- mode of attacking man, 87.
- anecdote of a tame elephant, 89.
- African elephant differs from that of Ceylon, 64.
- skin, 91.
- white elephant, 92.
- love of shade, 94.
- water, not heat, essential to them, 94.
- sight limited—smell acute, 95.
- anatomy of the brain, 95.
- power of smell, 96.
- sounds uttered by, 96.
- subject to deafness, 98.
- exaggeration as to size, 98.
- source of this mistake, 98 n.
- stealthy motions, 100.
- error as to the elephant’s want of joints, 100.
- probable origin of this mistake, 106.
- mode of lying down, 107.
- ability to climb acclivities, 108.
- mode of descending a mountain, 110.
- a herd is a family, 111.
- attachment to young, 112.
- young suckled by all the females in a herd, 113.
- theory of this, according to White, 113
n. - a rogue, what, 114.
- savage attacks of rogues, 116.
- character of the rogues, 116. 147.
- habits of the herd, 117.
- anecdote of, 118.
- elephant’s mode of drinking, 120.
- their method of swimming, 121.
- wells sunk by, 122.
- receptacle in the stomach, 122.
- stomach, anatomy of, 124.
- food of the elephant, 129.
- instinct in search of food, 130.
- dread of fences, 131.
- their caution exaggerated, 132.
- spirit of curiosity in elephants, 132.
- anecdote of Col. Hardy, 132. 133.
- sagacity in freedom over-estimated, 134.
- leave the forests during thunder, 134.
- cunning, feign death, 135.
- stories of encounters with wild elephants, 136.
- sporting, numbers shot, 142.
- butchery by expert shots, 142
n. - fatal spots in the head, 144. 145.
- peculiar actions of elephants, 148.
- love of retirement, 149.
- elephant-trackers, 150.
- herd charging, 151.
- carcase useless, 153.
- remarkable recovery from a wound, 154.
See Lieut. Fretz. - mode of taking in India, 157-162.
- height measured by the circumference of the foot, 159.
- mode of shipping elephants at Manaar, 162.
- mode of shipping elephants at Galle, in 1701, 163 n.
- keddah for taking elephants in Bengal, 164.
- a corral (kraal) described, 165.
166. - derivation of the word corral, 165 n.
- corral, its construction, 167. 172.
- corral, driving in the elephants, 173.
- the capture, 177.
- mode of securing, 181.
- the “cooroowe,” or noosers, 181.
- tame elephants, their conduct, 182.
191. - captives, their resistance and demeanour, 184.
- dread of white rods, 186.
- their contortions, 190.
- a young one, 206.
- conduct in captivity, 207.
- mode of training, 211.
- their employment in ancient warfare, 207.
- superiority of Ceylon, a fallacy, 209.
- elephant driver’s crook (hendoo), 212.
- hairy elephants in Ceylon, 215 n.
[pg
493]
- Elephants, capricious disposition of, 215.
- first labour intrusted to them, 217.
- his comprehension of his duties, 218.
- exaggeration of his strength in uprooting trees, 218 n.
- Mahouts and their duties, 221.
- Their cry of urre!, 222
n. - elephant’s sense of musical notes, 223.
- its endurance of pain, 224.
- diseases in captivity, 225.
- subject to tooth-ache, 227.
- questionable economy of keeping trained elephants for labour,
229. - their cost, 230.
- their food, 230 n.
- fallacy of their alleged reluctance to breed in captivity,
231. - duration of life in the elephant, 232.
- theory of M. Fleurens, 232.
- instances of very old elephants in Ceylon, 233.
- dead elephant never found, 234.
- Sinbad’s story, 236.
- passage from Ælian regarding the, 237.
- Elk, 59. See Deer; Mammalia.
- Emydosauri, 321.
- Emys trijuga, 290.
- Englishman, anonymous, his story of a fight between elephants
and horses, 84.
- Falconer, Dr., height of Indian elephant, 99 n.
- Falkland Islands, peculiarity in the cattle there, 372 n.
