THE INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC SERIES.

VOLUME XV.

THE INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC SERIES.

FUNGI:

PREFACE BY THE EDITOR.

As my name appears on the title-page of this volume, it is
necessary that I should exactly state what part I had in its
preparation. I had no doubt originally engaged to undertake
the work myself; but finding, from multiplicity of engagements
and my uncertain health, that I could not accomplish it satisfactorily,
I thought the best course I could take was to recommend
Mr. Cooke to the publishers; a gentleman well known,
not only in this country, but in the United States. The whole
of the work has therefore been prepared by himself, the manuscript
and proof sheets being submitted to me from time to
time, in which I merely suggested such additions as seemed
needful, subjoining occasionally a few notes. As the work is
intended for students, the author has had no hesitation in
vi
repeating what has been stated in former chapters where it
has been thought to prove useful. I have no doubt that
the same high character will justly apply to this as to Mr.
Cooke’s former publications, and especially to his “Handbook
of British Fungi.”

M. J. BERKELEY.

Sibbertoft,

November 23, 1874.

CONTENTS.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

The most casual observer of Nature recognizes in almost every
instance that comes under his notice in every-day life, without
the aid of logical definition, the broad distinctions between an
animal, a plant, and a stone. To him, the old definition that an
animal is possessed of life and locomotion, a plant of life without
locomotion, and a mineral deficient in both, seems to be
sufficient, until some day he travels beyond the circuit of
diurnal routine, and encounters a sponge or a zoophyte, which
possesses only one of his supposed attributes of animal life, but
which he is assured is nevertheless a member of the animal
kingdom. Such an encounter usually perplexes the neophyte
at first, but rather than confess his generalizations to have
been too gross, he will tenaciously contend that the sponge
must be a plant, until the evidence produced is so strong that
he is compelled to desert his position, and seek refuge in the
declaration that one kingdom runs into the other so imperceptibly
that no line of demarcation can be drawn between
them. Between these two extremes of broad distinction, and
no distinction, lies the ground occupied by the scientific student,
who, whilst admitting that logical definition fails in assigning
briefly and tersely the bounds of the three kingdoms, contends
[Pg 2]
that such limits exist so positively, that the universal scientific
mind accepts the recognized limit without controversy or contradiction.

In like manner, if one kingdom be made the subject of inquiry,
the same difficulties will arise. A flowering plant, as
represented by a rose or a lily, will be recognized as distinct
from a fern, a seaweed, or a fungus. Yet there are some flowering
plants which, at first sight, and without examination, simulate
cryptogams, as, for example, many Balanophoræ, which
the unscientific would at once class with fungi. It is nevertheless
true that even the incipient botanist will accurately
separate the phanerogams from the cryptogams, and by means
of a little more, but still elementary knowledge, distribute the
latter amongst ferns, mosses, fungi, lichens, and algæ, with
comparatively few exceptions. It is true that between fungi
and lichens there exists so close an affinity that difficulties arise,
and doubts, and disputations, regarding certain small groups or
a few species; but these are the exception, and not the rule.
Botanists generally are agreed in recognizing the five principal
groups of Cryptogamia, as natural and distinct. In proportion
as we advance from comparison of members of the three kingdoms,
through that of the primary groups in one kingdom, to
a comparison of tribes, alliances, and orders, we shall require
closer observation, and more and more education of the eye to
see, and the mind to appreciate, relationships and distinctions.

We have already assumed that fungi are duly and universally
admitted, as plants, into the vegetable kingdom. But of this
fact some have even ventured to doubt. This doubt, however,
has been confined to one order of fungi, except, perhaps,
amongst the most illiterate, although now the animal nature of
the Myxogastres has scarcely a serious advocate left. In this
order the early condition of the plant is pulpy and gelatinous,
and consists of a substance more allied to sarcode than cellulose.
De Bary insinuated affinities with Amœba,[A] whilst Tulasne
[Pg 3]
affirmed that the outer coat in some of these productions contained
so much carbonate of lime that strong effervescence took
place on the application of sulphuric acid. Dr. Henry Carter
is well known as an old and experienced worker amongst
amœboid forms of animal life, and, when in Bombay, he devoted
himself to the examination of the Myxogastres in their early
stage, and the result of his examinations has been a firm
conviction that there is no relationship whatever between the
Myxogastres and the lower forms of animal life. De Bary has
himself very much modified, if not wholly abandoned, the views
once propounded by him on this subject. When mature, and
the dusty spores, mixed with threads, sometimes spiral, are
produced, the Myxogastres are so evidently close allies of the
Lycoperdons, or Puffballs, as to leave no doubt of their affinities.
It is scarcely necessary to remark that the presence of zoospores
is no proof of animal nature, for not only do they occur in the
white rust (Cystopus), and in such moulds as Peronospora,[B] but
are common in algæ, the vegetable nature of which has never
been disputed.

There is another equally important, but more complicated
subject to which we must allude in this connection. This is
the probability of minute fungi being developed without the
intervention of germs, from certain solutions. The observations
of M. Trécul, in a paper laid before the French Academy, have
thus been summarized:—1. Yeast cells may be formed in the
must of beer without spores being previously sown. 2. Cells of
the same form as those of yeast, but with different contents,
arise spontaneously in simple solution of sugar, or to which a
little tartrate of ammonia has been added, and these cells are
capable of producing fermentation in certain liquids under
favourable conditions. 3. The cells thus formed produce Penicillium
like the cells of yeast. 4. On the other hand, the spores
of Penicillium are capable of being transformed into yeast.[C]
The interpretation of this is, that the mould Penicillium may be
[Pg 4]
produced from a sugar solution by “spontaneous generation,”
and without spore or germ of any kind. The theory is, that a
molecular mass which is developed in certain solutions or infusions,
may, under the influence of different circumstances, produce
either animalcules or fungi. “In all these cases, no kind
of animalcule or fungus is ever seen to originate from preexisting
cells or larger bodies, but always from molecules.”[D]
The molecules are said to form small masses, which soon melt
together to constitute a globular body, from which a process
juts out on one side. These are the so-called Torulæ,[E] which
give off buds which are soon transformed into jointed tubes
of various diameters, terminating in rows of sporules, Penicillium,
or capsules containing numerous globular seeds, Aspergillus
(sic).

This is but another mode of stating the same thing as above
referred to by M. Trécul, that certain cells, resembling yeast cells
(Torula), are developed spontaneously, and that these ultimately
pass through the form of mould called Penicillium to the more
complex Mucor (which the writer evidently has confounded with
Aspergillus, unless he alludes to the ascigerous form of Aspergillus,
long known as Eurotium). From what is now known
of the polymorphism of fungi, there would be little difficulty
in believing that cells resembling yeast cells would develop
into Penicillium, as they do in fact in what is called the “vinegar
plant,” and that the capsuliferous, or higher condition of
this mould may be a Mucor, in which the sporules are produced
in capsules. The difficulty arises earlier, in the supposed spontaneous
origination of yeast cells from molecules, which result
from the peculiar conditions of light, temperature, &c., in which
certain solutions are placed. It would be impossible to review
all the arguments, or tabulate all the experiments, which have
been employed for and against this theory. It could not be
passed over in silence, since it has been one of the stirring questions
of the day. The great problem how to exclude all germs
[Pg 5]
from the solutions experimented upon, and to keep them excluded,
lies at the foundation of the theory. It must ever, as
we think, be matter of doubt that all germs were not excluded
or destroyed, rather than one of belief that forms known to be
developed day by day from germs should under other conditions
originate spontaneously.

Fungi are veritably and unmistakably plants, of a low organization,
it is true, but still plants, developed from germs,
somewhat analogous, but not wholly homologous, to the seeds of
higher orders. The process of fertilization is still obscure, but
facts are slowly and gradually accumulating, so that we may
hope at some not very distant period to comprehend what as
yet are little removed from hypotheses. Admitting that fungi
are independent plants, much more complex in their relations
and development than was formerly supposed, it will be expected
that certain forms should be comparatively permanent,
that is, that they should constitute good species. Here, also,
efforts have been made to develop a theory that there are no
legitimate species amongst fungi, accepting the terms as hitherto
applied to flowering plants. In this, as in allied instances,
too hasty generalizations have been based on a few isolated
facts, without due comprehension of the true interpretation of
such facts and phenomena. Polymorphism will hereafter receive
special illustration, but meantime it may be well to state that, because
some forms of fungi which have been described, and which
have borne distinct names as autonomous species, are now proved
to be only stages or conditions of other species, there is no reason
for concluding that no forms are autonomous, or that fungi which
appear and are developed in successive stages are not, in their
entirety, good species. Instead, therefore, of insinuating that
there are no good species, modern investigation tends rather to
the establishment of good species, and the elimination of those
that are spurious. It is chiefly amongst the microscopic species
that polymorphism has been determined. In the larger and
fleshy fungi nothing has been discovered which can shake our
faith in the species described half a century, or more, ago. In
the Agarics, for instance, the forms seem to be as permanent and
[Pg 6]
as distinct as in the flowering plants. In fact, there is still no
reason to dissent, except to a very limited extent, from what
was written before polymorphism was accredited, that, “with a
few exceptions only, it may without doubt be asserted that more
certain species do not exist in any part of the organized world
than amongst fungi. The same species constantly recur in the
same places, and if kinds not hitherto detected present themselves,
they are either such as are well known in other districts,
or species which have been overlooked, and which are found on
better experience to be widely diffused. There is nothing like
chance about their characters or growth.”[F]

The parasitism of numerous minute species on living and
growing plants has its parallel even amongst phanerogams in
the mistletoe and broom-rape and similar species. Amongst
fungi a large number are thus parasitic, distorting, and in many
cases ultimately destroying, their host, burrowing within the
tissues, and causing rust and smut in corn and grasses, or even
more destructive and injurious in such moulds as those of the
potato disease and its allies. A still larger number of fungi
are developed from decayed or decaying vegetable matter.
These are found in winter on dead leaves, twigs, branches,
rotten wood, the remains of herbaceous plants, and soil largely
charged with disintegrated vegetables. As soon as a plant
begins to decay it becomes the source of a new vegetation,
which hastens its destruction, and a new cycle of life commences.
In these instances, whether parasitic on living plants
or developed on dead ones, the source is still vegetable. But
this is not always the case, so that it cannot be predicated that
fungi are wholly epiphytal. Some species are always found on
animal matter, leather, horn, bone, &c., and some affect such
unpromising substances as minerals, from which it would be
supposed that no nourishment could be obtained, not only hard
gravel stones, fragments of rock, but also metals, such as iron
and lead, of which more may be said when we come to treat of
the habitats of fungi. Although in general terms fungi may
be described as “hysterophytal or epiphytal mycetals deriving
[Pg 7]
nourishment by means of a mycelium from the matrix,”[G] there
are exceptions to this rule with which the majority accord.

