Graded Lessons in EnglishAn Elementary English Grammar Consisting of One Hundred Practical Lessons, Carefully Graded and Adapted to the Class-Room

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** Transcriber’s Notes **

Underscores mark italics; words enclosed in +pluses+ represent boldface;
words enclosed in /slashes/ represent underlined words. Words enclosed in
~tildes~ represent a wavy underline.

To represent the sentence diagrams in ASCII, the following conventions are
used:

– The heavy horizontal line (for the main clause) is formed with equals

signs (==).

– Other solid vertical lines are formed with minus signs (—).

– Diagonal lines are formed with backslashes (\).

– Words printed on a diagonal line are preceded by a backslash, with no

horizontal line under them.

– Dotted horizontal lines are formed with periods (..)

– Dotted vertical lines are formed with straight apostrophes (‘)

– Dotted diagonal lines are formed with slanted apostrophes (`)

– Words printed over a horizontally broken line are shown like this:

——, helping

‘————-

– Words printed bending around a diagonal-horizontal line are broken like

this:

\wai

\ ting

————-

** End Transcriber’s Notes **

GRADED LESSONS IN ENGLISH.

AN

ELEMENTARY

ENGLISH GRAMMAR,

CONSISTING OF

ONE HUNDRED PRACTICAL LESSONS,

CAREFULLY GRADED AND ADAPTED TO THE CLASS-ROOM,

BY

ALONZO REED, A.M.,

FORMERLY INSTRUCTOR OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR IN THE POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE,
BROOKLYN

AND

BRAINERD KELLOGG, LL.D.,
PROFESSOR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE IN THE
POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE, BROOKLYN

REVISED EDITION, 1896.

A COMPLETE COURSE IN ENGLISH.
BY
ALONZO REED, A.M., AND BRAINERD KELLOGG, LL.D.

REED’S WORD LESSONS, A COMPLETE SPELLER. Designed to teach the correct
spelling, pronunciation, and use of such words only as are most common in
current literature, and as are most likely to be misspelled, mispronounced,
or misused, and to awaken new interest in the study of synonyms and of
word-analysis. 188 pages, 12mo.

REED’S INTRODUCTORY LANGUAGE WORK. A simple, varied, and pleasing, but
methodical series of exercises in English to precede the study of technical
grammar. 253 pages, 16mo, linen.

REED & KELLOGG’S GRADED LESSONS IN ENGLISH. An elementary English grammar,
consisting of one hundred practical lessons, carefully graded and adapted,
to the class-room. 215 pages, 16mo, linen.

REED & KELLOGG’S HIGHER LESSONS IN ENGLISH. A work on English grammar and
composition, in which the science of the language is made tributary to the
art of expression. A course of practical lessons carefully graded, and
adapted to every-day use in the school-room. 386 pages, 16mo, cloth.

REED & KELLOGG’S ONE-BOOK COURSE IN ENGLISH. A carefully graded and
complete series of lessons in English grammar and composition based on the
natural development of the sentence. For schools that have not time to
complete more than one book on grammar. 328 pages, 16mo, cloth.

KELLOGG & REED’S WORD-BUILDING. Fifty lessons, combining Latin, Greek, and
Anglo-Saxon roots, prefixes, and suffixes, into about fifty-five hundred
common derivative words in English; with a brief history of the English
language. 122 pages, 16mo, cloth.

KELLOGG & REED’S THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. A brief history of the grammatical
changes of the language and its vocabulary, with exercises on synonyms,
prefixes, suffixes, word-analysis, and word-building. A text-book for high
schools and colleges. 226 pages, 16mo, cloth.

KELLOGG’S TEXT-BOOK ON RHETORIC. Revised and enlarged edition.
Supplementing the development of the science with exhaustive practice in
composition. A course of practical lessons adapted for use in high schools,
academies, and lower classes of colleges. 345 pages, 12mo, cloth.

KELLOGG’S TEXT-BOOK ON ENGLISH LITERATURE. with copious extracts from the
leading authors, English and American, and full instructions as to the
method in which these books are to be studied. 485 pages, 12mo, cloth.

PREFACE.

The plan of “Graded and Higher Lessons in English” will perhaps be better
understood if we first speak of two classes of text-books with which this
course is brought into competition.

+Method of One Class of Text-books+.—In one class are those that aim
chiefly to present a course of technical grammar in the order of
Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. These books give large space
to grammatical Etymology, and demand much memorizing of definitions, rules,
declensions, and conjugations, and much formal word parsing,—work of which
a considerable portion is merely the invention of grammarians, and has
little value in determining the pupil’s use of language or in developing
his reasoning faculties. This is a revival of the long-endured, unfruitful,
old-time method.

+Method of Another Class of Text-books+.—In another class are those that
present a miscellaneous collection of lessons in Composition, Spelling,
Pronunciation, Sentence-analysis, Technical Grammar, and General
Information, without unity or continuity. The pupil who completes these
books will have gained something by practice and will have picked up some
scraps of knowledge; but his information will be vague and disconnected,
and he will have missed that mental training which it is the aim of a good
text-book to afford. A text-book is of value just so far as it presents a
clear, logical development of its subject. It must present its science or
its art as a natural growth, otherwise there is no apology for its being.

+The Study of the Sentence for the Proper Use of Words+.—It is the plan of
this course to trace with easy steps the natural development of the
sentence, to consider the leading facts first and then to descend to the
details. To begin with the parts of speech is to begin with details and to
disregard the higher unities, without which the details are scarcely
intelligible. The part of speech to which a word belongs is determined only
by its function in the sentence, and inflections simply mark the offices
and relations of words. Unless the pupil has been systematically trained to
discover the functions and relations of words as elements of an organic
whole, his knowledge of the parts of speech is of little value. It is not
because he cannot conjugate the verb or decline the pronoun that he falls
into such errors as “How many sounds have each of the vowels?” “Five
years’ interest are due.” “She is older than me.” He probably would not
say “each have,” “interest are,” “me am.” One thoroughly familiar
with the structure of the sentence will find little trouble in using
correctly the few inflectional forms in English.

+The Study of the Sentence for the Laws of Discourse+.—Through the study
of the sentence we not only arrive at an intelligent knowledge of the parts
of speech and a correct use of grammatical forms, but we discover the laws
of discourse in general. In the sentence the student should find the law of
unity, of continuity, of proportion, of order. All good writing consists of
good sentences properly joined. Since the sentence is the foundation or
unit of discourse, it is all-important that the pupil should know the
sentence. He should be able to put the principal and the subordinate parts
in their proper relation; he should know the exact function of every
element, its relation to other elements and its relation to the whole. He
should know the sentence as the skillful engineer knows his engine, that,
when there is a disorganization of parts, he may at once find the
difficulty and the remedy for it.

+The Study of the Sentence for the Sake of Translation+.—The laws of
thought being the same for all nations, the logical analysis of the
sentence is the same for all languages. When a student who has acquired a
knowledge of the English sentence comes to the translation of a foreign
language, he finds his work greatly simplified. If in a sentence of his own
language he sees only a mass of unorganized words, how much greater must be
his confusion when this mass of words is in a foreign tongue! A study of
the parts of speech is a far less important preparation for translation,
since the declensions and conjugations in English do not conform to those
of other languages. Teachers of the classics and of modern languages are
beginning to appreciate these facts.

+The Study of the Sentence for Discipline+.—As a means of discipline
nothing can compare with a training in the logical analysis of the
sentence. To study thought through its outward form, the sentence, and to
discover the fitness of the different parts of the expression to the parts
of the thought, is to learn to think. It has been noticed that pupils
thoroughly trained in the analysis and the construction of sentences come
to their other studies with a decided advantage in mental power. These
results can be obtained only by systematic and persistent work. Experienced
teachers understand that a few weak lessons on the sentence at the
beginning of a course and a few at the end can afford little discipline and
little knowledge that will endure, nor can a knowledge of the sentence be
gained by memorizing complicated rules and labored forms of analysis. To
compel a pupil to wade through a page or two of such bewildering terms as
“complex adverbial element of the second class” and “compound prepositional
adjective phrase,” in order to comprehend a few simple functions, is
grossly unjust; it is a substitution of form for content, of words for
ideas.

+Subdivisions and Modifications after the Sentence+.—Teachers familiar
with text books that group all grammatical instruction around the eight
parts of speech, making eight independent units, will not, in the following
lessons, find everything in its accustomed place. But, when it is
remembered that the thread of connection unifying this work is the
sentence, it will be seen that the lessons fall into their natural order of
sequence. When, through the development of the sentence, all the offices of
the different parts of speech are mastered, the most natural thing is to
continue the work of classification and subdivide the parts of speech. The
inflection of words, being distinct from their classification, makes a
separate division of the work. If the chief end of grammar were to enable
one to parse, we should not here depart from long-established precedent.

+Sentences in Groups—Paragraphs+.—In tracing the growth of the sentence
from the simplest to the most complex form, each element, as it is
introduced, is illustrated by a large number of detached sentences, chosen
with the utmost care as to thought and expression. These compel the pupil
to confine his attention to one thing till he gets it well in hand.
Paragraphs from literature are then selected to be used at intervals, with
questions and suggestions to enforce principles already presented, and to
prepare the way informally for the regular lessons that follow. The lessons
on these selections are, however, made to take a much wider scope. They
lead the pupil to discover how and why sentences are grouped into
paragraphs, and how paragraphs are related to each other; they also lead
him on to discover whatever is most worthy of imitation in the style of the
several models presented.

+The Use of the Diagram+.—In written analysis, the simple map, or diagram,
found in the following lessons, will enable the pupil to present directly
and vividly to the eye the exact function of every clause in the sentence,
of every phrase in the clause, and of every word in the phrase—to picture
the complete analysis of the sentence, with principal and subordinate parts
in their proper relations. It is only by the aid of such a map, or picture,
that the pupil can, at a single view, see the sentence as an organic whole
made up of many parts performing various functions and standing in various
relations. Without such map he must labor under the disadvantage of seeing
all these things by piecemeal or in succession.

But, if for any reason the teacher prefers not to use these diagrams, they
may be omitted without causing the slightest break in the work. The plan of
this book is in no way dependent on the use of the diagrams.

+The Objections to the Diagram+.—The fact that the pictorial diagram
groups the parts of a sentence according to their offices and relations,
and not in the order of speech, has been spoken of as a fault. It is on the
contrary, a merit, for it teaches the pupil to look through the literary
order and discover the logical order. He thus learns what the literary
order really is, and sees that this may be varied indefinitely, so long as
the logical relations are kept clear.

The assertion that correct diagrams can be made mechanically is not borne
out by the facts. It is easier to avoid precision in oral analysis than in
written. The diagram drives the pupil to a most searching examination of
the sentence, brings him face to face with every difficulty, and compels a
decision on every point.

+The Abuse of the Diagram+.—Analysis by diagram often becomes so
interesting and so helpful that, like other good things, it is liable to be
overdone. There is danger of requiring too much written analysis. When the
ordinary constructions have been made clear, diagrams should be used only
for the more difficult sentences, or, if the sentences are long, only for
the more difficult parts of them. In both oral and written analysis there
is danger of repeating what needs no repetition. When the diagram has
served its purpose, it should be dropped.

SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITION EXERCISES

The exercises in composition found in the numbered Lessons of this book are
generally confined to the illustration and the practical application of the
principles of the science as these principles are developed step by step.
To break up the continuity of the text by thrusting unrelated composition
work between lessons closely related and mutually dependent is exceedingly
unwise.

The Composition Exercises suggested in this revision of “Graded Lessons”
are designed to review the regular Lessons and to prepare in a broad,
informal way for text work that follows. But since these Exercises go much
farther, and teach the pupil how to construct paragraphs and how to observe
and imitate what is good in different authors, they are placed in a
supplement, and not between consecutive Lessons of the text.

To let such general composition work take the place of the regular grammar
lesson, say once a week, will be profitable. We suggest that the sentence
work on the selections in the Supplement be made to follow Lessons 30, 40,
50, 60, 70, 77; but each teacher must determine for himself when these and
the other outlined lessons can best be used. We advise that other
selections from literature be made and these exercises continued with the
treatment of the parts of speech.

For composition work to precede Lesson 30 we suggest that the teacher break
up a short story of one or two paragraphs into simple sentences, making
some of these transposed, some interrogative, and some exclamatory. The
pupils may be required to copy these, to underline the subject and the
predicate, and to tell, in answer to suggestive questions, what some of the
other words and groups of words do (the questions on the selections in the
Supplement may aid the teacher). The pupils may then write out the story in
full form. To vary the exercise, the teacher might read the story and let
the pupils write out the short sentences.

A TALK ON LANGUAGE.

The teacher is recommended, before assigning any lesson, to occupy the time
of at least two or three recitations, in talking with his pupils about
language, always remembering that, in order to secure the interest of his
class, he must allow his pupils to take an active part in the exercise. The
teacher should guide the thought of his class; but, if he attempt to do
all the talking, he will find, when he concludes, that he has been
left to do all the thinking.

We give below a few hints in conducting this talk on language, but the
teacher is not expected to confine himself to them. He will, of course, be
compelled, in some instances, to resort to various devices in order to
obtain from the pupils answers equivalent to those here suggested.

LESSON 1.

+Teacher+.—I will pronounce these three sounds very slowly and distinctly,
thus: b-u-d. Notice, it is the power, or sound, of the letter, and
not its name, that I give. What did you hear?

+Pupil+.—I heard three sounds.

+T.—+Give them. I will write on the board, so that you can see them, three
letters—b-u-d. Are these letters, taken separately, signs to you of
anything?

+P.—+Yes, they are signs to me of the three sounds that I have just heard.

+T.—+What then do these letters, taken separately, picture to your eye?

+P.—+They picture the sounds that came to my ear.

+T+.—Letters then are the signs of what?

+P.—Letters are the signs of sounds+.

+T+.—I will pronounce the same three sounds more rapidly, uniting them
more closely—bud. These sounds, so united, form a spoken word. Of what
do you think when you hear the word bud?

+P+.—I think of a little round thing that grows to be a leafy branch or a
flower.

+T+.—Did you see the thing when you were thinking of it?

+P+.—No.

+T+.—Then you must have had a picture of it in your mind. We call this
+mental picture+ an +idea+. What called up this idea?

+P+.—It was called up by the word bud, which I heard.

+T+.—A spoken word then is the sign of what?

+P.—A spoken word is the sign of an idea+.

+T+.—I will call up the same idea in another way. I will write three
letters and unite them thus: bud. What do you see?

+P+.—I see the word bud.

+T+.—If we call the other word bud a spoken word, what shall we call
this?

+P+.—This is a written word.

+T+.—If they stand for the same idea, how do they differ?

+P+.—I see this, and I heard that.

+T+.—You will observe that we have called attention to four different
things; viz., the +real bud+; your mental picture of the bud, which we
have called an +idea+; and the +two words+, which we have called signs of
this idea, the one addressed to the ear, and the other to the eye.

If the pupil be brought to see these distinctions, it may aid him to
observe more closely and express himself more clearly.

LESSON 2.

+Teacher+.—What did you learn in the previous Lesson?

+Pupil+.—I learned that a spoken word is composed of certain sounds, and
that letters are signs of sounds, and that spoken and written words are the
signs of ideas.

This question should be passed from one pupil to another till all of these
answers are elicited.

All the written words in all the English books ever made, are formed of
twenty-six letters, representing about forty sounds. These letters and
these sounds make up what is called artificial language.

Of these twenty-six letters, +a, e, i, o, u+, and sometimes +w+ and +y+,
are called +vowels+, and the remainder are called +consonants+.

In order that you may understand what kind of sounds the vowels stand for,
and what kinds the consonants represent, I will tell you something about
the human voice.

The air breathed out from your lungs beats against two flat muscles,
stretched like strings across the top of the windpipe, and causes them to
vibrate. This vibrating makes sound. Take a thread, put one end between
your teeth, hold the other in your fingers, draw it tight and strike it,
and you will understand how voice is made.

If the voice thus produced comes out through the mouth held well open, a
class of sounds is formed which we call vowel sounds.

But, if the voice is held back by your palate, tongue, teeth, or lips,
one kind of consonant sounds is made. If the breath is driven out
without voice, and is held back by these same parts of the mouth, the
other kind of consonant sounds is formed. Ex. of both: b, d, g; p, t,
k.

The teacher and pupils should practice on these sounds till the three kinds
can easily be distinguished.

You are now prepared to understand what I mean when I say that the +vowels+
are the +letters+ which stand for the +open sounds of the voice+, and that
the +consonants+ are the +letters+ which stand for the sounds made by the
+obstructed voice+ and the +obstructed breath+.

The teacher can here profitably spend a few minutes in showing how ideas
may be communicated by Natural Language, the language of sighs, groans,
gestures of the hands, attitudes of the body, expressions of the face,
tones of the voice, etc. He can show that, in conversation, we sometimes
couple this Natural Language of tone and gesture with our language of
words, in order to make a stronger impression. Let the pupil be told that,
if the passage contain feeling, he should do the same in Reading and
Declaiming.

