HANDWORK IN

WOOD

By WILLIAM NOYES, M.A.

Assistant Professor, Department of Industrial Arts.

Teachers College, Columbia University

NEW YORK CITY

The Manual Arts Press
Peoria, Illinois

COPYRIGHT

WILLIAM NOYES

1910

CONTENTS.

GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY

Chapter I.

LOGGING.

The rough and ready methods common in American logging operations
are the result partly of a tradition of inexhaustible supply,
partly of the fear of fire and the avoidance of taxes, partly of an
eagerness to get rich quick. Most of the logging has been done on
privately owned land or on shamelessly stolen public land, and the
lumberman had no further interest in the forest than to lumber it
expeditiously.

Fig. 1. Making a Valuation Survey.

Fig. 2. “Blazes” on Trees.

Preliminary to the actual logging are certain necessary steps.
First of all is landlooking. This includes the survey of the forest
land for the purpose of locating good timber. Fig. 1. Most of the
woodland has previously been roughly surveyed by the government
and maps made indicating which parts are private land and which
are still held by the government. The boundaries of townships, sections,
quarter sections, eighties, forties, etc., are indicated by “blazes”
[page 8]
on trees, Fig. 2, so that the “cruiser” or “looker” as he goes thru the
woods can identify them with those on his oil paper map. The cruiser
also studies the kinds and character
of the trees, the contour of
the ground, the proximity to
streams,—all with the view to
marketing the product. Acting
on the information thus gained
by the cruiser, the lumberman
purchases his sections at the
proper land office, or if he is
less scrupulous, buys only
enough to serve as a basis for
operations. Enormous fortunes
have been made by timber
thieves, now respectable members
of the community. As a further
preliminary step to lumbering
itself, the tote road and
camp are built. The tote road
is a rough road on which supplies
for crew and cattle can be
taken to camp from civilization.

It is barely passable for a team and a wagon, but it serves its purpose, and
over it come more men and horses. Lumber for the floors and roofs of the shanties
and for the rude pieces of furniture that will be needed, tarred paper to
make the roofs tight, a few glazed window sashes, a huge range and a
number of box stoves, dishes and kitchen utensils, a little stock of goods
for the van, blankets by the dozen and score, and countless boxes and barrels
and bags of provisions.¹

Footnote 1: Hulbert: The Lumber Jack; Outlook, 76: 801, April 2, ’04.

The camp itself, Fig. 3, is built of logs, roofed with plank, covered
with heavy tar paper, and dimly lighted. There are usually
five buildings,—the men’s camp, the cook camp, the office, the barn,
and the blacksmith’s shop. Many camps accommodate from eighty
to one hundred men. The men’s camp is filled with bunks and is
heated by a stove and in general roughly furnished. Cooking and
eating are done in the cook camp, where the cook and his assistant,
the “cookee,” sleep. The office is occupied by the foreman, log-sealers
[page 9]
and clerks. Here the books and accounts are kept, and here is
the “van,” stocked with such goods as will supply the immediate
needs of the lumber jacks.

Fig. 3. Winter Logging Camp. Itasco County, Minnesota.

Before winter sets in the main road is built, Fig. 15, p. 17, very
carefully graded from the camp down to the nearest mill or railway
siding, or oftener to the stream down which the logs are to be floated.
This road has to be as wide as a city street, 25 feet. The route is
carefully chosen, and the grade is made as easy as possible. Much
labor is spent upon it, clearing away stumps and rocks, leveling up
with corduroy, building bridges strong enough to carry enormous
loads, and otherwise making it as passable as can be; for when
needed later, its good condition is of first importance. This main
road is quite distinct from and much superior to the tote road.

At intervals alongside the main road, small squares called skidways
are cleared of brush and in each of them two tree trunks,
“skids,” are laid at right angles to the road. On these the logs, when
cut later, are to be piled. Back from the skidways, into the woods
the swampers cut rough, narrow roads called dray roads or travoy
roads,—mere trails sufficiently cleared of brush to allow a team of
horses to pull a log thru.

Fig. 4. Tools used in Logging.

All these are operations preliminary to the felling of trees. The
tools commonly used in logging are shown in Fig. 4. When everything
is ready for felling, the “fitter” goes ahead marking each tree
to be felled and the direction in which it is to fall by cutting a
notch on that side. Then come the sawyers in pairs, Fig. 5. First
they chop a deep gash on the side of the tree toward which it is to
fall, and then from the opposite side begin cutting with a long,
Tuttle-tooth, crosscut-saw. The saw is a long, flexible ribbon of
steel, with handles so affixed to each end that they can be removed
easily. The cut is made on the pulling stroke, and hence the kerf
can be very narrow. As soon as the saw is well within the trunk,
the sawyers drive iron wedges into the kerf behind it, partly to keep
the weight of the trunk from binding the saw, and partly to direct
its fall. Then the saw is pulled back and forth, and the wedges
[page 11]
driven in farther and farther, until every stroke of the maul that
drives them sends a shiver thru the whole tree. Just as the tree
is ready to go over, the saw handle
at one end is unhooked and
the saw pulled out at the other
side. “Timber!,” the men cry
out as a warning to any working
near by, for the tree has begun
to lean slightly. Then with a
hastening rush the top whistles
thru the air, and tears thru the
branches of other trees, and the
trunk with a tremendous crash
strikes the ground. Even hardened
loggers can hardly keep
from shouting, so impressive is
the sight of a falling giant tree.

Fig. 5. Felling Red Spruce with a Saw.
Adirondack Mountains, New York.

Fig. 6. Sawing Logs into Lengths.

All this seems simple enough
in outline, but the actual execution
requires considerable skill.
Trees seldom stand quite vertical,
there is danger of lodging in some other tree in thick woods, and it
is therefore necessary to throw trees quite exactly. Some men become
so expert at this that they can plant a stake and drive it into the
[page 12]
ground by the falling trunk as truly as if they hit it with a maul.
On the other hand, serious accidents often happen in falling trees.
Most of them come
from “side winders,”
i. e., the falling of
smaller trees struck by
the felled trees.

After “falling” a
tree, the sawyers mark
off and saw the trunk
into log lengths, Fig.
6, paying due attention
to the necessity of
avoiding knots, forks,
and rotten places, so
that some of the logs
are eighteen feet, some
sixteen feet, some fourteen
feet, and some only
twelve feet in length. Meanwhile the swampers trim off the branches,
Fig. 7, a job requiring no little skill, in order that the trunk may be
shaved close but not gashed.

Fig. 7. Trimming off Branches of Spruce.
Adirondack Mountains, New York.

Fig. 8. Hauling Spruce Logs to the Skidway.
Adirondack Mountains, New York.

This finishes the second group of operations, the felling. Next
the logs are dragged out to the dray roads, Fig. 8. A heavy pair of
tongs, like ice-tongs, is attached to one end, and the log is snaked
out by horses to the skidway. If the log is very heavy, one end is
put on a dray. By one way or another the log is dragged out and
across the two parallel skids, on which it is rolled by cant-hooks to
the end of skids toward the road way. If other logs already occupy
the skids, each new log as it arrives is piled on the first tier. As the
pile grows higher, each log is “decked,” that is, rolled up parallel
poles laid slanting up the face of the pile, by means of a chain passed
under and over the log and back over the pile, Fig. 11. A horse
hitched to the end of the chain hauls up the log, which is guided by
the “send-up men” with their cant-hooks.

Once piled the logs are “scaled,” that is measured in order to
compute the number of board feet in them, Fig. 9. The scaler generally
has an
assistant, for
logs in large
piles must be
measured at
both ends in
order to determine
which is
the top, the
body of the log
being out of
sight. When
measured each
end of the log
is stamped with
a hammer with the owner’s mark, by which it can afterward be
identified. Here the logs rest and the felling and skidding continue
until deep snow falls and then the sleigh haul begins.

Fig. 9. “Scaling” Logs on the Skids.

Fig. 10. Making an Ice Road by Flooding.

Fig. 11. Decking Logs on Skidway.

For this the main road is especially prepared. First the road is
carefully plowed with an immense V plow, weighted down by logs.
To the plow are attached fans. Only an inch or two of snow is left
on the ground by this plow, which is followed by another special
plow to gouge the ruts, and by a gang of “road monkeys” who clear
the road thoroly. Then follows an immense tank set on runners and
holding perhaps seventy-five barrels of water, and so arranged as to
flood the road from holes in the bottom of the tank, a sort of rough
road sprinkler, Fig. 10. The sprinkler goes over the road again
and again until the road is covered by a clear, solid sheet of ice often
[page 15]
two feet thick, extending from the skidways to the banking grounds.
This ice road is one of the modern improvements in logging. Once
finished, these roads are beautiful pieces of construction with deep,
clear ruts. They have to be constantly watched and repaired,
and this is the work of the “road monkeys.” If possible the road
has been made entirely with down grades but some of these are
so steep that a man must be prepared with sand or hay to check too
headlong a descent.

Fig. 12. Loading a Sled from a Skidway.

Fig. 13. A Load of Logs. Flathead County, Montana.

When all is ready the sleigh haul begins. Piling on the sleighs
or bobs, Fig. 12, is similar to piling on the skidways, but more difficult,
for the load has to be
carefully balanced, Fig. 13.
Chains bind the loads but the
piling is only too apt to be
defective, and the whole load
“squash out” with a rush. It
is a time of feverish activity.
The sprinklers are at work till
after midnight, the loaders are
out long before daylight. The
blacksmith is busy with repairs,
the road monkeys work
[page 16]
overtime, and the cook works all the time. “Everybody works.” The
haul itself is full of excitement. The ponderous load of logs, weighing
anywhere from eight to thirty-five tons has to be conducted largely
by its own momentum down this glassy road. If a horse fall nothing
can save its life. If the runners get out of the ruts, the whole
load, driver and all, is likely to be upset. It is an extremely hazardous
job, Fig. 15.

As each load comes down to the banking grounds, Fig. 14, or log
dump, it is stopped opposite long parallel skids. The wrapping chains
are unhooked
and the lower
log on the skid
side is worked
out with cant-hooks
till the
whole load flattens
out. The
logs are then
“decked” on
immense piles,
sometimes a
mile long and filling the whole river from bank to bank. A decking
chain 300 feet long is sometimes required to roll the logs to their
proper places. Here the logs rest till the spring freshets come. This
completes the transportation by land.

Fig. 14. Banking Grounds.

With the coming of the spring thaw, the river bed is filled with
a freshet of water which seizes and carries the logs down stream.
Many on the banks, however, have to be started on their way, and this
is called “breaking out the roll ways.” They often start on their
water journey with a great crash.

Fig. 15. The Sleigh Haul.

Fig. 16. Sacking the Rear.

Now comes the drive, an arduous and often perilous task. Some
of the men are stationed along the shores to prevent the logs from
lodging or floating into bays or setbacks. Some stand at the heads
of bars or islands, where with pike poles they shove off the logs that
might stop there and form a jam; others follow “sacking the rear”
to clean out such logs as may have become stranded. This “sacking
the rear” takes most of the time, Fig. 16. While “on the drive”
men often work fourteen hours a day, a good part of the time up to
their waists in ice water. Their boots are shod with “caulks,” or
[page 18]
spikes, to keep them from slipping on the logs, and they carry either
pike poles or peaveys, Fig. 17. The latter are similar to cant-hooks,
except that
they have
sharp pikes at
their ends. So
armed, they
have to “ride
any kind of a
log in any
water, to propel
a log by
jumping on it,
by rolling it
squirrel fashion
with the
feet, by punting
it as one
would a canoe;
to be skilful in pushing, prying, and poling other logs from the
quarter deck of the same cranky craft.” Altho the logs are carried
by the river, they have to be “driven” with amazing skill and bravery.

Fig. 17. Log Driving on the Ausable River.

The climax of hardship and courage is reached when a “jam” is
formed, Fig. 18. Sometimes one or two logs are caught in such
a way as to be locked or jammed and then soon other logs begin
to accumulate behind them, till the whole river is full of a seemingly
inextricable mass. Sometimes these jams can be loosened by being
pulled apart, one log at a time. A hundred men can pull out an
amazing number of logs in a day. The problem always is to set free
or cut out certain “key” logs, which lock the whole mass. Following
is a description by Stewart Edward White of the breaking of such
a jam:

The crew were working desperately. Down on the heap somewhere, two
logs were crossed in such a manner as to lock the whole. They sought
those logs.

Thirty feet above the bed of the river six men clamped their peaveys
into the soft pine; jerking, pulling, lifting, sliding the great logs from
their places. Thirty feet below, under the threatening face, six other men
coolly picked out and set adrift one by one, the timbers not inextricably
imbedded. From time to time the mass creaked, settled, perhaps even
[page 19]
moved a foot or two; but always the practised rivermen, after a glance,
bent more eagerly to their work. * * * Suddenly the six men below the
jam scattered. * * * holding their peaveys across their bodies, they
jumped lightly from one floating log to another in the zig-zag to shore. * * *

Fig. 18. Log Jam. Adirondack Mountains, New York.

In the meantime a barely perceptible motion was communicating itself
from one particle to another thru the center of the jam. * * * The crew
redoubled its exertion, clamping its peaveys here and there, apparently at
random, but in reality with the most definite of purposes. A sharp crack
exploded immediately underneath. There could no longer exist any doubt
as to the motion, altho it was as yet sluggish, glacial. Then in silence a
log shifted—in silence and slowly—but with irresistible force * * * other
logs in all directions up-ended. * * *

Then all at once down by the face something crashed, the entire stream
became alive. It hissed and roared, it shrieked, groaned, and grumbled. At
first slowly, then more rapidly, the very fore-front of the center melted inward
and forward and downward, until it caught the fierce rush of the
freshet and shot out from under the jam. Far up-stream, bristling and
formidable, the tons of logs, grinding savagely together, swept forward. * * *

Then in a manner wonderful to behold, thru the smother of foam and
spray, thru the crash and yell of timbers, protesting the flood’s hurrying,
thru the leap of destruction, the drivers zigzagged calmly and surely to the
shore.

Sometimes cables have to be stretched across the chasm, and special
rigging devised to let the men down to their dangerous task and
more especially to save them from danger when the crash comes.

Fig. 20. Splash-Dam.

Fig. 21. Logs in Boom. Glens Falls, New York.

In case such efforts are unavailing, it is necessary to “shoot” the
jam with dynamite. Another device resorted to where the supply of
water is insufficient is the splash-dam, Fig. 20. The object is to
make the operator independent of freshets, by accumulating a head
of water and then, by lifting the gates, creating an artificial freshet,
sufficient to float the timber down stream.

Fig. 22. A Sorting Jack.

Thus by one means and another, the logs are driven along until
caught by a boom, Fig. 21, which consists of a chain of logs stretched
across the river, usually at a mill. Since the river is a common
carrier, the drives of a number of logging companies may float into
the mill pond together. But each log is stamped on both ends, so
that it can be sorted out, Fig. 22, and sent into the boom of its owner.

MECHANICAL METHODS IN LUMBERING.

The operations described above are those common in the lumber
regions of the northeast and the Lake States. But special conditions
produce special methods. A very effective device where streams are
small is the flume, Fig. 23. This is a long wooden trough thru
which water is led, and the logs floated end on. It is sometimes many
miles long; in one case in California twenty-five miles.

In the South where there is no snow, logs are largely brought out
to the railway or river by being hung under immense two-wheeled
trucks, called slip-tongue carts, drawn by mules, Fig. 24. The
wheels are nearly eight feet in diameter.

Fig. 23. Six Mile Flume. Adirondack Mountains, New York.

Some kinds of wood are so heavy that they will not float at all,
and some sink so readily that it does not pay to transport them by
river. In such cases temporary railways are usually resorted to.

Fig. 24. Hauling Logs by Mules. Oscilla, Georgia.

On the Pacific coast, where the forests are dense, the trees of enormous
size, and no ice road is possible, still other special methods have
been devised. On so great a scale are the operations conducted that
they may properly be called engineering feats. Consider for a moment
the size of the trees: red fir ranges from five to fifteen feet in
diameter, is commonly two hundred fifty feet high, and sometimes
three hundred twenty-five feet high. The logs are commonly cut
twenty-five feet long, and such logs often weigh thirty to forty tons
[page 23]
each, and the logs of a single tree may weigh together one hundred
fifty tons. The logging of such trees requires special appliances.
Until recently all the improved methods were in forms of transportation,
the felling still being done by hand with very long saws, Fig.
25, but now even the felling and sawing of logs in the forest is partly
done by machinery.

Fig. 25. A Twenty-Five Foot Saw used for Crosscutting Big Logs.

Fig. 26. Hauling Big Logs by Donkey Engine.

To work the saw, power is supplied by a steam or gasoline engine
mounted upon a truck which can be taken readily from place to
place. As the maximum power required is not over ten-horse-power,
the apparatus is so light that it can be moved about easily. The saw
can be adjusted to cut horizontally, vertically, or obliquely, and hence
is used for sawing into lengths as well as for felling.

Falling beds. Since the weight of a two hundred fifty foot fir is
such that if the impact of its fall be not gradually checked the force
with which it strikes the ground may split the trunk, a bed for its
fall is prepared by the swampers. Usually piles of brush are placed
as buffers along the “falling line” so that the trunk will strike these.
If the tree stands on the hill side, it is thrown up hill, in order to
shorten the fall.

After the felling comes the trimming of branches and knots and
“rossing” of bark, to lessen the friction in sliding along the skidway.

The skidway. By the skidway in the Puget Sound region is
meant a corduroy road. This is constructed of trunks of trees ranging
from a foot to two feet in diameter. These are “rossed,” that is,
stripped of their bark and laid across the road, where they are held
in place by pegs driven into the ground, and by strips spiked upon
the tops of the logs. If possible they are laid in swampy places to
keep the surface damp and slippery. At turns in the road, pulleys
are hung, thru which the hauling cables pass. The skidway runs to
the railway siding or water’s edge. Over these skidways the logs are
hauled out by various means. Formerly “strings” of oxen or Percheron
horses were used, but they are now largely superseded by some
form of donkey engine, Fig. 26. These are placed at the center of
a “yard.”

Yarding is the skidding of logs to the railway or water way by
means of these donkey engines. Attached to the donkey engine are
two drums, one for the direct cable, three-fourths to one inch in diameter
and often half a mile long, to haul in the logs, the other for
the smaller return cable, twice as long as the direct cable and used to
haul back the direct cable. At the upper end of the skidway, when
the logs are ready to be taken to the railway or boomed, they are
fastened together, end to end, in “turns” of four or more. The
direct cable is attached to the front of the “turn”, and the return
cable to the rear end. By winding the direct cable on its drum, the
“turn” is hauled in. The return cable is used to haul back the end
[page 25]
of the direct cable, and also, in case of a jam, to pull back and
straighten out the turn. Instead of a return cable a horse is often
used to haul out the direct cable. Signaling from the upper end of
the skidway to the engineer is done by a wire connected to the donkey’s
whistle, by an electric bell, or by telephone.

Sometimes these donkey engines are in relays, one engine hauling
a turn of logs to within reach of the next one, which passes it on to
the next until the siding is reached.

Fig. 27. Steam Skidder at Work. Grant County, Arkansas.

Where there are steep canons to be crossed, a wire trolley may be
stretched and the great logs carried over suspended from it.

In the South a complicated machine called a steam skidder, Fig.
27, equipped with drums, booms, etc., is much used both for skidding
in the logs and then for loading them on the cars. It is itself
mounted on a flat car.

An improvement on this is the locomotive boom derrick which is
widely used both on the Pacific coast and of late in the Lake Superior
region. It is a combined locomotive, skidder and loader. Its
most unique feature is that it can be lifted off the track so as to allow
flat cars to run underneath it. This feat is accomplished thus: A
device, which is something like that used in elevating the bodies of
coal wagons, lifts the engine several feet above the rails. Then steel
legs, which are curved outwardly, are lowered until the shoes which
[page 26]
are attached to them rest on the outward end of the railroad ties.
The truck of the locomotive is then folded up under it out of the
way and cars can run under it, the curved legs giving plenty of
clearance. The derrick attached is of the breast type, the two legs
being firmly fastened. When anchored the engine can be used either
for skidding or loading. For skidding, there are two cables, one
being run out while the other is being wound on its drum.

Fig. 28. Log Train, Humboldt County, California.

In loading, the machine is located so that the empty car will be
directly in front of it, and then the logs are lifted up and placed on
the car by the derrick. When the car is loaded the machine can
either move on to the next car, or pull it under itself into place.
With the help of four men it can load from 125,000 to 150,000 feet
of timber in a day. By means of the cable it can make up a train,
and then by lowering the truck and raising the legs out of the way,
it is converted into a locomotive and hauls the train away to the mill
or railway station at the rate of three or four miles at hour.

As forests are cut away along the water courses, railways have to
be resorted to more and more, Fig. 28. This has had a stimulative
effect on the logging business, for now the logger is independent of the
snow. On account of the steep grades and sharp curves often necessary
in logging railways, a geared locomotive is sometimes used, Fig. 29.
It can haul a train of twenty loaded cars up a twelve per cent
grade. The geared engine has also been used as a substitute for
cable power, in “yarding” operations. The “turns” of logs are drawn
over the ground between the rails, being fastened to the rear of the
engine by hook and cable. This has proved to be a very economical
use of power and plant.

Fig. 29. Donkey Engine Yarding.

Fig. 30. Giant Raft. In the background is a completed raft;
in the foreground a cradle in which a raft is being built.

Another method of traction where the woodland is open enough
is with a traction engine. The ones employed have sixty to one
hundred horse power. The great logs may be placed on wood rollers,
as a house is when moved, or the logs may be hauled in on a low
truck with broad wheels. The “tractor” hauls the log direct to the
railway if the distance is not too great.

Fig. 31. Snow Locomotive. Takes the place of 12 teamsters and 12 horses. Minnesota.

In Northern Michigan a “snow locomotive,” Fig. 31, is coming
into use, which has tremendous tractive power, hauling one hundred
to one hundred fifty tons of lumber over snow or ice. It moves on
runners, but there is between them a large cylinder armed with teeth.
This cylinder can be raised or lowered by the operator as it moves
over the surface of the ground. The teeth catch in the snow or ice,
and since the cylinder is heated by the exhaust steam, it melts and
packs the snow for the trucks following it. The drum is six feet in
diameter, with walls an inch and a half thick, and it weighs seven
tons. It is used in all sorts of places where horses cannot go, as in
swamps, and by substituting wheels for runners it has even been
used on sand.

In the Canadian lakes there has been devised a queer creature
called an “alligator,” a small and heavily equipped vessel for hauling
the logs thru the lakes. When its operations in one lake are finished,
a wire cable is taken ashore and made fast to some tree or other safe
anchorage, the capstan on its forward deck is revolved by steam and
the “alligator” hauls itself out of the water across lots to the next
lake and begins work there.

The greatest improvement in water transportation is the giant
raft, Fig. 30. When such a raft is made up, logs of uniform length
are placed together, the width of the raft being from sixty to one
hundred feet and its length, one thousand feet or more. It may contain
a million board feet of timber. The different sections are placed
end to end, and long boom sticks, i. e., logs sixty to seventy feet
long, are placed around them to bind the different sections together,
and finally the whole mass is heavily chained. Such a raft has been
towed across the Pacific.

LOGGING.

* For general bibliography see p. 4.

Chapter II.

SAWMILLING.