Of the fungi found on animal substances, none are more
extraordinary than those species which attack insects. The
white mould which in autumn proves so destructive to the
common house-fly may for the present be omitted, as it is
probably a condition of one of the Saprolegniei, which some
authors include with fungi, and others with algæ. Wasps,
spiders, moths, and butterflies become enveloped in a kind of
mould named Isaria, which constitutes the conidia of Torrubia,
a genus of club-shaped Sphæriæ afterwards developed. Some
species of Isaria and Torrubia also affect the larvæ and pupæ
of moths and butterflies, converting the whole interior into a
mass of mycelium, and fructifying in a clavate head. It has
been subject for discussion whether in such instances the
fungus commenced its development during the life of the insect,
and thus hastened its death, or whether it resulted after
death, and was subsequent to the commencement of decay.[H]
The position in which certain large moths are found standing
on leaves when infested with Isaria resembles so closely that
of the house-fly when succumbing to Sporendonema Muscæ,
would lead to the conclusion that certainly in some cases the
insect was attacked by the fungus whilst still living; whilst in
the case of buried caterpillars, such as the New Zealand or
British Hepialus, it is difficult to decide. Whether in life or
death in these instances, it is clear that the silk-worm disease
Muscardine attacks the living insect, and causes death. In the
case of the Guêpes végétantes, the wasp is said to fly about with
the fungus partially developed.

In all fungi we may recognize a vegetative and a reproductive
system: sometimes the first only becomes developed, and then
the fungus is imperfect, and sometimes the latter is far more
prominent than the former. There is usually an agglomeration
of delicate threads, either jointed or not, which are somewhat
analogous to the roots of higher plants. These delicate threads
[Pg 8]
permeate the tissues of plants attacked by parasitic fungi, or
they run over dead leaves forming whitened patches, formerly
bearing the name of Himantia, but really the mycelium of some
species of Marasmius. If checked or disturbed, the process
stops here, and only a mycelium of interwoven threads is
produced. In this condition the mycelium of one species so
much resembles that of another, that no accurate determination
can be made. If the process goes on, this mycelium gives rise
to the stem and cap of an agaricoid fungus, completing the
vegetative system. This in turn gives origin to a spore-bearing
surface, and ultimately the fruit is formed, and then the fungus
is complete; no fungus can be regarded as perfect or complete
without its reproductive system being developed. In some this is
very simple, in others it is as complex. In many of the moulds we
have miniature representatives of higher plants in the mycelium
or roots, stem, branches, and at length capsules bearing sporidia,
which correspond to seeds. It is true that leaves are absent,
but these are sometimes compensated by lateral processes or
abortive branchlets. A tuft of mould is in miniature a forest of
trees. Although such a definition may be deemed more poetic
than accurate, more figurative than literal, yet few could believe
in the marvellous beauty of a tuft of mould if they never saw it
as exhibited under the microscope. In such a condition no doubt
could be entertained of its vegetable character. But there is a
lower phase in which these plants are sometimes encountered;
they may consist only of single cells, or strings of cells, or threads
of simple structure floating in fluids. In such conditions only
the vegetative system is probably developed, and that imperfectly,
yet some have ventured to give names to isolated cells, or
strings of cells, or threads of mycelium, which really in themselves
possess none of the elements of correct classification—the
vegetative system, even, being imperfect, and consequently the
reproductive is absent. As already observed, no fungus is perfect
without fruit of some kind, and the peculiarities of structure
and development of fruit form one of the most important elements
in classification. To attempt, therefore, to give names to such
imperfect fragments of undeveloped plants is almost as absurd
[Pg 9]
as to name a flowering plant from a stray fragment of a root-fibril
accidentally cast out of the ground—nay, even worse, for
identification would probably be easier. It is well to protest
at all times against attempts to push science to the verge of
absurdity; and such must be the verdict upon endeavours to
determine positively such incomplete organisms as floating cells,
or hyaline threads which may belong to any one of fifty species
of moulds, or after all to an alga. This leads us to remark, in
passing, that there are forms and conditions under which fungi
may be found when, fructification being absent—that is, the
vegetative system alone developed—they approximate so closely
to algæ that it is almost impossible to say to which group the
organisms belong.

Finally, it is a great characteristic of fungi in general that
they are very rapid in growth, and rapid in decay. In a night
a puffball will grow prodigiously, and in the same short period
a mass of paste may be covered with mould. In a few hours a
gelatinous mass of Reticularia will pass into a bladder of dust,
or a Coprinus will be dripping into decay. Remembering this,
mycophagists will take note that a fleshy fungus which may be
good eating at noon may undergo such changes in a few hours
as to be anything but good eating at night. Many instances
have been recorded of the rapidity of growth in fungi; it may
also be accepted as an axiom that they are, in many instances,
equally as rapid in decay.

The affinity between lichens and fungi has long been recognized
to its full and legitimate extent by lichenologists and
mycologists.[I] In the “Introduction to Cryptogamic Botany,” it
[Pg 10]
was proposed to unite them in one alliance, under the name of
Mycetales, in the same manner as the late Dr. Lindley had united
allied orders under alliances in his “Vegetable Kingdom;” but,
beyond this, there was no predisposition towards the theory
since propounded, and which, like all new theories, has collected
a small but zealous circle of adherents. It will be necessary
briefly to summarize this theory and the arguments by which it
is supported and opposed, inasmuch as it is intimately connected
with our subject.

As recently as 1868, Professor Schwendener first propounded
his views,[J] and then briefly and vaguely, that all and every
individual lichen was but an algal, which had collected about it
a parasitic fungal growth, and that those peculiar bodies which,
under the name of gonidia, were considered as special organs of
lichens, were only imprisoned algæ. In language which the
Rev. J. M. Crombie[K] describes as “pictorial,” this author gave
the general conclusion at which he had arrived, as follows:—“As
the result of my researches, all these growths are not simple
plants, not individuals in the usual sense of the term; they
are rather colonies, which consist of hundreds and thousands
of individuals, of which, however, only one acts as master, while
the others, in perpetual captivity, provide nourishment for themselves
and their master. This master is a fungus of the order
Ascomycetes, a parasite which is accustomed to live upon the work
of others; its slaves are green algæ, which it has sought out, or
indeed caught hold of, and forced into its service. It surrounds
[Pg 11]
them, as a spider does its prey, with a fibrous net of narrow
meshes, which is gradually converted into an impenetrable
covering. While, however, the spider sucks its prey and leaves
it lying dead, the fungus incites the algæ taken in its net to
more rapid activity; nay, to more vigorous increase.” This
hypothesis, ushered upon the world with all the prestige of the
Professor’s name, was not long in meeting with adherents, and
the cardinal points insisted upon were—1st. That the generic
relationship of the coloured “gonidia” to the colourless filaments
which compose the lichen thallus, had only been assumed,
and not proved; 2nd. That the membrane of the gonidia was
chemically different from the membrane of the other tissues,
inasmuch as the first had a reaction corresponding to that of
algæ, whilst the second had that of fungi; 3rd. That the
different forms and varieties of gonidia corresponded with
parallel types of algæ; 4th. That as the germination of the
spore had not been followed further than the development of a
hypothallus, it might be accounted for by the absence of the
essential algal on which the new organism should become parasitic;
5th. That there is a striking correspondence between the
development of the fruit in lichens and in some of the sporidiiferous
fungi (Pyrenomycetes).

These five points have been combated incessantly by lichenologists,
who would really be supposed by ordinary minds to be
the most practically acquainted with the structure and development
of these plants, in opposition to the theorists. It is a fact
which should have some weight, that no lichenologist of repute
has as yet accepted the theory. In 1873 Dr. E. Bornet[L] came
to the aid of Schwendener, and almost exhausted the subject,
but failed to convince either the practised lichenologist or
mycologist. The two great points sought to be established are
these, that what we call lichens are compound organisms, not
simple, independent vegetable entities; and that this compound
organism consists of unicellular algæ, with a fungus parasitic
upon them. The coloured gonidia which are found in the
[Pg 12]
substance, or thallus of lichens, are the supposed algæ; and the
cellular structure which surrounds, encloses, and imprisons the
gonidia is the parasitic fungus, which is parasitic on something
infinitely smaller than itself, and which it entirely and absolutely
isolates from all external influences.

Dr. Bornet believed himself to have established that every
gonidium of a lichen may be referred to a species of algæ, and
that the connection between the hypha and gonidia is of such a
nature as to exclude all possibility of the one organ being produced
by the other. This he thinks is the only way in which it
can be accounted for that the gonidia of diverse lichens should
be almost identical.