Let the following definitions be learned, and given at the next recitation.

+DEFINITION.—Artificial Language, or Language Proper, consists of the
spoken and written words used to communicate ideas and thoughts+.

+DEFINITION.—English Grammar is the science which teaches the forms,
uses, and relations of the words of the English Language+.

LESSON 3

Let the pupils be required to tell what they learned in the previous
lessons.

+Teacher+.—When I pronounce the two words star and bud thus: star
bud, how many ideas, or mental pictures, do I call up to you?

+Pupil+.—Two.

+T+.—Do you see any connection between these ideas?

+P+.—No.

+T+.—When I utter the two words bud and swelling, thus: bud
swelling, do you see any connection in the ideas they stand for?

+P+.—Yes, I imagine that I see a bud expanding, or growing larger.

+T+.—I will connect two words more closely, so as to express a thought:
Buds swell. A thought has been formed in my mind when I say, Buds
swell; and these two words, in which something is said of something else,
express that thought, and make what we call a sentence. In the former
expression, bud swelling it is assumed, or taken for granted, that buds
perform the act; in the latter, the swelling is asserted as a fact.

Leaves falling. Do these two words express two ideas merely associated,
or do they express a thought?

+P+.—They express ideas merely associated.

+T+.—Leaves fall.

Same question.

+P+.—A thought.

+T+.—Why?

+P+.—Because, in these words, there is something said or asserted of
leaves.

+T+.—When I say, Falling leaves rustle, does falling tell what is
thought of leaves?

+P+.—No.

+T+.—What does falling do?

+P+.—It tells the kind of leaves you are thinking and speaking of.

+T+.—What word does tell what is thought of leaves?

+P+.—Rustle.

+T+.—You see then that in the thought there are two parts; something of
which we think, and that which we think about it.

Let the pupils give other examples.

LESSON 4.

Commit to memory all definitions.

+DEFINITION.—A Sentence is the expression of a thought in words+.

Which of the following expressions contain words that have no connection,
which contain words merely associated, and which are sentences?

1. Flowers bloom.
2. Ice melts.
3. Bloom ice.
4. Grass grows.
5. Brooks babble.
6. Babbling brooks.
7. Grass soar.
8. Doors open.
9. Open doors.
10. Cows graze.
11. Curling smoke.
12. Sugar graze.
13. Dew sparkles.
14. Hissing serpents.
15. Smoke curls.
16. Serpents hiss.
17. Smoke curling.
18. Serpents sparkles.
19. Melting babble.
20. Eagles soar.
21. Birds chirping.
22. Birds are chirping.
23. Birds chirp.
24. Gentle cows.
25. Eagles are soaring.
26. Bees ice.
27. Working bees.
28. Bees work.
29. Crawling serpents.
30. Landscape piano.
31. Serpents crawl.
32. Eagles clock.
33. Serpents crawling.

LESSON 5.

REVIEW QUESTIONS.

Illustrate, by the use of a, b, and p, the difference between the
sounds of letters and their names. Letters are the signs of what? What
is an idea? A spoken word is the sign of what? A written word is the
sign of what? How do they differ? To what four different things did we call
attention in Lesson 1?

How are vowel sounds made? How are the two kinds of consonant sounds
made? What are vowels? Name them. What are consonants? What is artificial
language, or language proper? What do you understand by natural language?
What is English grammar?

What three kinds of expressions are spoken of in Lessons 3 and 4? Give
examples of each. What is a sentence?

LESSON 6.

ANALYSIS.

On the following sentences, let the pupils be exercised according to the
model.

+Model+.—Intemperance degrades. Why is this a sentence? Ans.—Because
it expresses a thought. Of what is something thought? Ans.—Intemperance.
Which word tells what is thought? Ans.—Degrades.

1. Magnets attract.
2. Horses neigh.
3. Frogs leap.
4. Cold contracts.
5. Sunbeams dance.
6. Heat expands.
7. Sunlight gleams.
8. Banners wave.
9. Grass withers.
10. Sailors climb.
11. Rabbits burrow.
12. Spring advances.

You see that in these sentences there are two parts. The parts are the
+Subject+ and the +Predicate+.

+DEFINITION.—The Subject of a sentence names that of which something is
thought+.

+DEFINITION.—The Predicate of a sentence tells what is thought+.

+DEFINITION.—The Analysis of a sentence is the separation of it into its
parts+.

Analyze, according to the model, the following sentences.

+Model+.—Stars twinkle. This is a sentence, because it expresses a
thought. Stars is the subject, because it names that of which something
is thought; twinkle is the predicate, because it tells what is thought.

+To the Teacher+.—After the pupils become familiar with the definitions,
the “Models” may be varied, and some of the reasons maybe made specific;
as, “Plants names the things we tell about; droop tells what plants
do,” etc.

Guard against needless repetition.

1. Plants droop.
2. Books help.
3. Clouds float.
4. Exercise strengthens.
5. Rain falls.
6. Time flies.
7. Rowdies fight.
8. Bread nourishes.
9. Boats capsize.
10. Water flows.
11. Students learn.
12. Horses gallop.

LESSON 7.

ANALYSIS AND THE DIAGRAM.

+Hints for Oral Instruction+.—I will draw on the board a heavy, or shaded,
line, and divide it into two parts, thus:

===========|============

We will consider the first part as the sign of the subject of a
sentence, and the second part as the sign of the predicate of a
sentence.

Now, if I write a word over the first line, thus—(doing it)—you will
understand that that word is the subject of a sentence. If I write a word
over the second line, thus—you will understand that that word is the
predicate of a sentence.

Planets | revolve

============|===========

The class can see by this picture that Planets revolve is a sentence,
that planets is the subject, and that revolve is the predicate.

These signs, or illustrations, made up of straight lines, we call

+Diagrams+.

+DEFINITION.—A Diagram is a picture of the offices and relations of the
different parts of a sentence+.

Analyze and diagram the following sentences.

1. Waves dash.
2. Kings reign.
3. Fruit ripens.
4. Stars shine.
5. Steel tarnishes.
6. Insects buzz.
7. Paul preached.
8. Poets sing.
9. Nero fiddled.
10. Larks sing.
11. Water ripples.
12. Lambs frisk.
13. Lions roar.
14. Tigers growl.
15. Breezes sigh.
16. Carthage fell.
17. Morning dawns.
18. Showers descended.
19. Diamonds sparkle.
20. Alexander conquered.
21. Jupiter thunders.
22. Columbus sailed,
23. Grammarians differ.
24. Cornwallis surrendered.

* * * * *

LESSON 8.

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

You have now learned to analyze sentences, that is, to separate them into
their parts. You must next learn to put these parts together, that is, to
build sentences.

We will find one part, and you must find the other and do the building.

+To the Teacher+.—Let some of the pupils write their sentences on the
board, while others are reading theirs. Then let the work on the board be
corrected.

Correct any expression that does not make good sense, or that asserts
something not strictly true; for the pupil should early be taught to think
accurately, as well as to write and speak grammatically.

Correct all mistakes in spelling, and in the use of capital letters and
the period.

Call attention to the agreement in form of the predicate with the subject.

See Notes, p. 163.

Insist on neatness. Collect the papers before the recitation closes.

+CAPITAL LETTER-RULE.—The first word of every sentence must begin with a
capital letter+.

+PERIOD—RULE.—A period must be placed after every sentence that simply
affirms, denies, or expresses a command+.

Construct sentences by supplying a subject to each of the following
predicates.

Ask yourself the question, What swim, sink, hunt, etc.?

1. —— swim.
2. —— sinks.
3. —— hunt.
4. —— skate.
5. —— jingle.
6. —— decay.
7. —— climb.
8. —— creep.
9. —— run.
10. —— walk.
11. —— snort.
12. —— kick.
13. —— flashes.
14. —— flutters.
15. —— paddle.
16. —— toil.
17. —— terrifies.
18. —— rages.
19. —— expand.
20. —— jump.
21. —— hop.
22. —— bellow.
23. —— burns.
24. —— evaporates.

This exercise may profitably be extended by requiring the pupils to supply
several subjects to each predicate.

LESSON 9.

SENTENCE-BUILDING—Continued.

Construct sentences by supplying a predicate to each of the following
subjects.

Ask yourself the question, Artists do what?

1. Artists ——.
2. Sailors ——.
3. Tides ——.
4. Whales ——.
5. Gentlemen ——.
6. Swine ——.
7. Clouds ——.
8. Girls ——.
9. Fruit ——.
10. Powder ——.
11. Hail ——.
12. Foxes ——.
13. Water ——.
14. Frost ——.
15. Man ——.
16. Blood ——.
17. Kings ——.
18. Lilies ——.
19. Roses ——.
20. Wheels ——.
21. Waves ——.
22. Dew ——.
23. Boys ——.
24. Volcanoes ——.
25. Storms ——.
26. Politicians ——.
27. Serpents ——.
28. Chimneys ——.
29. Owls ——.
30. Rivers ——.
31. Nations ——.
32. Indians ——.
33. Grain ——.
34. Rogues ——.
34. Volcanoes ——.
35. Rome ——.
36. Briars ——.

This exercise may be extended by requiring the pupils to supply several
predicates to each subject.

LESSON 10.

REVIEW QUESTIONS.

Of what two parts does a sentence consist? What is the subject of a
sentence? What is the predicate of a sentence? What is the analysis of a
sentence?

What is a diagram? What rule for the use of capital letters have you
learned? What rule for the period?

Impromptu Exercise.

Let the pupils “choose sides,” as in a spelling match. Let the teacher
select predicates from Lesson 8, and give them alternately to the pupils
thus arranged. The first pupil prefixes to his word whatever suitable
subjects he can think of, the teacher judging of their fitness and keeping
the count. This pupil now rises and remains standing until some one else,
on his side or the other, shall have prefixed to his word a greater number
of apt subjects. The strife is to see who shall be standing at the close of
the match, and which side shall have furnished the greater number of
subjects. The exercise may be continued with the subjects of Lesson 9.
Each pupil is to be limited to the same time—one or two minutes.

LESSON 11.

ANALYSIS.

The +predicate+ sometimes contains +more than one word+.

Analyze and diagram according to the model.

+Model+.—Socrates was poisoned.

Socrates | was poisoned

============|================

This is a sentence, because it expresses a thought. Socrates is the
subject, because ——; was poisoned is the predicate, because ——.
[Footnote: The word because—suggesting a reason—should be dropped from
these “+Models+” whenever it may lead to mere mechanical repetition.]

1. Napoleon was banished.
2. Andre was captured.
3. Money is circulated.
4. Columbus was imprisoned.
5. Acorns are sprouting.
6. Bells are tolled.
7. Summer has come.
8. Sentences may be analyzed.
9. Clouds are reddening.
10. Air may be weighed.
11. Jehovah shall reign.
12. Corn is planted.
13. Grammarians will differ.
14. Snow is falling.
15. Leaves are rustling.
16. Children will prattle.
17. Crickets are chirping.
18. Eclipses have been foretold.
19. Storms may abate.
20. Deception may have been practiced.
21. Esau was hated.
22. Treason should have been punished.
23. Bees are humming.
24. Sodom might have been spared.

LESSON 12.

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

+To the Teacher+.—Continue oral and written exercises in agreement. See

Notes, pp. 163,164.

Prefix the little helping words in the second column to such of the more
important words in the third column as with them will make complete
predicates, and join these predicates to all subjects in the first column
with which they will unite to make good sense.

1 | 2 | 3

——————-|————————-|——————

Burgoyne | are | woven.

Henry Hudson | was | defeated.

Sparrows | can be | condensed.

Comets | is | inhaled.

Time | have been | worn.

Turbans | may be | slacked.

Lime | has been | wasted.

Steam | could have been | seen.

Air | must have been | deceived.

Carpets | were | quarreling.

LESSON 13.

Point out the subject and the predicate of each sentence in Lessons 28,
31, 34.

Look first for the word that asserts, and then, by putting who or what
before this predicate, the subject may easily be found.

+To the Teacher+.—Most violations of the rules of concord come from a
failure to recognize the relation of subject and predicate when these parts
are transposed or are separated by other words. Such constructions should
therefore receive special attention. See Notes, pp. 164, 165.

Introduce the class to the Parts of Speech before the close of this
recitation. See “Hints for Oral Instruction.”

See “Suggestions for COMPOSITION EXERCISES,” p. 8, last paragraph.

LESSON 14.

CLASSES OF WORDS.

+Hints for Oral Instruction+.—By the assistance of the few hints here
given, the ingenious teacher may render this usually dry subject
interesting and highly attractive. By questioning the pupil as to what he
has seen and heard, his interest may be excited and his curiosity awakened.

Suppose that we make an imaginary excursion to some pleasant field or
grove, where we may study the habits, the plumage, and the songs of the
little birds.

If we attempt to make the acquaintance of every little feathered singer we
meet, we shall never get to the end of our pleasant task: but we find that
some resemble one another in size, shape, color, habits, and song. These we
associate together and call them sparrows.

We find others differing essentially from the sparrows, but resembling one
another. These we call robins.

We thus find that, although we were unable to become acquainted with each
individual bird, they all belong to a few classes, with which we may
soon become familiar.

It is so with the words of our language. There are many thousand words, all
of which belong to eight classes.

These classes of words are called +Parts of Speech+.

We classify birds according to their form, color, etc., but we group words
into classes, called +Parts of Speech+, with respect to their use in the
sentence.

We find that many words are names. These we put in one class and call them

+Nouns+.

Each pupil may give the name of something in the room; the name of a
distinguished person; a name that may be applied to a class of persons; the
name of an animal; the name of a place: the name of a river; the name of a
mountain; the name of something which we cannot see or touch, but of which
we can think; as, beauty, mind.

Remind the pupils frequently that these names are all nouns.

NOUNS.

+DEFINITION.—A Noun is the name of anything+.

Write in columns, headed nouns, the names of domestic animals, of garden
vegetables, of flowers, of trees, of articles sold in a dry goods store,
and of things that cannot be seen or touched; as, virtue, time, life.

Write and arrange, according to the following model, the names of things
that can float, fly, walk, work, sit, or sing.

Nouns.

Cork |

Clouds |

+Model+.—Wood + floats or float.

Ships |

Boys |

Such expressions as Cork floats are sentences, and the nouns cork,
ship, etc., are the subjects. You will find that +every subject+ is a
+noun+ or some word or words used for a noun.

Be prepared to analyze and parse the sentences which you have made. Naming
the class to which a word belongs is the first step in parsing.

+Model for Analysis+.—This is a sentence, because ——-; cork is the
subject, because ——-; floats is the predicate, because ——-.

+Parsing+.—Cork is a noun, because it is the name of a thing—the bark
of a tree.

LESSON 15.

Select and write all the nouns in the sentences given in Lessons 28, 31,
34.

Tell why they are nouns.

In writing the nouns, observe the following rule.

+CAPITAL LETTER—RULE.—Every proper or individual name must begin with a
capital letter+.

+To the Teacher+.—See Notes, pp. 167-169.

REVIEW QUESTIONS.

With respect to what, do we classify words (Lesson 14)? What are such
classes called? Can you illustrate this classification? What are all names?
What is a noun? What is the first step in parsing? What is the rule for
writing individual names?

LESSON 16.

VERBS.

+Hints for Oral Instruction+.—We propose to introduce you now to another
class of words. (The teacher may here refer to the talk about birds.)

You have learned that one very large class of words consists of names of
things. There is another very important class of words used to tell what
these things do, or used to express their existence.

When I say, Plants grow, is grow the name of anything? +P+.—No.
+T+.—What does it do? +P+.—It tells what plants do. It expresses
action.

+T+.—When I say, God is, what does is express? +P+.—It expresses
existence, or being.

+T+.—When I say, George sleeps, sleeps expresses being and something
more; it tells the condition, or state in which George is, or exists,
that is, it expresses state of being.

All the words that assert action, being, or state of being, we call

+Verbs+.

Let the teacher write nouns on the board, and require the pupils to give
all the words of which they can think, telling what the things named can
do. They may be arranged thus:—

Noun. Verbs.

| grow,

| droop,

Plants + decay,

| flourish,

| revive.

Each pupil may give a verb that expresses an action of the body; as weep,
sing; an action of the mind; as, study, love; one that expresses being
or state of being.

+DEFINITION.—A Verb is a word that asserts action, being, or state of
being+.

The office of the verb in all its forms, except two (the participle and the
infinitive, see Lessons 48 and 49), is to +assert+. This it does whether
the sentence affirms, denies, or asks a question.

+To the Teacher+.—In the exercises of this and the next two Lessons, let
the pupils note the agreement of the verb with its subject. See Notes, pp.
163-165.

Supply, to each of the following nouns, as many appropriate verbs as
you can think of.

Let some express being or state of being.

Water ——.

Wind ——.

Pens ——.

Parrots ——.

Vines ——.

Farmers ——.

Trees ——.

Ministers ——.

One verb may consist of two, three, or four words; as, is singing,
will be sung, might have been sung.