The principal saws in a mill are of three kinds, the circular, Fig.
32, the gang, Fig. 33, and the band, Fig. 34. The circular-saw, tho
very rapid, is the most wasteful because of the wide kerf, and of
course the larger the saw the thicker it is and the wider the kerf.
The waste in sawdust is about
one-fifth of the log. In order
to lessen this amount two
smaller saws, one hung directly
above the other, have been used.
One saws the lower half of the
log and the other the upper
half. In this way, it is possible
to cut very large logs with the
circular-saw and with less waste.
The circular-saw is not a perfectly
flat disc, but when at rest
is slightly convex on one side
and concave on the other. This
fullness can be pushed back and
forth as can the bottom of an
oil-can. When moving at a high
rate of speed, however, the saw flattens itself by centrifugal force.
This enables it to cut straight with great accuracy.

Fig. 32.
Double Circular-Saw and Carriage.

A gang-saw is simply a series of straight saw-blades set in a vertical
frame. This has a reciprocating motion, enabling it to cut a
log into a number of boards at one time. It has this drawback, that
it must cut the size of lumber for which it is set; that is, the sawyer
has no choice in cutting the thickness, but it is very economical, wasting
only one-eighth of the log in sawdust. A special form is the flooring
gang. It consists of a number of saws placed one inch apart.
Thick planks are run thru it to saw up flooring.

Fig. 33. Gang-Saw.

Fig. 34. Band-Saw.

The band-saw is fast displacing the other two, wherever it can
be used. It cuts with great rapidity and the kerf is narrow. When
first used it could not be depended upon to cut straight, but by utilizing
the same
principle that
is used in the
circular-saw, of
putting the cutting
edge under
great tension
by making
it slightly
shorter than
the middle of
the saw, it now
cuts with great
accuracy. Band-saws
are now
made up to 12
inches wide, 50
feet long, and
run at the rate of 10,000 feet a minute. They are even made with the
cutting teeth on both edges, so that the log can be sawed both going
and coming. This idea was unsuccessful until the invention of the
telescopic band-mill, Fig. 35. In this the entire mechanism carrying
[page 32]
the wheels on which the
band-saw revolves can be moved
up and down, so as to bring the
point where the saw leaves the
upper wheel as close to the top
of the different sized logs as
possible.

Fig. 35.
Double-Carrying Telescopic Band-Mill.

Fig. 36.
Jack-Ladder, with Endless Chain. Mill in raised position for large log.

The usual modern mill is a
two story building, Fig. 37, built
at a convenient locality both for
receiving the logs and for shipping
the lumber. Whether the
logs arrive by water or by rail,
they are, if possible, stored in
a mill-pond until used in order
to prevent checking, discoloration,
decay, and worm attack.
From the pond they are hauled
up out of the water on to a “jack-ladder,” by means of an endless
chain, provided with saddles or spurs which engage the logs and
[page 33]
draw them up into the second story on to the log slip, Fig. 36.

Fig. 37. Two-Story Mill at Virginia, Minnesota, Showing Jack-Ladders and Consumer.

Fig. 38. Log-Flipper.

Fig. 39. Log-Stop and Loader. By letting steam into the cylinder, the projecting arm revolves, rolling one log over onto the carriage and holding the next one till wanted.

After the logs have entered the mill, they are inspected for stones
lodged in the bark, and for spikes left by the river men, and then
measured. Under the log-slip
is the steam “flipper”
or “kicker,” Fig. 38, by means
of which the scaler or his assistant,
throwing a lever, causes
the log to be kicked over to one
side or the other, on to the log-deck,
an inclined floor sloping
toward the saw-carriage. Down
this the log rolls until stopped
by a log-stop, or log-loader, Fig.
39, a double-aimed projection,
which prevents it from rolling
on the carriage till wanted.
This stop is also worked by steam. By letting the steam into the
cylinder which controls it, one log is rolled over on the carriage and
the next one held. The log on the carriage is at once “dogged,” that
is, clamped tight by iron dogs, the carriage is set for the proper cut,
and moves forward to the saw
which cuts off the first slab.
The carriage is then “gigged”
or reversed. This operation offsets
the carriage one-eighth of
an inch so that the log returns
entirely clear of the saw. In
the same way two or three 1″
boards are taken off, the dogs
are then knocked out, and the
log canted over half a revolution.
This is done by means of
the “steam nigger,” Fig. 40, a
long, perpendicular toothed bar
which comes up thru the floor,
engages the log, and turns it
over till the sawn side comes up
against the knees of the carriage.
[page 35]
The log is dogged again and a second slab and several boards
are taken off. The log or “stock” as it is now called, is 10″, 12″,
14″, or 16″ thick; the “nigger” then gives it a quarter-turn, leaving
it lying on a sawn side. It is dogged again, and all sawn up
except enough to make a few boards. This last piece is given a half-turn,
bringing the sawn side against the knees, and it is sawn up.
Each board as
it is sawn off
is thrown by
the board-flipper
or cant-flipper,²
Fig. 41,
on to the “live
rollers,” which
take it to the
next process.
Another log
comes on the
carriage and
the process is
repeated.

Footnote 2: A “cant” is a squared or partly squared log.

Fig. 40. The Steam Nigger.
The toothed bar turns the log over into the desired position.

Fig. 41. Steam Cant-Flipper. This machine is used to move cants, timber, or lumber from live rollers to gangs, band resaw mills, or elsewhere. The timber is discharged upon skid rollers, as shown, or upon transfer chains.

The saw-carriage,
Fig. 42,
is propelled
forward and
back by a piston
running in
a long cylinder,
into either end
of which steam
can be turned
by the operator.

As the sawn
boards fall off the log, they land on “live,” that is, revolving rollers,
which carry them along at the rate of 200 to 250 feet a minute.
Stops are provided farther along to stop the boards wherever wanted,
as at the edger, Fig. 43, or the slasher. From the live rollers the
[page 36]
boards are transferred
automatically,
Fig. 44, by chains
running at right angles
to the rollers
and brought within
reach of the edger
man. About one-third
of the boards
of a log have rough
edges, and are called
“waney.” These must
go thru the edger to
make their edges
parallel. The edger
man works with
great speed. He sees
at once what can be
made out of a board,
places it in position and runs it thru. From
the edger the boards are carried to the trimmer,
which cuts the length. The lumberman’s
rule is to “cut so that you can cut
again.” The so-called 16′ logs are really 16′
6″. The trimmer, Fig. 45, now trims these
boards to 16′ 1″, so that if desired they can still be cut again. The
trimmer may be set to cut at any desired length
according to the specifications.

Fig. 42.
Log-Carriage, holding quartered log in position to saw.

Fig. 43.
Double Gang Edger. This machine trims off the rough edges of the “waney” boards by means of the four saws in the main frame of the machine.

Fig. 44.
Automatic Steam Transfer for Timber, Lumber and Slabs. The boards are carried along by the cylinders, CCC, until they hit the bumper, B.
This movement admits steam to the cylinder, CY, which raises the revolving chains or skids, which transfers the stock sidewise to other live rollers as required.

Fig. 45.
Automatic Gang Lumber-Trimmer. It may be set to cut automatically to any desired length.

Fig. 46.
Lumber Sorting Shed. Virginia, Minnesota.

Fig. 47.
Wood is carefully and regularly piled in the seasoning-yard.

The boards are now graded as to quality
into No. 1, No. 2, etc., Fig. 46,
and run out of the mill, to be
stacked up in piles, Fig. 47. Big
timbers go directly from the saw
on the rolls to the back end of
the mill, where the first end is
trimmed by a butting-saw or cut-off-saw
which swings, Fig. 48.
The timber is then shoved along
on dead rolls and the last end

[page 39]
trimmed by the butting-saw to a definite length as specified, and
shoved out.

One of the most remarkable features of the modern mill is its
speed. From the time the log appears till the last piece of it goes
racing out of the mill, hardly
more than a minute may have
elapsed.

Fig. 48.
Cut-off-Saw. This saw trims the ends of timbers.

A large part of the problem
of sawmilling is the disposal
of the waste. The first of these
is the sawdust. In all first
class mills, this together with
shavings (if a planing-mill is
combined) is burned for fuel.
It is sucked up from the machines
and carried in large
tubes to the boiler-room and
there is mechanically supplied
to the fires. The slabs, once
considered as waste, contain much material that is now utilized.
From the live rolls, on which all the material falls from the main
band-saw, the slabs are carried off by transfer chains, and by another
set of five rollers to the “slasher,” Fig. 50, which consists of a line
of circular-saws placed 4′ 1″
apart. This slasher cuts up the
slabs into lengths suitable for
lath or fence-pickets, Fig. 49. Or
they can be resawn into 16″
lengths for shingles or fire-wood.

Fig. 49.
Ten Saw Gang Lath Bolter. This machine cuts up material lengthwise into laths.

Fig. 50.
Slab-Slasher. This machine cuts up the slabs into lengths suitable for lath or fence-pickets.

From the “slasher” the 4′ 1″
lengths are carried on by traveling
platforms, chains, etc., to
the lath-machines, Fig. 51, where
they are sawn up, counted as
sawn, bound in bundles of 100,
trimmed to exactly 4′ in length
and sent off to be stored. The shingle bolts are picked off the moving
platforms by men or boys, and sent to the shingle-machine, Fig.
52, where they are sawn into shingles and dropped down-stairs to
[page 41]
be packed. Shingle-bolts are also made from crooked or otherwise
imperfect logs.

Of what is left, a good part goes into the grinder or “hog,” Fig.
53, which chews up all sorts of refuse into small chips suitable for
fuel to supplement the sawdust if necessary. Band-saws make so
little dust and such fine dust that this is often necessary.

Fig. 51.
Combination Lath-Binder and Trimmer. With this machine the operator can trim the bundles of lath simply by tilting the packing frame over from him
causing the bundles to pass between the saws, thereby trimming both ends at one movement.

Fig. 52.
Hand Shingle-Machine. This machine is used in Sawmills in which it is desired to utilize slabs and trimmings by sawing shingles therefrom,
or to saw shingles from prepared bolts.

If there is any refuse that cannot be used at all it goes to the
scrap-pile, Fig. 54, or to the “consumer,” the tall stack shown in Fig.
37, see p. 33.

Boards ordinarily sawn from logs are “slash-sawn,” i. e., they
are tangential or bastard, each cut parallel to the previous one. By
this process, only the central boards would be radial or “rift” boards.

Fig. 53.
Edging grinder or Hog. It cuts any kind of wood into coarse or fine chips suitable to be handled by chain conveyor or blower.

But, for a number of reasons, radial boards are better. They warp
less because the annual rings cross the board more evenly. Yellow
pine flooring that is rift-sawn
is more valuable than
slash-sawn, because the edge
of the annual rings makes a
more even grain, Fig. 55. Where
slash-grained flooring is used,
the boards should be laid so
that the outside of each board
will be up in order that the inner
rings may not “shell out.”

In sawing oak for valuable furniture or trim, the log is first
“quartered” and then the quarters sawn up as nearly radially as is
desired. There are various methods of cutting quartered logs, as
illustrated in Fig. 56.

In making staves for water-tight barrels, it is essential that they
be cut radially in the log, in order that the staves be as non-permeable
to water as possible.

Fig. 54.
Scrap-Pile. Oscilla. Georgia.

Fig. 55.
Slash-Grain and Comb-Grain Flooring.

Fig. 56.
Methods of Sawing Quartered Logs.

SAWMILLING.

* For general bibliography see p. 4.

Fig. 57.
Lumber-Kiln.

Chapter III.

SEASONING.

The seasoning of wood is important for several reasons. It reduces
weight, it increases strength, it prevents changes in volume
after it is worked into shape, and it prevents checking and decay.
Decay can also be prevented by submergence and burying, if by so
doing logs are kept from fungal attacks. The piles of the Swiss
Lake dwellings, which are in a state of good preservation, are of
prehistoric age. Wood under water lasts longer than steel or iron
under water. But for almost all purposes wood has to be dried in
order to be preserved. The wood is cut up, when green, to as thin
pieces as will be convenient for its use later, for the rate of drying
depends largely upon the shape and size of the piece, an inch board
drying more than four times as fast as a four inch plank, and more
than twenty times as fast as a ten inch timber.

There are various methods of seasoning:

(1) Natural or air-seasoning is the most common, and in some
respects the best. In this method, the wood is carefully and regularly
piled in the seasoning-yard, so as to be protected as far as possible
from sun and rain, but with air circulating freely on all sides
of the boards, Fig. 47, see p. 38. To accomplish this, “sticking” is
employed, i. e., strips of wood are placed crosswise close to the ends
and at intervals between the boards. In this way the weight of the
superposed boards tends to keep those under them from warping. The
pile is skidded a foot or two off the ground and is protected above by a
roof made of boards so laid that the rain will drain off.

Fire-wood is best dried rapidly so that it will check, making air
spaces which facilitate ignition, but lumber needs to be slowly dried
in cool air so that the fibers may accommodate themselves to the
change of form and the wood check as little as possible. Good air-drying
consumes from two to six years, the longer the better.

(2) Kiln-drying or hot-air-seasoning is a much more rapid process
than air-seasoning and is now in common use, Fig. 57. The
drying is also more complete, for while air-dried wood retains from
10% to 20% of moisture, kiln-dried wood may have no more than
5% as it comes from the kiln. It will, however, reabsorb some
moisture from the air, when exposed to it.

The wood of conifers, with its very regular structure, dries and
shrinks more evenly and much more rapidly than the wood of broad-leaved
trees, and hence is often put into the kiln without previous
air-drying, and dried in a week or even less time.

Oak is the most difficult wood to dry properly. When it and
other hardwoods are rapidly dried without sufficient surrounding
moisture, the wood “case-hardens,” that is, the outer part dries and
shrinks before the interior has had a chance to do the same, and this
forms a shell or case of shrunken, and often checked wood around
the interior which also checks later. This interior checking is called
honeycombing. Hardwood lumber is commonly air-dried from two
to six months, before being kiln-dried. For the sake of economy in
time, the tendency is to eliminate yard-drying, and substitute kiln-drying.
Kiln-drying of one inch oak, takes one or two weeks, quarter-sawn
boards taking one and a half times as long as plain-sawn.

The best method of drying is that which gradually raises the temperature
of both the wood and of the water which it contains to the
point at which the drying is to take place. Care is therefore taken
not to let the surface become entirely dry before the internal moisture
is heated. This is done by retaining the moisture first vaporized
about the wood, by means of wet steam. When the surface is made
permeable to moisture, drying may take place rapidly. Curtains of
canvas are hung all around the lumber on the same principle that
windows in newly plastered buildings are hung with muslin. The
moisture is absorbed on the inner surface of the curtain and evaporates
from the outer surface. Improvements in kiln-drying are along
the line of moist air operation. In common practice, however, the
moist air principle is often neglected.

There are two methods in operation, the progressive method and
the charge method. In the progressive, the process is continuous,
the loads going in at one end of the kiln, and out at the other, the
temperature and the moisture being so distributed in the kiln, that
in passing from the green to the dry end, a load of lumber is first
[page 47]
moistened, then heated, and finally dried out. In the charge system,
the process is intermittent, one charge being removed before a new
one is admitted. This gives the best results with high grade lumber
for special uses.

A modification of hot-air-seasoning is that which subjects the
wood to a moderate heat in a moist atmosphere charged with the
products of the combustion of fuel.

(3) Small pieces of wood may be effectively seasoned by being
boiled in water and then dried. The process seems to consist of dissolving
out albuminous substances and thus allowing freer evaporation.
Its effect is probably weakening.

(4) Soaking in water is sometimes used as a good preparation
for air-seasoning. Previous soaking hastens seasoning. River men
insist that timber is improved by rafting. It is a common practice
to let cypress logs soak in the swamps where they grow for several
months before they are “mined out.” They are eagerly sought after
by joiners and carpenters, because their tendency to warp is lessened.
Ebony is water-soaked in the island of Mauritius as soon as cut.
Salt water renders wood harder, heavier, and more durable and is
sometimes applied to ship timbers, but cannot be used with timbers
intended for ordinary purposes, as the presence of salt tends to absorb
atmospheric moisture.

(5) Boiling in oil is resorted to for special purposes, both for
preservation and to give strength. For example, the best handscrews
are so treated. The oil also prevents glue from sticking, the most
frequent cause of injury to handscrews.

(6) There are a number of “impregnation” methods of preserving
timber, and their practice is spreading rapidly. Of the various
preservative processes, those using coal tar creosote and zinc chloride
have proved most efficient. The purpose is to force the preservative
into the pores of the wood, either by painting, soaking, or putting under
pressure. Such impregnation methods double or treble the life
of railway ties. It is now being used with great success to preserve
electric wire poles, mine-props, piling, fence-posts, etc.

Wood preservation has three great advantages, it prolongs the life
of timbers in use, reduces their cost, and makes possible the use of
species that once were considered worthless. For example, the cheap
and abundant loblolly pine can be made, by preservative methods, to
take the place of high priced long-leaf pine for many purposes.

PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS FOR STORING LUMBER.

Under the hasty methods prevalent in the mill, very little wood
comes to the shop well seasoned, and it should therefore be carefully
stored before using, so as to have the fullest possible air circulation
around it. Where the boards are large enough, “sticking” is the best
method of storage, i. e., narrow strips of wood are placed at short
intervals between the pieces which are piled flat. The weight of the
boards themselves helps to prevent warping. Boards set upright or
on edge are likely to be distorted soon. It is often wise to press together
with weights or to clamp together with handscrews boards
that show a tendency to warp,
putting the two concave sides
together. Then the convex
side is exposed and the board
may straighten thus: Fig. 58.
By wrapping up small boards
in paper or cloth in the intervals
between work on them,
they may be kept straight until
they are assembled.

Fig. 58. Clamping up Boards to Prevent Warping.

Another precaution to take is to be sure to plane both sides of a
board if either is planed, especially if the board has been exposed to
air-drying for some time.

WOOD MEASUREMENTS.

Lumber is a general term for all kinds of sawn wood. Logs may
be sawn into timber, that is, beams and joists, into planks, which
are 2″ to 4″ thick, or into boards which are from ¼” to 1¾” thick.
These may be resawn into special sizes.

Lumber is measured by the superficial foot, which is a board 1″
thick, 12″ wide, and 12″ long, so that a board 1″ thick, (or ⅞”
dressed) 6″ wide and 12′ 0″ long, measures 6′ B. M. (board measure).
Boards 1″ or more thick are sold by the “board foot” which is equivalent
to 12″ square and 1″ thick. Boards less than 1″ thick are sold
by the square foot, face measure. Dressed lumber comes in sizes ⅛”
less than sawn lumber. Regular sizes are:

Any of these may be dressed down to thinner boards, or resawn
on a special band-saw.

In ordering it is common to give the dimensions wanted, in the
order of thickness, width, and length, because that is the order in
which dimensions are gotten out. E. g.:

If a piece wanted is short the way the grain goes, the order would
be the same, thus: ¾” × 11″ (wide) × 6″ (long). That is, “long”
means the way the grain runs. It is always safe to specify in such a
case. It is common when small pieces are ordered to add one-quarter
to the cost for waste.

In large lots lumber is ordered thus: 800′ (B. M.) whitewood,
dressed 2 sides to ⅞”, 10″ and up. This means that the width of any
piece must not be less than 10″. Prices are usually given per “M,”
i. e., per 1000 ft.: e. g.: basswood may be quoted at $40.00 per M.

When thin boards are desired it is often economical to buy inch
stuff and have it resawn.

Some lumber is also ordered by the “running” or lineal foot, especially
moldings, etc., or by the piece, if there is a standard size
as in fence-posts, studs, etc. Laths and shingles are ordered by the
bundle to cover a certain area. 1000 4″ shingles (= 4 bundles) cover
110 sq. ft. with 4″ weather exposure. 100 laths (1 bundle) each
¼” × 1½” × 4’0″ cover about 150 sq. ft.

There are several methods of measuring lumber. The general rule
is to multiply the length in feet by the width and thickness in inches
and divide by 12, thus: 1″ × 6″ × 15′ ÷ 12 = 7½ feet. The use of the
Essex board-measure and the Lumberman’s board-measure are described
in Chapter 4, pp. 109 and 111.

THE SEASONING AND MEASURING OF WOOD.

* For general bibliography see p. 4.

Chapter IV.

WOOD HAND TOOLS.

The hand tools in common use in woodworking shops may, for
convenience, be divided into the following classes: 1, Cutting; 2,
Boring; 3, Chopping; 4, Scraping; 5, Pounding; 6, Holding; 7,
Measuring and Marking; 8, Sharpening; 9, Cleaning.

1. CUTTING TOOLS.

The most primitive as well as the simplest of all tools for the
dividing of wood into parts, is the wedge. The wedge does not even
cut the wood, but only crushes enough of it with its edge to allow
its main body to split the wood apart. As soon as the split has begun,
the edge of the wedge serves no further purpose, but the sides
bear against the split surfaces of the wood. The split runs ahead of
the wedge as it is driven along until the piece is divided.

It was by means of the wedge that primitive people obtained
slabs of wood, and the great change from primitive to civilized methods
in manipulating wood consists in the substitution of cutting for
splitting, of edge tools for the wedge. The wedge follows the grain
of the wood, but the edge tool can follow a line determined by the
worker. The edge is a refinement and improvement upon the wedge
and enables the worker to be somewhat independent of the natural
grain of the wood.

In general, it may be said that the function of all cutting tools
is to separate one portion of material from another along a definite
path. All such tools act, first, by the keen edge dividing the material
into two parts; second, by the wedge or the blade forcing these two
portions apart. If a true continuous cut is to be made, both of these
actions must occur together. The edge must be sharp enough to
enter between the small particles of material, cutting without bruising
them, and the blade of the tool must constantly force apart the two
portions in order that the cutting action of the edge may continue.

The action of an ax in splitting wood is not a true cut, for only
[page 52]
the second process is taking place, Fig. 59. The split which opens
in front of the cutting edge anticipates its cutting and therefore the
surfaces of the opening are rough and torn.

Fig. 59. Wedge Action.

Fig. 60. Edge Action.

When a knife or chisel is
pressed into a piece of wood at
right angles to the grain, and
at some distance from the end
of the wood, as in Fig. 60, a
continuous cutting action is
prevented, because soon the
blade cannot force apart the
sides of the cut made by the
advancing edge, and the knife
is brought to rest. In this case,
it is practically only the first action which has taken place.

Both the actions, the cutting and the splitting, must take place
together to produce a true continuous cut. The edge must always be
in contact with the solid material, and the blade must always be
pushing aside the portions which have been cut. This can happen
only when the material on one side of the blade is thin enough and
weak enough to be readily bent out of the way without opening a
split in front of the cutting edge. This cutting action may take
place either along the grain, Fig. 61, or across it, Fig. 62.

The bending aside of the shaving will require less force the
smaller the taper of the wedge. On the other hand, the wedge must
be strong enough to sustain the bending resistance and also to support
the cutting edge. In other
words, the more acute the cutting
edge, the easier the work,
and hence the wedge is made as
thin as is consistent with
strength. This varies all the
way from hollow ground razors
to cold-chisels. For soft
wood, the cutting angle (or
bevel, or bezel) of chisels,
gouges and plane-irons, is small, even as low as 20°; for hard wood,
it must be greater. For metals, it varies from 54° for wrought iron
to 66° for gun metal.

Fig. 61. Edge and Wedge Action With the Grain.

Fig. 62. Edge and Wedge Action Across the Grain.

Ordinarily a cutting tool should be so applied that the face nearest
the material lies as nearly as possible in the direction of the cut
desired, sufficient clearance being necessary to insure contact of the
actual edge.