Dr. Nylander, in referring to this hypothesis of an imprisoned
algal,[M] writes: “The absurdity of such an hypothesis is evident
from the very consideration that it cannot be the case that an
organ (gonidia) should at the same time be a parasite on the
body of which it exercises vital functions; for with equal
propriety it might be contended that the liver or the spleen
constitutes parasites of the mammiferæ. Parasite existence is
autonomous, living upon a foreign body, of which nature
prohibits it from being at the same time an organ. This is
an elementary axiom of general physiology. But observation
directly made teaches that the green matter originally arises
within the primary chlorophyll- or phycochrom-bearing cellule,
and consequently is not intruded from any external quarter, nor
arises in any way from any parasitism of any kind. The cellule
at first is observed to be empty, and then, by the aid of secretion,
green matter is gradually produced in the cavity and assumes a
definite form. It can, therefore, be very easily and evidently
demonstrated that the origin of green matter in lichens is entirely
the same as in other plants.” On another occasion, and in
another place, the same eminent lichenologist remarks,[N] as to
the supposed algoid nature of gonidia—“that such an unnatural
existence as they would thus pass, enclosed in a prison and
[Pg 13]
deprived of all autonomous liberty, is not at all consonant with
the manner of existence of the other algæ, and that it has no
parallel in nature, for nothing physiologically analogous occurs
anywhere else. Krempelhuber has argued that there are no
conclusive reasons against the assumption that the lichen-gonidia
may be self-developed organs of the lichen proper rather than
algæ, and that these gonidia can continue to vegetate separately,
and so be mistaken for unicellular algæ.” In this Th. Fries
seems substantially to concur. But there is one strong argument,
or rather a repetition of an argument already cited, placed
in a much stronger light, which is employed by Nylander in the
following words:—“So far are what are called algæ, according
to the turbid hypothesis of Schwendener, from constituting true
algæ, that on the contrary it may be affirmed that they have a
lichenose nature, whence it follows that these pseudo-algæ are
in a systematic arrangement to be referred rather to the lichens,
and that the class of algæ hitherto so vaguely limited should be
circumscribed by new and truer limits.”

As to another phase in this question, there are, as Krempelhuber
remarks, species of lichens which in many countries do
not fructify, and whose propagation can only be carried on by
means of the soredia, and the hyphæ of such could in themselves
alone no more serve for propagation than the hyphæ from the
pileus or stalk of an Agaric, while it is highly improbable that
they could acquire this faculty by interposition of a foreign
algal. On the other hand he argues: “It is much more conformable
to nature that the gonidia, as self-developed organs of
the lichens, should, like the spores, enable the hyphæ proceeding
from them to propagate the individual.”[O]

A case in point has been adduced[P] in which gonidia were
produced by the hypha, and the genus Emericella,[Q] which is
allied to Husseia in the Trichogastres, shows a structure in the
stem exactly resembling Palmella botryoides of Greville, and to
what occurs in Synalyssa. Emericella, with one or two other
[Pg 14]
genera, must, however, be considered as connecting Trichogastres
with lichens, and the question cannot be considered as satisfactorily
decided till a series of experiments has been made on
the germination of lichen spores and their relation to free algæ
considered identical with gonidia. Mr. Thwaites was the first
to point out[R] the relation of the gonidia in the different sections
of lichens to different types of supposed algæ. The question
cannot be settled by mere à priori notions. It is, perhaps,
worthy of remark that in Chionyphe Carteri the threads grow
over the cysts exactly as the hypha of lichens is represented as
growing over the gonidia.

Recently, Dr. Thwaites has communicated his views on one
phase of this controversy,[S] which will serve to illustrate the
question as seen from the mycological side. As is well known,
this writer has had considerable experience in the study of the
anatomy and physiology of all the lower cryptogamia, and any
suggestion of his on such a subject will at least commend itself
to a patient consideration.

“According to our experience,” he writes, “I think parasitic
fungi invariably produce a sad effect upon the tissues they fix
themselves upon or in. These tissues become pale in colour,
and in every respect sickly in appearance. But who has ever
seen the gonidia of lichens the worse for having the ‘hypha’
growing amongst them? These gonidia are always in the
plumpest state, and with the freshest, healthiest colour possible.
Cannot it enter into the heads of these most patient and excellent
observers, that a cryptogamic plant may have two kinds
of tissue growing side by side, without the necessity of one
being parasitic upon the other, just as one of the higher plants
may have half a dozen kinds of tissue making up its organization?
The beautifully symmetrical growth of the same lichens
has seemed to me a sufficient argument against one portion
being parasitic upon another, but when we see all harmony and
robust health, the idea that one portion is subsisting parasitically
upon another appears to me to be a perfect absurdity.”

It appears to us that a great deal of confusion and a large
number of errors which creep into our modern generalizations
and hypotheses, may be traced to the acceptance of analogies
for identities. How many cases of mistaken identity has the
improvement of microscopes revealed during the past quarter
of a century. This should at least serve as a caution for the
future.

Apart, however, from the “gonidia,” whatever they may be,
is the remainder of the lichen a genuine fungus? Nylander
writes, “The anatomical filamentose elements of lichens are
distinguished by various characters from the hyphæ of fungi.
They are firmer, elastic, and at once present themselves in the
texture of lichens. On the other hand, the hyphæ of fungi are
very soft, they possess a thin wall, and are not at all gelatinous,
while they are immediately dissolved by the application of
hydrate of potash, &c.”[T]

Our own experience is somewhat to the effect, that there are
some few lichens which are doubtful as to whether they are
fungi or lichens, but, in by far the majority of cases, there is
not the slightest difficulty in determining, from the peculiar
firmness and elasticity of the tissues, minute peculiarities which
the practised hand can detect rather than describe, and even
the general character of the fruit that they differ materially
from, though closely allied to fungi. We have only experience
to guide us in these matters, but that is something, and we have
no experience in fungi of anything like a Cladonia, however
much it may resemble a Torrubia or Clavaria. We have Pezizæ
with a subiculum in the section Tapesia, but the veriest tyro
would not confound them with species of Parmelia. It is true
that a great number of lichens, at first sight, and casually,
resemble species of the Hysteriacei, but it is no less strange
than true, that lichenologists and mycologists know their own
sufficiently not to commit depredations on each other.

Contributions are daily being made to this controversy, and
already the principal arguments on both sides have appeared in
[Pg 16]
an English dress,[U] hence it will be unnecessary to repeat those
which are modifications only of the views already stated, our
own conclusions being capable of a very brief summary: that
lichens and fungi are closely related the one to the other, but
that they are not identical; that the “gonidia” of lichens
are part of the lichen-organization, and consequently are not
algæ, or any introduced bodies; that there is no parasitism;
and that the lichen thallus, exclusive of gonidia, is wholly
unknown amongst fungi.

The Rev. J. M. Crombie has therefore our sympathies in the
remark with which his summary of the gonidia controversy
closes, in which he characterizes it as a “sensational romance of
lichenology,” of the “unnatural union between a captive algal
damsel and a tyrant fungal master.”

Without some knowledge of the structure of fungi, it is scarcely
possible to comprehend the principles of classification, or to
appreciate the curious phenomena of polymorphism. Yet there
is so great a variety in the structure of the different groups,
that this subject cannot be compressed within a few paragraphs,
neither do we think that this would be desired if practicable,
seeing that the anatomy and physiology of plants is, in itself,
sufficiently important and interesting to warrant a rather extended
and explicit survey. In order to impart as much practical
utility as possible to this chapter, it seems advisable to
treat some of the most important and typical orders and suborders
separately, giving prominence to the features which are
chiefly characteristic of those sections, following the order of
systematists as much as possible, whilst endeavouring to render
each section independent to a considerable extent, and complete
in itself. Some groups naturally present more noteworthy
features than others, and will consequently seem to receive
more than their proportional share of attention, but this seeming
inequality could scarcely have been avoided, inasmuch as
hitherto some groups have been more closely investigated than
others, are more intimately associated with other questions, or
are more readily and satisfactorily examined under different
aspects of their life-history.

Fig. 1.—Agaric in Process of Growth.