- Fauna of Ceylon, not common to India, Introd., 62.
- Fishes of Ceylon, little known, 323.
- seir fish, and others for table, 324.
- abundance of perch, soles, and sardines, 324.
- explanation of Odoric’s statement, 324
n. - sardines, said to be poisonous, 324.
- shark, and sawfish, 325.
- sawfish, 325.
- ray, 326.
- swordfish, 328.
- cheironectes of Ælian, 331.
- fishes of rare forms, and of beautiful colours, 332.
- fresh-water fishes, their peculiarities, 335.
- fresh-water, little known, ib.; reason, 335 n.
- eels, 337.
- reappearance of fishes after the dry season, 340.
- Fishes, similar mysterious re-appearances elsewhere, 342 n.
- method of taking them by hand, 340.
- a fish decoy, 342.
- fish filling from clouds, 342 n.,
362. - buried alive in mud, 347.
- Mr. Yarrell’s theory controverted, 344.
- travelling overland, 345.
- the fact was known to the Greeks and Romans, 345.
- instances in Guiana and Siam, 347.
- faculty of all migratory fish for discovering water, 347 n.
- on dry land in Ceylon, 348.
- fish ascending trees, 349.
- excerpt from letter by Mr. Morris, 348
n. - Anabas scandens, 349. 350.
- Daldorf’s statement, anticipated by Abou-zeyd, 350 n.
- accidents when fishing, 351
n. - burying fishes and travelling fish, 351.
- occurrence of similar fish in Abyssinia and elsewhere, 352.
- statement of the patriarch Mendes, 353
n. - knowledge of habits of Melania employed judicially by E.L.
Layard, 355n. - illustrations of æstivating fish and animals, 356.
- æstivating shell-fish and water-beetlea, 351.
- fish in hot water, 358.
- list of Ceylon fishes, 359.
- Professor Huxley’s memorandum on the fishes of Ceylon, 364.
- Dr. Gray’s memorandum, 366.
- Note on the Bora-chung, 367.
- Fishing, native mode of, 340.
- Fish insect, 475.
- Flamingoes, 261. See Birds.
- Fleas, 433. See Insects.
- Fleurens, on the duration of life in the elephant, 232.
- Flies, their instinct in discovering carrion, 196 n.
- mosquitoes, the plague of, 434.
- Flowers, fondness of monkeys for, 7.
- Flying Fox. Pteropus Edwardsii, 14. See Mammalia.
- Flying squirrels, 41.
- Fresh-water fishes, 335.
- Fretz, Lieut., his singular wound, 154.
[pg
494] - Frogs, 318.
- Galle, elephants shipped in 1701, 163
n. - Gallinæ, 259.
- Galloperdix bicalcaratus, 259.
- Gallwey, Capt. P.P., great number of elephants shot by him,
142. - Game birds, 265.
- Gardner, Dr., his account of the coffee bug, 436-441.
- Gaur, 49 See Mammalia.
- Knox’s account of the gaur, 49.
- Geckoes, 281.
- Gemma Frisius, 68.
- Genette, 32.
- Geology of Ceylon, errors as to, 60.
- “Golden Meadows,” 211 n. See
Massoude. - Golunda rat, 43.
- Goondah, 114. See
Rogue. - Gooneratne, Mr., Introd.
- his story of the jackal, 35.
- Gordon Cumming, his butchery of elephants in Africa, 146 n.
- Gowra-ellia, 49.
- Grallæ, 260.
- Gray, Dr. J.E., Brit. Mus., Introd.
- notice of Ceylon fishes, 366.
- Great fire-fish, 332.
- Guinea worm, 397.
- Günther, Dr. A., on Ceylon reptiles, 275 n., 304.
- Gwillim’s Heraldry, error as to elephants, 105 n.
- Hambangtotte, elephants of, 99.
- Hardy, Col, anecdote of, when chased by an elephant, 133.
- Hardy, Rev. Spence, describes a white monkey, 8.
- Haroun Alraschid, sends an elephant to Charlemagne, 103.
- Harrison, Dr., 95.