Form verbs by combining the words in columns 2 and 3, and add these verbs
to all the nouns in column 1 with which they appropriately combine.

1 | 2 | 3

———-|—————————|——————

Laws | has been | published.

Clouds | have been | paid.

Food | will be | restored.

Health | should have been | preserved.

Taxes | may be | collected.

Books | are | obeyed.

The examples you have written are sentences; the nouns are subjects,
and the verbs are predicates.

As verbs are the only words that assert, +every predicate+ must be a
+verb+, or must contain a verb.

Be prepared to analyze and parse five of the sentences that you have
written.

+Model+.—Laws are obeyed. Diagram and analyze as in Lesson 11.

+Parsing+.—Laws is a noun, because——; are obeyed is a verb,
because it asserts action.

LESSON 17.

Select and write all the verbs in the sentences given in Lessons 28, 31,
34, and tell why they are verbs.

LESSON 18.

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

From the following nouns and verbs, build as many sentences as possible,
taking care that every one makes good sense.

Poems, was conquered, lambs, rebellion, stars, forests, shone, were seen,
were written, treason, patriots, meteors, fought, were discovered, frisk,
Cain, have fallen, fled, stream, have crumbled, day, ages, deer, are
flickering, are bounding, gleamed, voices, lamps, rays, were heard, are
gathering, time, death, friends, is coming, will come.

+To the Teacher+.—Before this recitation closes, let the teacher open up
the subject of Lesson 19. See “Hints for Oral Instruction.”

LESSON 19.

PRONOUNS.

+Hints for Oral Instruction+.—We propose to introduce you now to the
third part of speech. +T.—+If I should ask who whispered, and some boy
should promptly confess, what would he say? +P.—+I whispered.
+T.—+Would he mention his own name? +P.—+No. +T.—+What word would he use
instead? +P.—+I.

+T.—+Suppose that I had spoken to that boy and had accused him of
whispering, how should I have addressed him without mentioning his name?
+P.—+You whispered. +T.—+What word would be used instead of the name of
the boy to whom I spoke? +P.—+You.

+T.—+Suppose that, without using his name, I had told you what he did,
what should I have said? +P.—+He whispered. +T.—+What word would have
been used instead of the name of the boy of whom I spoke? +P.—+He.

(Repeat these questions and suppose the pupil to be a girl.)

+T.—+If I should tell that boy to close his book, when his book was
already closed, what would he say without mentioning the word book?
+P.—+It is closed.

+T.—+If I should accuse several of you of whispering, and one should speak
for himself and for the others whispering with him, what would he say? We
whispered.

+T—+Suppose that a boy should inform me that all of the boys on that seat
had whispered, what would he say? +P.—+They whispered.

I, you, he, she, it, we, and they are not names, but they are used
instead of names. We call such words +Pronouns+.

+DEFINITION.—A Pronoun is a word used for a noun+.

+CAPITAL LETTERS—RULE.—The words I and O should be written in capital
letters+.

Analysis and Parsing.

+Model.—+You will be rewarded.

+Oral Analysis—+This is a sentence, because——; you is the subject,
because——; will be rewarded is the predicate, because——.

+Parsing.—+You is a pronoun, because it stands for the name of the
person spoken to; will be rewarded is a verb, because——.

1. We think.
2. She prattles.
3. We have recited.
4. I study.
5. You have been seen.
6. It has been decided.
7. He was punished.
8. They are conquered.
9. Thou art adored.

Compose nine similar sentences, using a pronoun for the subject of each,
and diagram them.

+To the Teacher.—+Call special attention to the agreement of the verb with
I and you. See Notes, p. 164.

Before this recitation closes, explain “Modified Subject.” See “Hints for

Oral Instruction.”

LESSON 20.

MODIFIED SUBJECT.

+Hints for Oral Instruction.—+The Subject and the Predicate may be
considered as the foundation on which every sentence is built. No sentence
can be constructed without them.

You have already learned that these parts alone, sometimes make a
complete structure; but we are about to show you that they are often used
as the foundation of a structure, which is completed by adding other
parts.

I hold in my hand several pieces of metal, with letters and other
characters stamped on them. What do you say I have in my hand? +P+.—Money.
+T.—+Yes. What other word can you use? +P.—+Coin. +T.—+Yes. I will
write on the board this sentence: Coin is stamped.

The subject coin is a general name for all such pieces of metal. I will
write the word the before this sentence. The coin is stamped. I have
now made an assertion about one particular coin, so the meaning of the
subject is limited by joining the word the.

I can again limit the meaning of the subject by putting the word a before
it. The assertion is now about one coin, but no particular one. I point to
the piece near me and say, This coin is stamped. I point to the one
farther from me and say, That coin is stamped.

When words are joined to the subject to limit its meaning, we say that the
subject is modified.

The words the, a, this, and that modify the subject by limiting the
word to one coin, or to one particular coin.

We can modify the subject by joining some word which will tell what kind
of coin is meant.

Here is a coin dated 18—. We can say, The new coin is stamped. Here the
word new tells what kind of coin is meant. What other words can I use to
modify coin? +P.—+Beautiful, bright, new, round, silver. +T.—+These
words beautiful, bright, new, round, and silver modify the subject by
telling the qualities of the coin.

We call the words the, beautiful, etc., +Modifiers+.

+DEFINITION.—A Modifier is a word or group of words joined to some part
of the sentence to qualify or limit the meaning+.

The +Subject+ with its +Modifiers+ is called the +Modified Subject+.

ANALYSIS.

Analyze and diagram the following sentences.

+Model.—+The genial summer days have come.

days | have come
=====================|=============
\The \genial \summer |

+Explanation of the Diagram.—+The lighter lines, joined to the subject
line, stand for the modifiers, the less important parts.

+Oral Analysis.—+This is a sentence, because——; days is the subject,
because——; have come is the predicate, because——; The, genial, and
summer are modifiers of the subject, because they are words joined to
the subject to modify its meaning. The genial summer days is the
modified subject.

+To the Teacher.—+To excite thought and guard against mere routine, pupils
may, so far as they are able, make the reasons specific. For example,
“The points out some particular clouds, dark tells their color,” etc.

Here and elsewhere the teacher must determine how far it is profitable to
follow “Models.” There is great danger of wasting time in repeating forms
that require no mental effort.

1. The angry wind is howling.
2. The dead leaves fall.
3. The dark clouds lower.
4. The tall elm bends.
5. All men must die.
6. The lusty bellows roared.
7. A boding silence reigned.
8. Little Arthur was murdered.
9. The mighty oak was uprooted.
10. The fragile violet was crushed.
11. The beautiful marble statue was carved.
12. The turbid torrent roared.
13. The affrighted shepherds fled.
14. The vivid lightning flashes.
15. Those elegant Etruscan vases are broken.

REVIEW QUESTIONS.

What is a verb? Give examples of verbs of action. Of being. Of state of
being. May a verb consist of more than one word? Illustrate. Verbs are the
only words that do what? What must every predicate contain?

What parts of speech are explained in the preceding Lessons? What is a
pronoun? Give the rule for writing the words I and 0.

What is the foundation on which every sentence is built? May the subject be
modified? What is a modifier? What is the modified subject?

LESSON 21.

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

We have here prepared the foundations of sentences which you are to
complete by writing two or more suitable modifiers to each subject. Be
careful to choose and arrange your material so as to make a neat and
appropriate structure.

+Model+.————— eminence was reached.
That lofty eminence was reached.

1. —— speaker was applauded.
2. —— difficulties were overcome.
3. —— leaf trembles.
4. —— accident happened.
5. —— books should be read.
6. —— houses are built.
7. —— soldiers perished.
8. —— opinions prevailed.
9. —— leader fell.
10. —— task is completed.

For other subjects and predicates, the teacher is referred to Lessons 7 and
11.

Build sentences by prefixing modified subjects to the following
predicates.

1. —— frolic.
2. —— crawl.
3. —— are dashing.
4. —— was caught.
5. —— escaped.
6. —— chatter.
7. —— flourished.
8. —— whistles.

Build, on each of the following subjects, three sentences similar to those
in the model.

+Model+ ——————- sun ———————-

The bright sun is shining.
The glorious sun has risen.
The unclouded sun is sinking.

1. —— snow ——.
2. —— dew ——.
3. —— wind ——.
4. —— landscape ——.

+To the Teacher+.—Please take notice that the next Lesson begins with

“Hints for Oral Instruction.”

LESSON 22.

ADJECTIVES.

+Hints for Oral Instruction+.—You are now prepared to consider the fourth
part of speech. Those words that are added to the subject to modify its
meaning are called +Adjectives+.

Some grammarians have formed a separate class of the little words the,
and an or a, calling them articles.

I will write the word boys on the board, and you may name adjectives that
will appropriately modify it. As you give them, I will write these
adjectives in a column.

Adjectives.

What words here modify boys by adding the idea of size? What by adding
the idea of color? What by adding the idea of form? What by adding the idea
of number? What are such words called? Why?

Let the teacher name familiar objects and require the pupils to join
appropriate adjectives to the names till their stock is exhausted.

+DEFINITION.—An Adjective is a word used to modify a noun or a pronoun+.

Analysis and Parsing.

+Model+.—A fearful storm was raging. Diagram and analyze as in Lesson
20.

+Written Parsing+.

+Oral Parsing+.—A is an adjective, because it is joined to the noun
storm, to modify its meaning; fearful is an adjective, because
———; storm is a noun, because ———; was raging is a verb, because
——-.

1. The rosy morn advances.
2. The humble boon was obtained.
3. An unyielding firmness was displayed.
4. The whole earth smiles.
5. Several subsequent voyages were made.
6. That burly mastiff must be secured.
7. The slender greyhound was released.
8. The cold November rain is falling.
9. That valuable English watch has been sold.
10. I alone have escaped.
11. Both positions can be defended.
12. All such discussions should have been avoided.
13. That dilapidated old wooden building has fallen.

+To the Teacher+.—See Notes, pp. 169, 170.

LESSON 23.

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

Prefix five adjectives to each of the following nouns.

Shrubs, wilderness, beggar, cattle, cloud.

Write ten sentences with modified subjects, using in each two or more of
the following adjectives.

A, an, the, heroic, one, all, many, every, either, first, tenth, frugal,
great, good, wise, honest, immense, square, circular, oblong, oval, mild,
virtuous, universal, sweet, careless, fragrant.

Write five sentences with modified subjects, each of which shall contain
one of the following words as a subject.

Chimney, hay, coach, robber, horizon.

An and a are forms of the same word, once spelled an, and meaning
one. After losing something of this force, an was still used before
vowels and consonants alike; as, an eagle, an ball, an hair, an use.
Still later, and for the sake of ease in speaking, the word came to have
the two forms mentioned above; and an was retained before letters having
vowel sounds, but it dropped its n and became a before letters having
consonant sounds. This is the present usage.

CORRECT THESE ERRORS.

A apple; a obedient child; an brickbat; an busy boy.

CORRECT THESE ERRORS.

A heir; a hour; a honor.

Notice, the first letter of these words is silent.

CORRECT THESE ERRORS.

An unit; an utensil; an university; an ewe; an ewer; an union; an use; an
history; an one.

Unit begins with the sound of the consonant y; and one, with that of
w.

+To the Teacher+.—See “Suggestions for COMPOSITION EXERCISES,” p. 8, last
paragraph.

LESSON 24.

MODIFIED PREDICATES.

+Hints for Oral Instruction+.—I will now show you how the predicate of a
sentence may be modified.

The ship sails gracefully. What word is here joined to sails to tell
the manner of sailing? +P+.—Gracefully.

+T+.—The ship sails immediately. What word is here joined to sails to
tell the time of sailing? +P+.—Immediately.

+T+.—The, ship sails homeward. What word is here joined to sails to
tell the direction of sailing? +P+.—Homeward.

+T+.—These words gracefully, immediately, and homeward are modifiers
of the predicate. In the first sentence, sails gracefully is the
+Modified Predicate+.

Let the following modifiers be written on the board as the pupil suggests
them.

| instantly.

| soon.

| daily.

| hither.

The ship sails + hence.

| there.

| rapidly.

| smoothly.

| well.

Which words indicate the time of sailing? Which, the place? Which, the
manner?

The teacher may suggest predicates, and require the pupils to find as many
appropriate modifiers as they can.

The Predicate with its modifiers is called the +Modified Predicate+.

Analysis and Parsing.

Analyze and diagram the following sentences, and parse the nouns, pronouns,
verbs, and adjectives.

+Model+.—The letters were rudely carved.

letters | were carved

=========|===============

\The | \rudely

+Written Parsing+.—See Model, Lesson 22.

+Oral Analysis+.—This is a sentence, because——; letters is the
subject, because——; were carved is the predicate, because——; The is
a modifier of the subject, because——; rudely is a modifier of the
predicate, because——; The letters is the modified subject, were rudely
carved is the modified predicate.

1. He spoke eloquently.
2. She chattered incessantly.
3. They searched everywhere.
4. I shall know presently.
5. The bobolink sings joyously.
6. The crowd cheered heartily.
7. A great victory was finally won.
8. Threatening clouds are moving slowly.
9. The deafening waves dash angrily.
10. These questions may be settled peaceably.
11. The wounded soldier fought bravely.
12. The ranks were quickly broken.
13. The south wind blows softly.
14. Times will surely change.
15. An hour stole on.

LESSON 25.

ANALYSIS AND PARSING.

ONE MODIFIER JOINED TO ANOTHER.

Analyze and diagram the following sentences, and parse the nouns, pronouns,
adjectives, and verbs.

+Model+.—The frightened animal fled still more rapidly.

animal | fled

===================|=====================

\The \frightened | \rapidly

\more

\still

+Explanation of the Diagram+.—Notice that the three lines forming this
group all slant the same way to show that each stands for a modifying word.
The line standing for the principal word of the group is joined to the
predicate line. The end of each of the other two lines is broken, and
turned to touch its principal at an angle.

+Oral Analysis+.—This is a sentence, because——; animal is the subject,
because——; fled is the predicate, because——; The and frightened
are modifiers of the subject, because——; still more rapidly is a
modifier of the predicate, because it is a group of words joined to it to
limit its meaning; rapidly is the principal word of the group; more
modifies rapidly, and still modifies more, The frightened animal is
the modified subject; fled still more rapidly is the modified predicate.

1. The crocus flowers very early.
2. A violet bed is budding near.
3. The Quakers were most shamefully persecuted.
4. Perhaps he will return.
5. We laughed very heartily.
6. The yellow poplar leaves floated down.
7. The wind sighs so mournfully.
8. Few men have ever fought so stubbornly.
9. The debt will probably be paid.
10. The visitor will soon be here.
11. That humane project was quite generously sustained.
12. A perfectly innocent man was very cruelly persecuted.

REVIEW QUESTIONS.

What is an adjective? What are the words an or a, and the called by
some grammarians? When is a used, and when an? Give examples of their
misuse.

What is the modified predicate? Give an example. Give an example of one
modifier joined to another.

LESSON 26.

Select your subjects from Lesson 9, and construct twenty sentences having
modified subjects and modified predicates.

Impromptu Exercise.

Select sentences from Lessons 6, 7, and 11, and conduct the exercise as
directed in Lesson 10. Let the strife be to see who can supply the greatest
number of modifiers to the subject and to the predicate. The teacher can
vary this exercise.

LESSON 27.

ADVERBS.

+Hints for Oral Instruction+.—You have learned, in the preceding Lessons,
that the meaning of the predicate may be limited by modifiers, and that one
modifier may be joined to another. Words used to modify the predicate of a
sentence and those used to modify modifiers belong to one class, or one
part of speech, and are called +Adverbs+.

+T+.—She decided too hastily. What word tells how she decided?

+P+.—-Hastily. +T+.—What word tells how hastily? +P+.—Too.

+T+.—What then are the words too and hastily? +P+.—Adverbs.

+T+.—Too much time has been wasted. What word modifies much by telling
how much? +P+.—Too. +T+.—What part of speech is much? +P+.—An
adjective. +T+.—What then is too? +P+.—An adverb.

+T+.—Why is too in the first sentence an adverb? Why is too in the
second sentence an adverb? Why is hastily an adverb?

Let the teacher use the following and similar examples, and continue the
questions. He thinks so. So much time has been wasted.

Let the teacher give verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, and require the pupils
to modify them by appropriate adverbs.

+DEFINITION.—An Adverb is a word used to modify a verb, an adjective, or
an adverb+.

Analysis and Parsing.

Analyze, diagram, and parse the following sentences.

+Model+.—We have been very agreeably disappointed. +Diagram+ as in.

Lesson 25.

For +Written Parsing+, use Model, Lesson 22, adding a column for adverbs.

+Oral Parsing+.—We is a pronoun, because——; have been disappointed
is a verb, because——; very is an adverb, because it is joined to the
adverb agreeably to tell how agreeably; agreeably is an adverb,
because it is joined to the verb have been disappointed to indicate
manner.