Agaricini.—For the structure that prevails in the order to
which the mushroom belongs, an examination of that species
will be almost sufficient. Here we shall at once recognize
[Pg 18]
three distinct parts requiring elucidation, viz. the rooting
slender fibres that traverse the soil, and termed the mycelium,
or spawn, the stem and cap or pileus, which together constitute
what is called the hymenophore, and the plates or gills
on the under surface of the cap, which bear the hymenium.
The earliest condition in which the mushroom can be recognized
as a vegetable entity is in that of the “spawn” or mycelium,
which is essentially an agglomeration of vegetating spores. Its
normal form is that of branched, slender, entangled, anastomosing,
hyaline threads. At certain privileged points of the mycelium,
the threads seem to be aggregated, and become centres
of vertical extension. At first only a small nearly globose budding,
like a grain of mustard seed, is visible, but this afterwards
increases rapidly, and other similar buddings or swellings
appear at the base.[A] These are the young hymenophore. As
[Pg 19]
it pushes through the soil, it gradually loses its globose form,
becomes more or less elongated, and in this condition a longitudinal
section shows the position of the future gills in a pair of
opposite crescent-shaped darker-coloured spots near the apex.
The dermal membrane, or outer skin, seems to be continuous
over the stem and the globose head. At present, there is no
external evidence of an expanded pileus and gills; a longitudinal
section at this stage shows that the gills are being developed,
that the pileus is assuming its cap-like form, that the
membrane stretching from the stem to the edge of the young
pileus is separating from the edge of the gills, and forming a
veil, which, in course of time, will separate below and leave the
gills exposed. When, therefore, the mushroom has arrived
almost at maturity, the pileus
expands, and in this act the
veil is torn away from the
margin of the cap, and remains
for a time like a collar
around the stem. Fragments
of the veil often remain attached
to the margin of the
pileus, and the collar adherent
to the stem falls back,
and thenceforth is known as
the annulus or ring. We
have in this stage the fully-developed
hymenophore,—the
stem with its ring, supporting
an expanded cap or
pileus, with gills on the under
surface bearing the hymenium.[B]
A longitudinal section cut through the pileus and down
[Pg 20]
the stem, gives the best notion of the arrangement of the
parts, and their relation to the whole. By this means it will be
seen that the pileus is continuous with the stem, that the substance
of the pileus descends into the gills, and that relatively
the substance of the stem is more fibrous than that of the pileus.
In the common mushroom the ring is very distinct surrounding
the stem, a little above the middle, like a collar. In some
Agarics the ring is very fugacious, or absent altogether. The
form of the gills, their mode of attachment to the stem, their
colour, and more especially the colour of the spores, are all very
important features to be attended to in the discrimination of
species, since they vary in different species. The whole
substance of the Agaric is cellular. A longitudinal slice from
the stem will exhibit under the microscope delicate tubular
cells, the general direction of which is lengthwise, with lateral
branches, the whole interlacing so intimately that it is difficult
to trace any individual thread very far in its course. It
will be evident that the structure is less compact as it approaches
the centre of the stem, which in many species is hollow. The
hymenium is the spore-bearing surface, which is exposed or naked,
and spread over the gills. These plates are covered on all sides
with a delicate membrane, upon which the reproductive organs
are developed. If it were possible to remove this membrane in
one entire piece and spread it out flat, it would cover an
immense surface, as compared with the size of the pileus, for it
is plaited or folded like a lady’s fan over the whole of the gill-plates,
or lamellæ, of the fungus.[C] If the stem of a mushroom
be cut off close to the gills, and the cap laid upon a sheet of
paper, with the gills downwards, and left there for a few hours,
when removed a number of dark radiating lines will be deposited
upon the paper, each line corresponding with the interstices
between one pair of gills. These lines are made up of spores
which have fallen from the hymenium, and, if placed under the
microscope, their character will at once be made evident. If
a fragment of the hymenium be also submitted to a similar
examination, it will be found that the whole surface is studded
[Pg 21]
with spores. The first peculiarity which will be observed is,
that these spores are almost uniformly in groups of four
together. The next feature to be observed is, that each spore
is borne upon a slender stalk or sterigma, and that four of these
sterigmata proceed from the apex of a thicker projection, from
the hymenium, called a basidium, each basidium being the supporter
of four sterigmata, and each sterigma of a spore.[D] A
closer examination of the hymenium will reveal the fact that
the basidia are accompanied by other bodies, often larger, but
without sterigmata or spores; these have been termed cystidia,
and their structure and functions have
been the subject of much controversy.[E]
Both kinds of bodies are produced on
the hymenium of most, if not all, the
Agaricini.

Fig. 2.—Section of Common Mushroom.

The basidia are usually expanded
upwards, so as to have more or less
of a clavate form, surmounted by four
slender points, or tubular processes,
each supporting a spore; the contents
of these cells are granular, mixed
apparently with oleaginous particles,
which communicate through the
slender tubes of the spicules with
the interior of the spores. Corda
states that, although only one spore is
produced at a time on each sporophore,
when this falls away others are produced in succession
for a limited period. As the spores approach maturity, the connection
between their contents and the contents of the basidia
diminishes and ultimately ceases. When the basidium which
bears mature spores is still well charged with granular matter,
it may be presumed that the production of a second or third
[Pg 22]
series of spores is quite possible. Basidia exhausted entirely of
their contents, and which have become quite hyaline, may often
be observed.

Fig. 3.—a. Sterile cells. b. Basidia. c. Cystidium. From Gomphidius (de Seynes).

The cystidia are usually larger than the basidia, varying in
size and form in different species. They present the appearance
of large sterile cells, attenuated upwards, sometimes into a
slender neck. Corda was of opinion that these were male
organs, and gave them the name of pollinaires. Hoffmann has
also described[F] both these organs under the names of pollinaria
and spermatia, but does not appear to recognize in them the
sexual elements which those names would indicate; whilst
de Seynes suggests that the cystidia are only organs returned to
vegetative functions by a sort of hypertrophy of the basidia.[G]
This view seems to be supported by the fact that, in the section
Pluteus and some others, the cystidia are surmounted by short
horns resembling sterigmata. Hoffmann has also indicated[H]
the passage of cystidia into basidia. The evidence seems to be in
favour of regarding the cystidia as barren conditions of basidia.
There are to be found upon the hymenium of Agarics a third
kind of elongated cells, called by Corda[I] basilary cells, and by
Hoffmann “sterile cells,” which are either equal in size or smaller
than the basidia, with which also their structure agrees, excepting
in the development of spicules. These are the “proper cells
of the hymenium” of Léveillé, and are simply the terminal cells
of the gill structure—cells which, under vigorous conditions,
might be developed into basidia, but which are commonly
arrested in their development. As suggested by de Seynes, the
hymenium seems to be reduced to great simplicity, “one sole
and self-same organ is the basis of it; according as it experiences
an arrest of development, as it grows and fructifies, or as it
becomes hypertrophied, it gives us a paraphyse, a basidium, or
a cystidium—in other terms, atrophied basidium, normal basidium
[Pg 23]
and hypertrophied basidium; these are the three elements
which form the hymenium.”[J]

The only reproductive organs hitherto demonstrated in Agarics
are the spores, or, as sometimes called, from their method of
production, basidiospores.[K] These are at first colourless, but
afterwards acquire the colour peculiar to the species. In size
and form they are, within certain limits, exceedingly variable,
although form and size are tolerably constant in the same
species. At first all are globose; as they mature, the majority are
ovoid or elliptic; some are fusiform, with regularly attenuated
extremities. In Hygrophorus they are rather irregular, reniform,
or compressed in the middle. Sometimes the external surface is
rough with more or less projecting warts. Some mycologists
are of opinion that the covering of the spore is double, consisting
of an exospore and an endospore, the latter being very fine
and delicate. In other orders the double coating of the spore
has been demonstrated. When the spore is coloured, the external
membrane alone appears to possess
colour, the endospore being constantly
hyaline. It may be added here,
that in this order the spore is simple
and unicellular. In Lactarius and
Russula the trama, or inner substance,
is vesicular. True latex vessels occur
occasionally in Agaricus, though not
filled with milk as in Lactarius.

Fig. 4.—Polyporus giganteus (reduced).

Polyporei.—In this order the gill
plates are replaced by tubes or pores,
the interior of which is lined by the
hymenium; indications of this structure
having already been exhibited in some of the lower
[Pg 24]
Agaricini. In many cases the stem is suppressed. The substance
is fleshy in Boletus, but in Polyporus the greater number
of species are leathery or corky, and more persistent. The
basidia, spicules, and quaternate spores agree with those of
Agaricini.[L] In fact there are no features of importance which
relate to the hymenium in any order of Hymenomycetes (the
Tremellini excepted) differing from the same organ in Agaricini,
unless it be the absence of cystidia.

Fig. 5.—Hydnum repandum.

Hydnei.—Instead of pores,
in this order the hymenium
is spread over the surface of
spines, prickles, or warts.[M]

Auricularini.—The hymenium
is more or less even,
and in—

Clavariei the whole fungus
is club-shaped, or more or
less intricately branched, with
the hymenium covering the
outer surface.

Fig. 6.—Calocera viscosa.

Tremellini.—In this order we have a great departure from
the character of the substance, external appearance, and internal
structure of the other orders in this family. Here we have a
gelatinous substance, and the form is lobed, folded, convolute,
often resembling the brain of some animal. The internal structure
[Pg 25]
has been specially illustrated by M. Tulasne,[N] through the
common species, Tremella mesenterica. This latter is of a
fine golden yellow colour, and rather
large size. It is uniformly composed
throughout of a colourless mucilage,
with no appreciable texture, in which
are distributed very fine, diversely
branched and anastomosing filaments.
Towards the surface, the ultimate
branches of this filamentous network
give birth, both at their summits and
laterally, to globular cells, which acquire
a comparatively large size.
These cells are filled with a protoplasm, to which the plant
owes its orange colour. When they have attained their normal
dimensions, they elongate at the summit into two, three, or
four distinct, thick, obtuse tubes, into which the protoplasm
gradually passes. The development
of these tubes is unequal and not
simultaneous, so that one will often
attain its full dimensions, equal, perhaps,
to three or four times the diameter
of the generative cell, whilst
the others are only just appearing.
By degrees, as each tube attains its
full size, it is attenuated into a fine
point, the extremity of which swells
into a spheroidal cell, which ultimately
becomes a spore. Sometimes these tubes, or spicules,
send out one or two lateral branches, each terminated by a spore.
These spores (about ·006 to ·008 mm. diameter) are smooth, and
deposit themselves, like a fine white dust, on the surface of the
Tremella and on its matrix. M. Léveillé[O] was of opinion that
[Pg 26]
the basidia of the Tremellini were monosporous, whilst M.
Tulasne has demonstrated that they are habitually tetrasporous,
as in other of the Hymenomycetes. Although agreeing in this,
they differ in other features, especially in the globose form of
the basidia, mode of production of the spicules, and, finally, the
division of the basidia into two, three, or four cells by septa
which cut each other in their axis. This division precedes the
growth of the spicules. It is not rare to see these cells, formed
at the expense of an unilocular basidium, become partly isolated
from each other; in certain cases they seem to have separated
very early, they then become larger than usual, and are grouped
on the same filament so as to represent a kind of buds. This
phenomenon usually takes place below the level of the fertile
cells, at a certain depth in the mucous tissue of the Tremella.

Fig. 7.—Tremella mesenterica.