- Hastisilpe, a work on elephants, 87
n., 91. - Hawking, 246.
- Hawks. See Birds, 246.
- Hedge-hog, 46.
- Helix hæmastoma, its colouring, 372.
- Hemiptera, 433. 462.
- Hendoo, crook for driving elephants, 212.
- Herd, a, of elephants, is a family, 111.
- its mode of electing a leader, 117.
- Herodotus, on mosquitoes, 435.
- antipathy of the elephant to the camel, 83 n.
- Herpestes, 38.
- Herport, Albrecht, his work on India, 71
n. - Hesperidæ, 426.
- Hill, Sir John, error as to elephants, 98.
- Hippopotamus rogues, 115 n.
- Histiophorus, 330. See
Sword-fish. - Holland, Dr., his theory as to the formation of tusks, 89 n.
- Holothurin, sea-slug and Trepang, 396.
- Home, Sir Everard, on the elephant’s stomach, 124.
- error as to the elephant’s ear, 223.
- Home, Randal, error as to elephant, 105
n. - Homoptera, 462. 463.
- Honey-comb, great size of, 418.
- Hooker, Dr. J.D., on the elephants of the Himalaya, 110 n.
- Hora, 115. See Rogue.
- Horace, alludes to a white elephant, 92
n. - Hornbill, Buceros, 242. 243.
- Horse, alleged antipathy to the elephant, 83.
- Hotambeya, 40. See Mongoos.
- Hot-water fishes, 358.
- Hunt, mode of conducting an elephant-hunt, 157.
- Hunter, Dr. John, his theory of æstivation, 356.
- Hurra! 223 n.
- Huxley, Prof., Introd.
- his memorandum on the fishes of Ceylon, 364.
- Hydrophobia in jackals, 36.
- Hymenoptera, 416.
- Ianthina, 370.
- Ichneumon, 39. See Mongoos.
- Iguana, 271. See Reptiles.
- Infusoria, Red, in the Ceylon seas, 400.
- Insects of Ceylon, 403.
- Insects, Hymenoptera, mason-wasp, 416.
- wasps, bees, wasps’ nest, 418.
- carpenter bee, 418.
- ants, 420.
- value of scavenger ants to conchologists, 421.
- dimiya or red ant, 422.
- introduced to destroy coffee-bug, 423.
- Lepidoptera, butterflies, 424.
- lycænidæ, hesperidæ, 426.
- acherontia sathanas, 427.
- moths, silk-worm, 427.
- stinging caterpillars, 429.
- oiketicus, 430.
- Homoptera, cicada, the “knife-grinder,” 432.
- Flata, 433.
- Aphaniptera—fleas, 433.
- Diptera—mosquitoes, 434.
- Coffee bug, 436-441.
- Mr. Walker’s memorandum on Ceylon insects, 442.
- list, 447.
- Ivory, annual consumption, 78 n.
- superiority of Chinese, ib.
- Jackal, 35.
- Jackdaw, fable of, 244. See
Avitchia. - Jardine, Sir W., error as to elephants shedding their tusks,
79 n. - Jay, the mountain, 252. See
Cissa. - Joinville, on the parasite of the bat, 20.
- Julus, 477.
- Jungle fowl, 259. See Birds.
- Juvenal’s allusion to fishes on land, 346.
- Kabragoya, 272. 273. See Iguana.
- Keddah, for taking elephants, 164.
- Kelaart, Dr., work on the Zoology of Ceylon, 4.
- Kingfisher, 249. See Birds.
- Kinnis, Dr., cultivates zoology, 4.
- Kite, on Egyptian sculpture, 246
n. - Knife-grinder, 432. See
Cicada. - Knox, R., account of Ceylon fauna, Introd.
- Knox, his description of natives fishing, 340.
- [Greek: Kochlious], 371.
- Kombook tree, its bark, 170.
- Korahl, 165. See Kraal
and Corral.- derivation of the word, 165
n.
- derivation of the word, 165
- Kornegalle, beauty of the place, 167.