There are two methods of using edge tools: one, the chisel or
straight cut, by direct pressure; the other, the knife or sliding cut.

The straight cut, Fig. 63, takes place
when the tool is moved into the material
at right angles to the cutting edge.
Examples are: the action of metalworking
tools and planing machines,
rip-sawing, turning, planing (when the
plane is held parallel to the edge of the
board being planed), and chiseling,
when the chisel is pushed directly in
line with its length.

The knife or sliding cut, Fig. 64,
takes place when the tool is moved forward
obliquely to its cutting edge,
either along or across the grain. It is
well illustrated in cutting soft materials,
such as bread, meat, rubber, cork,
etc. It is an advantage in delicate chiseling and gouging. That this
sliding action is easier than the straight pressure can easily be proved
with a penknife on thin wood, or by planing with the plane held at
an angle to, rather than in line with, the direction of the planing
motion. The edge of the cutter then slides into the material.
The reason why the sliding cut is easier, is partly because the angle
of the bevel with the wood is reduced by holding the tool obliquely,
and partly because even the sharpest cutting edge is notched with
very fine teeth all along its edge so that in the sliding cut it acts
like a saw. In an auger-bit, both methods of cutting take place at
once. The scoring nib cuts with a sliding cut, while the cutting lip
is thrust directly into the wood.

Fig. 63. Straight Cut.

Fig. 64. Sliding Cut.

The chisel and the knife, one with the edge on the end, and the
other with the edge on the side, are the original forms of all modern
cutting tools.

The chisel was at first only a chipped stone, then it came to be a
ground stone, later it was made of bronze, and still later of iron, and
[page 54]
now it is made of steel. In its early form it is known by paleontologists
as a celt, and at first had no handle, but later developed
into the ax and adze for chopping and hewing, and the chisel for
cuts made by driving and paring. It is quite likely that the celt
itself was simply a development of the wedge.

In the modern chisel, all the grinding is done on one side. This
constitutes the essential feature of the chisel, namely, that the back
of the blade is kept perfectly flat and the face is ground to a bevel.
Blades vary in width from ¹⁄16 inch to 2 inches. Next to the blade
on the end of which is the cutting edge, is the shank, Fig. 65. Next,
as in socketed
chisels, there
is the socket
to receive the
handle, or, in
tanged chisels,
a shoulder and
four-sided
tang which is
driven into
the handle, which is bound at its lower end by a ferrule. The handle
is usually made of apple wood.

Fig. 65. Firmer-Chisel.

The most familiar form is the firmer-chisel, Fig. 65, which is said
to get its name from the fact that it is firmer or stiffer than the
paring-chisel. (See below.) The firmer-chisel
is a general utility tool, being
suited for hand pressure or mallet
pounding, for paring or for light mortising.

Different varieties of chisels are
named; (1) according to their uses; as
paring-chisels, framing-chisels, mortise-chisels,
carving-chisels, turning-chisels,
etc.

Fig. 66. Paring-Chisel.  Fig. 67. Framing-Chisel.  Fig. 68. Mortise-Chisel.

The paring-chisel, Fig. 66, has a
handle specially shaped to give control
over its movements, and a long thin
blade, which in the best form is beveled
on the two edges to facilitate grooving.
[page 55]
It is intended only for steady pressure with the hand and not for use
with a mallet.

The framing-chisel, Fig. 67, is thick and heavy and was formerly
much used in house framing. It is usually made with the handle
fitting into a socket on the shank, in order to withstand the shock of
heavy blows from the mallet.

The mortise-chisel, Fig. 68,
is made abnormally thick to
give the stiffness necessary for
levering the waste out of
mortises.

(2) Chisels are also named
according to their shapes:
as, skew-chisels, corner-chisels,
round-nosed chisels, etc.

The angle of the bevel of a
chisel is determined by the kind
of wood for which it is most
used, hard wood requiring a
wider angle than soft wood, in. For
order to support the edge
ordinary work, the bevel is correctly ground to an angle of about 20°.
The chisel is a necessary tool in making almost every kind of joint.
It may almost be said that one mark of a good workman is his preference
for the chisel. Indeed an excellent motto for the woodworker
is: “When in doubt, use a chisel”.

In general, there are two uses for the chisel (1), when it is driven
by a push with the hand, as in paring, and (2), when it is driven
by blows of a mallet, as in digging mortises.

In relation to the grain of the wood, it is used in three directions:
(1) longitudinally, that is with the grain, called paring; (2) laterally,
across the surface, called cutting sidewise; (3) transversely, that is
across the end, called cutting end-wood.

Fig. 69. Paring with a Chisel.

1. Paring. To remove shavings rapidly, the chisel is held flat
side up, the handle grasped by the right hand, with the thumb
pointing toward the shank, and the blade held in the left hand, as
in Fig. 69. Held in this way great control can be exerted and much
force applied. For paring the surface as flat and smooth as possible,
the chisel should be reversed, that is, held so that the flat side will
[page 56]
act as a guide. Held in this way the chisel has no equal for paring
except the plane. Paring with the chisel is the method used in
cutting stop chamfers. (See p. 185, Chapter VIII.) By holding
the cutting edge obliquely to
the direction of the grain and
of the cut, the effective “sliding
cut” is obtained, Fig. 64.

Fig. 70. Chiseling Out a Dado. (First Step).

2. In sidewise chiseling the chisel is held in the same manner as
in paring. A typical form of sidewise chiseling is the cutting out
of a dado, Fig. 70. The work may be placed on the bench-hook or
held in the vise with the side up
from which the groove is to be cut.
The chisel is pushed directly across
the grain, the blade being somewhat
inclined to the upper surface so as
to cut off a corner next the saw
kerf. After a few cuts thus made
with the chisel inclined alternately
both ways, the ridge thus formed is
taken off, Fig. 71. In this way the
surface is lowered to the required
depth. If more force be required,
the palm of the hand may be used
as a mallet.

Fig. 72. Perpendicular Chiseling.

3. In chiseling end-wood, it is
well, if possible, to rest the piece to
be trimmed flat on the cutting board
or on a piece of waste wood. Work
done in this way is often called perpendicular
chiseling, Fig.72. The
handle is grasped in the right hand,
[page 57]
thumb up, while the blade of the chisel passes between the thumb and
first finger of the left hand, the back of which rests on the work and
holds it in place. As the right hand pushes the chisel downwards the
thumb and first finger of the left hand control its motion. When chiseling
it is well to stand so as to look along
the line being cut. Incline the chisel toward
you, and use the near part of the
cutting edge for a guide and the farther
corner for cutting, pushing the handle both
down and forward at the same time, Fig.
73. Or, by pushing the chisel sidewise with
the thumb of the left hand at the same
time that the right hand pushes it downward,
the effective sliding cut is obtained.

Fig. 73. Chiseling End Wood.

Fig. 74. Paring a Corner Round.

Fig. 75. Right and Wrong Ways of Perpendicular Chiseling.

End chiseling requires considerable
force and therefore only thin shavings should be cut off at a
time. Or the mallet may
be used with caution. In
order to leave a smooth
surface the chisel must
be very sharp. Even then
the lower arris (corner)
is likely to be splintered
off. This can be
prevented by clamping
the work down tight with a handscrew
to a perfectly smooth cutting board. It
is often advisable however, to set the
piece upright in the vise and pare off
thin shavings horizontally, Fig. 74. In
rounding a corner, both this and perpendicular
chiseling are common methods.
In both cases care should be taken
to cut from the side toward the end
and not into the grain, lest the piece
split, Fig. 75. In horizontal end paring,
[page 58]
Fig. 74, in order to prevent splintering,
it is well to trim down the arrises
diagonally to the line and then to reduce
the rest of the end surface.

In all hand chiseling, it is a wise
precaution not to try to cut out much
material at each stroke but to work
back gradually to the line.

Fig. 76. Mallet Chiseling.
The Piece is Clamped Down on the Bench With the Bench Hook.

A typical form of mallet chiseling is
the digging of a mortise, Fig. 76. (See
also p. 56.) The chisel is held perpendicular
in the left hand, while the right
hand drives blows with the mallet. The
hammer should never be used. (See
mallet, p. 96.) By rocking the chisel
and at the same time giving it a twisting
motion while the edge is kept on the
wood, the edge can be stepped to the
exact place desired. Care should be
taken to work back to the lines gradually,
to cut only part way thru from
each side (in the case of a thru mortise-and-tenon),
and to keep the cut
faces perpendicular to the surfaces.

In sharpening a chisel it is of first importance that the back be
kept perfectly flat. The bevel is first ground on the grindstone
to an angle of about 20°
and great care should be
taken to keep the edge
straight and at right angles
to the sides of the blade.

Fig. 77 Whetting a Plane-Bit.

After grinding it is necessary
to whet the chisel
and other edged tools. (See
also under oilstones, p. 121.)
First see that there is
plenty of oil on the stone.
If an iron box be used, Fig.
77, the oil is obtained simply
by turning the stone
[page 59]
over, for it rests on a pad of felt which is kept wet with kerosene.

Place the beveled edge flat on the stone, feeling to see if it does
lie flat, then tip up the chisel and rub it at an angle slightly more
obtuse than that which it was ground, Fig. 78. The more nearly the
chisel can be whetted at the angle
at which it was ground the
better. In rubbing, use as
much of the stone as possible,
so as to wear it down evenly.
The motion may be back and
forth or spiral, but in either
case it should be steady and not
rocking. This whetting turns a light wire edge over on the flat side.
In order to remove this wire edge, the back of the chisel, that is, the
straight, unbeveled side, is held perfectly flat on the whetstone and
rubbed, then it is turned over and the bevel rubbed again on the stone.
It is necessary to reverse the chisel in this way a number of times, in
order to remove the wire edge, but the chisel should never be tipped
so as to put any bevel at all on its flat side. Finally, the edge is
touched up (stropped) by being drawn over a piece of leather a few
times, first on one side, then on the other, still continuing to hold
the chisel so as to keep the bevel perfect.

Fig. 78. Grinding Angle, 20°. Whetting Angle, 25°.

To test the sharpness of a whetted edge,
draw the tip of the finger or thumb lightly
along it, Fig. 79. If the edge be dull, it will
feel smooth: if it be sharp, and if care be
taken, it will score the skin a little, not
enough to cut thru, but just enough to be felt.

Fig. 79. Testing the Sharpness of a Chisel.

The gouge is a form of chisel, the blade
of which is concave, and hence the edge
curved. When the bevel is on the outside,
the common form, it is called an outside bevel
gouge or simply a “gouge,” Fig. 80; if the
bevel is on the inside, it is called an inside
bevel, or inside ground, or scribing-gouge, or paring-gouge, Fig. 81.³

Footnote 3: Another confusing nomenclature (Goss) gives the name “inside gouges”
to those with the cutting edge on the inside, and “outside gouges” to those
with the cutting edge on the outside.

Carving tools are, properly speaking, all
chisels, and are of different shapes for facility in
carving.

For ordinary gouging, Fig. 82, the blade is
gripped firmly by the left hand with the knuckles
up, so that a strong control can be exerted
over it. The gouge is manipulated in much the
same way as the chisel, and like the chisel it is
used longitudinally, laterally, and transversely.

Fig. 82. Gouging.

In working with the grain, by twisting the
blade on its axis as it moves forward, delicate
paring cuts may be made. This is particularly
necessary in working cross-grained wood, and is
a good illustration of the advantage of the sliding
cut.

In gouging out broad surfaces like trays or
saddle seats it will be found of great advantage
to work laterally, that is across the surface, especially in even grained
woods as sweet gum. The tool is not so likely to slip off and run in
as when working with the grain.

The gouge that is commonly used for cutting concave outlines
on end grain, is the inside bevel gouge. Like the chisel in cutting
convex outlines, it is pushed or driven perpendicularly thru the
wood laid flat on a cutting board on the bench, as in perpendicular
chiseling, Fig. 72. p. 56.

In sharpening an outside bevel gouge, the main bevel is obtained
on the grindstone, care being taken to keep the gouge rocking on its
axis, so as to get an even curve.
It is then whetted on the flat
side of a slipstone, Fig. 83, the
bevel already obtained on the
grindstone being made slightly
more obtuse at the edge. A good
method is to rock the gouge on
its axis with the left hand, while
the slipstone held in the right
hand is rubbed back and forth on
the edge. Then the concave side
is rubbed on the round edge of
[page 61]
the slipstone, care being taken
to avoid putting a bevel on it.
Inside bevel gouges need to be
ground on a carborundum or
other revolving stone having a
round edge. The outfit of the
agacite grinder, (Fig. 224,
p. 120), contains one of these
stones. The whetting, of
course, is the reverse of that
on the outside bevel gouge.

Fig. 83. Whetting a Gouge.

Fig. 84. Sloyd Knife.

The knife differs from the
chisel in two respects, (1) the
edge is along the side instead
of the end, and (2) it has a
two-beveled edge. Knives are
sometimes made with one side
flat for certain kinds of paring work, but these are uncommon. The
two-beveled edge is an advantage to the worker in enabling him to
cut into the wood at any angle, but it is a disadvantage
in that it is incapable of making flat surfaces.
The knife is particularly valuable in woodwork
for scoring and for certain emergencies. The sloyd
knife, Fig. 84, is a tool likely to be misused in the
hands of small children, but when sharp and in
strong hands, has many valuable uses. A convenient
size has a 2½ inch blade. When grinding and
whetting a knife, the fact that both sides are beveled
alike should be kept in mind.

Fig. 85. Draw-Knife.

The draw-knife, Fig. 85, is ground like a chisel, with the bevel
only on one side, but the edge is along the side like a knife. Instead
[page 62]
of being pushed into the wood, like a chisel, it is drawn into it by the
handles which project in advance of the cutting edge. The handles
are sometimes made to fold over the edge, and thus protect it when
not in use. The size is indicated by the length of the cutting
edge. It is particularly useful in reducing narrow surfaces and in
slicing off large pieces, but it is liable to split rather than cut the
wood.

SAWS.

Fig. 86. Hand Saw.

The object of the saw is to cut thru
a piece of material along a determined
line. Its efficiency depends upon (1)
the narrowness of the saw cut or “kerf,”
and (2) upon the force required to drive
it thru the material. The thinner the blade, the less material will be
cut out and wasted, and the less force will have to be applied. In
order to have the saw as thin as possible, almost all the people of
the world, except the Anglo Saxons, have saws that cut when they
are pulled toward the worker. The blade is in tension while cutting
and in compression only when being returned for a new cut. German
carpenters use a saw like our turning-saw. English and Americans
have developed the saw on the opposite principle, namely, that it
should cut on the pushing stroke. As a matter of fact, the crosscut-saw
cuts somewhat on the back stroke. The pushing stroke necessitates
a thickening of the blade sufficient to prevent buckling,—a not
uncommon occurrence in the bands of a novice, in spite of this thickening.
But tho this requires more force, and involves more waste,
there are the compensations that the arm can exert more pressure in
pushing than in pulling, especially when the worker stands upright
or stoops over his work, and the stiffer wide blade acts as a guide to
the sawyer. Each method has its advantages. Whatever may be true
of hand-saws, in machine-saws the tension method, as illustrated by
the gang-saw and the band-saw, is steadily displacing the compression
method utilized in the circular-saw. Many kinds of work, however,
can be done only on the circular-saw.

In order to diminish the disadvantages of the thrusting stroke, the
modern hand-saw, Fig. 86, has been gradually improved as the result
of much experience and thought. The outline of the blade is
tapered in width from handle to point; it is thicker also at the
[page 63]
heel (the handle end) than at the point; its thickness also tapers
from the teeth to the back. All these tapers gives stiffness where
it is most needed. It is made wide for the sake of giving steadiness
in sawing. The fact that it is thinner at the back than along
the teeth gives it clearance in passing back and forth in the kerf, but
the friction is still great, especially in sawing soft or damp wood. To
avoid this binding still further, the teeth are “set” alternately one to
one side and the next to the other, and so on.

Fig. 87. Rip Saw Teeth: A-edge view, B-side view, C cross-section.

Crosscut-Saw Teeth: A’-edge view, B’-side view, C’-cross-section.

The size of saws is indicated by the length of the blade in inches.
The coarseness of the tooth is indicated by the number of “points” to
the inch. “Points” should not be confused with teeth as there is
always one more point per inch than there are teeth. For example, a
five point rip-saw has five points to the inch but only four full teeth,
Fig. 87. Rip-saws run from 4 to 7 points per inch; crosscut-saws
from 6 to 12 points per inch.

In general, saws are of two kinds, rip-saws and crosscut-saws.

The rip-saw, Fig. 87, may be thought of as a series of chisels set
in two parallel rows which overlap each other, for each tooth is filed
to a sharp edge which, at each stroke, chisels off a small particle from
the end of the wood fibers.

The shape of the teeth is the result of experience in uniting a
number of factors: as, strength of the individual tooth, the acuteness
of the cutting angle, and the ease of sharpening. The steel of a saw
is softer than that of a chisel, in order that it may be filed and set.
Hence it is weaker and the edge cannot be so acute. A typical form
of tooth is shown in Fig. 87, in which A is an edge view, B the side
view, and C a cross section. The angle of each tooth covers 60°, one
side, the “face”, being at right angles to the line of the teeth. The
cutting edge runs at right angles to the sides of the blade.

This arrangement works with entire success along the grain, but
if a rip-saw is used to cut across the grain, since there is no provision
[page 64]
for cutting thru the fibers, each tooth catches in them and tears them
out, thus leaving a rough and jagged surface.

In the crosscut-saw, therefore, the teeth are filed to points, and
the cutting edge is on the forward side of each alternate tooth. In
Fig. 87. A’ is the edge view, B’ is the side view and C’ is a cross-section.
In a properly filed crosscut-saw a needle will slide between
these two rows of teeth from one end of the saw to the other.

In action the
points, especially their
forward edges, cut or
score the fibres of
wood, and then the triangular
elevation of
wood left between the
two rows of points is
crumbled off by friction
as the saw passes
through. Thus it drops
farther and farther
into the cut. A
crosscut-saw may be
thought of as a series
of knife points, arranged
in two parallel
rows. Ordinarily the
angle of the “face” of
each tooth with the
line of the teeth is
about 65°, and slightly
steeper than the back
of the tooth. The angle of the cutting edge of each tooth may be
filed more acute when the saw is to be used for soft wood only.

A crosscut-saw when used to rip a board, works slowly, for there
is no chisel action to cut out the fibres between the points, but the cut,
tho slow, is smooth. In cutting diagonally across a piece of wood,
especially soft wood, a rip-saw cuts faster, but a crosscut, smoother.
In ripping a board, allowance should always be made for planing
to the line afterward. In starting a cut with the rip-saw, the weight
of the saw should be borne by the right hand so that the teeth may
[page 65]
pass over the edge of the wood as lightly as possible. The left thumb
acts as a guide. If the saw be handled thus, and the angle with the
board be quite acute, it is not necessary to start with a back stroke.
When the kerf is well started, the whole weight of the saw may be
applied. An easy light stroke is better than a furious one. The line
should be followed carefully, but if the saw runs from the line it may
be brought back by taking short strokes near the point of the saw
and twisting the blade slightly in the desired direction. If the saw
binds and buckles because of the springing together of the wood, the
kerf may be wedged open with a screwdriver or a bit of waste wood.
A drop of oil rubbed across each side of the saw will make it work
more easily.

Care should be
taken in finishing a
cut to hold up firmly
the part of the wood
which is being sawn
off so that it will not
split off or splinter.

Fig. 88. Rip-Sawing on a Horse.

Sawing may be
done either on a saw-horse,
Fig. 88, or at
a bench. For big,
rough work, the former
is the common
way, the worker holding the material in place with one knee, because
this method enables him to exert his greatest strength. A convenient
way for rip-sawing a small piece of wood is to insert it in the vise,
Fig. 89, with the broad side of the board parallel to the vise screw,
and the board inclined away from the worker who stands upright.
The start is easy, the sawdust does not cover the line, and the board
is not in danger of splitting. The board, however, has to be reversed
after it is sawn part way thru, in order to finish the saw cut.

Fig. 89. Rip-sawing with Wood Held in Bench-Vise.

The back-saw or tenon-saw, Fig. 90. is a fine crosscut-saw, with
a rib of steel along the back, which gives to it its name. Since it is
intended for small accurate work, the teeth have little or no set.

Fig. 90. Using the Back-Saw with Bench-Hook.

In sawing, the wood may be held either in the vise or on the
bench-hook. To help start the saw and at the same time to keep
the edges of the cut sharp, it is well to make a little groove
[page 66]
with the knife, on the waste
side of the line to be followed,
cutting the side of the groove
next to the line at right angles
to the surface. The saw drops
directly into this groove, Fig.
91. In starting the saw cut,
the saw should be guided by
holding the thumb of the left
hand against the side of the
saw just above the teeth. Until the kerf is well started, the saw
should be held so that the teeth just touch the wood. It is better not
to attempt to start the saw level, i. e.,
with the teeth resting clear across the
wood, but the handle should be raised
so that the start is made only at the
farther edge of the wood. Then as the
saw is gradually lowered, the kerf will
extend quite across the wood, Fig. 92.
When the back-saw is used for ripping,
the wood is held in the vise, end up.
Begin sawing as in crosscutting, that is,
at the farther corner with the handle
end of the saw up, and gradually drop
the handle. Watch the lines on both
the front and back sides, and if necessary,
reverse the piece to follow them.

Fig. 91. Starting a Saw Cut in a Trough Cut With Knife.

Fig. 92. Direction of the Back-Saw.

The dovetail-saw, Fig. 93, is a small back-saw for delicate work.

The compass-saw, Fig. 94, is narrow, pointed, thick, to prevent
[page 67]
buckling, and with a wide set to the teeth, to help in following the
curves. The teeth are a cross between the rip and crosscut teeth. It
is used in sawing curves.

Fig. 93. Dovetail-saw.

Fig. 94. Compass-Saw.

The turning-saw, Fig. 95, is a narrow saw, set in a frame, which
stretches the saw tight, so that
it works as a tension saw (cf.
p. 62). The best frames are
made so that the handles which
hold the blade can revolve in
the frame. The turning-saw is
used chiefly for cutting curves.
A 14 inch blade, ³⁄16 of an inch
wide is a good size for ordinary
use. The teeth are like those
of a rip-saw, so that they are
quite likely to tear the wood in
cutting across the grain. Allowance
should be made for this
and the surplus removed with
a spokeshave. The turning-saw may be used to cut on either the
pulling or the pushing stroke, with the teeth pointed either toward
or away from the worker. The pulling cut is generally better, as it
puts less strain on the frame than the pushing cut. Both hands
should grasp the frame as near the end of the blade as possible,
Fig. 95. Turns are made by revolving the frame on the blade as an
axis, which
should always
be kept at
right angles
to the surface
of the board.
Care should
be taken not
to twist the
blade.

Fig. 95. Using a Turning Saw.

Fig. 96. Saw-Vise.