Besides the reproductive system here described, Tulasne also
made known the existence of a series of filaments which produce
spermatia. These filaments are often scattered and confused
with those which produce the basidia, and not distinguishable
from them in size or any other apparent characteristic, except
the manner in which their extremities are branched in order to
produce the spermatia. At other times the spermatia-bearing
surface covers exclusively certain portions of the fungus, especially
the inferior lobes, imparting thereto a very bright orange
colour, which is communicated by the layer of spermatia,
unmixed with spores. These spots retain their bright colour,
while the remainder of the plant becomes pale, or covered with
a white dust. The spermatia are very small, spherical, and
smooth, scarcely equalling ·002 mm. They are sessile, sometimes
solitary, sometimes three or four together, on the
slightly swollen extremities of certain filaments of the weft of
the fungus.[P] Tulasne found it impossible to make these corpuscles
germinate, and in all essential particulars they agreed
with the spermatia found in ascomycetous fungi.

In the genus Dacrymyces, the same observer found the structure
[Pg 27]
to have great affinity with that of Tremella. The spores in the
species examined were of a different form, being oblong, very
obtuse, slightly curved (·013 – ·019 × ·004 – ·006 mm.), at first
unilocular, but afterwards triseptate. The basidia are cylindrical
or clavate, filled with coloured granular matter; each of
these bifurcates at the summit, and gradually elongates into two
very open branches, which are attenuated above, and ultimately
each is crowned by a spore. There are to be found also in the
species of this genus globose bodies, designated “sporidioles”
by M. Léveillé, which Tulasne took considerable care to trace to
their source. He thus accounts for them:—Each of the cells of
the spore emits exteriorly one or several of these corpuscles,
supported on very short and very slender pedicels, which remain
after the corpuscles are detached from them, new corpuscles
succeeding the first as long as there remains any plastic matter
within the spore. The pedicels are not all on the same plane;
they are often implanted all on the same, and oftenest on the
convex side of the reproductive body. These corpuscles, though
placed under the most favourable conditions, never gave the
least sign of vegetation, and Tulasne concludes that they are
spermatia, analogous to those produced in Tremella. The spores
which produce spermatia are not at all apt to germinate, whilst
those which did not produce spermatia germinated freely. Hence
it would appear that, although all spores seem to be perfectly identical,
they have not all the same function. The same observer
detected also amongst specimens of the Dacrymyces some of a
darker and reddish tint, always bare of spores or spermatia on
the surface, and these presented a somewhat different structure.
Where the tissue had turned red it was sterile, the constituent
filaments, ordinarily colourless, and almost empty of solid matter,
were filled with a highly-coloured protoplasm; they were of less
tenuity, more irregularly thick, and instead of only rarely presenting
partitions, and remaining continuous, as in other parts
of the plant, were parcelled out into an infinity of straight or
curved pieces, angular and of irregular form, especially towards
the surface of the fungus, where they compose a sort of pulp,
varying in cohesion according to the dry or moist condition of
[Pg 28]
the atmosphere. All parts of these reddish individuals seemed
more or less infected with this disintegration, the basidia divided
by transverse diaphragms into several cylindrical or oblong
pieces, which finally become free. Transitional conditions were
also observed in mixed individuals. This sterile condition is
called by Tulasne “gemmiparous,” and he believes that it has
ere now given origin to one or more spurious species, and misled
mycologists as to the real structure of perfect and fruitful
Dacrymyces.

Phalloidei.—In this order the hymenium is at first enclosed
within a sort of peridium or universal volva, maintaining a
somewhat globose or egg-shape. This envelope consists of an
outer and inner coat of somewhat similar texture, and an intermediate
gelatinous layer, often of considerable thickness. When
a section is made of the fungus, whilst still enclosed in the
volva, the hymenium is found to present numerous cavities, in
which basidia are developed, each surmounted by spicules (four
to six) bearing oval or oblong spores.[Q] It is
very difficult to observe the structure of the hymenium
in this order, on account of its deliquescent
nature. As the hymenium approaches maturity,
the volva is ruptured, and the plant rapidly
enlarges. In Phallus, a long erect cellular stem
bears the cap, over which the hymenium is
spread, and this expands enormously after escaping
the restraint of the volva. Soon after exposure,
the hymenium deliquesces into a dark mucilage, coloured
by the minute spores, which drips from the pileus, often diffusing
a most loathsome odour for a considerable distance. In
Clathrus, the receptacle forms a kind of network. In Aseröe,
the pileus is beautifully stellate. In many the attractive forms
would be considered objects of beauty, were it not for their
deliquescence, and often fœtid odour.[R]

Fig. 8.—Basidia and spores of Phallus.

Podaxinei.—This is a small but very curious group of fungi,
in which the peridium resembles a volva, which is more or less
confluent with the surface of the pileus. They assume hymenomycetal
forms, some of them looking like Agarics, Boleti, or
species of Hydnum, with deformed gills, pores, or spines; in
Montagnites, in fact, the gill structure is very distinct. The
spores are borne in definite clusters on short pedicels in such of
the genera as have been examined.[S]

Hypogæi.—These are subterranean puff-balls, in which sometimes
a distinct peridium is present; but in most cases it consists
entirely of an external series of cells, continuous with the internal
structure, and cannot be correctly estimated as a peridium.
The hymenium is sinuous and convolute, bearing basidia with
sterigmata and spores in the cavities. Sometimes the cavities are
traversed by threads, as in the Myxogastres. The spores are in
many instances beautifully echinulate, sometimes globose, at
others elongated, and produced in such numbers as to lead to
the belief that their development is successive on the spicules.
When fully matured, the peridia are filled with a dusty mass
of spores, so that it is scarcely possible in this condition to gain
any notion of the structure. This is, indeed, the case with
nearly all Gasteromycetes. The hypogæous fungi are curiously
connected with Phalloidei by the genus Hysterangium.

Fig. 9.—Basidia and spores of Lycoperdon.

Trichogastres.[T]—In their early stages the species contained in
this group are not gelatinous, as in the Myxogastres, but are rather
fleshy and firm. Very little has been added to our knowledge
of structure in this group since 1839 and 1842, when one of us
wrote to the following effect:—If a young plant of Lycoperdon
cœlatum or L. gemmatum be cut through and examined with a
common pocket lens, it will be found to consist of a fleshy mass,
[Pg 30]
perforated in every direction with minute elongated, reticulated,
anastomosing, labyrinthiform cavities. The resemblance of these
to the tubes of Boleti in an early stage of growth, first led me to
suspect that there must be some very close connection between
them. If a very thin slice now be taken, while the mass is yet
firm, and before there is the slightest indication of a change of
colour, the outer stratum of the walls of these cavities is found
to consist of pellucid obtuse cells, placed parallel to each other
like the pile of velvet, exactly as in the young hymenium of an
Agaric or Boletus. Occasionally one or two filaments cross from
one wall to another, and once I have seen these anastomose.
At a more advanced stage of growth, four little spicules are
developed at the tips of the sporophores,
all of which, as far as I have
been able to observe, are fertile and of
equal height, and on each of these
spicules a globose spore is seated. It
is clear that we have here a structure
identical with that of the true Hymenomycetes,
a circumstance which
accords well with the fleshy habit and
mode of growth. There is some difficulty
in ascertaining the exact structure
of the species just noticed, as
the fruit-bearing cells, or sporophores,
are very small, and when the spicules are developed the substance
becomes so flaccid that it is difficult to cut a proper slice, even
with the sharpest lancet. I have, however, satisfied myself as
to the true structure by repeated observations. But should any
difficulty arise in verifying it in the species in question, there
will be none in doing so in Lycoperdon giganteum. In this
species the fructifying mass consists of the same sinuous cavities,
which are, however, smaller, so that the substance is more compact,
and I have not seen them traversed by any filaments. In
an early stage of growth, the surface of the hymenium, that is of
the walls of the cavities, consists of short threads composed of
two or three articulations, which are slightly constricted at the
[Pg 31]
joints, from which, especially from the last, spring short branchlets,
often consisting of a single cell. Sometimes two or more
branchlets spring from the same point. Occasionally the threads
are constricted without any dissepiments, the terminal articulations
are obtuse, and soon swell very much, so as greatly to
exceed in diameter those on which they are seated. When arrived
at their full growth, they are somewhat obovate, and produce
four spicules, which at length are surmounted each with a globose
spore. When the spores are fully developed, the sporophores
wither, and if a solution of iodine be applied, which changes
the spores to a rich brown, they will be seen still adhering by
their spicules to the faded sporophores. The spores soon
become free, but the spicule often still adheres to them;
but they are not attached to the intermingled filaments.
In Bovista plumbea, the spores have very long peduncles.[U] As
in the Hymenomycetes, the prevailing type of reproductive organs
consisted of quaternary spores borne on spicules; so in Gasteromycetes,
the prevailing type, in so far as it is yet known, is very
similar, in some cases nearly identical, consisting of a definite
number of minute spores borne on spicules seated on basidia.
In a very large number of genera, the minute structure and
development of the fructification (beyond the mature spores)
is almost unknown, but from analogy it may be concluded that
a method prevails in a large group like the Myxogastres which
does not differ in essential particulars from that which is known
to exist in other groups. The difficulties in the way of studying
the development of the spores in this are far greater than in the
previous order.

Fig. 10.—a. Threads of Trichia. b. Portion further magnified, with spores. c. Portion of spinulose thread.