- Kottiar, immense oysters, 371 n.
See Cottiar. - Kraal, 165. See Corral and
Korahl. - Krank-bezoeker, 71 n.
- Layard, E.A., his knowledge of Ceylon zoology, 4.
- Leaf insect. 408-410. See Insects.
- Leaping fish, 332. See Salarias
alticus. - Lecanium Caffeæ, 436.
- Leeches, 479. See Annelidæ.
- Leopard, 25.
- Lepidoptera, 424.
- Lepisma, the fish insect, 474.
- Lima, General de, his account of the weight of elephants’ tusks
at- Mozambique, 79 n.
- Livingstone’s account of the “rogue” hippopotamus, 115 n.
- Llama of the Andes, its stomach, 128
n. - Livy, account of fishes on dry land, 346.
- Lizards, 271. See Reptiles.
- Lophobranchi, 362.
- Loris, 12. See Mammalia.
- Lucan, description of the ichneumon, 39.
- Lycænidæ, 426.
- Lyre-headed lizard, 277.
- Macabbees iii. Book, allusion to elephants, 87 n., 211
n. - Macacus monkey, 5.
- Machlis described by Cæsar, 101.
- Macready, Major, account of a noise made by elephants, 97.
- his opinion as to the vulnerable point in the elephant’s head.
145 n.
- his opinion as to the vulnerable point in the elephant’s head.
- Mahawanso, mentions a white elephant, 93.
- Mahout, an elephant driver, 181.
See Ponnekella. [pg 496] - Mahout, alleged short life, 222.
- Malacopterygii abdominales, 362.
- Mammalia, 3.
- Monkeys, 5.
- Rilawa, 5.
- Wanderoo, 6.
- error as to the Ceylon Wanderoo, 6
n. - Wanderoo, mode of flight among trees, 9.
- monkeys never found dead, 11.
- Loris, 12.
- tortures inflicted on it, 13.
- Bat, flying fox, 14.
- skeleton of, 14.
- attracted by toddy to the coco-nut palms, 18.
- horse-shoe bat, 18.
- parasite of the bat, Nycteribia, 20.
21. - bears, 22.
- bears dreaded in Ceylon, 24.
- leopards, 25.
- attracted by the odour of small pox, 28.
- anecdote of a leopard, 29.
- lesser felines, 32.
- dogs, Pariah, 34.
- jackal, 34.
- the jackal’s horn, 36.
- Mongoos, 37.
- assaults of Mongoos on the serpent, 38.
- squirrels, 41.
- the flying squirrel, 41.
- rats, the rat snake, 42.
- coffee rat, 43. 44.
- bandicoot, 44. 45.
- porcupine, 45.
- pengolin, 46-48.
- the gaur, 49.
- the ox, 50.
- anecdote of, 51.
- draft oxen, 51-53.
- the buffalo, 54.
- sporting buffaloes, 55.
- peculiarity of the buffalo’s foot, 56.
- deer, 57.
- meminna, 57. 58.
- Ceylon elk, 59.
- wild boar, 59.
- elephant, 69. 75.
- whale and dugong, 68. 69.
- peculiarities of Ceylon mammalia, 73.
- list of, 73.
- Manaar, mermaid taken at, 69.
- Manis. See Pengolin, 46.
- Mantis, 410.
- Massoudi, on the use of elephants in war, 211 n.
- his account of pearl-diving, 377
n.
- his account of pearl-diving, 377
- Mastacembelus, 338. See
Eels. - Megasthenes’ account of the mermaid, 69.
- Mehemet Ali, story of, 34.
- Melania Paludina, its habit of burying itself, 355.
- its hybernation, 355.
- Melania, story of a law suit decided by, 355 n.
- Meleagrina, 373 n. See
Pearl fishery. - Meminna deer, 58.
- Mercator, 68.
- Mercer, Mr., his story of an elephant fight, 86.
- Mermaid, 68. See Dugong.
- Mermaids, at Manaar, 69.
- Millipeds, Julus, 477.
- Mites, 472.