To file and
set a saw, the
saw is first
fastened in
[page 68]
the saw-vise, Fig. 96, with the teeth up. It is then top-jointed by
running a flat file or a saw-jointer, Fig. 97, back and forth lengthwise
along the tops of the
teeth to bring them to a level.
After jointing the saw should
be set. For this purpose a saw-set.
Fig. 98, is necessary. Every
alternate tooth is bent in
the direction of its set by the
plunger in the instrument
pushing against the anvil,
which is an adjustable eccentric
disc. After the saw is set, it is filed. This is done with a triangular
file, Fig. 144, p. 90, which is held in the right hand and its point in
the thumb and fingers of the left. Pressure is applied only on the
forward stroke, which should be
long and even, the file being
raised above the tooth on the
return stroke. The file should
cut in the direction of the set,
that is, the teeth having the
set away from the worker
are filed first. Every alternate
tooth, 1st. 3d, 5th, etc., is filed, and then the saw is reversed and the
other set, the 2nd, 4th, 6th, etc., is filed.

Fig. 97. A Saw-Jointer.

Fig. 98. Saw-Set.

In filing a rip-saw the file should move exactly perpendicularly
to the plane of the saw blade, that is, directly across the teeth. The
filing is done on the back of the teeth, the file just touching the face
of the next one. The filing is continued, with one, two, or three
strokes, for each tooth, as the case may require, or just until each
tooth is sharp.

In filing a crosscut-saw, the file is held pointing upward and toward
the point of the saw. The file should cut in the direction of
the set. The angle of the cutting edge is determined by the horizontal
inclination of the file to the blade; the angle of the point is
determined by the perpendicular inclination of the file to the blade.
Finally the sides of the teeth are rubbed lightly with a slipstone
to remove the wire edge. It should always be remembered that a saw
is an edge tool, and its edges are as liable to injury as any edges.

PLANES.

The plane is a modified chisel. The chief difference in action
between a chisel and a plane in paring is this: the back of the chisel
lies close down on the surface of the wood that is cut, and acts as a
guide; whereas, in the plane, the cutter is elevated at an angle away
from the surface of the wood, and only its cutting edge touches the
wood, and it is held and guided mechanically by the plane mechanism.
In other words, a plane is a chisel firmly held in a device which
raises the cutter at an angle from the work, regulates the depth of
the cut, and favors the cutting rather than the splitting action. An
illustration of a chisel converted into a plane is the adjustable
chisel-gage,
Fig. 99.

Fig. 99. Adjustable Chisel-Gage.           Fig. 100. Wooden Bench-Plane.

The plane has developed as follows: it was first a chisel held in
a block of wood. This is all that oriental planes are now, simply a
sharpened wedge driven into a block of wood. When the hole works
too loose, the Japanese carpenter inserts a piece of paper to tighten
it, or he makes a new block. The first improvement was the addition
of a wooden wedge to hold in place the “plane-iron”, as the cutter
was formerly called. In this form, the cutter or plane-iron, tho still
[page 70]
wedge-shaped, was reversed, being made heavier at the cutting edge
in order to facilitate fastening it in the wooden plane-stock by means
of the wooden wedge. Then a handle was added for convenience.
Then came the cap, the object of which is to break back the shaving
and thus weaken it as soon as possible after it is cut. Until a few
years ago, this was all that there was in a plane, and such planes are
still common, Fig. 100. Finally there appeared the iron plane, Fig.
101, with it various mechanical adjustments. The following are
the parts of the Bailey iron plane:⁴

Footnote 4: The numbers and names in italics are those given in Stanley’s Catalog,
No. 34. Some of these names, as “plane-iron,” are survivals from the days
of the wooden plane and are obviously unsuitable now.

Fig. 101 Section of Jack Plane.

There are various principles involved in the action of the plane.
The effect of the flat sole is to regulate the cut of the cutter. If the
surface be uneven, the cutter will not cut at all, or but little, in passing
over low places, since the toe and heel of the sole will then be
resting on higher places; but when the cutter reaches a high place
a shaving will be taken off. Hence it follows that the longer the
plane, the straighter will be the surface produced. The length of the
plane used is determined by the length of the wood to be planed, and
the degree of straightness desired.

The part of the sole directly in front of the cutter presses firmly
down on the wood and so prevents the shaving from splitting far in
advance of the edge. It follows that the narrowness of the mouth
in a plane is an important factor in the production of smooth surfaces.
This can be regulated by adjusting the toe in the block-plane,
and by moving the frog in the jack- and smooth-planes.

A recent improvement in jack-, smooth-, and fore-planes consists
of an adjustable frog, by means of which the throat can be narrowed
or widened at will by means of a set-screw in the rear of the frog
without removing the clamp and cutter. It is made by Sargent and
Company. The Stanley “Bed Rock” plane has a similar but less
convenient device.

The splitting of the wood in advance of the edge is also prevented
by the breaking of the shaving as it hits against the cutter or
its cap. Hence the advantage of bending up and breaking or partly
breaking the shaving as soon as possible after it is cut. This shows
why the cap is set close to the edge of the cutter. Another reason
is that it thereby stiffens the cutter and
prevents “chattering.” If a thick shaving
be desired the cap has to be set farther
back. In a smooth-plane ¹⁄32 inch
is enough, in a jack-plane ⅛ inch
is often desirable. The following are
the planes in common use:

The jack-plane, Fig. 102, 14″ to 15″
long, is the one used where a considerable
amount of material is to be taken
off to bring a piece of wood to size, and
therefore the outline of the cutting edge
instead of being straight is slightly
curved or “crowned” so that in planing
the surface of a board it makes a series
of shallow grooves, the ridges of which
must afterward be smoothed off by another
plane. Also for beginners whose
hands are not strong it is sometimes wise
to grind the cutter with some “crown”,
in order to take off narrow shavings, which require less strength. For
school use, where the jack-plane is used for all purposes, the cutter
[page 72]
is usually ground almost straight and only the corners rounded as
in the smooth-plane and the fore-plane.⁵

Footnote 5: In whetting a plane-bit, a slight crown may be given it by rubbing
a bit harder at the ends of the edge than in the middle. Strop in the same
way as a chisel (p. 59).

Fig. 102. Sighting Along the Sole of Jack-Plane.

The fore-plane, 22″ to 26″ long, and the jointer, 28″ to 30″ long,
are large planes, similar to the jack-plane, except that the cutting edge
is straight. They are used for straightening and smoothing long pieces.

The smooth-plane, 5½” to 10″ long, is a short plane, similar to
the jack-plane, except that the cutting edge is straight. It is used
for smoothing.

These four planes, the jack-plane, the fore-plane, the jointer, and
the smooth-plane, are essentially alike, and directions for the use of
one apply to all.

There are two chief adjustments in the Bailey iron plane: the
brass set-screw, see 8 in Fig. 101, which regulates the depth of the
cut, and the lever, 9, which moves the cutter sidewise so that it may
be made to cut evenly. The skilful worker keeps constant watch of
these adjustments. It is well to form the habit of always sighting
along the sole before beginning to plane, in order to see that the
cutter projects properly, Fig. 102. It is a common mistake among
beginners to let the cutter project too far.

It is important to know what is the best order of procedure in
planing up a board. There are often reasons for omitting the planing
up of one or more surfaces, but it is wise to form the habit of
following a regular order, and the following is suggested as a good one:

1. Working face. Plane one broad side flat and smooth. Finish
with the plane set to cut line shavings. Test with try-square. Mark
this face with a distinct pencil mark, A, Fig. 103.

2. Working edge. Plane one narrow side straight and square
with the working face. Test with try-square, pressing the block of
the try-square against the working face. Mark the working edge
with two distinct pencil marks, B, Fig. 103.

3. End. First mark the width on the working face with the
marking-gage, C, 1-2, Fig. 103. Chisel off the corner, a, of the
piece outside this gaged line. True and smooth this end with the
plane, making it square with both working face and working edge,
D, 2, 3, 4, Fig. 103.

4. Length. Measure the length from the finished end, D, 2-3-4,
score across the working face, D, 5-6, and working edge, D, 6-7,
[page 73]
using a sharp knife point and the try-square. Saw just outside this
line, D, 5-6-7, with the back-saw, cut off the narrow corner, D, b,
beyond the gaged line and plane true, E, Fig. 103.

5. Width. Plane to the center of the gaged line, E, 1-2. Test
this edge from the working face, F, Fig. 103.

6. Thickness. Mark the thickness with the marking-gage all
around the piece, F, 8-9-10. Plane to the center of the gaged line,
G, Fig. 103. Test this face for flatness.

Fig. 103. The Order of Planing a Board.

In a word, the order to be followed is graphically represented in
H, Fig. 103. The surfaces are numbered consecutively in the order
in which they are to be planed.

The advantages of this order are these: by planing the working
face first, a broad surface is secured to which the others may be made
true. By planing the ends before the
width is planed, the danger of splitting
off fragments can be avoided by chiseling
the corner of the unfinished edges,
C, a, and D, b, Fig. 103, into a buttress.
By planing the ends and the width before
the thickness is planed, a dressed
face is secured all around for gaging
the thickness. In following this order
all measurements and markings are
made on a dressed face.

If there be any “wind” or twist in
the board, this should be discovered first
of all. This may be done roughly by sighting
across the broad side of the board,
Fig. 104, and more accurately by the use
of “winding sticks,” see Fig. 205, p. 113.
Or the surface may be tested with the
plane itself by tilting the plane on its
long corner edge, and resting it on the
board, while the worker looks between the board and the plane toward
the light. It is evident that the plane must be turned in various
directions to test for wind, and that
a board only as long or as wide as
the plane is long can be tested in
this way. The try-square or any
straight edge may be used for the
same purpose, Fig. 105. If there be
any wind in the board, this should
at once be taken out of one face by
planing down the high corners.

Fig. 104. Sighting for Wind.

Fig. 105. Testing from Edge to Edge.

In starting to plane, the worker
should bear down on the knob at the front end of the plane. When
the plane is well on the board, he should bear down equally on both
[page 75]
knob and handle, and as the plane begins to pass off the board he
should put all the pressure on the handle end, Fig. 106. By taking
pains thus, a convex surface
will be avoided, the making of
which is a common error of beginners.
On the return stroke,
the plane should be lifted or
tilted so that the cutting edge
will not be dulled by rubbing
on the wood. This is especially
important on rough and dirty
boards, as it saves the cutting edge, and in fine work, as it saves the
work. If the plane tear the wood instead of cutting it smooth, as it
should, it is because the planing is “against the grain”. This can
often be avoided by noticing the direction of the grain before beginning
to plane. But even if it be not noted beforehand, a stroke or
two will show the roughness. In such a case, it is necessary simply
to turn the wood around.

Fig. 106. Planing an Edge.

The accuracy of the work as it progresses should frequently be
tested, and the eye should constantly be trained so that it can more
and more be depended upon to detect inaccuracy, Fig. 107. As each
surface is trued, it should be carefully smoothed with the cutter set
to cut fine shavings.

Fig. 107. Sighting an Edge.

In planing a very cross-grained piece of wood, there are several
methods to use for securing a smooth
surface. The frog of the plane should
be moved forward so that the throat in
the front of the cutter is a mere slit.
In the ordinary plane it is necessary to
remove the cutter in order to reset the
frog, but in the Sargent plane and the
Stanley “bed rock” plane, it can be set
by a set-screw at the rear of the frog.
Next, the cap should be set so that the
cutter projects but very little beyond it,
or, in technical language, the cutter
should be set “fine.” A sliding cut, see
p. 53, should be taken with the plane, and sometimes it may be necessary
to move the plane nearly at right angles to the general direction
[page 76]
of the grain. By these means even refractory pieces of wood can be
well smoothed. See also scrapers, p. 91.

The choking of a plane is the stoppage of the throat by shavings.
It may be due simply to the fact that the cutter is dull or that it
projects too far below the sole of the plane. In a wooden plane choking
is sometimes due to the crowding of shavings under some part of
the wedge. When the adjustable frog in a modern plane is improperly
placed choking may result. The frog should be far enough forward
so that the cutter rests squarely upon it.

Choking may, and most commonly does, take place because the
cap does not fit down tight on the cutter. This happens if the cap
be nicked or uneven. In consequence, minute shavings are driven
between these two irons and choking soon results. The remedy is to
sharpen the cap, so that its edge makes a close fit with the cutter.
The fit may be made still tighter by rubbing with a screwdriver the
edge of the cap down on the cutter after it is screwed in place.

In no tool is it more important to keep the cutter sharp than in
the plane. To remove the cutter, in order to sharpen it, first loosen
the clamp lever and remove the clamp. Carefully remove the cap
and cutter taking pains not to let the edge hit any part of the plane,
then using the clamp as a screwdriver, loosen the cap-screw and slide
the cap back along the slot in the cutter, where it can be held fast
by a turn of the cap-screw. The edge is now free and can readily be
whetted. When the cap needs to be entirely removed, for instance,
for grinding, after it has been slid along the cutter slot, as before, it
is turned at right angles to the cutter, and then slid down the slot
until the cap-screw unbuttons from the cutter. The object in sliding
the cap up the slot before turning it, is to prevent the danger of injuring
the edge. Some caps are now made with the buttonhole at
the upper end of the slot.

After sharpening, (see under sharpening, p. 117.) the order is reversed
for replacing the cutter. The cap is set at right angles to the
cutter, the cap-screw dropped into the slot, the cap is slid up the
slot, and turned into line with the cutter, and then slid down the slot
till the edge of the cap comes quite near the edge of the cutter. Then
the two are held firmly together with the left hand until the cap
screw is turned tight.

In replacing the cutter and cap in the plane, care should be taken
not to injure the edge and to see that the Y adjustment lever fits
[page 77]
into the little slot in the cap; then finally the lever is thrown down
tight. Then, by turning the plane sole upward and glancing down
it, the proper adjustments with the brass set-screw and lateral adjustment
lever are made. When the plane is not being used, it should
rest either on a pillow (a little strip of wood in the bench trough),
or on its side. In no case should it be dropped sole down flat on
the bench.

The block-plane,
Fig. 108,
gets its name
from the fact
that it was first
made for planing
off the ends
of clap-boards,
a process called
“blocking in”.

Fig. 108. Section of Block-Plane.

The names of the parts of the Bailey block-plane are⁶:

Footnote 6: See footnote 4, p. 70

The block-plane was devised for use with one hand, as when it is
used by carpenters in planing pieces not readily taken to a vise or in
planing with a bench-hook. Hence it is made small, 3½” to 8″ long,
the clamp is rounded so as to act as a handle, and the cutter is lowered
to an angle of about 20° to make the plane easy to grasp. The
lower angle of the cutter makes it necessary that the bevel be on the
upper side. Otherwise, to give clearance, the bevel would have to be
made so long and so thin as to be weak. By putting the bevel up,
the angle between the wood and the cutter is maintained practically
[page 78]
as in the smooth-plane. Since the block-plane is intended chiefly for
use on end grain, no cap is needed to break the shavings. The adjustable
throat makes it possible to cut a very fine shaving. To facilitate
the cutting action, several forms of block-planes with a very low
angle are now made.

Where both hands are free to hold the plane, the block-plane has
no advantage over a smooth-plane, even on end grain. Moreover, the
cutter cannot be held so firmly in place as that of a smooth-plane, so
that it requires constant adjustment. Hence it is not an easy tool
for amateurs to handle. There is considerable lost motion in the
adjusting nut, and the set-screw, which acts as a knob, is likely to
work loose and be lost. It is hardly to be recommended as a part of
the equipment of the individual bench in school shops.

The piece to be planed with the block-plane may be held either
in the vise, end up, or on a bench-hook, Fig. 109. In end planing
in the vise, in order to avoid
splintering the precaution should
be taken to trim off a corner on
the undressed edge, as directed
on page 73, or else the planing
must be done from both edges
toward the center. The sliding
cut is much easier than the
straight cut, and hence there is
a constant temptation to turn
the plane at an angle perhaps at an expense of the flat surface desired.

Fig. 109, Using the Block-Plane and Bench-Hook.

In using the bench-hook the piece to be block-planed is placed
with the working edge against the block, with the end to be planed
to the right and flush with the edge of the bench-hook, in which position
it is held with the left hand. The block-plane, held in the right
hand, is placed on its side on the bench facing toward the work. In
planing, the left hand holds the work firmly against the block of the
bench-hook, pressing it somewhat to the right against the plane. The
right hand holds the side of the plane flat on the bench and presses it
to the left against the bench-hook and work. Held in this position
the plane is pushed forward and back until the end is smoothed.
Considerable practice is necessary to handle the block-plane well.

The scrub-plane is a short plane in which the crown of the cutter,
Fig. 110, is quite curved. It is used to reduce surfaces rapidly.

The scratch-plane, Fig. 111, has a toothed cutter which scratches
fine lines along its course. It is used to roughen surfaces of hard
wood which are to be glued together, for otherwise the glue would
not adhere well. Some tropical woods are so hard that their surfaces
can be reduced only by a scratch-plane. It is also useful in preparing
the surface of a very cross-grained piece of wood which cannot be
planed without chipping. By first scratching it carefully in all directions,
it can then be scraped smooth. It is also called a scraper-plane,
because accompanying the plane is a scraper which can be inserted
in the same stock and inclined at any required angle. This
plane-stock prevents the scraper from unduly lowering some portions
of the surface. See also veneer-scraper, p. 92.

Fig. 110. Cutter of Scrub-Plane.           Fig. 111. Scratch-Plane and Scraper-Plane.

Fig. 112. Rabbet-Plane.           
                    Fig. 113. Molding-Plane.

The rabbeting- or rebating-plane, Fig. 112, is designed for use in
cutting out a rectangular recess, such as the rabbet on the back of
the picture-frames. In line with the right hand corner of the cutter
is a removable spur to score the wood so that the shaving which follows
[page 80]
may be cut out clean and not torn out. With the addition of a
guiding fence it is called a filletster. This may be used on either
the right or left side. In the form shown in
Fig. 112, there is also a depth gage.

In using this plane see that the corner of
the cutter is in line with the sole, and that
both it and the spur are sharp. Set the fence
and the stop at the desired width and depth of
the rabbet. At the first stroke the spur will
score the width. This and every stroke should
be taken as evenly and carefully as if it were
the only one. In the effort to keep the fence
pressed close to the side of the wood, the tendency is to tilt the plane
over. This causes the very opposite effect from that desired, for the
spur runs off diagonally, as
in Fig. 114.

Fig. 114. Result of Careless use of Rabbet-Plane.

If this happens stop
planing at once, clean out
the recess properly with a
chisel and then proceed.

The dado-plane is much
like the rabbeting-plane, except
that it is provided with
two spurs, one at each side
of the cutting edge, to score
the wood before cutting.

The molding-plane, Fig. 113, as it name indicates, is for making
moldings of various forms; as, quarter-round, half-round, ogee, etc.

Fig. 115. Tonguing-and-Grooving Plane.

The tonguing-and-grooving-plane,
Fig. 115, is for matching
boards, i. e. making a tongue
in one to fit into a groove in another.
See Fig. 269, No. 72, p. 182.

The circular-plane, Fig. 116.
has a flexible steel face which
can be adjusted to any required
arc, convex or concave, so that
curved surfaces may be planed.

Fig. 116. Circular-Plane.

The universal plane, Fig. 117, is a combination of various molding-,
rabbeting-, matching- and other planes. It is capable of many
adjustments and applications. The principal parts of this plane are:
a main stock, A, with two sets of transverse sliding arms, a
depth-gage,
F, adjusted by a screw, and a slitting cutter with stop, a
sliding
section, B, with a vertically adjustable bottom, the auxiliary
center
bottom, C, to be placed when needed in front of the cutter as an
extra
support or stop. This bottom is adjustable both vertically and laterally.
Fences, D and E. For fine work, fence D has a lateral
adjustment
by means of a thumb-screw. The fences can be used on
either side of the plane, and the rosewood guides can be tilted to any
desired angle up to 45°, by loosening the screws on the face. Fence
E can be reversed for center-beading wide boards. For work thinner
than the depth of the fence, the work may overhang the edge of the
bench and fence E be removed. An adjustable stop, to be used in
beading the edges of matched boards, is inserted on the left side of
the sliding section B. A great variety of cutters are supplied, such
as: molding, matching, sash, beading, reeding, fluting, hollow,
round, plow, rabbet, and filletster. Special shapes can be obtained
by order.

Fig. 117. Universal Plane.

The Use of the Universal Plane. Insert the proper cutter, adjusting
it so that the portion of it in line with the main stock, A, will
project below the sole the proper distance for cutting.

Adjust the bottom of the sliding section, B, so that the lowest
portion of the cutter will project the proper distance below it for cutting.
Tighten the check nuts on the transverse arms and then
tighten the thumb-screws which secure the sliding section to the arms.
The sliding section is not always necessary, as in a narrow rabbet
or bead.

When an additional support is needed for the cutter, the auxiliary
center bottom, C, may
be adjusted in front
of it. This may also
be used as a stop.

Adjust one or both
of the fences, D and
E, and fasten with the thumb-screws. Adjust the depth-gage, F, at
the proper depth.

For a dado remove the fences and set the spurs parallel with the
edges of the cutter. Insert the long adjustable stop on the left hand
of the sliding section. For slitting, insert the cutter and stop on the
right side of the main stock and use either fence for a guide.

For a chamfer, insert the desired cutter, and tilt the rosewood
guides on the fences to the required angle. For chamfer beading use
in the same manner, and gradually feed the cutter down by means
of the adjusting thumb-nut.

There are also a number of
planelike tools such as the following:

The spoke-shave, Fig. 118.
works on the same principle as a
plane, except that the guiding surface
is very short. This adapts it
to work with curved outlines. It
is a sort of regulated draw-shave.
It is sometimes made of iron with
an adjustable mouth, which is a
convenient form for beginners to
use, and is easy to sharpen. The
pattern-makers spokeshave, Fig.
119, which has a wooden frame, is better suited to more careful work.
The method of using the spokeshave is shown in Fig. 120.

Fig. 118. Iron Spokeshave.               Fig. 119. Pattern-maker’s Spokeshave.

Fig. 120. Using a Spokeshave.

The router-plane, Figs. 121 and 122, is used to lower a certain
part of a surface and yet keep it parallel with the surrounding part,
and it is particularly useful in cutting
panels, dadoes, and grooves. The cutter
has to be adjusted for each successive
cut. Where there are a number of
dadoes to be cut of the same depth, it
is wise not to finish them one at a
time, but to carry on the cutting of all
together, lowering the cutter after each
round. In this way all the dadoes will
be finished at exactly the same depth.

Fig. 121. Router-Plane.

Fig. 122. Using a Router-Plane.

The dowel-pointer, Fig. 123, is a convenient tool for removing the
sharp edges from the ends of dowel pins. It is held in a brace. The
cutter is adjustable
and is removable for
sharpening.

The cornering tool,
Fig. 124, is a simple
device for rounding
sharp corners. A cutter
at each end cuts
both ways so that it
can be used with the
grain without changing
the position of the work. The depth of the cut is fixed.

Fig. 123. Dowel-Pointer.
               Fig. 124. Cornering Tool.          

2. BORING TOOLS.

Some boring tools, like awls, force the material apart, and some,
like augers, remove material.

The brad-awl, Fig. 125, is wedge-shaped, and hence care needs to
be taken in using it to keep the edge
across the grain so as to avoid splitting
the wood, especially thin wood. The
size is indicated by the length of the
blade when new,—a stupid method. The
awl is useful for making small holes in
soft wood, and it can readily be sharpened by grinding.

Gimlets and drills are alike in that they cut away material, but
unlike in that the cutting edge of the gimlet is on the side, while
the cutting edge of the drill is on the end.

Twist-drills, Fig. 126, are very hard and may be used in drilling
metal. They are therefore useful where there is danger of meeting
nails, as in repair work. Their sizes are indicated by a special drill
gage, Fig. 220, p. 116.