Myxogastres.—At one time that celebrated mycologist, Professor
De Bary, seemed disposed to exclude this group from the
vegetable kingdom altogether, and relegate them to a companionship
with amœboid forms. But in more recent works he seems
to have reconsidered, and almost, if not entirely, abandoned,
that disposition. These fungi, mostly minute, are characterized
in their early stages by their gelatinous nature. The substance
[Pg 32]
of which they are then composed bears considerable resemblance
to sarcode, and, did they never change from this, there might be
some excuse for doubting as to their vegetable nature; but as the
species proceed towards maturity they lose their mucilaginous
texture, and become a mass of spores, intermixed with threads,
surrounded by a cellular peridium. Take, for instance, the genus
Trichia, and we have in the matured specimens a somewhat
globose peridium, not larger than a mustard seed, and sometimes
nearly of the same colour; this ultimately ruptures and
exposes a mass of minute yellow spherical spores, intermixed
with threads of the same colour.[V] These threads, when highly
magnified, exhibit in themselves a spiral arrangement, which
has been the basis of some controversy, and in some species
these threads are externally spinulose. The chief controversy
on these threads has been whether the spiral markings are
external or internal, whether caused by twisting of the thread
or by the presence of an external or internal fibre. The spiral
appearance has never been called in question, only the structure
from whence it arises, and this, like the striæ of diatoms, is
very much an open question. Mr. Currey held that the spiral
[Pg 33]
appearance may be accounted for by supposing the existence
of an accurate elevation in the wall of the cell, following a
spiral direction from one end of the thread to the other. This
supposition would, he thinks, accord well with the optical
appearances, and it would account exactly for the undulations
of outline to which he alludes. He states that he had in
his possession a thread of Trichia chrysosperma, in which the
spiral appearance was so manifestly caused by an elevation of
this nature, in which it is so clear that no internal spiral fibre
exists, that he did not think there could be a doubt in the mind
of any person carefully examining it with a power of 500
diameters that the cause of the spiral appearance was not a
spiral fibre. In Arcyria, threads of a different kind are present;
they mostly branch and anastomose, and are externally furnished
with prominent warts or spines, which Mr. Currey[W] holds are
also arranged in a spiral manner around the threads. In other
Myxogastres, threads are also present without any appreciable
spiral markings or spines. In the mature condition of these
fungi, they so clearly resemble, and have such close affinities
with, the Trichogastres that one is led almost to doubt whether
it was not on hasty grounds, without due examination or
consideration, that proposals were made to remove them from
the society of their kindred.

Fig. 11.—Arcyria incarnata, with portion of threads and spore, magnified.

Fig. 12.—Diachæa elegans.

Very little is known of the development of the spores in
this group; in the early stages the whole substance is so pulpy,
and in the latter so dusty, whilst the transition from one to
[Pg 34]
the other is so rapid, that the relation between the spores and
threads, and their mode of attachment, has never been definitely
made out. It has been supposed that the spinulose projections
from the capillitium in some species are the remains
of pedicels from which, the spores have fallen, but
there is no evidence beyond this supposition in its
favour, whilst on the other hand, in Stemonitis, for
instance, there is a profuse interlacing capillitium,
and no spines have been detected. In order to
strengthen the supposition, spines should be more
commonly present. The threads, or capillitium, form
a beautiful reticulated network in Stemonitis, Cribraria,
Diachæa, Dictydium, &c. In Spumaria, Reticularia,
Lycogala, &c., they are almost obsolete.[X] In
no group is the examination of the development of
structure more difficult, for the reasons already
alleged, than in the Myxogastres.

Fig. 13.—Cyathus vernicosus.

Nidulariacei.—This small group departs in some
important particulars from the general type of structure
present in the rest of the Gasteromycetes.[Y]
The plants here included may be described under three parts,
the mycelium, the peridium, and the sporangia. The mycelium
is often plentiful, stout, rigid, interlacing, and
coloured, running over the surface of the soil, or
amongst the vegetable débris on which the fungi
establish themselves. The peridia are seated upon
this mycelium, and in most instances are at length
open above, taking the form of cups, or beakers.
These organs consist of three strata of tissue varying
in structure, the external being fibrous, and
sometimes hairy, the interior cellular and delicate, the intermediate
thick and at length tough, coriaceous, and resistant.
[Pg 35]
When first formed, the peridia are spherical, they then elongate
and expand, the mouth being for some time closed by a veil,
or diaphragm, which ultimately disappears. Within the cups
lentil-shaped bodies are attached to the base and sides by elastic
cords. These are the sporangia. Each of these has a complicated
structure; externally there is a filamentous tunic,
composed of interlaced fibres, sometimes called the peridiole;
beneath this is the cortex, of compact homogenous structure,
then follows a cellular thicker stratum, bearing, towards the
centre of the sporangia, delicate branched threads, or sporophores,
on which, at their extremities,
the ovate spores are generated, sometimes
in pairs, but normally, it would
seem that they are quaternary on spicules,
the threads being true basidia. The whole
structure is exceedingly interesting and
peculiar, and may be studied in detail in
Tulasne’s memoir on this group.

Fig. 14.—Cyathus. a. Sporangium. b. Section. c. Sporophore. d. Spores.

Sphæronemei.—In this very large and,
within certain limits, variable order, there
is but little of interest as regards structure,
which is not better illustrated elsewhere;
as, for instance, some sort of perithecium
is always present, but this can
be better studied in the Sphæriacei. The spores are mostly very
minute, borne on delicate sporophores, which originate from the
inner surface of the perithecia, but the majority of so-called
species are undoubtedly conditions of sphæriaceous fungi, either
spermatogonia or pycnidia, and are of much more interest
when studied in connection with the higher forms to which they
belong.[Z] Probably the number of complete and autonomous
species are very few.

Fig. 15.—Asterosporium Hoffmanni.

Melanconiei.—Here, again, are associated together a great
number of what formerly were considered good species of fungi,
but which are now known to be but conditions of other forms.
[Pg 36]
One great point of distinction between these and the preceding
is the absence of any true perithecium, the spores being produced
in a kind of spurious receptacle, or from a sort of stroma.
The spores are, as a rule, larger and much more attractive than
in Sphæronemei, and, in some instances, are either very fine, or
very curious. Under this head we may mention the multiseptate
spores of Coryneum; the tri-radiate spores of Asterosporium;
the curious crested spores of
Pestalozzia; the doubly crested spores of
Dilophospora; and the scarcely less singular
gelatinous coated spores of Cheirospora.
In all cases the fructification is
abundant, and the spores frequently ooze
out in tendrils, or form a black mass
above the spurious receptacle from which
they issue.[a]

Fig. 16.—Barren Cysts and Pseudospores of Lecythea.

Torulacei.—In this order there seems
at first to be a considerable resemblance
to the Dematiei, except that the threads are almost obsolete, and
the plant is reduced to chains of spores, without trace of perithecium,
investing cuticle, or definite stroma. Sometimes the spores
are simple, in other cases septate, and in Sporochisma are at first
produced in an investing cell. In most cases simple threads
at length become septate, and are ultimately differentiated into
spores, which separate at the joints when fully mature.

Fig. 17.—Coleosporium Tussilaginis, Lev.

Fig. 18.—Melampsora salicina.

Cæomacei.—Of far greater interest are the Coniomycetous
parasites on living plants. The present order includes those in
which the spore[b] is reduced to a single cell; and here we may
observe that, although many of them are now proved to be
imperfect in themselves, and only forms or conditions of other
fungals, we shall write of them here without regard to their
duality. These originate, for the most part, within the tissues
of living plants, and are developed outwards in pustules, which
burst through the cuticle. The mycelium penetrates the intercellular
[Pg 37]
passages, and may sometimes be found in parts of the
plants where the fungus does not develop itself. There is no
proper excipulum or peridium, and the spores spring direct
from a more compacted portion of the mycelium, or from a
cushion-like stroma of small cells. In
Lecythea, the sub-globose spores are at
first generated at the tips of short
pedicels, from which they are ultimately
separated; surrounding these
spores arise a series of barren cells,
or cysts, which are considerably larger
the true spores, and colourless,
while the spores are of some shade of yellow or orange.[c] In
Trichobasis, the spores are of a similar character, sub-globose,
and at first pedicellate; but there are no surrounding cysts, and
the colour is more usually brown, although
sometimes yellow. In Uredo,
the spores are at first generated singly,
within a mother cell; they are globose,
and either yellow or brown, without
any pedicel. In Coleosporium, there
are two kinds of spores, those of a
pulverulent nature, globose, which are
sometimes produced alone at the commencement
of the season, and others
which originate as an elongated cell;
this becomes septate, and ultimately separates at the joints.
During the greater part of the year, both kinds of spores are to
be found in the same pustule. In
Melampsora, the winter spores are
elongated and wedge-shaped, compacted
together closely, and are only
matured during winter on dead leaves;
the summer spores are pulverulent
and globose, being, in fact, what were until recently regarded
[Pg 38]
as species of Lecythea. In Cystopus, the spores are sub-globose,
or somewhat angular, generated in a moniliform manner, and
afterwards separating at the joints. The upper spore is always
the oldest, continuous production of spores going on for some
time at the base of the chain. Under favourable
conditions of moisture, each of these spores, or
conidia, as De Bary terms them, is capable of
producing within itself a number of zoospores;[d]
these ultimately burst the vesicle, move about by
the aid of vibratile cilia, and at last settle down
to germinate. Besides these, other reproductive
bodies are generated upon the mycelium, within
the tissues of the plant, in the form of globose
oogonia, or resting spores, which, when mature,
also enclose great numbers of zoospores. Similar
oogonia are produced amongst the Mucedines in
the genus Peronospora, to which De Bary considers
Cystopus to be closely allied. At all events,
this is a peculiarity of structure and development
not as yet met with in any other of the Cæomacei.
In Uromyces is the nearest approach to the Pucciniæi; in fact,
it is Puccinia reduced to a single cell. The form of spore is
usually more angular and irregular than in Trichobasis, and the
pedicel is permanent. It may be remarked here, that of the
foregoing genera, many of the species are not autonomous that
have hitherto been included amongst them. This is especially
true of Lecythea, Trichobasis, and, as it now appears, of
Uromyces.[e]

Fig. 19.—Cystopus candidus.

Fig. 20.—Xenodochus carbonarius.