- Mollusca. See Shells.
- Molyneux, on the anatomy of the elephant, 122 n.
- Mongoos, 38. See Ichneumon.
- Monkeys, 5.
- Moors of Galle, make ornaments of the elephant’s teeth,
153. - Moors, as caravan drivers, 53.
- Moose deer, 58. See Meminna.
- Morris, Mr., account of fishes on land, 348.
- Mosquitoes, their cunning, 434.
- Moths, 427. See Insects.
- Munster, Sebastian, 68.
- Musical fishes, 380.
- Musk, 32.
- Mygale, spider, 465.
- Myriapods, 472.
- Narric-comboo, 37. See Jackal’s
Horn. - Natural history neglected in Ceylon, 3.
- Neela-cobeya, pigeon, 258.
- Neuroptera, 411.
- Nietner, on Ceylon insects, Introd.
- Nycteribia, parasite of the bat, 20. 21.
- its extraordinary structure, 22.
- Odoric of Portenau, his cure for leech bites, 481.
- Oiketicus, 430.
- Oil-bird, 269.
- Ophidia, 321.
- Ortelius, 68.
- Orthoptera, 408.
- Ouanderoo. See Wanderoo.
- Owen, Professor, on the structure of the elephant’s tusk,
228.- on the Protopterus of the Gambia, 352.
- Owls. See Birds.
- Oxen, their uses and diseases, 50.
- Oysters at Bentotte, 371.
- immense, at Kottiar, 371 n.
- Pachydermata, 59. 74.
- Padivil, the great tank, 262.
- Pallegoix, on the elephants of Siam, 98
n.- on the fishes of Siam, 347.
- Palm-cat, 32.
- Panickeas, elephant catchers, 150.
158.- their skill, 159.
- Pariah dogs, 33.
- Paris, Matthew, on the elephant, 103.
- Paroquets, their habits; anecdote of, 256.
- Passeres, 248.
- Patterson, R., Esq., Introd.
- Pea-fowl, 244. See Birds.
- fable of the jackdaw, 244.
- Pearl fishery of Ceylon, its antiquity, 373.
- Pelicans, 262.
- strange scene at their breeding place, 263.
- Pengolin, 46.
- Phile, his account of the elephant, 103.
- Phillipe, on the elephant of Ceylon, 209.
- Phyllium, 410. See Leaf
Insect. - Physalus urticulus, 400. See
Portuguese Man-of-war. - Pictet, Mon., his derivation of the word “elephant,” 76 n.
- Pigeons, 257. See Birds.
- Pigeons, Lady Torrington’s pigeon, 258.
- Placuna placenta, pearls of, 380.
- Planaria, 398. See
Radiata. - Pliny’s nereids, 72 n.
- Polybius’ account of fishes on dry land, 346.
- Pomponius, Mela, account of fishes on land, 346.
- Porcupine, 45.
- Portuguese belief in the mermaid, 69.
- Man-of-war, 400.
- Pott, his derivation of the word elephant, 76 n.
- Presbytes cephalopterus, 7.
- Protopterus of the Gambia, 352.
- Pseudophidia, 322.
- Pterois volitans, 333.
- Pterophorus, 430. See
Insects. - Pteropus, 14. See Flying Fox.
- Pyrard de Laval, on the Ceylon elephant, 209.
- Python, its great size, 303.
- Radiata, star-fish, 395.
- Raja-kariya, forced labour, in elephant hunts, 170.
- Raja-welle estate, story of an elephant at, 133 n.
- Ramayana, Ceylon elephants mentioned in, 210.
- Rats, 42.
- Rat snake, anecdote of, 43. [pg 498]
- Rat-snake, domesticated, 299
n. - Ray, 326. 327.
- Reinaud, on the ancient use of the elephant in Indian wars,
205 n. - Reptiles of Ceylon described by Dr. Davy, Introd.
- lizards, iguana, 271.
- kabara-tel, poison, 272.
- blood-suckers, 275.
- calotes, the green, 276.
- lyre-headed lizard, 277.