1. The plough-boy plods homeward.
2. The water gushed forth.
3. Too much time was wasted.
4. She decided too hastily.
5. You should listen more attentively.
6. More difficult sentences must be built.
7. An intensely painful operation was performed.
8. The patient suffered intensely.
9. That story was peculiarly told.
10. A peculiarly interesting story was told.
11. An extravagantly high price was paid.
12. That lady dresses extravagantly.

The pupil will notice that, in some of the examples above, the same adverb
modifies an adjective in one sentence and an adverb in another, and that,
in other examples, an adjective and a verb are modified by the same word.
You may learn from this why such modifiers are grouped into one class.

LESSON 28.

ANALYSIS AND PARSING.

MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES FOR REVIEW.

1. You must diagram neatly.
2. The sheaves are nearly gathered.
3. The wheat is duly garnered.
4. The fairies were called together.
5. The birds chirp merrily.
6. This reckless adventurer has returned.
7. The wild woods rang.
8. White fleecy clouds are floating above.
9. Those severe laws have been repealed.
10. A republican government was established.
11. An unusually large crop had just been harvested.
12. She had been waiting quite patiently.
13. A season so extremely warm had never before been known.
14. So brave a deed [Footnote: Can be commended is the verb, and not is
an adverb.] cannot be too warmly commended.

LESSON 29.

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES FOR REVIEW.

Build sentences containing the following adverbs.

Hurriedly, solemnly, lightly, well, how, somewhere, abroad, forever,
seldom, exceedingly.

Using the following subjects and predicates as foundations, build six
sentences having modified subjects and modified predicates, two of which
shall contain adverbs modifying adjectives; two, adverbs modifying adverbs;
and two, adverbs modifying verbs.

1. ———- boat glides ——-.
2. ———- cloud is rising ——-.
3. ———- breezes are blowing ——-.
4. ———- elephant was captured ——-.
5. ———- streams flow ——-.
6. ———- spring has opened ——-.

We here give you, in classes, the material out of which you are to build
five sentences with modified subjects and modified predicates.

Select the subject and the predicate first.

Nouns and
Pronouns. Verbs. Adjectives. Adverbs.

LESSON 30.

ERRORS FOR CORRECTION.

+To the Teacher+.—We here suggest additional work in composition, with
particular reference to the choice and position of adjectives. See Notes,
pp. 171,172.

+Caution+.—When two or more adjectives are used with a noun, care must
be taken in their arrangement. If there is any difference in their relative
importance, place nearest the noun the one that is most intimately
connected with it.

+To the Teacher+.—We have in mind here those numerous cases where one
adjective modifies the noun, and the second modifies the noun as limited by
the first. All ripe apples are picked. Here ripe modifies apples, but
all modifies apples limited by ripe. Not all apples are picked,
but only all that are ripe.

CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS OF POSITION.

A wooden pretty bowl stood on the table.

The blue beautiful sky is cloudless.

A young industrious man was hired.

The new marble large house was sold.

+Caution+.—When the adjectives are of the same rank, place them where
they will sound the best. This will usually be in the order of their
length—the longest last.

CORRECT THESE ERRORS.

An entertaining and fluent speaker followed.

An enthusiastic, noisy, large crowd was addressed.

+Caution+.—Do not use the pronoun +them+ for the adjective +those+.

CORRECT THESE ERRORS.

Them books are nicely bound.

Them two sentences should be corrected.

CORRECT THE FOLLOWING MISCELLANEOUS ERRORS.

arouse, o romans

hear, o israel

it is i

i may be Mistaken

you Have frequently been warned

some Very savage beasts have been Tamed

REVIEW QUESTIONS.

What is an adverb? Give an example of an adverb modifying an adjective; one
modifying a verb; one modifying an adverb. Why are such expressions as a
wooden pretty bowl faulty? Why is an enthusiastic, noisy, large crowd
faulty? Why is them books wrong? Why is i may be Mistaken wrong? Why is
hear, o israel, wrong? Study the Review Questions given in previous
Lessons.

+To the Teacher+.—See COMPOSITION EXERCISES in the Supplement—Selection
from Darwin.

LESSON 31.

PHRASES INTRODUCED BY PREPOSITIONS.

+Hints for Oral Instruction+.—In the preceding Lessons, you have learned
that several words may be grouped together and used as one modifier. In the
examples given, the principal word is joined directly to the subject or to
the predicate, and this word is modified by another word. In this Lesson
also groups of words are used as modifiers, but these words are not united
with one another, or with the word which the group modifies, just as they
are in the preceding Lessons. I will write on the board this sentence: De
Soto marched into Florida. +T+.—What tells where De Soto marched?
+P+.—Into Florida. +T+.—What is the principal word of the group?
+P+.—Florida. +T+.—Is Florida joined directly to the predicate, as
rapidly was in Lesson 25? +P+.—No. +T+.—What little word comes in to
unite the modifier to marched? +P+.—Into. +T+.—Does Florida alone,
tell where he marched? +P+.—No. +T+.—Does into alone, tell where he
marched? +P+.—No.

+T+.—These groups of related words are called +Phrases+. Let the teacher
draw on the board the diagram of the sentence above.

Phrases of the form illustrated in this diagram are the most common, and
they perform a very important function in our language.

Let the teacher frequently call attention to the fact that all the words of
a phrase are taken together to perform one distinct office.

A phrase modifying the subject is equivalent to an adjective, and,
frequently, may be changed into one. The dew of the morning has passed
away. What word may be used for the phrase of the morning?
+P+.—Morning. +T+.—Yes. The morning dew has passed away.

A phrase modifying the predicate is equivalent to an adverb, and,
frequently, may be changed into one. We shall go to that place. What word
may be used for the phrase, to that place? +P+.—There. +T+.—Yes. We
shall go there.

Change the phrases in these sentences:—-

_A citizen of America was insulted.

We walked toward home_.

Let the teacher write on the board the following words, and require the
pupils to add to each, one or more words to complete a phrase, and then to
construct a sentence in which the phrase may be properly employed: To,
from, by, at, on, with, in, into, over.

+DEFINITION.—A Phrase is a group of words denoting related ideas but not
expressing a thought+.

Analysis and Parsing.

Analyze the following sentences, and parse the nouns, pronouns, adjectives,
verbs, and adverbs.

Model.—The finest trout in the lake are generally caught in the deepest
water.

trout | are caught

================|================

\The \finest \in \generally \in

\ \

\ lake \ water

——— —————

\the \the \deepest

+Explanation of the Diagram+.—You will notice that the diagram of the
phrase is made up of a slanting line, standing for the introductory and
connecting word, and a horizontal line, representing the principal word.
Under the latter, are placed the little slanting lines standing for the
modifiers of the principal word. Here and elsewhere all modifiers are
joined to their principal words by slanting lines.

+Oral Analysis+.—This is a sentence, because ———; trout is the
subject, because ——-; are caught is the predicate, because ———; the
words The and finest, and the phrase, in the lake, are modifiers of
the subject, because ——-; the word generally and the phrase, in the
deepest water, are modifiers of the predicate, because ———; in
introduces the first phrase, and lake is the principal word; in
introduces the second phrase, and water is the principal word; the and
deepest are modifiers of water; The finest trout in the lake is the
modified subject, and are generally caught in the deepest water is the
modified predicate.

1. The gorilla lives in Africa.
2. It seldom rains in Egypt.
3. The Pilgrims landed at Plymouth.
4. The wet grass sparkled in the light.
5. The little brook ran swiftly under the bridge.
6. Burgoyne surrendered at Saratoga.
7. The steeples of the village pierced through the dense fog.
8. The gloom of winter settled down on everything.
9. A gentle breeze blows from the south.
10. The temple of Solomon was destroyed.
11. The top of the mountain is covered with snow.
12. The second Continental Congress convened at Philadelphia.

LESSON 32.

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

Build sentences, employing the following phrases as modifiers.

To Europe, of oak, from Albany, at the station, through the fields, for
vacation, among the Indians, of the United States.

Supply to the following predicates subjects modified by phrases.

—— is situated on the Thames.
—— has arrived.
—— was destroyed by an earthquake.
—— was received.
—— has just been completed.
—— may be enjoyed.

Supply to the following subjects predicates modified by phrases.

Iron ——.

The trees ——.

Squirrels ——.

The Bible ——.

Sugar ——.

Cheese ——.

Paul ——.

Strawberries ——.

The mountain ——.

Write five sentences, each of which shall contain one or more phrases used
as modifiers.

LESSON 33.

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

Re-write the following sentences, changing the italicized words into
equivalent phrases.

+Model+.—A golden image was made.

An image of gold was made.

You will notice that the adjective golden was placed before the subject,
but, when changed to a phrase, it followed the subject.

1. The book was carefully read.
2. The old soldiers fought courageously.
3. A group of children were strolling homeward.
4. No season of life should be spent idly.
5. The English ambassador has just arrived.
6. That generous act was liberally rewarded.

Change the following adjectives and adverbs into equivalent phrases, and
employ the phrases in sentences of your own building.

Wooden, penniless, eastward, somewhere, here, evening, everywhere, yonder,
joyfully, wintry.

Make a sentence out of the words in each line below.

Boat, waves, glides, the, the, over.

He, Sunday, church, goes, the, on, to.

Year, night, is dying, the, the, in.

Qualities, Charlemagne, vices, were alloyed, the, great, of, with.

Indians, America, intemperance, are thinned, the, out, of, by.

LESSON 34.

PREPOSITIONS.

+Hints for Oral Instruction+.—In the preceding Lessons, the little words
that were placed before nouns, thus forming phrases, belong to a, class of
words called +Prepositions+. You noticed that these words, which you have
now learned to call prepositions, served to introduce phrases. The
preposition shows the relation of the idea expressed by the principal
word of the phrase to that of the word which the phrase modifies. It serves
also to connect these words.

In the sentence, The squirrel ran up a tree, what word shows the relation
of the act of running, to the tree? Ans. Up.

Other words may be used to express different relations. Repeat, nine times,
the sentence above given, supplying, in the place of up, each of the
following prepositions: Around, behind, down, into, over, through, to,
under, from.

Let this exercise be continued, using such sentences as, The man went into
the house; The ship sailed toward the bay.

+DEFINITION.—A Preposition is a word that introduces a phrase modifier,
and shows the relation, in sense, of its principal word to the word
modified+.

+Analysis and Parsing+.

+Model+.—Flowers preach to us.

For +Analysis+ and +Diagram+, see Lesson 31.

For +Written Parsing+, see Lesson 22. Add the needed columns.

+Oral Parsing+.—Flowers is a noun, because——; preach is a verb,
because——; to is a preposition, because it shows the relation, in
sense, between us and preach; us is a pronoun, because it is used
instead of the name of the speaker and the names of those for whom he
speaks.

1. The golden lines of sunset glow.
2. A smiling landscape lay before us.
3. Columbus was born at Genoa.
4. The forces of Hannibal were routed by Scipio.
5. The capital of New York is on the Hudson.
6. The ships sail over the boisterous sea.
7. All names of the Deity should begin with capital letters.
8. Air is composed chiefly of two invisible gases.
9. The greater portion of South America lies between the tropics.
10. The laurels of the warrior must at all times be dyed in blood.
11. The first word of every entire sentence should begin with a capital
letter.
12. The subject of a sentence is generally placed before the predicate.

Impromptu Exercise.

(The teacher may find it profitable to make a separate lesson of this
exercise.)

Let the teacher write on the board a subject and a predicate that will
admit of many modifiers. The pupils are to expand the sentence into as many
separate sentences as possible, each containing one apt phrase modifier.
The competition is to see who can build the most and the best sentences in
a given time. The teacher gathers up the slates and reads the work aloud,
or has the pupils exchange slates and read it themselves.

LESSON 35.

COMPOUND SUBJECT AND COMPOUND PREDICATE.

When two or more subjects united by a connecting word have the same
predicate, they form a +Compound Subject;+ and, when two or more
predicates connected in like manner have the same subject, they form a
+Compound Predicate+.

In the sentence, Birds and bees can fly, the two words birds and
bees, connected by and, have the same predicate; the same action is
asserted of both birds and bees. In the sentence, Leaves fade and fall,
two assertions are made of the same things. In the first sentence, birds
and bees form the compound subject; and, in the second, fade and
fall form the compound predicate.

Analyze and parse the following sentences.

+Models+.—Napoleon rose, reigned, and fell.

Frogs, antelopes, and kangaroos can jump.

rose Frogs

,=,===== ======.=.

/ ‘ ‘ \

Napoleon| / X ‘ reigned antelopes ‘ X \ | can jump

========|==| ‘======== ==========’ |==|=========

| \and’ ‘and/ |

\ ‘ fell kangaroos ‘ /

`-‘====== ==========’=’

+Explanation of the Diagram+.—The short line following the subject line
represents the entire predicate, and is supposed to be continued in the
three horizontal lines that follow, each of which represents one of the
parts of the compound predicate. These three lines are united by dotted
lines, which stand for the connecting words. The +X+ denotes that an and
is understood.

Study this explanation carefully, and you will understand the other
diagram.

+Oral Analysis+ of the first sentence.

This is a sentence, because ——; Napoleon is the subject, because ——;
rose, reigned, and fell form the compound predicate, because they
belong in common to the same subject, and say something about Napoleon.
And connects reigned and fell.

1. The Rhine and the Rhone rise in Switzerland.
2. Time and tide wait for no man.
3. Washington and Lafayette fought for American Independence.
4. Wild birds shrieked, and fluttered on the ground.
5. The mob raged and roared.
6. The seasons came and went.
7. Pride, poverty, and fashion cannot live in the same house.
8. The tables of stone were cast to the ground and broken.
9. Silver or gold will be received in payment.
10. Days, months, years, and ages will circle away.

REVIEW QUESTIONS.

What is a phrase? A phrase modifying a subject is equivalent to what?

Illustrate. A phrase modifying a predicate is equivalent to what?

Illustrate.

What are prepositions? What do you understand by a compound subject?

Illustrate. What do you understand by a compound predicate? Illustrate.

LESSON 36.

CONJUNCTIONS AND INTERJECTIONS.

The words and and or, used in the preceding Lesson to connect the nouns
and the verbs, belong to a class of words called +Conjunctions+.

Conjunctions may also connect words used as modifiers; as,

A daring but foolish feat was performed.

They may connect phrases; as,

We shall go to Saratoga and to Niagara.

They may connect clauses, that is, expressions that, standing alone,
would be sentences; as,

He must increase, but I must decrease.

+DEFINITION.—A Conjunction, is a word used to connect words, phrases, or
clauses+.

The +Interjection+ is the eighth and last part of speech. Interjections
are mere exclamations, and are without grammatical relation to any other
word in the sentence.

+DEFINITION.—An Interjection is a word used to express strong or sudden
feeling+.

Examples:—

Bravo! hurrah! pish! hush! ha, ha! alas! hail! lo! pshaw!

Analyze and parse the following sentences.

+Model+.—Hurrah! that cool and fearless fireman has rushed into the house
and up the burning stairs.

Hurrah

———

fireman | has rushed

===================|=======================

\That\ and \ | \ and \

\…..\ \……..\

\ \ \ \up

\cool \fearless \into \stairs

\ —————

\house \the \burning

———

\the

+Explanation of the Diagram+.—The line representing the interjection is
not connected with the diagram. Notice the dotted lines, one standing for
the and which connects the two word modifiers; the other, for the and
connecting the two phrase modifiers.

+Written Parsing+.

+Oral Parsing+ of the conjunction and the interjection.

The two ands are conjunctions, because they connect. The first connects
two word modifiers; the second, two phrase modifiers. Hurrah is an
interjection, because it expresses a burst of sudden feeling.

1. The small but courageous band was finally overpowered.
2. Lightning and electricity were identified by Franklin.
3. A complete success or an entire failure was anticipated.
4. Good men and bad men are found in all communities.
5. Vapors rise from the ocean and fall upon the land.
6. The Revolutionary war began at Lexington and ended at Yorktown.
7. Alas! all hope has fled.
8. Ah! I am surprised at the news.
9. Oh! we shall certainly drown.
10. Pshaw! you are dreaming.
11. Hurrah! the field is won.

LESSON 37.

PUNCTUATION AND CAPITAL LETTERS.

+COMMA—RULE.—Phrases that are placed out of their natural order
[Footnote: A phrase in its natural order follows the word it modifies.] and
made emphatic, or that are loosely connected with the rest of the sentence,
should be set off by the comma+.

PUNCTUATE THE FOLLOWING SENTENCES.

+Model+.—The cable, after many failures, was successfully laid. Upon the
platform ‘twixt eleven and twelve I’ll visit you. To me this place is
endeared by many associations. Your answers with few exceptions have been
correctly given. In English much depends on the placing of phrases.

+COMMA—RULE.—Words or phrases connected by conjunctions are separated
from each other by the comma unless all the conjunctions are expressed+.

PUNCTUATE THE FOLLOWING SENTENCES.

+Model+.—Caesar came, saw, and conquered.

Caesar came and saw and conquered.