Pucciniæi.—This group differs from the foregoing chiefly in
having septate spores. The pustules, or sori, break through
the cuticle in a similar manner, and here also no true peridium
is present. In Xenodochus, the highest development of joints
is reached, each spore being composed of an indefinite number,
from ten to twenty cells. With it is associated an unicellular
[Pg 39]
yellow Uredine, of which it is a condition. Probably, in every
species of the Pucciniæi, it may hereafter be proved, as it is
now suspected, that an unicellular Uredine
precedes or is associated with it, forming
a condition, or secondary form of fruit
of that species. Many instances of that
kind have already been traced by De Bary,[f]
Tulasne, and others, and some have been a
little too rashly surmised by their followers.
In Phragmidium, the pedicel is much more
elongated than in Xenodochus, and the spore
is shorter, with fewer and a more definite
number of cells for each species; Mr. Currey
is of opinion that each cell of the spore in
Phragmidium has an inner globose cell,
which he caused to escape by rupture of the
outer cell wall as a sphæroid nucleus,[g] leading to the inference
that each cell has its own individual power of germination and
reproduction. In Triphragmium, there are
three cells for each spore, two being placed
side by side, and one superimposed. In one
species, however, Triphragmium deglubens
(North American), the cells are arranged as
in Phragmidium, so that this represents really
a tricellular Phragmidium, linking the present
with the latter genus. In Puccinia
the number of species is by far the most
numerous; in this genus the spores are uniseptate,
and, as in all the Pucciniæi, the
peduncles are permanent. There is great
variability in the compactness of the spores
in the sori, or pulvinules. In some species,
the sori are so pulverulent that the spores
are as readily dispersed as in the Uredines,
in others they are so compact as to be separated from each
[Pg 40]
other with great difficulty. As might be anticipated, this has
considerable effect on the contour of the spores, which in pulverulent
species are shorter, broader, and more ovate than in
the compact species. If a section of one of
the more compact sori be made, it will be
seen that the majority of the spores are side
by side, nearly at the same level, their apices
forming the external surface of the sori, but
it will not be unusual to observe smaller
and younger spores pushing up from the
hymenial cells, between the peduncles of
the elder spores, leading to the inference
that there is a succession of spores produced in the same pulvinule.
In Podisoma, a rather anomalous genus, the septate spores
are immersed in a gelatinous stratum, and some authors have
imagined that they have an affinity with the Tremellini, but
this affinity is more apparent than real. The phenomena of
germination, and their relations to Rœstelia, if substantiated,
establish their claim to a position amongst the Pucciniæi.[h] It
seems to us that Gymnosporangium does not differ generically
from Podisoma. In a recently-characterized species, Podisoma
Ellisii, the spores are bi-triseptate. This is, moreover, peculiar
from the great deficiency in the gelatinous element. In another
North American species, called Gymnosporangium biseptatum,
Ellis, which is distinctly gelatinous, there are similar biseptate
spores, but they are considerably broader and more obtuse. In
other described species they are uniseptate.

Fig. 21.—Phragmidium bulbosum.

Fig. 22.—Pseudospores of Puccinia.

Ustilaginei.—These fungi are now usually treated as distinct
from the Cæomacei, to which they are closely related.[i] They
are also parasitic on growing plants, but the spores are usually
black or sooty, and never yellow or orange; on an average much
smaller than in the Cæomacei. In Tilletia, the spores are
spherical and reticulated, mixed with delicate threads, from
[Pg 41]
whence they spring. In the best known species, Tilletia caries,
they constitute the “bunt” of wheat. The peculiarities of
germination will be alluded to hereafter. In Ustilago, the
minute sooty spores are developed either on delicate threads
or in compacted cells, arising first from a sort of semi-gelatinous,
grumous stroma. It is very difficult to detect any threads
associated with the spores. The species attack the flowers and
anthers of composite and polygonaceous plants, the leaves,
culms, and germen of grasses, &c., and are popularly known as
“smuts.” In Urocystis and Thecaphora, the spores are united
together into sub-globose bodies, forming
a kind of compound spore. In
some species of Urocystis, the union
which subsists between them is comparatively
slight. In Thecaphora, on
the contrary, the complex spore, or
agglomeration of spores, is compact,
being at first apparently enclosed in a delicate cyst. In Tuburcinia,
the minute cells are compacted into a hollow sphere,
having lacunæ communicating with the interior, and often exhibiting
the remains of a pedicel.

Fig. 23.—Thecaphora hyalina.

Fig. 24.—Æcidium Berberidis.

Æcidiacei.—This group differs from the foregoing three
groups prominently in the presence of a cellular peridium, which
encloses the spores; hence some mycologists have not hesitated
to propose their association with the
Gasteromycetes, although every other
feature in their structure seems to
indicate a close affinity with the
Cæomacei. The pretty cups in the
genus Æcidium are sometimes scattered
and sometimes collected in clusters,
either with spermogonia in the centre or on the opposite
surface. The cups are usually white, composed of regularly
arranged bordered cells at length bursting at the apex, with the
margins turned back and split into radiating teeth. The spores
are commonly of a bright orange or golden yellow, sometimes
white or brownish, and are produced in chains, or moniliform
[Pg 42]
strings, slightly attached to each other,[j] and breaking off at the
summit at the same time that they continue to be produced at
the base, so that for some time there is a successive production
of spores. The spermogonia are not always readily detected, as
they are much smaller than the peridia, and sometimes precede
them. The spermatia are expelled from the lacerated and
fringed apices, and are very minute and colourless. In Rœstelia
the peridia are large, growing in company, and splitting longitudinally
in many cases, or by a lacerated mouth. In most instances,
the spores are brownish, but in a splendid species from
North America (Rœstelia aurantiaca, Peck), recently characterized,
they are of a bright orange. If Œrsted is correct in
his observations, which await confirmation, these species are all
related to species of Podisoma as a secondary form of fruit.[k]
In the Rœstelia of the pear-tree, as well as in that of the mountain
ash, the spermogonia will be found either in separate tufts
on discoloured spots, or associated with the Rœstelia, In Peridermium
there is very little structural difference from Rœstelia,
and the species are all found on coniferous trees. In Endophyllum,
the peridia are immersed in the succulent substance of
the matrix; whilst in Graphiola, there is a tougher and withal
double peridium, the inner of which forms a tuft of erect threads
resembling a small brush.[l]

Fig. 25.—Helminthosporium molle.

Hyphomycetes.—The predominant feature in the structure of
this order has already been intimated to consist in the development
of the vegetative system under the form of simple or
branched threads, on which the fruit is generated. The common
name of mould is applied to them perhaps more generally than
to other groups, although the term is too vague, and has been
too vaguely applied to be of much service in giving an idea of
the characteristics of this order. Leaving the smaller groups,
and confining ourselves to the Dematiei and the Mucedines, we
[Pg 43]
shall obtain some notion of the prevalent structure. In the
former the threads are more or less carbonized, in the latter
nearly colourless. One of the largest genera in Dematiei is
Helminthosporium. It appears on decaying herbaceous plants,
and on old wood, forming effused black velvety patches. The
mycelium, of coloured jointed threads, overlays and penetrates the
matrix; from this arise erect, rigid, and usually jointed threads,
of a dark brown, nearly black colour
at the base, but paler towards the
apex. In most cases these threads
have an externally cortical layer,
which imparts rigidity; usually from
the apex, but sometimes laterally, the
spores are produced. Although sometimes
colourless, these are most commonly
of some shade of brown, more
or less elongated, and divided transversely
by few or many septa. In
Helminthosporium Smithii, the spores
much exceed the dimensions of the
threads;[m] in other species they are
smaller. In Dendryphium, the threads
and spores are very similar, except
that the threads are branched at their
apex, and the spores are often produced
one at the end of another in a
short chain.[n] In Septosporium again,
the threads and spores are similar, but
the spores are pedicellate, and attached
at or near the base; whilst in
Acrothecium, with similar threads and spores, the latter are
clustered together at the apex of the threads. In Triposporium,
the threads are similar, but the spores are tri-radiate; and in
Helicoma, the spores are twisted spirally. Thus, we might pass
[Pg 44]
through all the genera to illustrate this chief feature of coloured,
septate, rather rigid, and mostly erect threads, bearing at some
point spores, which in most instances
are elongated, coloured,
and septate.

Fig. 26.—Acrothecium simplex.

Fig. 27.—Peronospora Arenariæ.