- chameleon, 278.
- ceratophora, 279.
- gecko, anecdotes of, 281. 282.
- crocodile, anecdotes of, 282. 283.
- crocodile and alligator, skulls of, 283.
- tortoises, 289.
- parasites of the tortoise, 289.
- Terrapins, 290.
- cruel mode of cutting up turtle, 291.
- turtle, said to be poisonous, 292.
- hawk’s-bill turtle, 293.
- cruel mode of taking tortoise-shell, 293.
- snakes, few poisonous, 294.
- tic-polonga, 296.
- cobra de capello, 297.
- legends of the cobra, 297-298
n. - uropeltis, 301.
- the python, 303.
- haplocercus, 304.
- tree-snakes, 305.
- water snakes, 308.
- sea snakes, 308.
- the snake-stone and its composition, 312-317.
- cæcilia, 317.
- frogs, 318.
- tree frogs, 319.
- list of Ceylon reptiles, 321.
- snakes peculiar to Ceylon, 322.
- Rhinolophus, 19. See Horse-shoe
Bat. - Ribeyro’s account of pearl-diving, 378.
- Rilawa monkey, 5.
- Rodentia, 41. 74.
- Rogers, Major, story of his horse, 84.
- “A Rogue” elephant. See Elephant, 114.
- derivation of the term “Rogue,” 114.
- Ronkedor, 114. See
“Rogue.” - Ronquedue, 114. See
“Rogue.”- dangerous encounters with, 136.
- Rotifera, marvellous faculty in, 486.
- Rousette. See Flying-fox and Pteropus, 14.
- Ruminantia, 49. 74.
- Salarias Alticus, 332.
- almasius, 68.
- Sardines, said to be poisonous, 324.
- Saw fish, 325. See Fishes.
- Scaliger, Julius, 68.
- Scansores, 256.
- Scarus harid, 335.
- Schenck, 371. See
Chank. - Schlegel’s essay on the elephant, 208
n. - Schlegel, Prof., of Leyden, his account of the Sumatran
elephant, 66. - Schmarda, Prof., 5.
- Schomburgk, Sir R., on the fishes of Guiana, 347.
- Sciurus Tennentii, 41 n.
- Scolopiendræ, centipede, 474.
- Scorpions, 474.
- Sea slugs, holothuria, 397.
- Sea snakes, 308.
- Seir-fish, 324.
- Seneca, account of fishes on dry land, 346.
- Septuagint, allusion to elephants in, 87.
210 n. - Serpents, 294. See Reptiles.
- Shakspeare, on the elephant, 105.
- describes its capture in pit-falls, 157
n.
- describes its capture in pit-falls, 157
- Sharks, 325.
- Shark charmer, 378.
- Shaw, error as to elephants shedding their tusks, 79 n.
- Shells of Ceylon, 369.
- Siam, fishes on dry land, 347.
- Silk, cultivated by the Dutch, 429.
- Silkworm. See Insects.
- Sindbad’s story of the elephants burying-place, 236.
- Skinner, Major, knowledge of Ceylon. Introd. n.
- Small-pox attracts the leopard, 28.
- native superstition, 29.
- Snakes, 294. See Reptiles.
- Snakes, tamed snakes, 299 n.
- snakes crossing the sea, 300.
- curious tradition of the cobra-de-capello, 300.
- uropeltis, and explanation of the popular belief, 302.
- reluctance of Buddhists to kill snakes, 303.
- python or “boa,” 303.
- tree snakes, 305.
- the Passerita fusca, 306.
- water snakes, 308.
- sea snakes, 308.
- their geographical distribution, 309.
- their habits, 310.
- cæcilia, 317.
- Snake-stone, its alleged virtue, 312.
- Sofala, pearls at, 375 n.
- Solinus, on the elephant, 103.
- Soothsayer insect, 410.
- Spectre butterfly, 426.
- Spiders. See Arachnida, 464.
- Squirrel, 41.
- the flying squirrel, 44.
- Star-fish, 396. See Radiata.