He travelled in England, in Scotland, and in Ireland.

(The comma is used in the first sentence, because a conjunction is omitted;
but not in the second, as all the conjunctions are expressed.)

A brave prudent and honorable man was chosen.

Augustus Tiberius Nero and Vespasian were Roman emperors.

Through rainy weather across a wild country over muddy roads after
a long ride we came to the end of our journey.

+PERIOD and CAPITAL LETTER—RULE.—Abbreviations generally begin with
capital letters and are always followed by the period+.

CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS.

+Model.—+Mr., Esq., N. Y., P. M.

gen, a m, mrs, no, u s a, n e, eng, p o, rev, prof, dr, gram, capt, coi,
co, va, conn.

+EXCLAMATION POINT—RULE.—All exclamatory expressions must be followed
by the exclamation point+.

PUNCTUATE THE FOLLOWING EXPRESSIONS.

+Model.—+Ah! Oh! Zounds! Stop pinching!

Pshaw, whew, alas, ho Tom, halloo Sir, good-bye, welcome.

LESSON 38.

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

+To the Teacher.—+Call attention to the agreement of verbs with compound
subjects. Require the pupils to justify the verb-forms in Lesson 36 and
elsewhere. See Notes, pp. 165-167.

Write predicates for the following compound subjects.

Snow and hail; leaves and branches; a soldier or a sailor; London and

Paris.

Write compound predicates for the following subjects.

The sun; water; fish; steamboats; soap; farmers; fences; clothes.

Write subjects for the following compound predicates.

Live, feel, and grow; judges and rewards; owes and pays; inhale and exhale;
expand and contract; flutters and alights; fly, buzz, and sting; restrain
or punish.

Write compound subjects before the following predicates.

May be seen; roar; will be appointed; have flown; has been recommended.

Write compound predicates after the following compound subjects.

Boys, frogs, and horses; wood, coal, and peat; Maine and New Hampshire;

Concord, Lexington, and Bunker Hill; pins, tacks, and needles.

Write compound subjects before the following compound predicates.

Throb and ache; were tried, condemned, and hanged; eat, sleep, and dress.

Choose your own material and write five sentences, each having a compound
subject and a compound predicate.

LESSON 39.

COMPLEMENTS.

+Hints for Oral Instruction+.—When we say, The sun gives, we express no
complete thought. The subject sun is complete, but the predicate gives
does not make a complete assertion. When we say, The sun gives light, we
do utter a complete thought. The predicate gives is completed by the word
light. Whatever fills out, or completes, we call a +Complement+. We
will therefore call light the complement of the predicate. As light
completes the predicate by naming the thing acted upon, we call it the
+Object Complement+.

Expressions like the following may be written on the board, and by a series
of questions the pupils may be made to dwell upon these facts till they are
thoroughly understood.

The officer arrested ——-;
the boy found ——-;
Charles saw ——-;
coopers make ——-.

Besides these verbs requiring object complements, there are others that do
not make complete sense without the aid of a complement of another
kind.

A complete predicate does the asserting and expresses what is asserted. In
the sentence, Armies march, march is a complete predicate, for it does
the asserting and expresses what is asserted; viz., marching. In the
phrase, armies marching, marching expresses the same act as that
denoted by march, but it asserts nothing. In the sentence, Chalk is
white, is does the asserting, but it does not express what is asserted.
We do not wish to assert merely that chalk is or exists. What we wish
to assert of chalk, is the quality expressed by the adjective white. As
white expresses a quality or attribute, we may call it an +Attribute
Complement+.

Using expressions like the following, let the facts given above be drawn
from the class by means of questions.

Grass growing; grass grows; green grass; grass is green.

+DEFINITION.—The Object Complement of a sentence completes the
predicate, and names that which receives the act+.

+DEFINITION.—The Attribute Complement of a sentence completes the
predicate and belongs to the subject+.

The complement with all its modifiers is called the +Modified

Complement+.

Analysis and Parsing.

+Model+.—Fulton invented the first steamboat.

Fulton | invented | steamboat

========|======================

| \ \

\the \first

+Explanation of the Diagram+.—You will see that the line standing for the
object complement is a continuation of the predicate line, and that the
little vertical line only touches this without cutting it.

+Oral Analysis.—+Fulton and invented, as before. Steamboat is the
object complement, because it completes the predicate, and names that
which receives the act. The and first, as before. The first steamboat
is the modified complement.

1. Caesar crossed the Rubicon.
2. Morse invented the telegraph.
3. Ericsson built the Monitor.
4. Hume wrote a history.
5. Morn purples the east,
6. Antony beheaded Cicero.

+Model+.—Gold is malleable.

Gold | is \ malleable
=====|===============
|

In this diagram, the line standing for the attribute complement,
like the object line, is a continuation of the predicate line; but
notice the difference in the little mark separating the
incomplete[Footnote: Hereafter we shall call the verb the
predicate, but, when followed by a complement, it must be regarded
as an incomplete predicate.] predicate from the complement.

+Oral Analysis+.—-Gold and is, as before.

Malleable is the attribute complement, because it completes
the predicate, and expresses a quality belonging to gold.

7. Pure water is tasteless.
8. The hare is timid.
9. Fawns are graceful.
10. This peach is delicious.
11. He was extremely prodigal.
12. The valley of the Mississippi is very fertile.

+To the Teacher+—See Notes, pp. 183,184.

* * * * *

LESSON 40.

ERRORS IN THE USE OF MODIFIERS.

+Caution+.—Place adverbs where there can be no doubt as to the
words they modify.

ERRORS TO BE CORRECTED.

I only bring forward a few things.

Hath the Lord only [Footnote: Adverbs sometimes modify phrases.]spoken by

Moses?

We merely speak of numbers.

The Chinese chiefly live upon rice.

+Caution+.—In placing the adverb, regard must be had to the
sound of the sentence.

ERRORS TO BE CORRECTED.

We always should do our duty.

The times have changed surely.

The work will be never finished.

He must have certainly been sick.

+Caution+.—Adverbs must not be used for adjectives.

ERRORS TO BE CORRECTED.

I feel badly.

Marble feels coldly.

She looks nicely.

It was sold cheaply.

It appears still more plainly.

That sounds harshly.

I arrived at home safely.

+Caution+.—Adjectives must not be used for adverbs.

ERRORS TO BE CORRECTED.

The bells ring merry.

The curtain hangs graceful.

That is a decided weak point.

Speak no coarser than usual.

These are the words nearest connected.

Talk slow and distinct.

She is a remarkable pretty girl.

+To the Teacher+.—For additional exercises in distinguishing adjectives
from adverbs, see Notes, p. 181.

REVIEW QUESTIONS.

What is a conjunction? What is an interjection? Give two rules for the use
of the comma (Lesson 37). What is the rule for writing abbreviations? What
is the rule for the exclamation point? What is an object complement? What
is an attribute complement? Illustrate both. What are the cautions for the
position of the adverb? What are the cautions for the use of the adverb and
the adjective?

+To the Teacher+.—See COMPOSITION EXERCISES in the Supplement-Selection
from Habberton.

* * * * *

LESSON 41.

ERRORS IN THE POSITION AND USE OF MODIFIERS.

+Caution+.—Phrase modifiers should be placed as near as may be to the
words they modify.

+To the Teacher+.—For composition exercises with particular reference
to arrangement, see Notes, pp. 172-176.

ERRORS TO BE CORRECTED.

A fellow was arrested with short hair.

I saw a man digging a well with a Roman nose.

He died and went to his rest in New York.

Wanted—A room by two gentlemen thirty feet long and twenty feet wide.

Some garments were made for the family of thick material.

The vessel was beautifully painted with a tall mast.

I perceived that it had been scoured with half an eye.

A house was built by a mason of brown stone.

A pearl was found by a sailor in a shell.

Punctuate these sentences when corrected.

+Caution+.—Care must be taken to select the right preposition.

+To the Teacher+.—For the preposition to be used, consult the Unabridged

Dictionaries.

ERRORS TO BE CORRECTED.

They halted with the river on their backs.

The cat jumped on the chair.

He fell onto the floor.

He went in the house.

He divides his property between his four sons.

He died for thirst.

This is different to that.

Two thieves divided the booty among themselves.

I am angry at him.

+Caution+.—Do not use two negative, or denying, words so that one shall
contradict the other, unless you wish to affirm.

ERRORS TO BE CORRECTED.

I haven’t no umbrella.

Correct by dropping either the adjective no or the adverb not; as, I
have no umbrella, or I have not an umbrella.

I didn’t say nothing.

I can’t do this in no way.

No other emperor was so wise nor powerful.

Nothing can never be annihilated.

LESSON 42.

ANALYSIS AND PARSING.

1. Brutus stabbed Caesar.
2. Man is an animal.
3. Washington captured Cornwallis.
4. Wellington defeated Napoleon at Waterloo.
5. Balboa discovered the Pacific ocean.
6. Vulcan was a blacksmith.
7. The summer has been very rainy.
8. Columbus made four voyages to the New World.
9. The moon reflects the light of the sun.
10. The first vice-president of the United States was John Adams.
11. Roger Williams was the founder of Rhode Island.
12. Harvey discovered the circulation of blood.
13. Diamonds are combustible.
14. Napoleon died a prisoner, at St.. Helena.
15. In 1619 the first ship-load of slaves was landed at Jamestown.

The pupil will notice that animal, in sentence No. 2, is an attribute
complement, though it is not an adjective expressing a quality belonging
to man, but a noun denoting his class. +Nouns+ then may be +attribute
compliments+.

The pupil will notice also that some of the object and attribute
complements above have phrase modifiers.

LESSON 43.

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

Using the following predicates, build sentences having subjects,
predicates, and object complements with or without modifiers.

—— climb ——; —— hunt ——; —— command ——; —— attacked
——; —— pursued ——; —— shall receive ——; —— have seen ——;
—— love ——.

Change the following expressions into sentences by asserting the
qualities here assumed. Use these verbs for predicates:

Is, were, appears, may be, became, was, have been, should have been, is
becoming, are.

+Model+.—Heavy gold. Gold is heavy.

Green fields; sweet oranges; interesting story; brilliant sunrise; severe
punishment; playful kittens; warm weather; pitiful sight; sour grapes;
amusing anecdote.

Prefix to the following nouns several adjectives expressing qualities, and
then make complete sentences by asserting the same qualities.

white | Chalk is white.

+Model+.—brittle + chalk. Chalk is brittle.

soft | Chalk is soft.

Gold, pears, pens, lead, water, moon, vase, rock, lakes, summer, ocean,
valley.

Find your own material, and build two sentences having object complements,
and two having attribute complements.

LESSON 44.

ANALYSIS AND PARSING.

MISCELLANEOUS.

+Models+.—

expands

/===========

Learning | / ‘ \ | mind

=========|=and’ \=======

| \ ‘ elevates / \the

\============

ran

=========

/ ‘ \forward

He | / ‘

=======|=== and’

| \ ‘

\ ‘ kissed | him

\================

In the second diagram, one of the predicate lines is followed by a
complement line; but the two predicate lines are not united, for the two
verbs have not a common object.

1. Learning expands and elevates the mind.
2. He ran forward and kissed him.
3. The earth and the moon are planets.
4. The Swiss scenery is picturesque.
5. Jefferson was chosen the third president of the United States.
6. Nathan Hale died a martyr to liberty.
7. The man stood speechless.
8. Labor disgraces no man.
9. Aristotle and Plato were the most distinguished philosophers of
antiquity.
10. Josephus wrote a history of the Jews.
11. This man seems the leader of the whole party.
12. The attribute complement completes the predicate and belongs to the
subject.
13. Lord Cornwallis became governor of Bengal after his disastrous defeat.
14. The multitude ran before him and strewed branches in the way.
15. Peter Minuits traded with the Indians, and bought the whole island of
Manhattan for twenty-four dollars.

LESSON 45.

ANALYSIS AND PARSING.

MISCELLANEOUS.

+Model+.—

wise

/==========

/ ‘ \in

/ X’ \ council

/ ‘ \————-

Henry IV. | was \ / ‘ simple

===========|============== ‘==========

\of | \very \ and’ \in

\ House \ ‘ \ manners

\———— \ ‘ \————-

\the \of \ ‘ chivalric

\ Burbon \============

\———- \in

\ field

\———-

\the

The line standing for the word-modifier is joined to that part of the
complement line which represents the entire attribute complement.

1. Henry IV., of the House of Bourbon, was very wise in council, simple in
manners, and chivalric in the field.
2. Caesar defeated Pompey at Pharsalia.
3. The diamond is the most valuable gem.
4. The Greeks took Troy by stratagem.
5. The submarine cable unites the continent of America and the Old World.
6. The Gauls joined the army of Hannibal.
7. Columbus crossed the Atlantic with ninety men, and landed at San
Salvador.
8. Vulcan made arms for Achilles.
9. Cromwell gained at Naseby a most decisive victory over the Royalists.
10. Columbus was a native of Genoa.
11. God tempers the wind to the shorn lamb.
12. The morning hour has gold in its mouth.
13. The mill of the gods grinds late, but grinds to powder.
14. A young farmer recently bought a yoke of oxen, six cows, and a horse.
15. America has furnished to the world tobacco, the potato, and Indian
corn.

LESSON 46.

ANALYSIS AND PARSING.

MISCELLANEOUS.

Cotton | is raised

===========|===============

| \ Egypt

\ /’———-

\in / ‘

\ / X’

\ / ‘ India

\—/ ‘————

\ ‘

\and’

\ ‘

\ ‘ United States

\———————-

\the

+Explanation of the Diagram+.—In this diagram the line representing the
principal part of the phrase separates into three lines. This shows that
the principal part of the phrase is compound. Egypt, India, and United
States are all introduced by the same preposition in, and have the same
relation to is raised.

1. Cotton is raised in Egypt, India, and the United States.
2. The navy of Hiram brought gold from Ophir.
3. The career of Cromwell was short.
4. Most mountain ranges run parallel with the coast.
5. Now swiftly glides the bonny boat.
6. An able but dishonest judge presided.
7. The queen bee lays eggs in cells of three different sizes.
8. Umbrellas were introduced into England from China.
9. The first permanent English settlement in America was made at Jamestown,
in 1607.
10. The spirit of true religion is social, kind, and cheerful.
11. The summits of the Alps are covered with perpetual snow.
12. The months of July and August were named after Julius Caesar and
Augustus Caesar.
13. All the kings of Egypt are called, in Scripture, Pharaoh.
14. The bamboo furnishes to the natives of China, shade, food, houses,
weapons, and clothing.

LESSON 47.

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

Supply attribute complements to the following expressions. (See Caution,

Lesson 40.)

The marble feels ——. Mary looks ——. The weather continues ——. The
apple tastes ——. That lady appears ——. The sky grows ——. The leaves
of roses are ——. The undertaking was pronounced ——.

Write a subject and a predicate to each of the following nouns taken as
attribute complements.

+Model+.—Soldier.—That old man has been a soldier.

Plant, insect, mineral, vegetable, liquid, gas, solid, historian, poet,
artist, traveler, emperor.

Using the following nouns as subjects, build sentences each having a simple
predicate and two or more object complements.

Congress, storm, education, king, tiger, hunter, Arnold, shoemakers,
lawyers, merchant.

Build three sentences on each of the following subjects, two of which shall
contain object complements, and the third, an attribute
complement.

+Model+.—Sun.—

The sun gives light.

The sun warms the earth.

The sun is a luminous body.

Moon, oak, fire, whiskey.

LESSON 48.

SUBJECT OR COMPLEMENT MODIFIED BY A PARTICIPLE.

+Hints for Oral Instruction+.—You have learned, in the preceding Lessons,
that a quality may be assumed as belonging to a thing; as, white
chalk, or that it may be asserted of it; as, Chalk is white. An
action, also, may be assumed as belonging to something; as, Peter
turning, or it may be asserted; as, Peter turned. In the expression,
Peter, turning, said, what word expresses an action as assumed, and
which asserts an action? Each pupil may give an example of an action
asserted and of an action assumed; as, Corn grows, corn growing; geese
gabble; geese gabbling.

This form of the verb, which merely assumes the act, being, or state, is
called the +Participle+.

When the words growing and gabbling are placed before the nouns, thus:
growing corn, gabbling geese, they tell simply the kind of corn and the
kind of geese, and are therefore adjectives.

When the or some other adjective is placed before these words, and a
preposition after them, thus: The growing of the corn, the gabbling of the
geese, they are simply the names of actions, and are therefore nouns.

Let each pupil give an example of a verb asserting an action, and change it
to express:—

1st, An assumed action; 2d, A permanent quality; 3d, The name of an
action.

Participles may be completed by objects and attributes.

+Analysis and Parsing+.

+Model+.—Truth, crushed to earth, will rise again.

Truth | will rise

==========|=============

\cru | \again

\ shed

————

\to

\ earth

\———-

+Explanation of the Diagram+.—In this diagram, the line standing for the
principal word of the participial phrase is broken; one part slants, and
the other is horizontal. This shows that the participle crushed is used
like an adjective to modify Truth, and yet retains the nature of a verb,
expressing an action received by truth.