Twist-bits, Fig. 127, are like twist-drills except that they are not
hard enough to use for metal. Their sizes are indicated on the tang
in 32nds of an inch. Both twist-bits and drill-bits have the advantage
over gimlet-bits in that they are less likely to split the wood.

Twist-bits and twist-drills are sharpened on a grindstone, care
being taken to preserve the original angle of the cutting edge so that
the edge will meet the wood and there will be clearance.

German gimlet-bits, Fig. 128, have the advantage of centering
well. The size is indicated on the tang in 32nds of an inch. They
are useful in boring holes for short blunt screws as well as deep holes.
They cannot be sharpened readily but are cheap and easily replaced.

Bit-point drills, Fig. 129, are useful for accurate work, but are
expensive.

Auger-bits, Fig. 130, have several important features. The spur
centers the bit in its motion, and since it is in the form of a pointed
screw draws the auger into the wood. Two sharp nibs on either side
score the circle, out of which the lips cut the shavings, which are
then carried out of the hole by the main screw of the tool. The size
of auger-bits is indicated by a figure on the tang in 16ths of an inch.
Thus 9 means a diameter of ⁹⁄16“.

There are three chief precautions to be taken in using auger-bits.
(1) One is to bore perpendicularly to the surface. A good way to
do this is to lay the work flat, either on the bench or in the vise, and
sight first from the front and then from the side of the work, to see
that the bit is perpendicular both ways. The test may also be made
with the try-square, Fig. 137, or with a plumb-line, either by the
worker, or in difficult pieces, by a fellow worker. The sense of
perpendicularity,
however, should constantly be cultivated. (2) Another
precaution is that, in thru boring, the holes should not be bored quite
thru from one side, lest the wood be splintered off on the back. When
the spur pricks thru, the bit should be removed, the piece turned over,
and the boring finished, putting the spur in the hole which is pricked
[page 86]
thru in boring from the first side. It is seldom necessary to press
against the knob of the brace in boring, as the thread on the spur
will pull the bit thru, especially in soft wood. Indeed, as the bit
reaches nearly thru the board, if the knob is gently pulled back, then
when the spur pricks thru the bit will
be pulled out of its hole. This avoids
the necessity of constantly watching the
back of the board to see if the spur is
thru. (3) In stop boring, as in boring
for dowels or in making a blind mortise,
care should be taken not to bore thru
the piece. For this purpose an auger-bit-gage,
Fig. 219, p. 116, may be used,
or a block of wood of the proper length
thru which a hole has been bored, may
be slipped over the bit, or the length of
bit may be noted before boring, and
then the length of the projecting portion
deducted, or the number of turns
needed to reach the required depth may
be counted on a trial piece. Tying a
string around a bit, or making a chalk
mark on it is folly.

Fig. 137. Using a Try-Square as a Guide in Boring.

Auger-bits are sharpened with an auger-bit file, Fig. 142, p. 90,
a small flat file with two narrow safe edges at one end and two wide
safe edges at the other. The “nibs” should be filed on the inside so
that the diameter of the cut may remain as large as that of the body
of the bit. The cutting lip should be sharpened from the side toward
the spur, care being taken to preserve the original angle so as to give
clearance. If sharpened from the upper side, that is, the side toward
the shank, the nibs will tend to become shorter.

The plug-cutter, Fig. 131, is useful for cutting plugs with which
to cover the heads of screws that are deeply countersunk.

Center-bits, Fig. 132, work on the same principle as auger-bits,
except that the spurs have no screw, and hence have to be pushed
forcibly into the wood. Sizes are given in 16ths of an inch. They
are useful for soft wood, and in boring large holes in thin material
which is likely to split. They are sharpened in the same way as
auger-bits.

Foerstner bits, Fig. 133, are peculiar in having no spur, but are
centered by a sharp edge around the circumference. The size is indicated
on the tang, in 16ths of an inch. They are useful in boring
into end grain, and in boring part way into wood so thin that a spur
would pierce thru. They can be sharpened only with special appliances.

Expansive-bits, Fig. 134, are so made as to bore holes of different
sizes by adjusting the movable nib and cutter. There are two sizes,
the small one with two cutters, boring from ½” to 1½” and the
large one with three cutters boring from ⅞” to 4″. They are very
useful on particular occasions,
but have to be used with care.

Reamers, Fig. 135, are used
for enlarging holes already
made. They are made square,
half-round and six cornered in
shape.

Countersinks, Fig. 136, are
reamers in the shape of a flat
cone, and are used to make holes for the heads of screws. The rose
countersink is the most satisfactory form.

Fig 138. Washer-Cutter.

The washer-cutter, Fig. 138, is useful not only for cutting out
washers but also for cutting holes in thin wood. The size is adjustable.

3. CHOPPING TOOLS.

The primitive celt, which was hardly more than a wedge, has been
differentiated into three modern hand tools, the chisel, see above, p. 53, the ax, Fig. 139, and the adze, Fig. 141.

The ax has also been differentiated into the hatchet, with a short
handle, for use with one hand, while the ax-handle is long, for use
with two hands. Its shape is an adaption to its manner of use. It
is oval in order to be strongest in the direction of the blow and also
in order that the axman may feel and guide the direction of the
blade. The curve at the end is to avoid the awkward raising of the
left hand at the moment of striking the blow, and the knob keeps it
from slipping thru the hand. In both ax and hatchet there is a two-beveled
edge. This is for the sake of facility in cutting into the wood
at any angle.

There are two principal forms, the common ax and the two bitted
ax, the latter used chiefly in lumbering. There is also a wedge-shaped
ax for splitting wood. As among all tools, there is among
axes a great variety for special uses.

The hatchet has, beside the cutting edge, a head for driving nails,
and a notch for drawing them, thus combining three tools in one.
The shingling hatchet, Fig. 140, is a type of this.

The adze, the carpenter’s house adze, Fig. 141, is flat on the lower
side, since its use is for straightening surfaces.

WOOD HAND TOOLS.

* For general bibliography see p. 4.

Chapter IV, Continued.

WOOD HAND TOOLS.

4. SCRAPING TOOLS.

Scraping tools are of such nature that they can only abrade or
smooth surfaces.

Files. Figs. 142-146, are formed with a series of cutting edges or
teeth. These teeth are cut when the metal is soft and cold and then the
tool is hardened. There are in use at least three thousand varieties of
files, each of which is adapted to its particular purpose. Lengths are
measured from point to heel exclusive of the tang. They are classified:
(1) according to their outlines into blunt, (i. e., having a uniform
cross section thruout), and taper; (2) according to the shape of their
[page 91]
cross-section, into flat, square, three-square or triangular, knife, round
or rat-tail, half-round, etc.; (3) according to the manner of their
serrations, into single cut or “float” (having single, unbroken, parallel,
chisel cuts across the surface), double-cut, (having two sets of
chisel cuts crossing each other obliquely,) open cut, (having series of
parallel cuts, slightly staggered,) and
safe edge, (or side,) having one or more
uncut surfaces; and (4) according to
the fineness of the cut, as rough, bastard,
second cut, smooth, and dead
smooth. The “mill file,” a very common
form, is a flat, tapered, single-cut file.

Rasps, Fig. 147, differ from files in that instead of having cutting
teeth made by lines, coarse projections are made by making indentations
with a triangular point when the iron is soft. The difference
between files and rasps is clearly shown in Fig. 149.

Fig. 149. a. Diagram of a Rasp Tooth.
          b. Cross-Section of a Single-Cut File.

It is a good rule that files and rasps are to be used on wood only
as a last resort, when no cutting tool will serve. Great care must be
taken to file flat, not letting the tool rock. It is better to file only on
the forward stroke, for that is the way the teeth are made to cut, and
a flatter surface is more likely to be obtained.

Both files and rasps can be cleaned with a
file-card, Fig. 148. They are sometimes sharpened
with a sandblast, but ordinarily when dull
are discarded.

Scrapers are thin, flat pieces of steel. They
may be rectangular, or some of the edges may
be curved. For scraping hollow surfaces curved
scrapers of various shapes are necessary. Convenient
shapes are shown in Fig. 150. The cutting
power of scrapers depends upon the delicate burr or feather along
their edges. When properly sharpened they take off not dust but fine
shavings. Scrapers are particularly useful in smoothing cross-grained
pieces of wood, and in cleaning off glue, old varnish, etc.

Fig. 150. Molding-Scrapers.

There are various devices for holding scrapers in frames or handles,
such as the scraper-plane, Fig. 111, p. 79, the veneer-scraper,
and box-scrapers. The veneer-scraper, Fig. 151, has the advantage
that the blade may be sprung to a slight curve by a thumb-screw in
[page 92]
the middle of the back, just as an ordinary scraper is when held in
the hands.

Fig. 151. Using a Veneer-Scraper.

In use, Fig. 152, the scraper may be either pushed or pulled.
When pushed, the scraper is held firmly in both hands, the fingers
on the forward and the thumbs
on the back side. It is tilted
forward, away from the operator,
far enough so that it will
not chatter and is bowed back
slightly, by pressure of the
thumbs, so that there is no
risk of the corners digging in.
When pulled the position is
reversed.

Fig. 152. Using a Cabinet-Scraper.

One method of sharpening
the scraper is as follows: the scraper is first brought to the desired
shape, straight or curved. This may be done either by grinding on
the grindstone or by filing with a smooth, flat file, the scraper, while
held in a vise. The edge is then carefully draw-filed, i. e., the file, a
smooth one, is held (one hand at each end) directly at right angles
to the edge of the scraper, Fig. 153, and moved sidewise from end to
end of the scraper, until the edge is quite square with the sides.
Then the scraper is laid flat on the oilstone and rubbed, first on one
side and then on the other till the sides are bright and smooth along
the edge, Fig. 154. Then it is
set on edge on the stone and
rubbed till there are two sharp
square corners all along the
edge, Fig. 155. Then it is put
in the vise again and by means
of a burnisher, or scraper
steel, both of these corners are
carefully turned or bent over
so as to form a fine burr. This
is done by tipping the scraper
steel at a slight angle with the edge and rubbing it firmly along the
sharp corner, Fig. 156.

Fig. 153. Sharpening a Cabinet-Scraper: 1st Step, Drawfiling.

Fig. 154. Sharpening a Cabinet-Scraper: 2nd Step, Whetting.

Fig. 155. Sharpening a Cabinet-Scraper: 3rd Step, Removing the Wire-Edge.

Fig. 156. Sharpening a Cabinet-Scraper: 4th Step, Turning the Edge.

To resharpen the scraper it is not necessary to file it afresh every
time, but only to flatten out the edges and turn them again with
[page 93]
slightly more bevel. Instead of using the oilstone an easier, tho less
perfect, way to flatten out the burr on the edges is to lay the scraper
flat on the bench near the edge. The scraper steel is then passed rapidly
to and fro on the flat side
of the scraper, Fig. 157. After
that the edge should be
turned as before.

Fig. 157. Resharpening a Cabinet-Scraper: Flattening the Edge.

Sandpaper. The “sand”
is crushed quartz and is very
hard and sharp. Other materials
on paper or cloth are also
used, as carborundum, emery,
and so on. Sandpaper comes
in various grades of coarseness
from No. 00 (the finest)
to No. 3, indicated on the back of each sheet. For ordinary purposes
No. 00 and No. 1 are sufficient. Sandpaper sheets may readily be
torn by placing the sanded side down, one-half of the sheet projecting
over the square edge of the bench. With a quick downward motion
the projecting portion
easily parts. Or it may be torn
straight by laying the sandpaper
on a bench, sand side down,
holding the teeth of a back-saw
along the line to be torn.
In this case, the smooth surface
of the sandpaper would be against the saw.

Sandpaper should never be used to scrape and scrub work into
shape, but only to obtain an extra smoothness. Nor ordinarily should
it be used on a piece of wood until all the work with cutting tools
is done, for the fine particles
of sand remaining in the wood
dull the edge of the tool.
Sometimes in a piece of cross-grained
wood rough places will
be discovered by sandpapering.
The surface should then be
wiped free of sand and scraped
before using a cutting tool
[page 94]
again. In order to avoid cross scratches, work should be “sanded”
with the grain, even if this takes much trouble. For flat surfaces,
and to touch off edges, it is best to wrap the sandpaper over a rectangular
block of wood, of which the corners are slightly rounded, or
it may be fitted over special
shapes of wood for specially
shaped surfaces. The objection
to using the thumb or
fingers instead of a block, is
that the soft portions of the
wood are cut down faster than
the hard portions, whereas the
use of a block tends to keep the
surface even.

Steel wool is made by turning
off fine shavings from the
edges of a number of thin discs
of steel, held together in a
lathe. There are various grades of coarseness, from No. 00 to No. 3.
Its uses are manifold: as a substitute for sandpaper, especially on
curved surfaces, to clean up paint, and to rub down shellac to an
“egg-shell” finish. Like sandpaper it should not be used till all the
work with cutting tools is done. It can be manipulated until utterly
worn out.

5. POUNDING TOOLS.

The hammer consists of two distinct parts, the head and the
handle. The head is made of steel, so hard that it will not be indented
by hitting against nails or the butt of nailsets, punches, etc.,
which are comparatively soft. It can easily be injured tho, by being
driven against steel harder than
itself. The handle is of hickory
and of an oval shape to
prevent its twisting in the hand.

Hammers may be classified
as follows: (1) hammers for
striking blows only; as, the
blacksmith’s hammer and the
stone-mason’s hammer, and (2)
[page 95]
compound hammers, which consist of two tools combined, the face for
striking, and the “peen” which may be a claw, pick, wedge, shovel,
chisel, awl or round head for other uses. There are altogether about
fifty styles of hammers varying in size from a jeweler’s hammer to a
blacksmith’s great straight-handled sledge-hammer, weighing twenty
pounds or more. They are named mostly according to their uses;
as, the riveting-hammer, Fig. 159, the upholsterer’s hammer, Fig.
160, the veneering-hammer, Fig. 162, etc. Magnetized hammers,
Fig. 161, are used in many trades for driving brads and tacks, where
it is hard to hold them in place with the fingers.

In the “bell-faced” hammer, the face is slightly convex, in order
that the last blow in driving nails may set the nail-head below the
surface. It is more difficult to strike a square blow with it than with
a plain-faced hammer. For ordinary woodwork the plain-faced, that
is, flat-faced claw-hammer, Fig. 158, is best. It is commonly used in
carpenter work.

It is essential that the face of the hammer be kept free from glue
in order to avoid its sticking on the nail-head and so bending the
[page 96]
nail. Hammers should be used to hit iron only; for hitting wood,
mallets are used. In striking with the hammer, the wrist, the elbow
and the shoulder are one or all brought into play, according to the
hardness of the blow. The essential
precautions are that the handle be
grasped at the end, that the blow be
square and quick, and that the wood
be not injured. At the last blow the
hammer should not follow the nail, but
should be brought back with a quick
rebound. To send the nail below the
surface, a nailset is used. (See below.)

The claw is used for extracting nails.
To protect the wood in withdrawing a
nail a block may be put under the
hammer-head. When a nail is partly
drawn, the leverage can be greatly increased
by continuing to block up in this way, Fig. 163.

Fig. 163. Drawing a Nail with Claw-Hammer.

Fig. 164. Mallets.

The mallet, Fig. 164, differs from the hammer in having a wooden
instead of a steel head. A maul or beetle is a heavy wooden mallet.
The effect of the blow of a mallet is quite different from that of a
hammer, in that the force
is exerted more gradually;
whereas the effect of the hammer
blow is direct, immediate,
and local, and is taken up at
once. But a mallet continues
to act after the first impulse,
pushing, as it were. This is
because of the elasticity of the
head. A chisel, therefore,
should always be driven with
a mallet, for the chisel handle
would soon go to pieces under
the blows of a hammer, because
of their suddenness;
whereas the mallet blow which
is slower will not only drive
the blade deeper with the same
[page 97]
force, but will not injure the handle so rapidly. Mallet-heads are
made square, cylindrical, and barrel-shaped. Carver’s mallets are
often turned from one piece, hammer and head on one axis.

Nailsets, Fig. 165, are made with hardened points, but softer
butts, so that the hammer will not be injured. They were formerly
made square when nail heads
were square, but now round
ones are common. To obviate
slipping, some have “cup
points,” that is, with a concave
tip, and some spur points.

Fig. 165. Using a Nailset.

To keep the nailset in its
place on the nail-head it may
be held closely against the
third finger of the left hand,
which rests on the wood close
to the nail. When a nailset
is lacking, the head of a brad,
held nearly flat, may be used. But care is necessary to avoid bruising
the wood.

6. HOLDING TOOLS.

A. Tools for Holding Work.

The advance in ease of handworking may largely be measured by
the facilities for holding materials or other tools. The primitive
man used no devices for holding except his hands and feet. The
Japanese, who perhaps are the most skilful of joiners, still largely
use their fingers and toes. On the other hand, Anglo-Saxons have
developed an enormous variety of methods for holding work and tools.

Fig. 166. Bench made with Pinned Mortise-and-Tenon Joints, Low Back.

Fig. 167. Woodworking Bench used at Pratt Institute, Showing Self-Adjusting Upright Vise.

Benches. The essential features of a work-bench are a firm, steady
table with a vise and places for tools. The joints are either pinned
or wedged mortise-and-tenon, or draw-bolt joints. The best benches
are made of maple, the tops being strips joined or tongued-and-grooved
together. It is common also to have a trough at the back
of the top of the bench, i. e., a space 6″ or 8″ wide, set lower than
the upper surface, in which tools may be placed so as not to roll off.
A low pillow, fastened at the left hand end of the trough, on which
to set planes in order that the edge of the cutter may not be injured,
is an advantage. The tool-rack is of capital importance. It has

[page 99]
been common in school benches to affix it to a board, which rises considerably
above the top of the bench, Fig. 169, but a better plan
is to have the top of it no higher than the bench-top, Fig. 166.
Then the light on the bench
is not obscured, and when a
flat top is needed for large
work it can readily be had by
removing the tools. Elaborate
benches with lock drawers
are also much used in the
shops of large city schools.

Fig. 168. A Rapid-Acting Vise.

Vises for holding wood are
of three general styles, (1)
those with an upright wooden
jaw, Fig. 167, which holds wide pieces of work well. They are now
made with an automatic adjusting device by which the jaw and the
face of the bench are kept parallel; (2) wooden vises with a horizontal
jaw, guided by parallel runners, Fig. 166, and, (3) metal
rapid-acting vises, Fig. 168. The latter are the most durable and in
most respects more convenient. Special vises are also made for wood-carvers,
for saw-filing, etc.

Fig. 169. Holding a Large Board in Vise for Planing.

The best woodworking benches are equipped with both side- and
tail-vises. The tail-vise is supplemented by movable bench-stops for
[page 100]
holding pieces of different lengths. In planing the side of a board
it is held in place between the tail-vise and one of the bench-stops. A
board should not be squeezed sidewise between the jaws of a vise
when it is to be planed, lest it
be bent out of shape. In planing
the edge of a board it is
ordinarily held in the side-vise.
A long board, one end
of which is in the vise, may
also need to be supported at
the other end. This may be
done by clamping to it a handscrew,
the jaw of which rests
on the top of the bench, Fig.
169. When the vise is likely
to be twisted out of square by
the insertion of a piece of wood
at one end of it, it is well to
insert another piece of equal thickness at the other end of the vise
to keep it square, as in Fig. 120, p. 82. In this case, (Fig. 120,) the
extra piece also supports the piece being worked upon.

The vise is also of great use in carrying on many other processes,
but a good workman does not
use it to the exclusion of the
saw-horse and bench-hook.

Horses are of great use
both for the rough sawing of
material and in supporting
large pieces during the process
of construction. The common
form is shown in Fig. 170,
but a more convenient form
for sawing has an open top, as
in Fig. 171.

Fig. 170. Saw-Horse.

Fig. 171. Saw-Horse.

The picture-frame-vise, Fig.
172, is a very convenient tool
for making mitered joints, as in picture-frames. The vise holds two
sides firmly so that after gluing they may be either nailed together
or a spline inserted in a saw cut previously made. See Fig. 268,
[page 101]
No. 55, p. 181. If the last joint in a picture-frame does not quite
match, a kerf may be sawn at the junction of the two pieces, which
can then be drawn close together.

Fig. 172. Picture-Frame-Vise.

Handscrews, Fig. 173, consist of four parts, the shoulder jaw and
the screw jaw, made of maple,
and the end spindle and the
middle spindle, made of hickory.
The parts when broken
can be bought separately.
Handscrews vary in size from
those with jaws four inches
long to those with jaws twenty-two
inches long. The best kind
are oiled so that glue will not
adhere to them. In adjusting
the jaws, if the handle of the
middle spindle is held in one
hand, and the handle of the
end spindle in the other hand, and both are revolved together, the
jaws may be closed or opened evenly, Fig. 174. In use care must be
taken to keep the jaws parallel, in order to obtain the greatest pressure
and to prevent the spindles from being broken. It is always
important to have the jaws press on the work evenly. To secure this,
the middle spindle should be
tightened first, and then the
end spindle. Handscrews are
convenient for a great variety
of uses, as clamping up glued
pieces, holding pieces together
temporarily for boring, Fig.
247, p. 152, holding work at
any desired angle in the vise,
as for chamfering or beveling,
Fig. 175, etc.

Fig. 173. Handscrew.

Fig. 174. Adjusting Handscrew.

Fig. 175. Using a Handscrew to hold a Board at an Angle.

Clamps are made of both
wood and iron, the most satisfactory
for speed, strength, and durability are steel-bar carpenter
clamps, Fig. 176. They vary in length from 1½ ft. to 8 ft. The
separate parts are the steel bar A, the cast-iron frame B, the tip C
[page 102]
into which fits the screw D, on the other end of which is the crank E,
and the slide F with its dog G, which engages in the notches on the
bar. Any part, if broken, can
be replaced separately.

Fig. 176. Steel-Bar Carpenter’s Clamp. a. Steel Bar. b. Frame. c. Tip. d. Screw. e. Crank. f. Slide. g. Dog.

Iron Handscrews, also
called C clamps and carriage-makers’
clamps. Fig. 177, are
useful in certain kinds of work,
as in gluing in special places
and in wood-carving. All iron
clamps need blocks of soft
wood to be placed between them
and the finished work.

Fig. 177. Iron Handscrew, (Carriage-Maker’s Clamp).

Pinch-dogs, Fig. 178, are a
convenient device for drawing
together two pieces of wood,
when injury to the surfaces in
which they are driven does not matter. They vary in size from ¾”
to 2¾”. For ordinary purposes the smallest size is sufficient. For
especially fine work,
double-pointed tacks,
properly filed, are convenient.

Fig. 178. Pinch-Dog.

The bench-hook,
Fig. 179, is a simple
device for holding
firmly small pieces of
work when they are
being sawn, chisled,
etc. It also saves the
bench from being
marred. The angles
should be kept exactly
square.

Fig. 179. Bench-Hook.

The miter-box, Fig.
180, is a similar device
with the addition of
a guide for the saw. The
iron miter-box, Fig. 181,
[page 103]
with the saw adjustable to various angles, insures accurate work.

Fig. 180. Miter-Box.

Fig. 181. Iron Miter-Box.

Such tools as pliers, Fig. 182, pincers, Fig. 183, and
nippers,
Fig. 184, made for gripping iron, are often useful in the woodworking
shop. So are various sorts of wrenches; as fixed, socketed, adjustable,
monkey- and pipe-wrenches.