- Stick insect, 410. See
Insects. - Stinging caterpillars, 429.
- Strabo, his account of fishes on dry land, 346.
- Strachan, Mr., account of the elephants shipped at Ceylon,
163 n, 210
n. - Stuckley, on the anatomy of the elephant, 123 n.
- Sumatra confounded with Ceylon, 67.
- Sun bird, 249. See Birds.
- Superstitions:—Singhalese folk-lore regarding bears,
24 n. - Suriya trees, caterpillars on, 429.
- Syrnum Indranee, 246. See
Devil-bird. - Swallows, 248. See Birds.
- Sword-fish, 328.
- Tailor-bird, 251. See Birds;
- Tamblegam, lake of, 380.
- pearls, 380.
- Tarentula, Mygale fasciata, 465.
- Tavalam, a caravan of bullocks, 53.
- Tavernier, error as to Ceylon elephants, 203. 214.
- Taylor, the translator of Aristotle, his error as to elephants’
joints,- 102.
- Tchitrea paradisi, 250.
- Temminck, his discovery of the Sumatran elephant, 64.
- his account of it, 65.
- Templeton, Dr. R.A., his knowledge of Ceylon, Introd.
- Termites, white ants, their ravages, 412.
- whence comes their moisture, 412
n.
- whence comes their moisture, 412
- Terrapins, 290.
- Terrier, attacks an elephant, 85.
- Testudinata, 289.
- Thaun, Philip de, on the elephant, 104.
- Theobaldus’ Physiologus, 104.
- Theophrastus’ account of fishes on dry land, 344. 345.
- Thevenot, on the Ceylon elephant, 203.
- Thomson’s “Seasons,” error as to the elephant, 106.
- Thunberg, account of the snake-stone, 317.
- Thysdnura, 464.
- Ticks, 475.
- Tic-polonga, 296. See Reptiles.
- Tiger at Trincomalie, 25 n.
- Toad, 319.
- Torrington, Viscount, his tax on dogs, 33.
- Tortoises, 289. 291. See Turtle.
- Tortoise-shell, cruel mode of taking, 293.
- Tree frogs, 320.
- Tree snakes, 304.
- Trepang, 396. See Sea-slug.
- Tritonia arborescens, 385.
See Musical Fish.- letter on, 401.
- Trombidium tinctorum. See Mites.
- Trumpeting of elephants, 97. 201.
- Trunk, elephant’s, origin of the name, 97
n. - Tsetse fly of Africa, 40.
- Turbinella rapa, 371. See
Chank. - Turtle, 291. See Reptiles.
- barbarous treatment of, 291.
- Tushes, 79.
- Tusks, 79. See Elephant; Ivory.
- Tusks, Dr. Holland’s theory of their formation, 88 n.
- Tytler, Mr., story of an elephant, 133
n.
- Valentyn’s account of the mermaid, 70.
- Dutch mode of taking elephants, 164.
- Venloos Bay, its profusion of shells, 369.
- Vossius, Isaac, 68.
- Waloora. See Wild-boar, 59.
- dreaded by the Singhalese, 59.
- Wanderoo monkey, 5.
- Wasps, wasps’ nest, 418.
- mason-wasp, 416.
- Water-fowl, 260. 262.
- Water snakes, 308.
- Weaver-bird, 251.
- Whales, 68. See Cetacea.
- White, Adam, Esq., Brit Mus., Introd.
- White, of Selbourne, his theory of animals suckled by strange
mothers, 113 n. - White ants, 411. See
Termites. - Whiting, Mr., account of buried fishes, 342 n., 354.
- Wild-boar, 59.
- Wolf, Jo. Christian, travels in Ceylon, 99
n., 115 n. - Wood-carrying moth, 430. See
Insects. - Worms, parasite, 396. See
Radiata. - Wound when elephant shooting, 154.
- Wright, Thomas, Esq., F.S.A., 104.
- Zimb fly, 434.
- Zoology neglected in Ceylon, 3. See
Natural History.- partial extent to which it has been cultivated, Introd.
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