+Oral Analysis+.—This is a sentence, because ——; Truth is the subject,
because ——; will rise is the predicate, because ——; the phrase,
crushed to earth, is a modifier of the Subj., because ——; crushed
introduces the phrase and is the principal word in it; the phrase to
earth is a modifier of crushed; to introduces it, and earth is the
principal word in it; again is a modifier of the Pred., because ——.
Truth crushed to earth is the modified subject, will rise again is the
modified predicate.

+Parsing+—Crushed is the form of the verb called participle. The
action expressed by it is merely assumed.

1. The mirth of Addison is genial, imparting a mild glow of thought.
2. The general, riding to the front, led the attack.
3. The balloon, shooting swiftly into the clouds, was soon lost to sight.
4. Wealth acquired dishonestly will prove a curse.
5. The sun, rising, dispelled the mists.
6. The thief, being detected, surrendered to the officer.
7. They boarded the vessel lying in the harbor.
8. The territory claimed by the Dutch was called New Netherlands.
9. Washington, having crossed the Delaware, attacked the Hessians stationed
at Trenton.
10. Burgoyne, having been surrounded at Saratoga, surrendered to Gen.
Gates.
11. Pocahontas was married to a young Englishman named John Rolfe.
12. A shrug of the shoulders, translated into words, loses much force.
13. The armies of England, mustered for the battles of Europe, do not
awaken sincere admiration.

(Note that the participle, like the predicate verb, may consist of two or
more words.)

(Note, too, that the participle, like the adjective, may belong to a
noun complement.)

LESSON 49.

THE INFINITIVE PHRASE.

+Hints for Oral Instruction+.—There is another form of the verb which,
like the participle, cannot be the predicate of a sentence, for it cannot
assert; as, She went out to see a friend; To lie is a disgrace. As
this form of the verb expresses the action, being, or state in a general
manner, without limiting it directly to a subject, it is called an
+Infinitive+, which means without limit. The infinitive generally follows
to; as, to walk, to sleep.

Let each pupil give an infinitive.

The infinitive and the preposition to constitute a phrase, which may be
employed in several ways.

+T+.—I have a duty to perform. The infinitive phrase modifies what?

+P+.—The noun duty. +T+.—It then performs the office of what? +P+.—Of
an adjective modifier.

+T+.—I come to hear. The infinitive phrase modifies what? +P+.—The verb
come. +T+.—What office then does it perform? +P+.—Of an adverb
modifier.

+T+.—To lie is base. What is base? +P+.—To lie. +T+.—He attempted
to speak. What did he attempt? +P+.—To speak. +T+.—To lie is a
subject, and to speak is an object. What part of speech is used as
subject and object? +P+.—The noun.

+T+.—The +Infinitive+ phrase is used as an +adjective+, an +adverb+, and a
+noun+.

Infinitives may be completed by objects and attributes.

+Analysis and Parsing+.

+Model+.—David hasted to meet Goliath.

David | hasted

==========|===========

| \to

\ meet | Goliath

\————————

+Analysis of the Infinitive Phrase+.—To introduces the phrase; meet,
completed by the object Goliath, is the principal part.

+Parsing of the Phrase+.—To is a preposition, because ——; meet is a
verb, because ——; Goliath is a noun, because ——.

1. I come not here to talk.
2. I rejoice to hear it.
3. A desire to excel leads to eminence.
4. Dr. Franklin was sent to France to solicit aid for the colonies.
5. To retreat was impossible.

(To is here used merely to introduce the infinitive phrase.)

\to

\ retreat

\————-

/ \ | was \ impossible

==========|======================

+Explanation of the Diagram+.—As this phrase subject cannot, in its
proper form, be written on the subject line, it is placed above, and, by
means of a support, the phrase diagram is made to rest on the subject line.
The phrase complement may be diagramed in a similar way, and made to rest
on the complement line.

6. The hands refuse to labor.
7. To live is not all of life.
8. The Puritans desired to obtain religious freedom.
9. The Romans, having conquered the world, were unable to conquer
themselves.
10. Narvaez sailed from Cuba to conquer Florida.
11. Some savages of America and Africa love to wear rings in the nose.
12. Andrew Jackson, elected to succeed J. Q. Adams, was inaugurated in
1829.

LESSON 50.

POSITION AND PUNCTUATION OF THE PARTICIPIAL PHRASE.

ERRORS TO BE CORRECTED. (See Caution 1, Lesson 41.)

Punctuate as you correct. (See Lesson 37.)

A house was built for a clergyman having seven gables.

The old man struck the saucy boy raising a gold-headed cane.

We saw a marble bust of Sir W. Scott entering the vestibule.

Here is news from a neighbor boiled down.

I found a cent walking over the bridge.

Balboa discovered the Pacific ocean climbing to the top of a mountain.

Punctuate the following exercises.

Cradled in the camp Napoleon was the darling of the army.

Having approved of the plan the king put it into execution.

Satan incensed with indignation stood unterrified.

My friend seeing me in need offered his services.

James being weary with his journey sat down on the wall.

The owl hid in the tree hooted through the night.

REVIEW QUESTIONS.

Give the caution relating to the position of the phrase modifier; that
relating to the choice of prepositions; that relating to the double
negative (Lesson 41). Give examples of errors. Can a noun be an attribute
complement? Illustrate. What do you understand by a participle? Into what
may some participles be changed? Illustrate. What offices does the
infinitive phrase perform? Illustrate them.

+To the Teacher+.—See COMPOSITION EXERCISES in the Supplement—Selection
from George Eliot.

LESSON 51.

REVIEW.

MISCELLANEOUS ERRORS FOR CORRECTION. (See Cautions in Lessons 30, 40, and
41.)

There never was such another man.

He was an old venerable patriarch.

John has a cadaverous, hungry, and lean look.

He was a well-proportioned, fine fellow.

Pass me them potatoes.

Put your trust not in money.

We have often occasion for thanksgiving,

Now this is to be done how?

Nothing can justify ever profanity.

To continually study is impossible.

(An adverb is seldom placed between the preposition to and the
infinitive.)

Mary likes to tastefully dress.

Learn to carefully choose your words.

She looks queerly.

Give me a soon and direct answer.

The post stood firmly.

The eagle flies highly.

The orange tastes sweetly.

I feel tolerable well.

The branch breaks easy.

Thistles grow rapid.

The eagle flies swift.

This is a miserable poor pen.

A wealthy gentleman will adopt a little boy with a small family.

A gentleman called from Africa to pay his compliments.

Water consists in oxygen and hydrogen.

He went out attended with a servant.

I have a dislike to such tricksters.

We have no prejudice to foreigners.

She don’t know nothing about it.

Father wouldn’t give me none.

He hasn’t been sick neither.

I won’t have no more nohow.

+To the Teacher+.—Let the reason be given for every correction.

LESSON 52.

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

Build sentences in which the following participles shall be used as
modifiers.

Being fatigued; laughing; being amused; having been elected; running;
having been running.

Expand each of the following sentences into three sentences, using the
participial form of the verb as a participle, in the first; the same
form as an adjective, in the second; and as a noun, in the third.

+Model+.—The stream flows. The stream, flowing gently, crept through
the meadow. The flowing stream slipped away to the sea. The flowing of
the stream caused a low murmur. The stream flows. The sun rises. Insects
hum. The birds sing. The wind whistles. The bells are ringing. The tide
ebbs.

Form infinitive phrases from the following verbs, and use these phrases
as adjectives, adverbs, and nouns, in sentences of your own building.

Smoke, dance, burn, eat, lie, try.

+To the Teacher+.—For exercises to distinguish the participle from the
predicate verb, see Notes, pp. 181, 182.

LESSON 53.

NOUNS AND PRONOUNS AS MODIFIERS.

+Hints for Oral Instruction+.—In the sentence, The robin’s eggs are
blue, the noun robin’s does what? +P+.—It tells what or whose eggs are
blue. +T+.—What word names the things owned or possessed? +P+.—Eggs.
+T+.—What word names the owner or possessor? +P+.—Robin’s.

+T+.—The noun robin’s is here used as a modifier. You see that this
word, which I have written on the board, is the word robin with a little
mark (‘) called an apostrophe, and the letter s added. These are added to
denote possession.

In the sentence, Webster, the statesman, was born in New Hampshire, the
noun statesman modifies the subject Webster by explaining what or which
Webster is meant. Both words name the same person.

Let the pupils give examples of each of these two kinds of +Noun

Modifiers+—the +Possessive+ and the +Explanatory+.

Analysis and Parsing.

+Model+.—Julia’s sister Mary has lost her diamond ring.

sister (Mary) | has lost | ring

===============|============’=============

\Julia’s | \her \diamond

+Explanation of the Diagram+.—Mary is written on the subject line,
because Mary and sister both name the same person, but the word Mary
is inclosed within marks of parenthesis to show that sister is the proper
grammatical subject.

In oral analysis, call Julia’s and Mary modifiers of the subject,
sister, because Julia’s tells whose sister, and Mary explains sister
by adding another name of the same person. Her is a modifier of the
object, because it tells whose ring is meant.

Julia’s sister Mary is the modified subject, the predicate is
unmodified, and her diamond ring is the modified object complement.

1. The planet Jupiter has four moons.
2. The Emperor Nero was a cruel tyrant.
3. Peter’s wife’s mother lay sick of a fever.

mother

========

\wife’s

\Peter’s

4. An ostrich outruns an Arab’s horse.
5. His pretty little nephew Arthur had the best claim to the throne.
6. Milton, the great English poet, became blind.
7. Caesar gave his daughter Julia in marriage to Pompey.
8. London, the capital of England, is the largest and richest city in the
world.
9. Joseph, Jacob’s favorite son, was sold by his brethren to the
Ishmaelites.
10. Alexander the Great [Footnote: Alexander the Great may be taken as
one name, or Great may be called an explanatory modifier of
Alexander.] was educated under the celebrated philosopher Aristotle.
11. Friends tie their purses with a spider’s thread.
12. Caesar married Cornelia, the daughter of Cinna.
13. His fate, alas! was deplorable.
14. Love rules his kingdom without a sword.

LESSON 54.

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

Nouns and pronouns denoting possession may generally be changed to
equivalent phrases; as, Arnold’s treason = the treason of Arnold. Here
the preposition of indicates possession, the same relation expressed by
the apostrophe (‘) and s. Change the following possessive nouns to
equivalent phrases, and the phrases indicating possession to possessive
nouns, and then expand the expressions into complete sentences.

+Model+.—The earth’s surface. The surface of the earth is made up of
land and water.

The earth’s surface: Solomon’s temple; England’s Queen; Washington’s
Farewell Address; Dr. Kane’s Explorations; Peter’s wife’s mother; George’s
friend’s father; Shakespeare’s plays; Noah’s dove; the diameter of the
earth; the daughter of Jephthah; the invasion of Burgoyne; the voyage of
Cabot; the Armada of Philip; the attraction of the earth; the light of the
moon.

Find for the things mentioned below, other names which shall describe or
explain them. Add such names to these nouns, and then expand the
expressions into complete sentences.

+Model+.—Ink.—Ink, a dark fluid, is used in writing.

Observe the following rule.

+COMMA-RULE.—An Explanatory Modifier, when it does not restrict the
modified term or combine closely with it, is set off by the comma+.

+To the Teacher+.—See Notes, pp. 176, 177.

New York, rain, paper, the monkey, the robin, tea, Abraham Lincoln,

Alexander Hamilton, world, peninsula, Cuba, Shakespeare.

Write three sentences, each of which shall contain a noun or pronoun
denoting possession, and a noun or pronoun used to explain.

+To the Teacher+.—For additional exercises in the use of possessive
modifiers, see Notes, pp. 182, 183.

LESSON 55.

ANALYSIS AND PARSING.

MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES IN REVIEW.

1. The toad spends the winter in a dormant state.
2. Pride in dress or in beauty betrays a weak mind.
3. The city of London is situated on the river Thames.
4. Napoleon Bonaparte was born in 1769, on an island in the Mediterranean.
5. Men’s opinions vary with their interests.
6. Ammonia is found in the sap of trees, and in the juices of all
vegetables.
7. Earth sends up her perpetual hymn of praise to the Creator.
8. Having once been deceived by him, I never trusted him again.
9. Aesop, the author of Aesop’s Fables, was a slave.
10. Hope comes with smiles to cheer the hour of pain.
11. Clouds are collections of vapors in the air.
12. To relieve the wretched was his pride.
13. Greece, the most noted country of antiquity, scarcely exceeded in size
the half of the state of New York.

LESSON 56.

ANALYSIS AND PARSING.

MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES IN REVIEW—CONTINUED.

1. We are never too old to learn.
2. Civility is the result of good nature and good sense.
3. The right of the people to instruct their representatives is generally
admitted.
4. The immense quantity of matter in the Universe presents a most striking
display of Almighty power.
5. Virtue, diligence, and industry, joined with good temper and prudence,
must ever be the surest means of prosperity.
6. The people called Quakers were a source of much trouble to the Puritans.
7. The Mayflower brought to America [Footnote: One hundred and one may be
taken as one adjective.] one hundred and one men, women, and children.
8. Edward Wingfield, an avaricious and unprincipled man, was the first
president of the Jamestown colony.
9. John Cabot and his son Sebastian, sailing under a commission from Henry
VII. of England, discovered the continent of America.
10. True worth is modest and retiring.
11. Jonah, the prophet, preached to the inhabitants of Nineveh.

LESSON 57.

COMPLEX SENTENCES.

THE ADJECTIVE CLAUSE.

+Hints for Oral Instruction+.—A word-modifier may sometimes be expanded
into a phrase or into an expression that asserts.

+T+.—A wise man will be honored. Expand wise into a phrase, and give
me the sentence. +P+.—A man of wisdom will be honored. +T+.—Expand
wise into an expression that asserts, join this to man, as a modifier,
and then give me the entire sentence. +P+.—A man who is wise will be
honored.

+T+.—You see that the same quality may be expressed in three ways—A
wise man, A man of wisdom, A man who is wise.

Let the pupils give similar examples.

+T+.—In the sentence, A man who is wise will be honored, the word who
stands for what? +P+.—For the noun man. +T+.—Then what part of speech
is it? +P+.—A pronoun.

+T+.—Put the noun man in the place of the pronoun who, and then give
me the sentence. +P+.—A man, man is wise, will be honored.

+T+.—I will repeat your sentence, changing the order of the words—A man
will be honored. Man is wise. Is the last sentence now joined to the first
as a modifier, or are they two separate sentences? +P+.—They are two
separate sentences.

+T+.—Then you see that the pronoun who not only stands for the noun
man, but it connects the modifying expression, who is wise, to man,
the subject of the sentence, A man will be honored, and thus there is
formed what we call a +Complex Sentence+. These two parts we call
+Clauses+. A man will be honored is the +Independent Clause;+ who is
wise is the +Dependent Clause+.

Clauses that modify nouns or pronouns are called +Adjective Clauses+.

+DEFINITION.—A Clause is a part of a sentence containing a subject and
its predicate+.

+DEFINITION.—A Dependent Clause is one used as an adjective, an adverb,
or a noun+.

+DEFINITION.—An Independent Clause is one not dependent on another
clause+.

+DEFINITION.—A Simple Sentence is one that contains but one subject and
one predicate, either or both of which may be compound+.

+DEFINITION.—A Complex Sentence is one composed of an independent clause
and one or more dependent clauses+.

Analysis and Parsing.

+Model+.—

man | will be honored

=========|==================

\A ` |

who ` | is \ wise

———-|——————

+Explanation of the Diagram+.—You will notice that the lines standing for
the subject and predicate of the independent clause are heavier than
those of the dependent clause. This pictures to you the relative
importance of the two clauses. You will see that the pronoun who is
written on the subject line of the dependent clause. But this word performs
the office of a conjunction also, and this office is expressed in the
diagram by a dotted line. As all modifiers are joined by slanting lines,
to the words they modify, you learn from this diagram that who is wise is
a modifier of man.

+Oral Analysis+.—This is a complex sentence, because it consists of an
independent clause and a dependent clause. A man will be honored is
the independent clause; who is wise is the dependent clause. Man is
the subject of the independent clause; will be honored is the predicate.
The word A and the clause, who is wise, are modifiers of the subject.
A points out man, and who is wise tells the kind of man. A man who
is wise is the modified subject; the predicate is unmodified. Who is the
subject of the dependent clause, is is the predicate, and wise is the
attribute complement. Who connects the two clauses.

1. He that runs may read.
2. Man is the only animal that laughs and weeps.
3. Henry Hudson discovered the river which bears his name.
4. He necessarily remains weak who never tries exertion.
5. The meridians are those lines that extend from pole to pole.
6. He who will not be ruled by the rudder must be ruled by the rock.
7. Animals that have a backbone are called vertebrates.
8. Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown.
9. The thick mists which prevail in the neighborhood of Newfoundland are
caused by the warm waters of the Gulf Stream.
10. The power which brings a pin to the ground holds the earth in its
orbit.
11. Death is the black camel which kneels at every man’s gate.
12. Our best friends are they who tell us of our faults, and help us to
mend them.