B. Tools for holding other tools.

The brace or bit-stock, Fig. 185, holds all sorts of boring tools
as well as screwdrivers, dowel-pointers, etc. The simple brace or
bit-stock consists of a chuck, a
handle, and a knob, and is sufficient
for ordinary use; but
the ratchet-brace enables the
user to bore near to surfaces
or corners where a complete
sweep cannot be made. It is
also useful where sufficient
power can be applied only at
one part of the sweep. By
means of pawls which engage
in the ratchet-wheel, the bit
can be turned in either direction
at the will of the user. The size of the
brace is indicated by the “sweep,” that is, the
diameter of the circle thru which the swinging
handle turns. To insert a bit or other tool,
Fig. 186, grasp firmly with one hand the sleeve
of the chuck pointing it upward, and revolve
the handle with the other hand, unscrewing the
[page 104]
sleeve until the jaws open enough to admit the whole tang of the bit.
Then reverse the motion and the bit will be held tightly in place.
Various hand-, breast-, bench-, bow-drills and automatic drills are of
use in doing quick work and for boring small holes, Fig. 187.

Fig. 185. Ratchet-Brace.

Fig. 186. Inserting a Bit in Stock.

Fig. 187. Hand-Drill.

The screwdriver, Fig. 188, is a sort
of holding tool for turning, and so driving
screws. Various devices have been
tried to prevent the twisting in the
handle. This is now practically assured
in various makes. The other important
matter in a screwdriver is that the
point be of the right temper, so as
neither to bend nor to break. If the corners break they can be reground,
but care should be taken not to make the angle too obtuse
or the driver will slip out of the slot in the screw-head. The bevel
should have a long taper. A
shop should be equipped with
different sizes of screwdrivers
to fit the different sizes of
screws. Screwdrivers vary in
size, the shank ranging in
length from 2½” to 18″. A
long screwdriver is more powerful
than a short one, for the
[page 105]
screwdriver is rarely exactly in line with the axis of the screw, but
the handle revolves in a circle. This means an increased leverage, so
that the longer the screwdriver,
the greater the leverage.

For heavy work, screwdriver-bits, Fig. 189, in a bit-stock are useful,
and for quick work, the spiral screwdriver, Fig. 190, and for
small work, the ratchet-screwdriver.

7. MEASURING AND MARKING TOOLS.

It is a long step from the time when one inch meant the width
of the thumb, and one foot meant the length of the foot, to the measuring
of distances and of angles which
vary almost infinitesimally. No such
accuracy is necessary in measuring wood
as in measuring metal, but still there
is a considerable variety of tools for
this purpose.

For measuring distances, the rule,
Fig. 191, is the one in most common
use. It is usually made of boxwood.
For convenience it is hinged so as to
fold. A rule is called “two-fold” when
it is made of two pieces, “four-fold”
when made of four pieces, etc. When
measuring or marking from it, it can
be used more accurately by turning it
on edge, so that the lines of the graduations
may come directly against the

[page 107]
work. The one in most common
use in school shops, is a
two-foot, two-fold rule. Some
instructors prefer to have pupils
use a four-fold rule, because
that is the form commonly
used in the woodworking
trades. Steel bench-rules,
Fig. 192, are satisfactory in
school work because unbreakable and because they do
not disappear so rapidly as pocket rules. They need
to be burnished occasionally.

Fig. 191. Two-Foot Rule. Two Fold.

Fig. 192. Steel Bench-Rule.

The steel square, Figs. 193, 194, 196, 197, is
useful, not only as a straight-edge and try-square,
but also for a number of graduations and tables
which are stamped on it. There are various forms,
but the one in most common use consists of a blade
or “body” 24″ × 2″ and a “tongue,” 16″ × 1½”, at right
angles to each other. Sargent’s trade number for this
form is 100. It includes graduations in hundredths,
thirty-seconds, sixteenths, twelfths, tenths, and eighths
of an inch, also a brace-measure, an eight-square
measure, and the Essex board-measure. Another style,
instead of an Essex board-measure, and the hundredths
graduation has a rafter-table. The side upon
which the name of the maker is stamped, is called
the “face,” and the reverse side the “back.”

The brace-measure is to be found along the center
of the back of the tongue, Fig. 193. It is used thus:
the two equal numbers set one above the other represent
the sides of a square, and the single number
to their right, represents in inches and decimals, the
diagonal of that square.

For determining the length of the long side (hypothenuse)
of a right angle triangle, when the other
two given sides are not equal, the foot rule, or another
steel square may be laid diagonally across the
[page 108]
blade and arm, and applied
directly to the proper graduations
thereon, and the distance
between them measured
on the rule. If the distance
to be measured is in
feet, use the ¹⁄12” graduations
on the back of the
square.

Fig. 193. Back of Steel Square, Brace Measure.

Fig. 194. Face of Steel Square, Octagon, “Eight-Square,” Scale.

To use the octagonal (or
8-square) scale, Fig. 194, which is along the center
of the face of the tongue, with the dividers, take the
number of spaces in the scale to correspond with the
number of inches the piece of wood is square, and
lay this distance off from the center point, on each
edge of the board. Connect the points thus obtained,
diagonally across the corners, and a nearly exact octagon
will be had. E.g., on a board 12″ square,
Fig. 195, find A.B.C.D., the centers of each edge.
Now with the
dividers take 12
spaces from the
8-square scale.
Lay off this distance
on each
side as A’ A”
from A, B’ B”
from B, etc.
Now connect A”
with B’, B” with
C’, C” with D’,
D” with A’, and
the octagon is
obtained.

Fig. 195. Method of Using the Eight-Square Scale on the Steel-Square.

In making a
square piece of
timber octagonal, the same method is used on the
butt, sawed true. When the distance from one center
is laid off, the marking-gage may be set to the
[page 109]
distance from the point
thus obtained to the corner
of the timber, and the piece
gaged from all four corners
both ways. Cutting
off the outside arrises
to the gaged lines leaves an
octagonal stick.

The board-measure is stamped on the back
of the blade of the square, Fig. 196. The figure
12 on the outer edge of the blade is the
starting point for all calculations. It represents
a 1″ board, 12″ wide, and the smaller figures
under it indicate the length of boards in
feet. Thus a board 12″ wide, and 8′ long measures
8 square feet and so on down the column.
To use it, for boards other than 12″ wide:—find
the length of the board in feet, under the
12″ marked on the outer edge of the blade, then
run right or left along that line to the width of
the board in inches. The number under the
width in inches on the line showing the length
in feet, gives the board feet for lumber 1″ thick.

For example, to measure a board 14′ long,
and 11″ wide,—under the figure 12, find 14
(length of the board); to the left of this, under
11 is the number 12.10; 12′ 10″ is the board-measure
of the board in question. Since a board
12′ long would have as many board feet in it as
it is inches wide, the B. M. is omitted for 12′
boards. Likewise a board 6′ long would have ½
the number of board feet that it is inches wide.
If the board is shorter than the lowest figure
given (8) it can be found by dividing its double
by 2.; e. g., to measure a board 5′ long and 9″
wide, take 10 under the 12, run to the left of
the number under 9, which is 7′ 6″; ½ of this
would be 3′ 9″, the number of board feet in the
board.

If the board to be measured
is longer than any figure
given, divide the length
into two parts and add the
result of the two parts obtained
separately. For example,
for a board 23′ long
and 13″ wide,—take 12’ × 13″
=13′; add to it, 11’ × 13″=11′ 11″; total,
24’11”.

A good general rule is to think first whether
or not the problem can be done in one’s head
without the assistance of the square.

The table is made, as its name, Board-Measure
(B. M.) implies, for measuring boards, which
are commonly 1″ thick. For materials more than
1″ thick, multiply the B. M. of one surface by
the number of inches thick the piece measures.

Fig. 196. Back of Steel Square, Essex Board Measure.

Fig. 197. Steel Square with Rafter Table.

The rafter-table is found on the back of
the body of the square, Fig. 197. Auxiliary
to it are the twelfth inch graduations, on the
outside edges, which may represent either feet
or inches.

Fig. 198. The “Run” and “Rise” of a Rafter.

By the “run” of the rafter is meant the horizontal
distance when it is set in place from the
end of its foot to a plumb line from the ridge
end, i. e., one half the length of the building,
Fig. 198. By the “rise” of the rafter is meant
the perpendicular distance from the ridge end
[page 111]
to the level of the foot of the rafter. By the pitch is meant the
ratio of the rise to twice the run, i. e., to the total width of the
building. In a ½ pitch, the rise equals the run, or ½ the width of
the building; in a ⅓ pitch the rise is ⅓ the width of the
building; in a ¾ pitch the rise is ¾ the width of the building.

To find the length of a rafter by the use of the table, first find
the required pitch, at the left end of the table. Opposite this and
under the graduation on the edge representing the run in feet, will
be found the length of the rafter; e.g., a rafter having a run of 12′
with a ¼ pitch, is 13′ 5″ long, one with a run of 11′ and a ⅓ pitch,
is 13′ 2⁸⁄12“, one with a run of 7′ and a ⅝ pitch, is 11′ 2⁶⁄12”
long, etc.

When the run is in inches, the readings are for ¹⁄12 of the run
in feet: e.g., a rafter with a run of 12″ and a ¼ pitch is 13⁵⁄12“,
one with a run of 11” and a ⅓ pitch, is 13³⁄12“. Where the run
is in both feet and inches, find the feet and the inches separately;
and add together; e.g., a rafter with a run of 11′ 6”, and a ½
pitch, is 15′ 6⁸⁄12” + 8⁶⁄12” = 16′ 3²⁄12“.

The lumberman’s board-rule, Fig. 199. To measure wood by it,
note the length of the board in feet at the end of the measure. The
[page 112]
dot nearest the width (measured in inches) gives the B. M. for lumber
1″ thick.

Fig. 199. Lumberman’s Board Rule.

The try-square, Fig. 200, which is most commonly used for measuring
the accuracy of right
angles, is also convenient for
testing the width of a board
at various places along its
length, for making short measurements,
and as a guide in
laying out lines with a pencil
or knife at right angles to a
surface or edge. The sizes are
various and are indicated by
the length of the blade. A
convenient size for the individual
bench and for ordinary
use has a blade 6″ long. It
is also well to have in the shop
one large one with a 12″ blade.

In testing the squareness of work with the try-square, care must
be taken to see that the head rests firmly against the surface from
which the test is made, and then slipped down till the blade touches
the edge being tested,
Fig. 203. The edge
should be tested at a
number of places in the
same way: that is, it
should not be slid along
the piece. The try-square
is also of great use in
scribing lines across
boards, Fig. 204. A
good method is to put
the point of the knife at
the beginning of the desired
line, slide the
square, along until it
touches the knife-edge; then, resting the head of the square firmly
against the edge, draw the knife along, pressing it lightly against
[page 113]
the blade, holding it perpendicularly. To prevent the knife from
running away from the blade of the try-square, turn its edge slightly
towards the blade.

Fig. 203. Using the Try-Square.

Fig. 204. Scribing with Knife by Try-Square.

The miter-square, Fig. 201, is a try-square fixed at an angle of 45°.

The sliding T bevel, Fig.
202, has a blade adjustable to
any angle. It may be set
either from a sample line,
drawn on the wood, from a
given line on a protractor,
from drawing triangles, from
the graduations on a framing
square, or in other ways. It
is used similarly to the T-square.

Winding-sticks, Fig. 205, consist of a pair of straight strips of
exactly the same width thruout. They are used to find out whether
there is any twist or “wind” in a board. This is done by placing
them parallel to each other, one at one end of the board, and the other
at the other end. By sighting across them, one can readily see
whether the board be twisted or not, Fig. 206. The blades of two
framing-squares may be used in the same manner.

Fig. 205. Winding-Sticks, 12 inches Long.

Fig. 206. Method of Using the Winding-Sticks.

Compasses or dividers, Fig. 207, consist of two legs turning on a
joint, and having sharpened points. A convenient form is the wing
divider which can be accurately adjusted by set-screws. A pencil
can be substituted
for the removable
point.
They are used
for describing
circles and arcs,
for spacing, for
measuring, for
subdividing distances,
and for
scribing. In scribing a line parallel with a given outline, one leg
follows the given edge, or outline, and the point of the other, marks
the desired line. Used in this way they are very convenient for marking
out chamfers, especially on curved edges, a sharp pencil being
substituted for the steel point.

The beam-compass, Fig. 208, consists of two trammel-points running
on a beam which may be made of any convenient length. It is
used for describing large circles. A pencil may be attached to one
point.

Calipers, outside and inside, Figs. 209, 210, are necessary for the
accurate gaging of diameters, as in wood-turning.

The marking-gage, Fig. 211, consists of a head or block sliding
on a beam or bar, to which it is fixed by means of a set-screw. On
the face of the head is a brass shoe to keep the face from wearing.
Projecting thru the beam is a steel spur or point, which should be
filed to a flat, sharp edge, a little rounded and sharpened on the
edge toward which the gage is to be moved, Fig. 212. It should project
about ⅛” from the beam. If the spur be at all out of place, as
it is likely to be, the graduations on a beam will be unreliable. Hence
it is best to neglect them entirely when setting the gage and always
to measure with the rule from the head to the spur, Fig. 213.

Fig. 211. Marking-Gage.

Fig. 212. Spur of Marking-Gage.

Fig. 213. Setting a Marking-Gage.

In use the beam should be tilted forward, so as to slide on its
corner, Fig. 214. In this way
[page 115]
the depth of the gage line can be regulated. Ordinarily, the finer
the line the better. The head must always be kept firmly pressed
against the edge of the wood so that the spur will not run or jump
away from its desired course. Care should also be taken, except in
rough pieces, to run gage lines no farther than is necessary for the
sake of the appearance of the finished work. To secure accuracy, all
gaging on the surface of wood, should be done from the “working
face” or “working edge.”

Fig. 214. Using the Marking-Gage.

It is sometimes advisable, as in laying out chamfers, not to mark
their edges with a marking-gage,
because the marks will
show after the chamfer is
planed off. A pencil mark
should be made instead. For
this purpose a pencil-gage may
be made by removing the spur
of a marking-gage, and boring
in its place a hole to receive a
pencil stub with a blunt point,
or a small notch may be cut
in the back end of the beam,
in which a pencil point is held
while the gage is worked as
usual except that its position
is reversed. For work requiring
less care, the pencil may
[page 116]
be held in the manner usual in
writing, the middle finger serving
as a guide, or a pair of
pencil compasses may be used,
one leg serving as a guide. A
special gage is made for gaging
curved lines, Fig. 215.

Fig. 215. Marking-Gage for Curves.

The cutting-gage, Fig. 216, is similar to a marking-gage, except
that it has a knife-point inserted instead of a spur. It is very useful
in cutting up soft, thin wood even as thick as ¼”.

Fig. 216. Cutting-Gage.

The slitting-gage is used in a similar
way, but is larger and has a handle.

The mortise-gage, Fig. 217, is a
marking-gage with two spurs, with
which two parallel lines can be drawn
at once, as in laying out mortises. One
form is made entirely of steel having,
instead of spurs, discs with sharpened
edges.

Fig. 217. Roller Mortise-Gage.

The scratch-awl, Fig. 218, has a
long, slender point which is useful not only for marking lines, but
for centering.

Fig. 218. Scratch-Awl.

The auger-bit-gage, Fig.
219, is a convenient tool for
measuring the depth of holes
bored, but for ordinary purposes
a block of wood sawn
to the proper length thru
which a hole is bored, is a
satisfactory substitute.

Fig. 219. Auger-Bit-Gage.

Screw- and wire-gages, Fig. 220, are useful in measuring the
lengths and sizes of screws and wire when fitting or ordering.

Fig. 220. Screw- and Wire-Gages. a. Screw-Gage. b. Wire-Gage. c. Twist-Drill-Gage.

The spirit-level, and the plumb-line which it has largely
replaced,
are in constant use in carpentering, but are rarely needed in shopwork.

Blackboard compasses, triangles, etc., are convenient accessories
in a woodworking classroom.

8. SHARPENING TOOLS.

The grindstone for woodworking tools is best when rather fine
and soft. The grinding surface should be straight and never concave.
The stone should run as true as possible. It can be made true by
using a piece of 1″ gas pipe as a truing tool held against the stone
when run dry. Power grindstones usually have truing devices attached
to them, Fig. 221. A common form is a hardened steel screw, the
thread of which, in working across the face of the grindstone, as they
both revolve, shears off the face of the stone. The surface should
always be wet when in use both to carry off the particles of stone
and steel, and thus preserve the cutting quality of the stone, and to
keep the tool cool, as otherwise, its temper would be drawn, which
would show by its turning blue. But a grindstone should never
stand in water or it would rot.

It is well to have the waste from the grindstone empty into a
cisternlike box under it, Fig. 221. In this box the sediment will
settle while the water overflows from it into the drain. Without
such a box, the sediment will be carried into and may clog the drain.
The box is to be emptied occasionally, before the sediment overflows.

Fig. 221. Power Grindstone.

In order that the tool may be ground accurately, there are various
devices for holding it firmly and steadily against the stone. A
good one is shown in Figs. 221 and 222. This device is constructed
as follows: A board A is made 2″ thick, 6″ wide, and long enough
when in position to reach from the floor to a point above the level
of the top of the stone. It is beveled at the lower end so as to rest
snugly against a cleat nailed down at the proper place on the floor.
The board is held in place by a loop of iron, B, which hooks into
the holes in the trough of the grindstone. In the board a series of
holes (say 1″ in diameter) are bored. These run parallel to the
floor when the board is in place, and receive the end of the tool-holder.
[page 119]
The tool-holder consists of four parts: (1) a strip C, 1½”
thick, and as wide as the widest plane-bit to be ground. The forward
end is beveled on one side; the back end is rounded to fit the
holes in the main board A. Its length is determined by the distance
from the edge of the tool being ground to the most convenient hole
in A, into which the rear end is to be inserted. It is better to use
as high a hole as convenient, so that as the grindstone wears down,
the stick will still be serviceable; (2) a strip, D, of the same width
as A and ⅞” thick, and 15″ to 18″ long; (3) a cleat, E, ⅝” × ¾”,
nailed across D; (4) a rectangular loop of wrought iron or brass, F,
[page 120]
which passes around the farther end of the two strips, C and D, and
is fastened loosely to D by staples or screws.

Fig. 222. Grinding Device.

Fig. 223. Holder for Grinding Chisels or Plane-Bits.

The tool to be ground slips between this loop and the strip C, and
is held firmly in place by the pressure applied to the back end of D,
which thus acts as a lever on the fulcrum E.

Any desired bevel may be obtained on the tool to be sharpened,
by choosing the proper hole in A for the back end of C or by adjusting
the tool forward or backward in the clamp. As much pressure
may be put on the tool as the driving belt will stand without
slipping off.

A still simpler holder for the plane-bit only, is a strip of wood
1½” thick and 2″ wide, cut in the shape G shown in Fig. 223. The
plane-bit fits into the saw-kerf K, and in grinding is easily held
firmly in place by the hand. By inserting the rear end of the stick
G into a higher or lower hole in the board A, any desired angle may
be obtained. G is shown in position in Fig. 221.

All such devices necessitate a perfectly true stone. The essential
features are, to have a rigid support against which the tool may be
pushed by the revolving stone, to hold the tool at a fixed angle which
may be adjusted, and to press the tool against the stone with considerable
pressure. The wheel should revolve toward the edge which
is being ground, for two reasons.
It is easier to hold the
tool steadily thus, and the
danger of producing a wire
edge is lessened. The edge as
it becomes thin, tends to
spring away from the stone
and this tendency is aggravated
if the stone revolves
away from the edge. If the
stone does not run true and
there is a consequent danger
of digging into the stone with
the tool which is being sharpened, the stone would better revolve
away from the edge. The grinding should continue until the ground
surface reaches the cutting edge and there is no bright line left along
the edge. If the grinding is continued beyond this point, nothing is
gained, and a heavy wire edge will be formed.

Fig. 224. Agacite Grinder.

A very convenient and inexpensive grinding tool, Fig. 224, sold
as the “Agacite grinder,”⁷ has a number of different shaped grinding
stones made chiefly of carborundum.

Footnote 7: Made by the Empire Implement Co., Albany, N. Y.

The oilstone. After grinding, edge tools need whetting. This is
done on the whetstone, or oilstone. The best natural stones are found
near Hot Springs, Arkansas. The fine white ones are called Arkansas
stones, and the coarser ones Washita stones. The latter are better
for ordinary woodworking tools. The India oilstone, an artificial
stone, Fig. 77, p. 58, cuts even more quickly than the natural stones.
It is made in several grades of coarseness. The
medium grade is recommended for ordinary shop
use. Oil is used on oilstones for the same purpose
as water on a grindstone. When an oilstone
becomes hollow or uneven by use, it may
be trued by rubbing it on a flat board covered
with sharp sand, or on sandpaper tacked over a block of wood.

Slipstones, Fig. 225, are small oilstones, made into various shapes
in order to fit different tools, as gouges, the bits of molding-planes, etc.

Fig. 225. Slipstone.

Files are used for sharpening saws, augers, scrapers, etc. See
above, p. 90.

9. CLEANING TOOLS.

The bench duster. One may be noted hanging on the bench shown
in Fig. 166, p. 98. Bristle brushes for cleaning the benches are
essential if the shop is to be kept tidy.

Buffer. Wherever a lathe or other convenient revolving shaft is
available, a buffer made of many thicknesses of cotton cloth is very
valuable for polishing tools. The addition of a little tripoli greatly
facilitates the cleaning.

WOOD HAND TOOLS.—Continued.

* For general bibliography see p. 4.

Chapter V.

WOOD FASTENINGS.

The following are the chief means by which pieces of wood are
fastened together: nails, screws, bolts, plates, dowels, glue, hinges,
and locks.

NAILS

Nails, Fig. 226, may be classified according to the material of
which they are made; as, steel, iron, copper, and brass. Iron nails
may be galvanized to protect them from rust. Copper and brass nails
are used where they are subject to much danger
of corrosion, as in boats.

Nails may also be classified according to the
process of manufacture; as, cut nails, wrought
nails, and wire nails. Cut nails are cut from a
plate of metal in such a way that the width of
the nail is equal to the thickness of the plate,
and the length of the nail to the width of the
plate. In the third dimension, the nail is
wedge-shaped, thin at the point and thick at
the head. Unless properly driven, such nails
are likely to split the wood, but if properly
driven they are very firm. In driving, the
wedge should spread with and not across the
grain.

Wrought nails are worked into shape from hot steel, and have
little or no temper, so that they can be bent over without breaking,
as when clinched. Horseshoe- and trunk-nails are of this sort. They
are of the same shape as cut nails.

Wire nails are made from drawn steel wire, and are pointed,
headed, and roughened by machinery. They are comparatively cheap,
hold nearly if not quite as well as cut nails, which they have largely
displaced, can be bent without breaking, and can be clinched.

Nails are also classified according to the shape of their heads;
as, common or flat-heads, and brads or finishing nails. Flat-heads
are used in ordinary work, where the heads are not to be sunk in
the wood or “set.”

Some nails get their names from their special uses; as, shingle-nails,
trunk-nails, boat-nails, lath-nails, picture-nails, barrel-nails, etc.

The size of nails is indicated by the length in inches, and by the
size of the wire for wire nails. The old nomenclature for cut nails
also survives, in which certain numbers are prefixed to “penny.” For
example, a threepenny nail is 1¼” long, a fourpenny nail is 1½”
long, a fivepenny nail is 1¾” long, a sixpenny nail is 2″ long. In
other words, from threepenny to tenpenny ¼” is added for each
penny, but a twelvepenny nail is 3¼” long, a sixteenpenny nail is
3½” long, a twentypenny nail is 4″ long. This is explained as meaning
that “tenpenny” nails, for example, cost tenpence a hundred.
Another explanation is that originally 1000 of such nails weighed
a pound. The size of cut nails is usually still so indicated. Nails
are sold by the pound.

The advantages of nails are that they are quickly and easily applied,
they are strong and cheap, and the work can be separated, tho
with difficulty. The disadvantages are the appearance and, in some
cases, the insecurity.

The holding power of nails may be increased by driving them
into the wood at other than a right angle, especially where several
nails unite two pieces of wood. By driving some at
one inclination and some at another, they bind the
pieces of wood together with much greater force than
when driven in straight.

The term brads was once confined to small finishing
nails, but is now used for all finishing nails,
in distinction from common or flat-headed nails. The
heads are made round instead of flat so that they may
be set easily with a nailset and the hole filled with
a plug, or, where the wood is to be painted, with
putty. They are used for interior finishing and other nice work.

Tacks, Fig. 227, vary in size and shape according to their use;
as, flat-headed, gimp, round-headed, and double-pointed or matting
tacks, a sort of small staple. Their size is indicated by the word
“ounce.” For example, a two-ounce tack is ¼” long, a three-ounce
[page 125]
tack is ⅜” long, a four-ounce tack is ⁷⁄16” long, a six-ounce tack is
½” long, etc. This term once meant the number of ounces of iron
required to make 1000 tacks.

Fig. 227. Tack.

Tacks are useful only in fastening to wood thin material, such as
veneers, textiles, leather, matting, tin, etc. Tinner’s tacks, which are
used for clinching, are commonly called clinch-nails. Wire tacks,
altho made, are not so successful as cut tacks
because they lack a sharp point, which is essential.

Corrugated fasteners, Fig. 228, or fluted
nails, are used to fasten together two pieces
of wood by driving the fastener so that one-half
of it will be on each side of the joint.
Their size is indicated by the length and the
number of corrugations, as ½”, four. They
are often useful where nails are impracticable.

Fig. 228. Corrugated Fastener.

Glaziers’ points are small, triangular pieces of zinc, used to fasten
glass into sashes.

SCREWS

(a) Wood-screws, Fig. 229, may be classified by the material of
which they are made; as, steel or brass. Steel screws may be either
bright,—the common finish,—blued by heat or acid to hinder rusting,
tinned, or bronzed. Brass screws are essential wherever rust
would be detrimental, as in boats.

(b) Screws are also classified by shape; as, flat-headed, round-headed,
fillister-headed, oval-countersunk-headed, and square-headed
screws. Flat-heads are most commonly used. There are also special
shapes for particular purposes. Round-heads may be used either for
decoration or where great drawing power is desirable. In the latter
case, washers are commonly inserted under the heads to prevent them
from sinking into the wood. Oval-heads are used decoratively, the
head filling the countersunk hole, as with flat-heads, and projecting
a trifle besides. They are much used in the interior finish of railway
cars. They are suitable for the strap hinges of a chest.

The thread of the screw begins in a fine point so that it may
penetrate the wood easily where no hole has been bored as is often
the case in soft wood. The thread extends about two-thirds the
length of the screw. Any longer thread would only weaken the
[page 126]
screw where it most needs strength, near the head, and it does not
need friction with the piece thru which it passes.

The size of screws is indicated by their length in inches, and by
the diameter of the wire from which they are made, using the standard
screw-gage, Fig. 220, p. 116. They vary in size from No. 0
(less than ¹⁄16“) to No. 30 (more than ⁷⁄16“) in diameter, and in
length from ¼” to 6″.

The following is a good
general rule for the use of
screws: make the hole in the
piece thru which the screw
passes, large enough for the
screw to slip thru easily.
Countersink this hole enough
to allow the head to sink flush
with the surface. Make the
hole in the piece into which
the screw goes small enough
for the thread of the screw to
catch tight. Then all the
strength exerted in driving,
goes toward drawing the pieces
together, not in overcoming
friction. The hole must be deep enough, especially in hard wood and
for brass screws, to prevent the possibility of twisting off and breaking
the screw. Soap is often useful as a lubricant to facilitate the driving
of screws. Where it is desirable that the heads do not show, a hole
may first be bored with an auger-bit large enough to receive the head
and deep enough to insert a plug of wood, which is cut out with a
plug-cutter, Fig. 131, p. 84, and glued in place. If pains are taken
to match the grain, the scar thus formed is inconspicuous.

In rough work, the screw may be driven into place with a hammer
thru most of its length, and then a few final turns be given
with a screwdriver, but this breaks the fibers of the wood and weakens
their hold. In “drive-screws,” Fig. 229, e, the slot is not cut all the
way across the head, in order that the blows of the hammer may not
close the slot.

The advantages of screws are, that they are very strong and that
the work can easily be taken apart. If they loosen they can be
[page 127]
retightened. The disadvantages are, that they are expensive, that
they take time to insert, that they show very plainly, and that they
do not hold well in end grain.

BOLTS

Bolts with nuts are useful where great strength is desired. There
are three chief varieties, Fig. 230.

Stove-bolts are cheaply made (cast) bolts
having either flat or round heads with a slot for
the screwdriver, like ordinary screws.

Carriage-bolts are distinguished by having
the part of the shank which is near the head,
square.

Machine-bolts have square, hexagonal, or
button heads.

Machine-screws, Fig. 231, are similar to
stove-bolts, but are accurately cut and are measured
with a screw-gage. The varieties are, a,
flat-head, b, round-head, c, fillister-head, d,
oval-countersunk-head,
all with slots for screwdriver.

Plates, Fig. 232, include corner-irons, straight
plates and panel-irons. These are made of
either iron or brass and are used in fastening legs to the floor, in
stiffening joints, affixing tops, etc.

Dowel-rods. Dowel-rods are cylindrical rods, from ³⁄16” to 1″
in diameter, and 36″, 42″, and 48″ long. They are commonly made
of birch or maple, but maple is more satisfactory as it shrinks less
and is stronger than birch.

Dowels are used as pins for joining boards edge to edge, and as
a substitute for mortise-and-tenon
joints.

There is, to be sure, a prejudice
against dowels on the
part of cabinet-makers due,
possibly, to the willingness to
have it appear that doweling
is a device of inferior mechanics.
But doweling is
cheaper and quicker than tenoning,
[page 128]
and there are many places in wood construction where it is
just as satisfactory and, if properly done, just as strong. Certain
parts of even the best furniture are so put together.

Shoe pegs serve well as small dowels. They are dipped in glue
and driven into brad-awl holes.

Wedges are
commonly used in
door construction
between the edges
of tenons and the
insides of mortises
which are
slightly beveled,
No. 34, Fig. 266,
p. 179. Or the
end of a tenon
may be split to receive
the wedges, No. 35, Fig. 266. The blind wedge is used in the
fox-tail joint, No. 36, Fig. 266.

GLUE

Glue is an inferior kind of gelatin, and is of two kinds,—animal
glue and fish glue. Animal glue is made of bones and trimmings,
cuttings and fleshings from hides and skins of animals. Sinews,
feet, tails, snouts, ears, and horn pith are also largely used. Cattle,
calves, goats, pigs, horses, and rabbits, all yield characteristic glues.

The best glue is made from hides of oxen, which are soaked in
lime water until fatty or partly decayed matter is eaten out and only
the glue is left. The product is cleaned, boiled down and dried.

The best and clearest bone glues are obtained by leaching the
bones with dilute acid which dissolves out the lime salts and leaves
the gelatinous matters. Such leached bone is sold as a glue stock,
under the name of “osseine.” This material together with hides,
sinews, etc., has the gelatin or glue extracted by boiling again and
again, just as soup stock might be boiled several times. Each extraction
is called a “run.” Sometimes as many as ten or fifteen runs
are taken from the same kettle of stock, and each may be finished
alone or mixed with other runs from other stock, resulting in a
great variety of commercial glues.

Manufacturers use many tests for glue, such as the viscosity or
running test, the odor, the presence of grease or of foam, rate of
set, the melting-point, keeping properties, jelly strength (tested between
the finger tips), water absorption (some glues absorb only
once their weight, others ten or twelve times), and binding or adhesive
tests. This latter varies so much with different materials that
what may be good glue for one material is poor for another.

Putting all these things together, glues are classified from grade
10 to 160, 10 being the poorest. The higher standards from 60 and
upwards are neutral hide glues, clear, clean, free from odor, foam, and
grease. The lower standards are chiefly bone glues, used for sizing
straw hats, etc. They are rigid as compared with the flexibility of
hide glues. For wood joints the grade should be 70 or over. For
leather, nothing less than 100 should be used, and special cements
are better still.

The best glue is transparent, hard in the cake, free from spots,
of an amber color, and has little or no smell. A good practical test
for glue is to soak it in water till it swells and becomes jelly-like.
The more it swells without dissolving the better the quality. Poor
glue dissolves. Glue is sometimes bleached, becoming brownish white
in color, but it is somewhat weakened thereby.

Fish glue is made from the scales and muscular tissue of fish.
Isinglass is a sort of glue made from the viscera and air bladder of
certain fish, as cod and sturgeon.

Liquid glue may be made either from animal or fish glue. The
LePage liquid glue is made in Gloucester, Mass., one of the greatest
fish markets in the country. Liquid glue is very convenient because
always ready, but is not so strong as hot glue, and has an offensive
odor. Liquid glues are also made by rendering ordinary glue non-gelatinizing,
which can be done by several means; as, for instance,
by the addition of oxalic, nitric, or hydrochloric acid to the glue solution.

To prepare hot glue, break it into small pieces, soak it in enough
cold water to cover it well, until it is soft, say twelve hours, and
heat in a glue-pot or double boiler, Fig. 243, p. 149. The fresher
the glue is, the better, as too many heatings weaken it. When used
it should be thin enough to drip from the brush in a thin stream,
so that it will fill the pores of the wood and so get a grip. Two surfaces
to be glued together should be as close as possible, not separated
[page 130]
by a mass of glue. It is essential that the glue be hot and the wood
warm, so that the glue may remain as liquid as possible until the
surfaces are forced together. Glue holds best on side grain. End
grain can be made to stick only by sizing with thin glue to stop the
pores. Pieces thus sized and dried can be glued in the ordinary
way, but such joints are seldom good. Surfaces of hard wood that
are to be glued should first be scratched with a scratch-plane, Fig.
111, p. 79.

To make waterproof glue, add one part of potassium bichromate
to fifty parts of glue. It will harden when exposed to the air and
light and be an insoluble liquid.⁸

Footnote 8: For recipes for this and other glues, see Woodcraft, May ’07, p. 49.

General directions for gluing.⁹ Before applying glue to the parts
to be fastened together, it is a good plan to assemble them temporarily
without glue, to see that all the parts fit. When it is
desirable that a certain part, as the panel, in panel construction,
should not be glued in place, it is a wise precaution to apply wax,
soap, or oil to its edges before insertion. Since hot glue sets quickly,
it is necessary after the glue is applied to get the parts together as
soon as possible. One must learn to work fast but to keep cool. To
expedite matters, everything should be quite ready before the process
is begun, clamps, protecting blocks of wood, paper to protect the
blocks from sticking to the wood, braces to straighten angles, mallet,
try-square, and all other appliances likely to be required.

Footnote 9: For special directions, for particular joints, see under the various joints, (Chap. VII.)

Whenever it is possible to break up the process into steps, each
step can be taken with more deliberation. For example, in assembling
framed pieces that are doweled, it is well to glue the dowels
into one set of holes beforehand, making tenons of them, as it were.
Time is thus saved for the final assembling when haste is imperative.
The superfluous glue around the dowels should be carefully wiped off.

Likewise in gluing up framed pieces, sections may be put together
separately: as, the ends of a table, and when they are dry then the
whole may be assembled. When the pieces are together the joints
should be tested to see that they are true, and that there are no
twists.

A good way to insure squareness, is to insert a diagonal brace on
the inside, corner to corner, as in Fig. 294, p. 196. Such a brace
[page 131]
should be provided when the trial assembly is made. Another good
way to insure squareness is to pass a rope around two diagonally opposite
posts, and then by twisting the rope, to draw these corners
toward each other until the frame is square.

The superfluous glue may be wiped off at once with a warm damp
cloth, but not with enough water to wet the wood. Or by waiting a
few minutes until the glue thickens, much of it can readily be peeled
off with an edge tool. Either of these ways makes the cleaning easier
than to let the superfluous glue harden.

The work when glued should remain at least six hours in the
clamps to harden.

HINGES

Hinges, Fig. 233, are made in several forms. The most common
are the butt-hinge or butt, the two leaves of which are rectangular, as
in a door-hinge; the strap-hinge, the leaves of which are long and
strap-shaped; the Tee-hinge, one leaf of which is a butt, and the
other strap-shaped; the chest-hinge, one leaf of which is bent at a
right angle, used for chest covers; the table-hinge used for folding
table tops with a rule joint; the piano-hinge, as long as the joint;
the blank hinge or screen-hinge which opens both ways; the stop-hinge,
which opens only 90°; and the “hook-and-eye” or “gate”
hinge.

The knuckle of the hinge is the cylindrical part that connects the
two leaves, Fig. 234. The “acorn” is the head of the “pintle” or
pin that passes thru the knuckle. Sizes of butts are indicated in
inches for length, and as “narrow,” “middle,” “broad” and “desk”
for width. The pin may be either riveted into the knuckle as in
box-hinges or removable as in door-butts. Sometimes, as in blind-hinges,
[page 132]
the pintle is fastened into one knuckle, but turns freely in
the other.

A butt-hinge may be set in one of three positions, Fig. 235: (1)
Where it is desired to have the hinge open as wide as possible, as in a
door. Here the knuckle is set well out from the wood. (2) Where
it is desired to have the hinged portion
open flat and no more. Here the center
of the pin is in line with the outside
surface of the wood. This is less
likely to rack the hinge than the other
two positions. (3) Where it is desired
to have the knuckle project as little as
possible.

Fig. 235. Three Positions of Hinges.

HINGING

In setting the hinges of a box cover,
first see that the cover fits the box exactly
all the way around.

In the case of a door, see that it fits
its frame, evenly all the way around,
but with a little play. To insure a tighter fit at the swinging edge
this edge should be slightly beveled inwards.

In attaching a butt-hinge, the essential thing is to sink the hinge
into the wood, exactly the thickness of the knuckle. The gains may
be cut in one or both of the pieces to be hinged together.

With these matters determined proceed as follows: In the case
of a box cover, the hinges should be set about as far from the ends
of the box as the hinge is long.

In the case of an upright door, locate the hinges respectively
above and below the lower and upper rails of the door. Mark with
the knife on the edge of the door the length of the hinge, and square
across approximately the width of the gain to receive it. Do this for
both hinges. Between these lines gage the proper width of the gains.
Set another gage to one half the thickness of the knuckle and gage
on the door face the depth of the gains. Chisel out the gains, set
the hinges in place, bore the holes, and drive the screws. Place the
door in position again to test the fit. If all is well, mark the position
of the hinges on the frame, gage and cut the gains, and fasten in the
hinges. Where the hinge is gained its full thickness into the door,
[page 133]
no gain, of course, is cut in the frame. If the hinges are set too
shallow, it is an easy matter to unscrew one leaf of each and cut a
little deeper. If they are set too deep the screws may be loosened
and a piece of paper or a shaving
inserted underneath along
the outer arris of the gain.

LOCKS

The chief parts of a lock
are: the bolt, its essential feature,
the selvage, the plate
which appears at the edge of
the door or drawer, the box,
which contains the mechanism
including the tumbler, ward,
spring, etc., the key-pin, into
or around which the key is inserted,
the strike, the plate attached
opposite the selvage,
(often left out as in drawer-locks,
but essential in hook-bolt
locks, and self-locking locks,)
and the escutcheon, the plate
around the keyhole.

Locks may be classified: (1) According to their uses, of which
there are two types. (a), Fig. 236, For drawers, cupboards, tills,
wardrobes, and doors. In these the bolt simply projects at right
angles to the selvage into the strike, and resists pressure sidewise of
the lock. (b), Fig. 237, For desks, roll-top desks, chests, boxes and
sliding doors. In these, the bolt includes
a hook device of some kind to
resist pressure perpendicular to the
selvage. In some locks, the hook or
hooks project sidewise from the bolt, in
others the bolt engages in hooks or
eyes attached to the strike.

Fig. 236. Rim-lock, for Drawer.
1. Bolt. 2. Selvage.
3. Box. 4. Key-pin.

Fig. 237. Mortise-lock, for Box.

(2) According to the method of application,
as rim locks, which are fastened on
[page 134]
the surface, and mortise locks which are mortised into the
edge of a door or drawer or box.

INSERTING LOCKS

To insert a rim-lock, measure the distance from the selvage to the
key-pin, locate this as the center of the keyhole, and bore the hole. If
the lock has a selvage, gain out the edge
of the door or drawer to receive it. If
the lock box has to be gained in, do
that next, taking care that the bolt has
room to slide. Cut the keyhole to the
proper shape with a keyhole-saw or
small chisel. Fasten the lock in place,
and if there is a strike or face-plate,
mark its place and mortise it in.

To insert a mortise-lock, locate and
bore the keyhole, mortise in the box
and the selvage, finish the keyhole, fasten in the lock, add the escutcheon,
locate and mortise in the strike, and screw it in place.

WOOD FASTENINGS

* For general bibliography see p. 4.

Chapter VI.

EQUIPMENT AND CARE OF THE SHOP.

Tool equipment. The choice of tools in any particular shop best
comes out of long experience. Some teachers prefer to emphasize
certain processes or methods, others lay stress on different ones. The
following tentative list is suggested for a full equipment for twenty-four
students. One bench and its tools may be added for the teacher.

The prices given are quoted from Discount Sheet No. 1 for Catalogue
of Tools, No. 355 issued by Hammacher, Schlemmer & Co.,
Fourth Avenue and 13th Street, New York City, dated 1908, and
are correct at the present date (1910). Aggregate orders, however,
are always subject to special concessions, and it is suggested that before
ordering the purchaser submit a list of specifications for which
special figures will be quoted.

There are good benches, vises, and tools of other makes on the
market, but those specified below are typical good ones.

Following are two equipments for classes of twenty-four pupils,
one severely economical to cost approximately $400, and the other
more elaborate to cost approximately $750.

$400 TOOL EQUIPMENT.

INDIVIDUAL TOOLS.

THE CARE OF THE WOODWORKING SHOP

The general arrangement of the room. The important factors
are the source or sources of light, and the lines of travel. The common
arrangement of benches where two sides of the room are lighted,
is shown in a, Fig. 238. By this arrangement, as each worker faces
his bench, he also faces one set of windows and has another set of
windows at his left. The advantage of this arrangement is that it is
easy to test one’s work with the try-square by lifting it up to the
light. Another arrangement, shown in b, Fig. 238, has this advantage,
that there are no shadows on the work when it is lying on the
bench and the worker is holding his rule or try-square on it with
his left hand. When all the windows are on one side of the room
the latter is the more advantageous arrangement.

In determining the position of the benches, especially with reference
to their distance from each other, thought should be given to
the general lines of travel, from the individual benches to the general
tool-rack, to the finishing-table, to the lockers, etc. Even if all the
aisles cannot be wide enough both for passage and for work, one
wider one thru the center of the room may solve the difficulty. Where
[page 143]
rooms are crowded, space may be economized by placing the benches
in pairs, back to back, c and d, Fig. 238. In any case, room
should
always be reserved for a tier of demonstration seats, facing the teacher’s
bench, for the sake of making it easy for the pupils to listen and
to think.

Fig. 238. Four Different Arrangements of Benches in a Shop.

The Tools. Every shop soon has its own traditions as to the arrangement
of tools, but there are two principles always worth observing.
(1) It is an old saying that there should be “a place for everything
and everything in its place.” This is eminently true of a well-ordered
woodworking shop, and there is another principle just as important.
(2) Things of the same sort should be arranged together, and
arranged by sizes, whether they be general tools or individual tools.
In arranging the rack for general tools, a few suggestions are offered.
In the first place, arrange them so that there will be no danger of
cutting one’s fingers on one tool when attempting to take down another.
[page 144]
Where the rack must needs be high, all the tools can be
brought within reach, by placing long tools, like files, screwdrivers,
etc., at the top. Such an arrangement is shown in Fig. 239.

Fig. 239. General Tool rack in a School Shop.

As to the individual benches, those without high backs are to be
preferred, not only because of their convenience when it is desired
to work on large pieces, like table tops, and because the backs do not
interfere with the light, but because it is easier for the teacher to
look over the room to see that everything is in order. If the equipment
is kept complete, it is an easy matter to glance over all the
benches and the general rack to see that everything is in place.

In general, there are two methods of keeping guard over tools, the
open and the closed. In the open method, everything is kept in sight
so that empty places can be discovered readily. This method is a
convenient one, and, besides, the tools are always easily accessible.
In the closed method, the tools are kept in drawers and cases where
they can be locked up. This method is suitable where pupils are
[page 145]
equipped with individual sets of cutting tools. In such a case, the
common tools for each bench are kept in a common drawer and individual
pupils’ tools in separate drawers. This method has the disadvantage
that things are out of sight, and if they disappear their
loss may not be discovered immediately. On the other hand, where
the drawers and cases are kept carefully locked, the danger of loss is
reduced almost to a minimum. Sometimes a combination of both
methods is tried, the tools being kept in unlocked drawers. This
method furnishes the greatest difficulty in keeping tools from disappearing.

Even when tools are well arranged, one of the most serious difficulties
in the way of shop order, is to keep tools in their places. Pupils
who are in a hurry, slip in the tools wherever they will fit, not
where they belong. Labels at the places of the different sets may
[page 146]
help somewhat; a more efficient method is to paste or paint the
form of each tool on the wall or board against which it hangs. Pupils
will see that, when they will not stop to read a label.

In spite of all precautions, some tools will disappear. A plan to
cover the cost of these, which works well in some schools, is to require
a deposit at the beginning of the year to cover these losses. Then at
the end of the year, after deducting the cost of losses, the balance is
returned pro rata.

There is diversity of practice in the distribution of tools on the
general case and on the individual benches. Some tools, like the
[page 147]
plane and chisel, and try-square, are so frequently in use that each
worker must have one at hand. As to others, the demand must determine
the supply. One other consideration may be expressed by
the principle that those tools, the use of which is to be encouraged,
should be kept as accessible as possible, and those whose use is to be
discouraged, should be kept remote. Some tools, like files, it may be
well to keep in a separate locker to be had only when asked for.

A cabinet of drawers, such as that shown in Fig. 240, for holding
nails, screws, and other fastenings, is both a convenience and a material
aid in preserving the order of the shop.

Fig. 240. Nail and Screw Cabinet.

As for the care of tools during vacation, they should be smeared
with vaseline, which is cheap, and put away out of the dampness.
The planes should be taken apart and each part smeared. To clean
them again for use, then becomes an easy matter. The best method
of removing rust and tarnish is to polish the tools on a power buffing
wheel on which has been rubbed some tripoli. They may then be
polished on a clean buffer without tripoli.