The pupil will notice that, in some of these sentences, the dependent
clause modifies the subject, and that, in others, it modifies the noun
complement.

+COMMA—RULE.—The adjective or the adverb clause, when it does not
closely follow and restrict the word modified, is generally set off by the
comma+.

LESSON 58.

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

ADJECTIVE CLAUSES.

Expand each of the following adjectives into

1. A phrase;
2. A clause;

and then use these three modifiers in three separate sentences of your own
construction.

| who has energy,

+Model+.—Energetic; of energy; + or

| who is energetic.

An energetic man will succeed. A man of energy will succeed. A man who
has energy (or who is energetic) will succeed.

Honest, long-eared, beautiful, wealthy.

Expand each of the following possessive nouns into

1. A phrase;
2. A clause;

and then use these three modifiers in three separate sentences.

+Model+.—Saturn’s rings; the rings of Saturn; the rings which
surround Saturn.

Saturn’s rings can be seen with a telescope. The rings of Saturn can be
seen with a telescope. The rings which surround Saturn can be seen, with
a telescope.

Absalom’s hair; the hen’s eggs; the elephant’s tusks.

Change the following simple sentences into complex sentences by expanding
the participial phrases into clauses.

The vessels carrying the blood from the heart are called arteries. The book
prized above all other books is the Bible. Rivers rising west of the Rocky
Mts. flow into the Pacific ocean. The guns fired at Concord were heard
around the world.

+To the Teacher+.—For additional composition exercises with particular
reference to adjective clauses, see Notes, p. 177.

LESSON 59.

COMPLEX SENTENCES.

THE ADVERB CLAUSE.

+Hints for Oral Instruction+.—You learned in Lesson 83 that an adverb can
be expanded into an equivalent phrase; as, The book was carefully read =
The book was read with care.

We shall now learn that a phrase used as an adverb may be expanded into an
+Adverb clause+. In the sentence, We started at sunrise, what phrase is
used like an adverb? +P+.—At sunrise. +T+.—Expand this phrase into an
equivalent clause, and give me the entire sentence. +P+.—We started when
the sun rose.

+T+.—You see that the phrase, at sunrise, and the clause, when the sun
rose, both modify started, telling the time of starting, and are
therefore equivalent to adverbs. We will then call such clauses +Adverb
Clauses+.

Analysis and Parsing.

+Model.—+

We | started

=========|=============

` when

sun \ rose

=======|=========

\the

+Explanation of the Diagram+.—The line which connects the two predicate
lines pictures three things. It is made up of three parts. The upper part
shows that when modifies started; the lower part, that it modifies
rose; and the dotted part shows that it connects.

+Oral Analysis+.—This is a complex sentence, because ——; We started is
the independent clause, and when the sun rose is the dependent clause.
We is the subject of the independent clause, and started is the
predicate. The clause, when the sun rose, is a modifier of the predicate,
because it tells when we started. Started when the sun rose is the
modified predicate.

Sun is the subject of the dependent clause, and rose is the predicate,
and the is a modifier of sun; the sun is the modified subject. When
modifies rose and started, and connects the clause-modifier to the
predicate started.

+Parsing+ of when.—When is an adverb modifying the two verbs started
and rose, thus connecting the two clauses. It modifies these verbs by
showing that the two actions took place at the same time.

1. The dew glitters when the sun shines.
2. Printing was unknown when Homer wrote the Iliad.
3. Where the bee sucks honey, the spider sucks poison.
4. Ah! few shall part where many meet.
5. Where the devil cannot come, he will send.
6. While the bridegroom tarried, they all slumbered and slept.
7. Fools rush in where angels fear to tread.
8. When the tale of bricks is doubled, Moses comes.
9. When I look upon the tombs of the great, every emotion of envy dies
within me.
10. The upright man speaks as he thinks.
11. He died as the fool dieth.
12. The scepter shall not depart from Judah until Shiloh come.

LESSON 60.

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

ADVERB CLAUSES.

Expand each of the following phrases into an adverb clause, and fit this
clause into a sentence of your own building.

+Model+.—At sunset; when the sun set. We returned when the sun set.

At the hour; on the playground; by moonlight; in youth; among icebergs;
after school; at the forks of the road; during the day; before church; with
my friend.

To each of the following independent clauses, join an adverb clause,
and so make complex sentences.

—— Peter began to sink. The man dies ——. Grass grows ——. Iron ——
can easily be shaped. The rattlesnake shakes his rattle ——. —— a nation
mourns. Pittsburg stands ——. He dared to lead ——.

+To the Teacher+.—For additional composition exercises with particular
reference to adverb clauses, see Notes, p. 177.

See COMPOSITION EXERCISES in the Supplement—Selection from the Brothers

Grimm.

REVIEW QUESTIONS.

In what two ways may nouns be used as modifiers? Illustrate. Nouns and
pronouns denoting possession may sometimes be changed into what?
Illustrate. Give the rule for the punctuation of explanatory modifiers.
Into what may an adjective be expanded? Into what may a participial phrase
be expanded? Give illustrations. Give an example of a complex sentence. Of
a clause. Of an independent clause. Of a dependent clause. Into what may a
phrase used as an adverb be expanded? Illustrate.

LESSON 61.

THE NOUN CLAUSE.

+Hints for Oral Instruction+.—That stars are suns is taught by
astronomers. What is taught by astronomers? +P+.—That stars are suns.
+T+.—What then is the subject of is taught? +P+.—The clause, That
stars are suns. +T+.—This clause then performs the office of what part of
speech? +P+.—Of a noun.

+T+.—Astronomers teach that stars are suns. What do astronomers teach?

+P+.—That stars are suns. +T+.—What is the object complement of teach?

+P+.—The clause, that stars are suns. +T+.—What office then does this

clause perform? +P+.—That of a noun.

+T+.—The teaching of astronomers is, that stars are suns. What does is
assert of teaching? +P+.—That stars are suns. +T+.—What then is the
attribute complement? +P+.—That stars are suns. +T+.—Does this
complement express the quality of the subject, or does it name the same
thing that the subject names? +P+.—It names the same thing that the
subject names. +T+.—It is equivalent then to what part of speech? +P+.—To
a noun.

+T+.—You see then that a clause, like a noun, may be used as the subject
or the complement of a sentence.

Analysis and Parsing.

+Model+.—

That

———

‘

stars | are ‘\suns

=======|============

| |

/ \ | is taught

================|============

| \by

\ astronomers

———————

You will understand this diagram from the explanation of the second diagram
in Lesson 49.

+Oral Analysis+.—This is a complex sentence, in which the whole sentence
takes the place of the independent clause. That stars are suns is the
dependent clause. That stars are suns is the subject of the whole
sentence, etc. ——. That simply introduces the dependent clause.

In parsing, call that a conjunction.

1. That the Scotch are an intelligent people is generally acknowledged.
2. That the moon is made of green cheese is believed by some boys and
girls.
3. That Julius Caesar invaded Britain is a historic fact.
4. That children should obey their parents is a divine precept.
5. I know that my Redeemer liveth.
6. Plato taught that the soul is immortal.
7. Peter denied that he knew his Lord.
8. Mahomet found that the mountain would not move.
9. The principle maintained by the colonies was, that taxation without
representation is unjust.
10. Our intention is, that this work shall be well done.
11. Our hearts’ desire and prayer is, that you may be saved.
12. The belief of the Sadducees was, that there is no resurrection of the
dead.

* * * * *

LESSON 62.

COMPOUND SENTENCES.

ANALYSIS AND PARSING.

+DEFINITION.—A Compound Sentence is one composed of two or more
independent clauses+.

+Model+.—War has ceased, and peace has come.

War | has ceased

=======|=============

| ‘

‘ and

‘…..

‘

peace | has ‘ come

=========|===============

+Explanation of the Diagram+.—These two clause diagrams are shaded alike
to show that the two clauses are of the same rank. The connecting line is
not slanting, for one clause is not a modifier of the other. As one entire
clause is connected with the other, the connecting line is drawn between
the predicates simply for convenience.

+Oral Analysis+.—This is a compound sentence, because it is made up of
two independent clauses. The first clause, etc. ——.

1. Morning dawns, and the clouds disperse.
2. Prayer leads the heart to God, and he always listens.
3. A soft answer turneth away wrath, but grievous words stir up anger.
4. Power works easily, but fretting is a perpetual confession of weakness.
5. Many meet the gods, but few salute them.
6. We eat to live, but we do not live to eat.
7. The satellites revolve in orbits around the planets, and the planets
move in orbits around the sun.
8. A wise son maketh a glad father, but a foolish son is the heaviness of
his mother.
9. Every man desires to live long, but no man would be old.
10. [Footnote: A verb is to be supplied in each of the last three
sentences.] Pride goeth before destruction, and a haughty spirit before
a fall.
11. Towers are measured by their shadows, and great men, by their
calumniators.
12. Worth makes the man, and want of it, the fellow.

LESSON 63.

SENTENCES CLASSIFIED WITH RESPECT TO THEIR MEANING.

+Hints for Oral Instruction+.—You have already become acquainted with
three kinds of sentences. Can you name them?

+P+.—The Simple sentence, the Complex, and the Compound.

+T+.—These classes have been made with regard to the form of the
sentence. We will now arrange sentences in classes with regard to their
meaning.

Mary sings. Does Mary sing? Sing, Mary. How Mary sings! Here are four
simple sentences. Do they all mean the same thing?

+P+.—They do not.

+T+.—Well, you see they differ. Let me tell you wherein. The first one
tells a fact, the second asks a question, the third expresses a command,
and the fourth expresses sudden thought or strong feeling. We call the
first a +Declarative sentence+, the second an +Interrogative sentence+, the
third an +Imperative sentence+, and the fourth an +Exclamatory sentence+.

+DEFINITION.—A Declarative Sentence is one that is used to affirm or to
deny+.

+DEFINITION.—An Interrogative Sentence is one that expresses a
question+.

+DEFINITION.—An Imperative Sentence is one that expresses a command or
an entreaty+.

+DEFINITION.—An Exclamatory Sentence is one that expresses sudden
thought or strong feeling+.

+INTERROGATION POINT—RULE.—Every direct interrogative sentence should be
followed by an interrogation point+. [Footnote: To The Teacher.—See Notes,
pp. 178, 179.]

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

Change each of the following declarative sentences into three interrogative
sentences, and tell how the change was made.

+Model+.—Girls can skate. Can girls skate? How can girls skate? What
girls can skate? You are happy. Parrots can talk. Low houses were built.

Change each of the following into an imperative sentence. Notice that
independent words are set off by the comma.

+Model+.—Carlo eats his dinner. Eat your dinner, Carlo. George plays the
flute. Birdie stands on one leg.

Change each of the following into exclamatory sentences.

+Model+.—You are happy. How happy you are! What a happy child you are!

You are so happy!

Time flies swiftly. I am glad to see you. A refreshing shower fell. Lapland
is a cold country. It is hot between the tropics.

Write a declarative, an interrogative, an imperative, and an exclamatory
sentence on each of the following topics.

Weather, lightning, a stage coach.

LESSON 64.

ANALYSIS AND PARSING.

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN REVIEW.

In the analysis, classify these sentences first with reference to their
form, and then with reference to their meaning.

1. Wickedness is often made a substitute for wit.
2. Alfred was a brave, pious, and patriotic prince.
3. The throne of Philip trembles while Demosthenes speaks.
4. That the whole is equal to the sum of its parts is an axiom.
5. The lion belongs to the cat tribe, but he cannot climb a tree.
6. Pride is a flower that grows in the devil’s garden.
7. Of all forms of habitation, the simplest is the burrow.
8. When the righteous are in authority, the people rejoice.
9. When the wicked beareth rule, the people mourn.
10. Cassius, be not deceived. [Footnote: Cassius is independent, and
may be diagramed like an interjection. The subject of be
deceived is thou, or you, understood.]
11. How poor, how rich, how abject, how august, how wonderful is man!
12. Which is the largest city in the world?

LESSON 65.

ANALYSIS AND PARSING.

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN REVIEW—CONTINUED,

1. Politeness is the oil which lubricates the wheels of society.
2. 0 liberty! liberty! how many crimes are committed in thy name!
3. The mind is a goodly field, and to sow it with trifles is the worst
husbandry in the world.
4. Every day in thy life is a leaf in thy history.
5. Make hay while the sun shines.
6. Columbus did not know that he had discovered a new continent.
7. The subject of inquiry was, Who invented printing?
8. The cat’s tongue is covered with thousands of little sharp cones,
pointing towards the throat.
9. The fly sat upon the axle of a chariot-wheel and said, “What a dust do I
raise!”
10. Sir Humphrey Gilbert, attempting to recross the Atlantic in his little
vessel, the Squirrel, went down in mid-ocean.
11. Charity begins at home, but it should not stay there.
12. The morn, in russet mantle clad, walks o’er the dew of yon high eastern
hill.

LESSON 66.

MISCELLANEOUS ERRORS IN REVIEW.

I haven’t near so much. I only want one. Draw the string tightly. He writes
good. I will prosecute him who sticks bills upon this church or any other
nuisance. Noah for his godliness and his family were saved from the flood.
We were at Europe this summer. You may rely in that. She lives to home. I
can’t do no work. He will never be no better. They seemed to be nearly
dressed alike. I won’t never do so no more. A ivory ball. An hundred head
of cattle. george washington, gen dix of n y. o sarah i Saw A pretty
Bonnet. are You going home? A young man wrote these verses who has long
lain in his grave for his own amusement. This house will be kept by the
widow of Mr. B. who died recently on an improved plan. In correcting the
position of the adjective clauses in the two examples above, observe the
caution for the phrase modifiers, Lesson 41. He was an independent small
farmer. The mind knows feels and thinks. The urchin was ragged barefooted
dirty homeless and friendless. I am some tired. This here road is rough.
That there man is homely. pshaw i am so Disgusted. Whoa can’t you stand
still. James the gardener gave me a white lily. Irving the genial writer
lived on the hudson.

LESSON 67.

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

Build one sentence out of each group of the sentences which follow.

+Model+.—An able man was chosen.

A prudent man was chosen.

An honorable man was chosen.

An able, prudent, and honorable man was chosen.

Pure water is destitute of color.

Pure water is destitute of taste.

Pure water is destitute of smell.

Cicero was the greatest orator of his age.

Demosthenes was the greatest orator of his age.

Daisies peeped up here.

Daisies peeped up there.

Daisies peeped up everywhere.

Expand each of the following sentences into three.

The English language is spoken in England, Canada, and the United States.

The Missouri, Ohio, and Arkansas rivers are branches of the Mississippi.

Out of the four following sentences, build one sentence having three
explanatory modifiers.

+Model+.—Elizabeth was the daughter of Henry VIII.

Elizabeth was sister of Queen Mary.

Elizabeth was the patron of literature.

Elizabeth defeated the Armada.

Elizabeth, the daughter of Henry VIII., sister of Queen Mary, and the

patron of literature, defeated the Armada.

Boston is the capital of Massachusetts.

Boston is the Athens of America.

Boston is the “Hub of the Universe.”

Boston has crooked streets.

Expand the following sentence into four sentences.

Daniel Webster, the great jurist, the expounder of the Constitution, and
the chief of the “American Triumvirate,” died with the words, “I still
live,” on his lips.

LESSON 68.

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

+To the Teacher+.—For additional exercises in composition, see Notes, pp.
176-180.

Change the following simple sentences into complex sentences by expanding
the phrases into adjective clauses.

+Model+.—People living in glass houses shouldn’t throw stones.

People who live in glass houses shouldn’t throw stones.

Those living in the Arctic regions need much oily food.

A house built upon the rock will stand.

The boy of studious habits will always have his lesson.

Wellington was a man of iron will.

Change the following complex sentences into simple sentences by contracting
the adjective clauses into phrases.

Much of the cotton which is raised in the Gulf States is exported.

The house which was built upon the sand fell.

A thing which is beautiful is a joy forever.

Aaron Burr was a man who had fascinating manners.

Change the following simple sentences into complex sentences by expanding
the phrases into adverb clauses.

+Model+.—Birds return in the spring.

When spring comes, the birds return.

The dog came at call. In old age our senses fail.

Change the following complex sentences into simple sentences by contracting
the adverb clauses into phrases.

The ship started when the tide was at flood.

When he reached the middle of his speech, he stopped.

By supplying noun clauses, make complete sentences out of the following
expressions.

—— is a well-known fact.
The fact was ——.
Ben. Franklin said ——.

LESSON 69.

GENERAL REVIEW.