The Lockers. In order to maintain good order in the shop, an
almost indispensable part of the equipment is a set of lockers for holding
[page 148]
the unfinished work of pupils. An inexpensive outfit may consist
simply of sets of shelves, say 5″ apart, 12″ deep, and 18″ long, Fig. 241.
Ordinary spring-roller curtains may be hung in front of each set of
shelves to conceal and protect the contents. Such a case should cost
at the rate of about 40c. for each compartment. A more substantial
and more convenient case, shown in Fig. 242, consists of compartments
each 9½” high, 6″ wide, and 18″ deep. These proportions
may be changed to suit varying conditions. In front of each tier
of 12 compartments is a flap door opening downward. Such a case
built of yellow pine (paneled) may cost at the rate of $1.00 per
compartment.

Fig. 241. An Inexpensive Locker for Unfinished Work.

Fig. 242. A More Expensive Locker for Unfinished Work.

There should, of course, be a separate compartment for each pupil
using the shop. Where possible, there should be a special table
[page 149]
for staining and gluing. Where strict economy must be practiced, a
good sized kitchen table covered with oilcloth answers every purpose.
A better equipment would include a well-built bench, such as that
shown in Fig. 243, the top and back of which are covered with zinc.

Fig. 243. Gluing and Staining Bench Covered with Zinc.

Where no staining-table is possible, temporary coverings of oilcloth
may be provided to lay over any bench which is convenient for
the purpose.

Care of brushes and materials used in finishing wood. Shellac
should be kept in glass or pottery
or aluminum receptacles
but not in any metal like tin,
which darkens it. A good
plan is to have a bottle for
fresh, untouched shellac, a
wide-mouthed jar for that
which has been diluted and
used, and an enameled cup for
use. There should also be a
special brush, Fig. 244. At
the time of using, first see
that the brush is soft and pliable. If it is stiff, it can be soaked
quickly and softened in a little alcohol in the cup. This alcohol may
then be poured into the jar and mixed in by shaking. Then pour out
a little from the jar into the cup, and if it is too thin, thicken with
some fresh shellac. After using, pour back the residue into the jar,
carefully wiping the brush on the edge of the jar; and if it is not
to be used again for some time, rinse it in a little alcohol, which may
also be poured into the jar, which should then be covered. What
little shellac remains in the brush and cup will do no harm and the
brush may be left standing in the cup until required. The important
things are to keep the shellac cup and brush for shellac only,
(indeed, it is a good plan to label them “SHELLAC ONLY,”) and
to keep the shellac covered so that the alcohol in it will not evaporate.
In a pattern-making shop, where the shellac cup is to be frequently
used, it is well to have cups with covers thru which the
brushes hang, like the brush in a mucilage jar.

Fig. 244. Shellac Utensils.

Varnish brushes need to be cleaned thoroly after each using. If
they get dry they become too hard to be cleaned without great difficulty.

Brushes for water stains are easily taken care of by washing with
water and then laying them flat in a box. Cups in which the water
stains have been used can also be easily rinsed with water.

Brushes for oil stains are
most easily kept in good condition,
by being hung in a
brush-keeper, Fig. 245, (sold
by Devoe & Reynolds, 101
Fulton St., N. Y. C.) partly
filled with turpentine. The
same brushes may also be used
for fillers.

Fig. 245. Brush-keeper.

Oil stains should be poured
back into their respective bottles,
and the cups wiped out
with cotton waste. When they
get in bad condition, they can
be cleaned readily after a preliminary
soaking in a strong
solution of potash. The same
treatment may be given to
brushes, but if they are left
soaking too long in the solution,
the bristles will be eaten
off.

EQUIPMENT AND CARE OF THE SHOP

* For general bibliography, see p. 4.

CHAPTER VII.

THE COMMON JOINTS.

Wherever two or more pieces of wood are fastened together we
have what is properly called joinery. In common usage the term indicates
the framing of the interior wood finish of buildings and ships,
but it is also used to include cabinet-making, which is the art of constructing
furniture, and even the trades of the wheelwright, carriage-maker,
and cooper. Since joinery involves the constant use of joints,
a reference list of them, with illustrations, definitions, uses, and directions
for making typical ones may be of convenience to workers
in wood.

HEADING JOINTS

No. 1. A lapped and strapped joint is made by
laying the end of one timber over another and fastening them both
together with bent straps on the ends of which are screws by which
they may be tightened. It is a very strong joint and is used where
the beams need lengthening as in false work or in long ladders and
flag poles.

Fig. 264-1 Lapped and Strapped

No. 2. A fished joint is made by butting the squared
ends of two timbers together and placing short pieces of wood or iron,
called fish-plates, over the faces of the timbers and bolting or spiking
the whole firmly together. It is used for joining timbers in the direction
of their length, as in boat construction.

Fig. 264-2 Fished

No 3. In a fished joint keys are often inserted between
the fish-plate and beam at right angles to the bolts in order to lessen
the strain that comes upon the bolts when the joint is subjected to
tension. In wide pieces and for extra strength, as in bridge work, the
bolts may be staggered.

Fig. 264-3 Fished and keyed

Nos. 4, 5, 6 and 7. A scarf or spliced joint is made by
joining together with flush surfaces the ends of two timbers in such
a way as to enable them to resist compression, as in No. 4; tension,
as in No. 5; both, as in No. 6, where the scarf is tabled; or cross
[page 152]
strain as in No. 7. No. 4 is used in house sills and in splicing out
short posts, Nos. 5 and 6 in open frame work. No. 7 with or without
the fish-plate, is used in boats and canoes, and is sometimes called a
boat-builder’s joint, to distinguish it from No. 4, a carpenter’s joint.
A joint to resist cross strain is stronger when scarfed in the direction
of the strain than across it. No. 7 is the plan, not elevation, of a
joint to receive vertical cross strain.

Fig. 264-4 Spliced for compression

Fig. 264-5 Spliced for tension

Fig. 264-6 Spliced and Tabled

Fig. 264-7 Spliced for cross strain

BUTT JOINTS

No. 8. A doweled butt-joint is made by inserting, with
glue, dowel-pins into holes bored into the two members. The end of
one member is butted against
the face or edge of the other.
It is used in cabinet-making
where the presence of nails
would be unseemly.

Fig. 264-8 Dowelled butt

Fig. 246. Lay-out by Thru Dowling.

In a doweled butt-joint the
dowels may go clear thru the
outside member, and be finished
as buttons on the outside,
where they show. To lay
out this joint mark near the
ends of the edges of the abutting
member, X, Fig. 246, center-lines
A B. Draw on the
other member Y, a sharp pencil-line
to which when the
lines AB on X are fitted, X will be in its proper place. Carry the
line around to the other side of Y and locate on it the proper centers
for the dowel-holes E and F. Then fasten on the end of X a handscrew
in such a way that the jaws will be flush with the end. With
another handscrew, clamp this handscrew to Y in such a way that the
marks on the two pieces match, A to C and B to D, Fig. 247.
Bore at the proper places, E and F, holes directly thru Y into X.

Fig. 247. Thru Boring for a Butt Joint.

Fig. 248 illustrates the gluing together of a four-legged stand in
which the joints are made in this way. The cross-lap joints of the
stretchers are first glued together, then the other joints are assembled
without glue, to see that all the parts fit and finally two opposite
[page 153]

sides are glued at a time. Pieces of paper are laid inside the gluing
blocks to prevent them from sticking to the legs.

Fig. 248. Gluing-Up a Four-Legged Stand.

In case the dowels are to be hidden the chief difficulty is to locate
the holes properly. One method of procedure is as follows: To
dowel the end of one member
against the face of the other as
a stringer into a rail or a rail
into a table leg, first lay out
the position of the dowels in
the end of the first member,
X, Fig. 249. Gage a center-line,
A B, across this end lengthwise,
locate the centers of the
dowel-holes, and square across
with a knife point, as CD and
EF. Gage a line on the other
member to correspond with the
line AB. On the face so
gaged, lay the first member on
its side so that one arris lies
along this gaged line and prick off the points D and F, to get the
centers of the dowel-holes.

Fig. 249. Laying out a Dowel Joint.

If, as is usual, there are a number of similar joints to be made,
a device like that shown in Fig. 249 will expedite matters. 1 and
2 are points of brads driven thru a piece of soft wood, which has been
notched out, and are as far apart as the dowels. A-1 is the distance
from the working edge of the rail to the first dowel. The same
measure can be used from the end of the leg.

When the centers are all marked, bore the holes. Insert the
dowels into the holes and make a trial assembly. If any rail is
twisted from its proper plane, note carefully where the error is, take
apart, glue a dowel into the hole, that is wrong, pare it off flush with
the surface, and re-bore in such a place that the parts, when assembled
will come up true. When everything fits, glue and clamp together.

No. 9. A toe-nailed joint is made by driving nails
diagonally thru the corners of one member into the other. It is used
in fastening the studding to the sill in balloon framing.

Fig. 264-9 Toe-nailed

No. 10. A draw-bolt joint is made by inserting an iron
bolt thru a hole in one member and into the other to meet a nut
[page 155]
inserted from the side of the second member. It is very strong and
is used in bench construction, wooden machinery, etc.

Fig. 264-10 Draw-bolt

No. 11. A plain butt-joint is one in which the members
join endwise or edgewise without overlapping. It is used on
returns as in ordinary boxes and cases.

Fig. 264-11 Plain butt

No. 12. A glued and blocked joint is made by gluing
and rubbing a block in the inside corner of two pieces which are
butted and glued together. It is used in stair-work and cabinet-work,
as in the corners of bureaus.

Fig. 264-12 Glued and blocked

No. 13. A hopper-joint is a butt-joint, but is peculiar
in that the edges of the boards are not square with their faces on
account of the pitch of the sides. It is used in hoppers, bins, chutes,
etc. The difficulty in laying out this joint is to obtain the proper
angle for the edges of the pieces. This may be done as follows:
After the pieces are planed to the correct thickness, plane the upper
and lower edges of the end pieces to the correct bevel as shown by
the pitch of the sides. Lay out the pitch of the sides of the hopper
on the outside of the end pieces. From the ends of these lines, on
the upper and lower beveled edges score lines at right angles with
the knife and try-square. Connect these lines on what will be the
inside of the hopper. Saw off the surplus wood and plane to the
lines thus scored. The side pieces may be finished in the same way,
and the parts are then ready to be assembled.

Fig. 264-13 Hopper

HALVING-JOINTS

A halved joint is one in which half the thickness of each member
is notched out and the remaining portion of one just fits into the
notch in the other, so that the upper and under surfaces of the members
are flush.

No. 14. A cross-lap joint is a halved joint in which
both members project both ways from the joint. This is a very common
joint used in both carpentry and joinery, as where stringers
cross each other in the same plane.

Fig. 264-14 Cross lap

The two pieces are first dressed exactly to the required size,
either separately or by the method of making duplicate parts, see
Chap. IX, p. 204. Lay one member, called X, across the other in
the position which they are to occupy when finished and mark plainly
their upper faces, which will be flush when the piece is finished.
Locate the middle of the length of the lower piece, called Y, on one
[page 156]
arris, and from this point lay off on this arris half the width of the
upper piece, X. From this point square across Y with the knife
and try-square. Lay X again in its place, exactly along the line
just scored. Then mark with the knife on Y the width of X, which
may then be removed and the second line squared across Y. From
these two lines square across both edges of Y to approximately one-half
the thickness. Now turn X face down, lay Y on it, and mark
it in the same way as Y. Set the gage at one-half the thickness of
the pieces, and gage between the lines on the edges, taking care to
hold the head of the gage against the marked faces. Then even if
one piece is gaged so as to be cut a little too deep, the other will be
gaged so as to be cut proportionately less, and the joint will fit.

Cut a slight triangular groove on the waste side of the knife-marks,
Fig. 91, p. 66, saw accurately to the gaged lines, and chisel
out the waste as in a dado, see Figs. 70 and 71, p. 56.

The bottom of the dado thus cut should be flat so as to afford
surface for gluing. When well made, a cross-lap joint does not need
to be pounded together but will fit tight under pressure of the hands.

No. 15. A middle-lap joint or halved tee is made in
the same way as a cross-lap joint, but one member projects from the
joint in only one direction, it is used to join stretchers to rails as
in floor timbers.

Fig. 265-15 Middle lap

No. 16. An end-lap joint is made in the same way as a
cross-lap joint except that the joint is at the end of both members. It
is used at the corners of sills and plates, also sometimes in chair-seats.

Fig. 265-16 End lap

To make an end-lap joint, place the members in their relative
positions, faces up, and mark plainly. Mark carefully on each member
the inside corner, allowing the end of each member slightly (¹⁄16“)
to overlap the other. Square across at these points with a sharp
knife point, on the under side of the upper member, and on the
upper side of the lower member. Now proceed as in the cross-lap
joint, except that the gaged line runs around the end and the cutting
must be done exactly to this line.

No. 17. In an end-lap joint on rabbeted pieces the
joint must be adapted to the rabbet. The rabbet should therefore
be plowed before the joint is made. The rabbet at the end of the
piece X is cut not the entire width of the piece Y, but only the width
of the lap,—c-f = a-e. This joint is used occasionally in picture-frames.

Fig. 265-17 End lap with rabbet

No. 18. A dovetail halving or lap-dovetail is a middle-lap
joint with the pin made dovetail in shape, and is thus better
able to resist tension. It is used for strong tee joints.

Fig. 265-18 Dovetail halving

No. 19. A beveled halving is made like a middle-lap
joint except that the inner end of the upper member is thinner so
that the adjoining cheeks are beveled. It is very strong when loaded
above. It was formerly used in house framing.

Fig. 265-19 Beveled halving

MODIFIED HALVING JOINTS

No. 20. A notched joint is made by cutting out a
portion of one timber. It is used where it is desired to reduce the
height occupied by the upper timber. Joists are notched on to
wall plates.

Fig. 265-20 Notched

No. 21. A checked joint or double notch is made by
cutting out notches from both the timbers so as to engage each
other. It is used where a single notch would weaken one member
too much.

Fig. 265-21 Checked

No. 22. A cogged or corked or caulked joint is made
by cutting out only parts of the notch on the lower piece, leaving a
“cog” uncut. From the upper piece a notch is cut only wide enough
to receive the cog. A cogged joint is stronger than a notched because
the upper beam is not weakened at its point of support. It is used
in heavy framing.

Fig. 265-22 Cogged

No. 23. A forked tenon joint is made by cutting a
fork in the end of one member, and notching the other member to
fit into the fork, so that neither piece can slip. It is used in knock-down
furniture and in connecting a muntin to a rail, where it is
desired that the muntin should run thru and also that the rail be
continuous.

Fig. 265-23 Forked

No. 24. A rabbet or rebate or ledge joint is made by
cutting out a portion of the side or end of a board or timber X to
receive the end or side of another, Y. It may then be nailed from
either the side or end or from both. The neatest way in small boxes
is from the end, or better still it may be only glued.

Fig. 266-24 Rabbet

No. 25. A dado or grooved joint is made by cutting
in one member a groove into which the end or edge of the other
member fits. Properly speaking a groove runs with the grain, a
dado across it, so that the bottom of a drawer is inserted in a groove
while the back of the drawer is inserted in a dado. Where the whole
[page 158]
of the end of one member is let into the other, such a dado is also
called a housed dado. Treads of stairs are housed into string boards.

Fig. 266-25 Dado

To lay out a dado joint: After carefully dressing up both pieces
to be joined, locate accurately with a knife point, on the member to
be dadoed, called X, one side of the dado, and square across the piece
with a try-square and knife. Then locate the other side of the dado
by placing, if possible, the proper part of the other member, called Y,
close to the line drawn. If this method of superposition is not possible,
locate by measurement. Mark, with a knife point, on X, the
thickness thus obtained. Square both these lines as far across the
edges of X as Y is to be inserted. Gage to the required depth on
both edges with the marking-gage.

To cut the joint: First make with the knife a triangular groove
on the waste side of each line, as indicated in Fig. 91, p. 66, and
starting in the grooves thus made, saw with the back-saw to the gaged
lines on both edges. The waste may now be taken out either with a
chisel or with a router, Fig. 122, p. 83. The second member, Y,
should just fit into a dado thus made, but if the joint is too tight,
the cheeks of the dado may be pared with a chisel. In delicate work
it is often wise not to saw at all, but to use only the knife and chisel.

No. 26. A dado and rabbet is made by cutting a dado
in one member, X, and a rabbet on the other, Y, in such a way that
the projecting parts of both members will fit tight in the returns of
the other member. It is used in boxes and gives plenty of surface
for gluing.

Fig. 266-26 Dado and rabbet

No. 27. A dado, tongue and rabbet is a compound
joint, made by cutting a rabbet on one member, Y, and then a dado
in this rabbet, into which fits a tongue of the other member, X. It
is used in machine-made drawers.

Fig. 266-27 Dado tongue and rabbet

No. 28. A dovetail dado or gain is made by cutting
one or both of the sides of the infitting member, Y, on an angle so
that it has to be slid into place and cannot be pulled out sidewise.
It is used in book-cases and similar work, in which the shelves are
fixed.

Fig. 266-28 Dovetail dado

To make this joint, first lay out the dovetail on the member to
be inserted, called Y, thus: Across one end square a line (A B,
No. 28), at the depth to which this member is to be dadoed in. Set
the bevel-square at the proper angle for a dovetail, Fig. 250. Score
this angle on the edges of the member, as at C D. Cut a groove with
[page 159]
a knife on the waste side of A B. Saw to the depth A C, and chisel
out the interior angle A C D.

Then lay out the other member, X, thus: mark with the knife the
proper place for the flat side of
Y, square this line across the
face and on the edges as for a
simple dado. Lay out the
thickness of Y on the face of
X by superposition or otherwise
and square the face and edges,
not with a knife but with a
sharp pencil point. Gage the
required depth on the edges.
Now with the bevel-square as already
set, lay out the angle A C D
on the edges of X, and across
the face at C score a line with
knife and try-square. Cut out
grooves in the waste for the
saw as in a simple dado, and
saw to the proper depth and at
the proper angle. Chisel or
rout out the waste and when
complete, fit the pieces together.

Fig. 250. Laying Out a Dovetail Joint.

No. 29. A gain joint is a dado which runs only
partly across one member, X. In order to make the edges of both
members flush and to conceal the blind end of the gain, the corner
of the other member, Y, is correspondingly notched out. In book
shelves a gain gives a better appearance than a dado.

Fig. 266-29 Gain

A gain joint is laid out in the same way as the dado, except that
the lines are not carried clear across the face of X, and only one
edge is squared and gaged to the required depth. Knife grooves are
made in the waste for starting the saw as in the dado. Before sawing,
the blind end of the gain is to be chiseled out for a little space
so as to give play for the back-saw in cutting down to the required
depth. To avoid sawing too deep at the blind end, the sawing and
chiseling out of waste may be carried on alternately, a little at a
[page 160]
time, till the required depth is reached. It is easy to measure the
depth of the cut by means of a small nail projecting the proper
amount from a trial stick, Fig. 251. The use of the router, Fig. 122,
p. 83, facilitates the cutting, and insures an even depth.

Fig. 251. Depth-gage for Dado.

MORTISE-AND-TENON JOINTS

The tenon in its simplest form is made by dividing the end of a
piece of wood into three parts and cutting out rectangular pieces on
both sides of the part left in the middle. The
mortise is the rectangular hole cut to receive the
tenon and is made slightly deeper than the
tenon is long. The sides of the tenon and of
the mortise are called “cheeks” and the “shoulders”
of the tenon are the parts abutting against
the mortised piece.

No. 30. A stub mortise-and-tenon is made by cutting
only two sides of the tenon beam. It was formerly used for lower
ends of studding or other upright pieces to prevent lateral motion.

Fig. 266-30 Stub mortise and tenon

No. 31. A thru mortise-and-tenon is made by cutting
the mortise clear thru one member and by cutting the depth of the
tenon equal to or more than the thickness of the mortised member.
The cheeks of the tenon may be cut on two or four sides. It is used
in window sashes.

Fig. 266-31 Thru mortise and tenon

A thru mortise-and-tenon joint is made in the same way as a
blind mortise-and-tenon (see below), except that the mortise is laid
out on the two opposite surfaces, and the boring and cutting are done
from both, cutting first from one side and then from the other.

No. 32. A blind mortise-and-tenon is similar to the
simple mortise-and-tenon described in 30. The tenon does not extend
thru the mortised member and the cheeks of the tenon may be
cut on two or four sides.

Fig. 266-32 Blind mortise and tenon

To make a blind mortise-and-tenon, first make the tenon thus:
Locate accurately with a knife point the shoulders of the tenon and
square entirely around the piece. On the working edge near the end
mark the thickness of the tenon. Set the marking-gage at the proper
distance from the working face to one cheek of the tenon and gage
the end and the two edges between the end and the knife-lines. Reset
the gage to mark the thickness of the tenon and gage that in the same
way from the working face. Then mark and gage the width of the
[page 161]
tenon in the same way. Whenever there are several tenons of the
same size to be cut, they should all be laid out together, that is the
marking-gage set once to mark all face cheeks and once to mark all
back cheeks. If a mortise-gage is available, use that. Always mark
from the working face or working edge. Cut out a triangular groove
on the waste side of the knife lines (at the shoulders) as in cutting a
dado, Fig. 91, p. 66.

In cutting the tenon, first rip-saw just outside the gaged lines,
then crosscut at the shoulder lines. Do all the rip-sawing before the
crosscutting. If the pieces are small the back-saw may be used for
all cuts. It is well to chamfer the arrises at the end of the tenon to
insure its starting easily into the mortise.

Locate the ends of the mortise and square lines across with a
sharp pencil in order to avoid leaving knife marks on the finished
piece. Then locate the sides of the mortise from the thickness of the
tenon, already determined, and gage between the cross lines. As in
the case of like tenons, if there are a number of mortises all alike,
set the gage only twice for them all.

In cutting the mortice, first fasten the piece so that it will rest
solid on the bench. This may be done either in a tail vise or by a
handscrew, or by clamping the bench-hook firmly in the vise in such a
way that the cleat of the bench-hook overhangs the piece. Then tap
the bench-hook with a mallet and the piece will be found to be held
tightly down on the bench. See Fig. 76, p. 58.

It is common to loosen up the wood by first boring a series of adjoining
holes whose centers follow the center-line of the mortise and
whose diameter is slightly less than the width of the mortise. Take
care to bore perpendicularly to the surface, see Fig. 137, p. 86, and
no deeper than necessary. Dig out the portions of wood between the
auger holes and chisel off thin slices, back to the gage-lines and to
the knife-lines, taking care all the time to keep the sides of the mortise
perpendicular to the face. This may be tested by placing the
chisel against the side of the mortise and standing alongside it a
try-square with its head resting on the surface.

Finally test the tenon in the mortise noting carefully where it
pinches, if anywhere, and trim carefully. The tighter it fits without
danger of splitting the mortised member, the stronger will be the joint.

Many prefer to dig mortises without first boring holes. For this
purpose a mortise-chisel, Fig. 68, p. 54, is desirable. The method is
[page 162]
to begin at the middle of the mortise, placing the chisel—which
should be as wide as the mortise—at right angles to the grain of the
wood. Chisel out a V shaped opening about as deep as the mortise,
and then from this hole work back to each end, occasionally prying
out the chips. Work with the flat side of the chisel toward the middle
except the last cut or two at the ends of the mortise.

No. 33. In a mortise-and-tenon joint on rabbeted pieces, Fig.
266, the tenon is as much shorter on one side than the other as the
rabbet is wide. In Fig. 33, ab = cd.

Fig. 266-33 Mortise and tenon with rabbet