What is a letter? Give the name and the sound of each of the letters in the
three following words: letters, name, sound. Into what classes are
letters divided? Define each class. Name the vowels. What is a word? What
is artificial language? What is English Grammar? What is a sentence? What
is the difference between the two expressions, ripe apples and apples
are ripe? What two parts must every sentence have? Define each. What is
the analysis of a sentence? What is a diagram? What are parts of speech?
How many parts of speech are there? Give an example of each. What is a
noun? What is a verb? What must every predicate contain? What is a pronoun?
What is a modifier? What is an adjective? What adjectives are sometimes
called articles? When is a used? When is an used? Illustrate. Give an
example of one modifier joined to another. What is an adverb? What is a
phrase? What is a preposition? What is a conjunction? What is an
interjection? Give four rules for the use of capital letters (Lessons 8,
15, 19, 87). Give two rules for the use of the period, one for the
exclamation point, and one for the interrogation point (Lessons 8, 37, 63).

LESSON 70.

GENERAL REVIEW.

What is an object complement? What is an attribute complement? How does a
participle differ from a predicate verb? Illustrate. What offices does an
infinitive phrase perform? Illustrate. How are sentences classified with
respect to form? Give an example of each class. What is a simple sentence?
What is a clause? What is a dependent clause? What is an independent
clause? What is a complex sentence? What is a compound sentence? How are
sentences classified with respect to meaning? Give an example of each
class. What is a declarative sentence? What is an interrogative sentence?
What is an imperative sentence? What is an exclamatory sentence? What
different offices may a noun perform? Ans.—A noun may be used as a
subject, as an object complement, as an attribute complement, as a
possessive modifier, as an explanatory modifier, as the principal word in a
prepositional phrase, and it may be used independently. Illustrate each
use. What are sometimes substituted for nouns? Ans.—Pronouns, phrases,
and clauses. Illustrate. What is the principal office of a verb? What
offices may be performed by a phrase? What, by a clause? What, different
offices may an adjective perform? What parts of speech may connect clauses?
Ans.—Conjunctions, adverbs, and pronouns. (See Lessons 62, 59, and 57.)
Give rules for the use of the comma (Lessons 37, 54, 57). Give and
illustrate the directions for using adjectives and adverbs, for placing
phrases, for using prepositions, and for using negatives (Lessons 40, 41).

+To the Teacher+.—For additional review, see “Scheme,” p. 185.

If the early presentation of an outline of technical grammar is not
compelled by a prescribed course of study, we should here introduce a
series of lessons in the construction of sentences, paragraphs, letters,
and general compositions. The pages following Lesson 100 will furnish
matter.

See especially COMPOSITION EXERCISES in the Supplement—Selection from

Beecher.

PARTS OF SPEECH SUBDIVIDED.

LESSON 71.

CLASSES OF NOUNS.

+Hints for Oral Instruction+.—Hereafter, in the “Hints,” we shall drop the
dialogue form, but we expect the teacher to continue it. A poor teacher
does all the talking, a good teacher makes the pupils talk.

The teacher may here refer to his talk about the classification of birds,
and show that, after birds have been arranged in great classes, such as
robins, sparrows, etc., these classes will need to be subdivided, if the
pupil is to be made thoroughly acquainted with this department of the
animal kingdom. So, after grouping words into the eight great classes,
called Parts of Speech, these classes may be divided into other classes.
For instance, take the two nouns city and Brooklyn. The word city is
the common name of all places of a certain class, but the word Brooklyn
is the proper or particular name of an individual of this class. We
have here, then, two kinds of nouns which we call +Common+ and +Proper+.

Let the teacher write a number of nouns on the board, and require the pupil
to classify them and give the reasons for the classification.

To prepare the pupil thoroughly for this work, the teacher will find it
necessary to explain why such words as music, mathematics, knowledge,
etc., are common nouns. Music, e. g., is not a proper noun, for it is not
a name given to an individual thing to distinguish it from other things of
the same class. There are no other things of the same class—it forms a
class by itself. So we call the noun music a common noun.

CLASSES OF PRONOUNS.

The speaker seldom refers to himself by name, but uses the pronoun I
instead. In speaking to a person, we often use the pronoun you instead
of his name. In speaking of a person or thing that has been mentioned
before, we say he or she or it. These words that by their form
indicate the speaker, the hearer, or the person or thing spoken of, are
called +Personal Pronouns+. See Lesson 19, “Hints.”

Give sentences containing nouns repeated, and require the pupils to improve
these sentences by substituting pronouns.

When we wish to refer to an object that has been mentioned in another
clause, and at the same time to connect the clauses, we use a class of
pronouns called +Relative Pronouns+. Let the teacher illustrate by using
the pronouns who, which, and that. See Lesson 57, “Hints for Oral
Instruction.”

When we wish to ask about anything whose name is unknown, we use a class
of pronouns called +Interrogative Pronouns+. The interrogative pronoun
stands for the unknown name, and asks for it; as, Who comes here? What
is this?

Both men were wrong. Let us omit men and say, Both were wrong. You
see the meaning is not changed—both is here equivalent to both men,
that is, it performs the office of an adjective and that of a noun. It is
therefore an +Adjective Pronoun+. Let the teacher further illustrate the
office of the adjective pronoun by using the words each, all, many, some,
such, etc.

DEFINITIONS.

CLASSES OF NOUNS.

+A Common Noun is a name which belongs to all things of a class+.

+A Proper Noun is the particular name of an individual+.

CLASSES OF PRONOUNS.

+A Personal Pronoun is a pronoun that by its form denotes the speaker,
the one spoken to, or the one spoken of+.

+A Relative Pronoun is one that relates to some preceding word or words,
and connects clauses+.

+An Interrogative Pronoun is one with which a question is asked+.

+An Adjective Pronoun is one that performs the offices of both an
adjective and a noun+.

LESSON 72.

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

Build each of the following groups of nouns into a sentence. See Rule,

Lesson 15.

webster cares office washington repose home marshfleld.

george washington commander army revolution president united states
westmoreland state virginia month february.

san francisco city port pacific trade united states lines steamships

sandwich islands japan china australia.

Write five simple sentences, each containing one of the five personal
pronouns: I, thou or you, he, she, and it.

Write four complex sentences, each containing one of the four relative
pronouns: who, which, that, and what.

What is used as a relative pronoun when the antecedent is omitted. The
word for which a pronoun stands is called its antecedent. When we express
the antecedent, we use which or that. I shall do what is required; I
shall do the thing which is required, or that is required.

Build three interrogative sentences, each containing one of the three
interrogative pronouns: who, which, and what.

Build eight sentences, each containing one of the following adjective
pronouns: few, many, much, some, this, these, that, those.

LESSON 73.

CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES.

+Hints for Oral Instruction+.—When I say large, round, sweet, yellow
oranges, the words large, round, sweet, and yellow modify the word
oranges by telling the kind, and limit the application of the word to
oranges of that kind.

When I say this orange, yonder orange, one orange, the words this,
yonder, and one do not tell the kind, but simply point out or number the
orange, and limit the application of the word to the orange pointed out or
numbered.

Adjectives of the first class describe by giving a quality, and so are
called +Descriptive adjectives+.

Adjectives of the second class define by pointing out or numbering, and so
are called +Definitive adjectives+.

Let the teacher write nouns on the board, and require the pupils to modify
them by appropriate descriptive and definitive adjectives.

DEFINITIONS.

+A Descriptive Adjective is one that modifies by expressing quality+.

+A Definitive Adjective is one that modifies by pointing out, numbering,
or denoting quantity+.

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

Place the following adjectives in two columns, one headed descriptive,
and the other definitive, then build simple sentences in which they shall
be employed as modifiers. Find out the meaning of each word before you
use it.

Round, frolicsome, first, industrious, jolly, idle, skillful, each, the,
faithful, an, kind, one, tall, ancient, modern, dancing, mischievous,
stationary, nimble, several, slanting, parallel, oval, every.

Build simple sentences in which the following descriptive adjectives
shall be employed as attribute complements. Let some of these attributes
be compound.

Restless, impulsive, dense, rare, gritty, sluggish, dingy, selfish,

clear, cold, sparkling, slender, graceful, hungry, friendless.

Build simple sentences in which the following descriptive adjectives
shall be employed.

Some of these adjectives have the form of participles, and some are
derived from proper nouns.

+CAPITAL LETTER—RULE.—An Adjective derived from a proper noun must begin
with a capital letter+.

Shining, moving, swaying, bubbling, American, German, French, Swiss,

Irish, Chinese.

LESSON 74.

CLASSES OF VERBS.

+Hints for Oral Instruction+.—The man caught makes no complete
assertion, and is not a sentence. If I add the object complement fish, I
complete the assertion and form a sentence—The man caught fish. The
action expressed by caught passes over from the man to the fish.
Transitive means passing over, and so all those verbs that express an
action that passes over from a doer to something which receives, are called
+Transitive verbs+.

Fish swim. The verb swim does not require an object to complete the
sentence. No action passes from a doer to a receiver. These verbs which
express action that does not pass over to a receiver, and all those which
do not express action at all, but simply being or state of being, are
called +Intransitive verbs+.

Let the teacher write transitive and intransitive verbs on the board, and
require the pupils to distinguish them.

When I say, I crush the worm, I express an action that is going on now,
or in present time. I crushed the worm, expresses an action that took
place in past time. As tense means time, we call the form crush the
present tense of the verb, and crushed the past tense. In the
sentence, The worm crushed under my foot died, crushed, expressing the
action as assumed, is, as you have already learned, a participle; and, as
the action is completed, we call it a past participle. Now notice that
ed was added to crush, the verb in the present tense, to form the verb
in the past tense, and to form the past participle. Most verbs form their
past tense and their past participle by adding ed, and so we call such
+Regular verbs+.

I see the man; I saw the man; The man seen by me ran away. I catch
fish in the brook; I caught fish in the brook; The fish caught in the
brook tasted good. Here the verbs see and catch do not form their past
tense and past participle by adding ed to the present, and so we call
them Irregular verbs.

Let the teacher write on the board verbs of both classes, and require the
pupils to distinguish them.

DEFINITIONS.

CLASSES OF VERBS WITH RESPECT TO MEANING.

+A Transitive Verb is one that requires an object+. [Footnote: The
object of a transitive verb, that is, the name of the receiver of the
action, may be the object complement, or it may be the subject; as,
Brutus stabbed Caesar, Caesar was stabbed by Brutus.]

+An Intransitive Verb is one that does not require an object+.

CLASSES OF VERBS WITH RESPECT TO FORM.

+A Regular Verb is one that forms its past tense and past participle by
adding ed to the present+. [Footnote: If the present ends in e, the e
is dropped when ed is added; as, lov_e_, lov_ed_; believ_e_, believ_ed_.]

+An Irregular Verb is one that does not form its past tense and past
participle by adding ed to the present+.

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

Place the following verbs in two columns, one headed transitive and the
other, intransitive. Place the same verbs in two other columns, one
headed regular and the other, irregular. Build these verbs into
sentences by supplying a subject to each intransitive verb, and a subject
and an object to each transitive verb.

Vanish, gallop, bite, promote, contain, produce, provide, veto, secure,
scramble, rattle, draw.

Arrange the following verbs as before, and then build them into sentences
by supplying a subject and a noun attribute to each intransitive verb, and
a subject and an object to each transitive verb.

Degrade, gather, know, was, became, is.

A verb may be transitive in one sentence and intransitive in another. Use
the following verbs both ways.

+Model+.—The wren sings sweetly.

The wren sings a pretty little song.

Bend, ring, break, dash, move.

LESSON 75.

CLASSES OF ADVERBS.

+Hints for Oral Instruction+.—When I say, He will come soon, or
presently, or often, or early, I am using, to modify will come,
words which express the time of coming. These and all such adverbs we
call +Adverbs of Time+.

He will come up, or hither, or here, or back. Here I use, to modify
will come, words which express place. These and all such adverbs we
call +Adverbs of Place+.

When I say, The weather is so cold, or very cold, or intensely cold,
the words so, very, and intensely modify the adjective cold by
expressing the degree of coldness. These and all such adverbs we call
+Adverbs of Degree+.

When I say, He spoke freely, wisely, and well, the words freely,
wisely, and well tell how or in what manner he spoke. All such adverbs
we call +Adverbs of Manner+.

Let the teacher place adverbs on the board, and require the pupil to
classify them.

DEFINITIONS.

+Adverbs of Time are those that generally answer the question+, When?

_+Adverbs of Place are those that generally answer the question+, Where?

+Adverbs of Degree are those that generally answer the question+, To what
extent?

+Adverbs of Manner are those that generally answer the question+, In what
way?_

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

Place the following adverbs in the four classes we have made—if the
classification be perfect, there will be five words in each column—then
build each adverb into a simple sentence.

Partly, only, too, wisely, now, here, when, very, well, where, nobly,
already, seldom, more, ably, away, always, not, there, out.

Some adverbs, as you have already learned, modify two verbs, and thus
connect the two clauses in which these verbs occur. Such adverbs are called
+Conjunctive Adverbs+.

The following dependent clauses are introduced by conjunctive adverbs.

Build them into complex sentences by supplying independent clauses.

——— when the ice is smooth;
——— while we sleep;
——— before winter comes;
——— where the reindeer lives;
——— wherever you go.

LESSON 76.

CLASSES OF CONJUNCTIONS. [Footnote: For classified lists, see pp. 190,191.]

+Hints for Oral Instruction+.—Frogs, antelopes, and kangaroos can jump.
Here the three nouns are of the same rank in the sentence. All are subjects
of can jump. War has ceased, and peace has come. In this compound
sentence, there are two clauses of the same rank. The word and connects
the subjects of can jump, in the first sentence: and the two clauses, in
the second. All words that connect words, phrases, or clauses of the same
rank are called +Co-ordinate Conjunctions+.

If you have tears, prepare to shed them now. I will go, because you need
me. Here if joins the clause, you have tears, as a modifier,
expressing condition, to the independent clause, prepare to shed them
now; and because connects you need me, as a modifier, expressing
reason or cause, to the independent clause, I will go. These and all such
conjunctions as connect dependent clauses to clauses of a higher rank are
called +Subordinate Conjunctions+.

Let the teacher illustrate the meaning and use of the words subordinate
and co-ordinate.

DEFINITIONS.

+Co-ordinate Conjunctions are such as connect words, phrases, or clauses
of the same rank+.

+Subordinate Conjunctions are such as connect clauses of different rank+.

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

Build four short sentences for each of the three co-ordinate conjunctions
that follow. In the first, let the conjunction be used to connect principal
parts of a sentence; in the second, to connect word modifiers; in the
third, to connect phrase modifiers; and in the fourth, to connect
independent clauses.

And, or, but.

Write four short complex sentences containing the four subordinate
conjunctions that follow. Let the first be used to introduce a noun
clause, and the other three to connect adverb clauses to independent
clauses.

That, for, if, because.

LESSON 77.

REVIEW QUESTIONS.

What new subject begins with page 95? Name and define the different classes
of nouns. Illustrate by examples the difference between common nouns and
proper nouns. Name and define the different classes of pronouns. Can the
pronoun I be used to stand for the one spoken to?—the one spoken of?
Does the relative pronoun distinguish by its form the speaker, the one
spoken to, and the one spoken of? Illustrate. Can any other class of
pronouns be used to connect clauses?

For what do interrogative pronouns stand? Illustrate. Where may the
antecedent of an interrogative pronoun generally be found? Ans.—The
antecedent of an interrogative pronoun may generally lie found in the
answer to the question.

Name and define the different classes of adjectives. Give an example of
each class. Name and define the different classes of verbs, made with
respect to their meaning. Give an example of each class. Name and define
the different classes of verbs, made with respect to their form. Give an
example of each class.

Name and define the different classes of adverbs. Give examples of each
kind. Name and define the different classes of conjunctions. Illustrate by
examples.

Are prepositions and interjections subdivided? (See “Schemes” for the
conjunction, the preposition, and the interjection, p. 188.)

+To the Teacher+.—See COMPOSITION EXERCISES in the Supplement— Selection
from Dr. John Brown.

We suggest that other selections from literature be made and these
exercises continued.

MODIFICATIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH.

LESSON 78.

NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.

You have learned that two words may express a thought, and that the thought
may be varied by adding modifying words. You are now to learn that the
meaning or use of a word may sometimes be changed by simply changing its
form. The English language has lost many of its inflections, or forms, so
that frequently changes in the meaning and use of words are not marked by
changes in form. These changes in the form, meaning, and use of the
parts of speech, we call their +Modifications+.

The boy shouts. The boys shout. I have changed the form of the subject
boy by adding an s to it. The meaning has changed. Boy denotes one
lad; boys, two or more lads. This change in the form and meaning of
nouns is called +Number+. The word boy, denoting one thing, is in the
+Singular Number;+ and boys, denoting more than one thing, is in the
+Plural Number+.

Let the teacher write other nouns on the board, and require the pupils to
form the plural of them.

DEFINITIONS.

+Modifications of the Parts of Speech are changes in their form, meaning,
and use+.

NUMBER.

+Number is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes one thing
or more than one+.

+The Singular Number denotes one thing+.

+The Plural Number denotes more than one thing+.

+RULE.—The plural of nouns is regularly formed by adding s to the
singular+.