Mucedines.—Here, on the other
hand, the threads, if coloured at
all, are still delicate, more flexuous,
with much thinner walls, and never
invested with an external cortical
layer. One of the most important
and highly developed genera is
Peronospora, the members of which
are parasitic upon and destructive
of living vegetables. It is to this genus that the mould of the
too famous potato disease belongs. Professor De Bary has done
more than any other mycologist in the investigation and elucidation
of this genus; and his monograph
is a masterpiece in its way.[o]
He was, however, preceded by Mr.
Berkeley, and more especially by Dr.
Montagne, by many years in elucidation
of the structure of the flocci
and conidia in a number of species.[p]
In this genus, there is a delicate
mycelium, which penetrates the intercellular
passages of living plants,
giving rise to erect branched
threads, which bear at the tips of
their ultimate ramuli, sub-globose,
ovate, or elliptic spores, or, as De
Bary terms them—conidia. Deeply seated on the mycelium,
within the substance of the foster plant, other reproductive
bodies, called oogonia, originate. These are spherical, more or
[Pg 45]
less warted and brownish, the contents of which become differentiated
into vivacious zoospores, capable, when expelled, of
moving in water by the aid of vibratile cilia. A similar structure
has already been indicated in Cystopus, otherwise it is rare
in fungi, if the Saprolegniei be excluded. In Botrytis and in
Polyactis, the flocci and spores are similar, but the branches of
the threads are shorter and more compact, and the septa are
more common and numerous; the oogonia also are absent. De
Bary has selected Polyactis cinerea, as it occurs on dead vine
leaves, to illustrate his views of the dualism
which he believes himself to have
discovered in this species. “It spreads
its mycelium in the tissue which is becoming
brown,” he writes, “and this shows
at first essentially the same construction
and growth as that of the mycelium
filaments of Aspergillus.” On the mycelium
soon appear, besides those which
are spread over the tissue of the leaves,
strong, thick, mostly fasciculate branches,
which stand close to one another, breaking
forth from the leaf and rising up perpendicularly,
the conidia-bearers. They
grow about 1 mm. long, divide themselves,
by successively rising partitions,
into some prominent cylindrical linked
cells, and then their growth is ended,
and the upper cell produces near its
point three to six branches almost standing
rectangularly. Of these the under
ones are the longest, and they again shoot forth from under
their ends one or more still shorter little branches. The
nearer they are to the top, the shorter are the branches, and
less divided; the upper ones are quite branchless, and their
length scarcely exceeds the breadth of the principal stem. Thus
a system of branches appears, upon which, on a small scale, a
bunch of grapes is represented. All the twigs soon end their
[Pg 46]
growth; they all separate their inner space from the principal
stem, by means of a cross partition placed close to it. All the
ends, and also that of the principal stem, swell about the same
time something like a bladder, and on the upper free half of
each swelling appear again, simultaneously, several fine protuberances,
close together, which quickly grow to little oval
bladders filled with protoplasm, and resting on their bearers
with a sub-sessile, pedicellate, narrow basis, and which at length
separate themselves through a partition as in Aspergillus. The
detached cells are the conidia of our fungus; only one is formed
on each stalk. When the formation is completed in the whole
of the panicle, the little branches which compose it are deprived
of their protoplasm in favour of the conidia; it is the
same with the under end of the principal stem, the limits of
which are marked by a cross partition. The delicate wall of
these parts shrinks up until it is unrecognizable; all the conidia
of the panicle approach one another to form an irregular grape-like
bunch, which rests loosely on the bearer, and from which
it easily falls away as dust. If they be brought into water they
fall off immediately; only the empty, shrivelled, delicate skins
are to be found on the branch which bore them, and the places
on which they are fixed to the principal stem clearly appear as
round circumscribed hilums, generally rather arched towards
the exterior. The development of the main stem is not ended
here. It remains solid and filled with protoplasm as far as the
portion which forms the end through its conidia. Its end,
which is to be found among these pieces, becomes pointed after
the ripening of the first panicle, pushes the end of the shrivelled
member on one side, and grows to the same length as the
height of one or two panicles, and then remains still, to form a
second panicle similar to the first. This is later equally perfoliated
as the first, then a third follows, and thus a large
number of panicles are produced after and over one another on
the same stem. In perfect specimens, every perfoliated panicle
hangs loosely to its original place on the surface of the stem,
until by shaking or the access of water to it, it falls immediately
into the single conidia, or the remains of branches, and the
[Pg 47]
already-mentioned oval hilums are left behind. Naturally, the
stem becomes longer by every perfoliation; in luxuriant specimens
the length can reach that of some lines. Its partition is
already, by the ripening of the first panicle from the beginning
of its foundation, strong and brown; it is only colourless at the
end which is extending, and in all new formations. During all
these changes the filament remains either unbranched, except
as regards the transient panicles, or it sends out here and there,
at the perfoliated spots, especially from the lower ones, one
or two strong branches, standing opposite one another and
resembling the principal stem.

Fig. 28.—Polyactis cinerea. a. Apex of hypha.

The mycelium, which grows so exuberantly in the leaf, often
brings forth many other productions, which are called sclerotia,
and are, according to their nature, a thick bulbous tissue of
mycelium filaments. Their formation begins with the profuse
ramification of the mycelium threads in some place or other;
generally, but not always, in the veins of the leaf; the intertwining
twigs form an uninterrupted cavity, in which is often
enclosed the shrivelling tissue of the leaf. The whole body
swells to a greater thickness than that of the leaf, and protrudes
on the surface like a thickened spot. Its form varies from
circular to fusiform; its size is also very unequal, ranging
between a few lines and about half a millimetre in its largest
diameter. At first it is colourless, but afterwards its outer
layers of cells become round, of a brown or black colour, and it
is surrounded by a black rind, consisting of round cells, which
separate it from the neighbouring tissue. The tissue within the
rind remains colourless; it is an entangled uninterrupted tissue
of fungus filaments, which gradually obtain very solid, hard,
cartilaginous coats. The sclerotium, which ripens as the rind
becomes black, loosens itself easily from the place of its formation,
and remains preserved after the latter is decayed.

Fig. 29.—Peziza Fuckeliana. a. Natural size. b. Section enlarged. c. Ascus and sporidia.

The sclerotia are, here as in many other fungi, biennial
organs, designed to begin a new vegetation after a state of
apparent quietude, and to send forth special fruit-bearers. They
may in this respect be compared to the bulbs and perennial
roots of under shrubs. The usual time for the development of
[Pg 48]
the sclerotia is late in the autumn, after the fall of the vine
leaves. As long as the frost does not set in, new ones continually
spring up, and each one attains to ripeness in a few days.
If frost appears, it can lie dry a whole year, without losing
its power of development. This latter commences when the
sclerotium is brought into contact with damp ground during
the usual temperature of our warmer seasons. If this occur
soon, at the latest some weeks after it is ripe, new vegetation
grows very quickly, generally after a few days; in several parts
the colourless filaments of the inner tissue begin to send out
clusters of strong branches, which, breaking through the black
rind, stretch themselves up perpendicularly towards the surface,
separate from one another, and then take
all the characteristics of the conidia-bearers.
Many such clusters can be produced on one
sclerotium, so that soon the greater part of
the surface is covered by filamentous conidia-bearers
with their panicles. The colourless
tissue of the sclerotium disappears in the
same degree as the conidia-bearers grow,
and at last the black rind remains behind
empty and shrivelled. If we bring, after
many months, for the first time, the ripe
sclerotium, in damp ground, in summer or
autumn, after it has ripened, the further
development takes place more slowly, and
in an essentially different form. It is true
that from the inner tissue numerous filamentous
branches shoot forth at the cost of this growing
fascicle, and break through the black rind, but its filaments
remain strongly bound, in an almost parallel situation, to a
cylindrical cord, which for a time lengthens itself and spreads
out its free end to a flat plate-like disc. This is always formed
of strongly united threads, ramifications of the cylindrical cord.
On the free upper surface of the disc, the filaments shoot forth
innumerable branches, which, growing to the same height, thick
and parallel with one another, cover the before-named disc.
[Pg 49]
Some remain narrow and cylindrical, are very numerous, and
produce fine hairs (paraphyses); others, also very numerous, take
the form of club-like ampulla cells, and each one forms in its
interior eight free swimming oval spores. Those ampulla cells
are sporidiiferous asci. After the spores have become ripe, the
free point of the utricle bursts, and the spores are scattered to a
great distance by a mechanism which we will not here further
describe. New ampullas push themselves between those which
are ripening and withering; a disc can, under favourable circumstances,
always form new asci for weeks at a time. The number
of the already described utricle-bearers is different, according
to the size of the sclerotium; smaller specimens usually
produce only one, larger two to four. The size is regulated
by that of the sclerotia, and ranges, in full-grown specimens,
between one and more millimetres for the length of the stalk,
and a half to three (seldom more) millimetres for the breadth of
the disc.[q] For some time the conidia form, belonging to the
Mucedines, has been known as Botrytis cinerea (or Polyactis
cinerea). The compact mycelium, or sclerotium, as an imperfect
fungus, bore the name of Sclerotium echinatum, whilst to
the perfect and cup-like form has been given the name of Peziza
Fuckeliana. We have reproduced De Bary’s life-history of this
mould here, as an illustration of structure in the Mucedines, but
hereafter we shall have to write of similar transformations when
treating of polymorphism.

Fig. 30.—Penicillium chartarum, Cooke.

The form of the threads, and the form and disposition of the
spores, vary according to the genera of which this order is composed.
In Oidium the mostly simple threads break up into
joints. Many of the former species are now recognized as conditions
of Erysiphe. In Aspergillus, the threads are simple and
erect, with a globose head, around which are clustered chains of
simple spores. In Penicillium, the lower portion of the threads is
simple, but they are shortly branched at the apex, the branches
being terminated by necklaces of minute spores. In Dactylium,
[Pg 50]
the threads are branched, but the spores are collected in clusters
usually, and are moreover septate. In other genera similar
distinctions prevail. These two groups of black moulds and
white moulds are the noblest, and contain
the largest number of genera and species
amongst the Hyphomycetes. There is, however,
the small group of Isariacei, in which
the threads are compacted, and a semblance
of such hymenomycetal forms as Clavaria
and Pterula is the result, but it is doubtful
if this group contains many autonomous
species. In another small group, the Stilbacei,
there is a composite character in the
head, or receptacle,[r] and in the stem when
the latter is present. Many of these, again,
as Tubercularia, Volutella, Fusarium, &c.,
contain doubtful species. In Sepedoniei and
Trichodermacei, the threads are reduced to a
minimum, and the spores are such a distinctive
element that through these groups the Hyphomycetes
are linked with the Coniomycetes. These groups, however, are not
of sufficient size or importance to demand from us, in a work of
this character, anything more than the passing allusion which
we have given to them.

We come now to consider the structure in the Sporidiifera, in
which the fructifying corpuscles or germs, whether called spores
or sporidia, are generated within certain privileged cysts, usually
in definite numbers. In systematic works, these are included
under two orders, the Physomycetes and the Ascomycetes. The
former of these consists of cyst-bearing moulds, and from their
nearest affinity to the foregoing will occupy the first place.

Fig. 31.—Mucor mucedo, with three sporangia. a. Portion of frill with sporangiola.

Physomycetes include, especially amongst the Mucorini, many
most interesting and instructive species for study, which even
very lately have occupied the attention of continental mycologists.
Most of these phenomena are associated more or less
with reproduction, and as such will have to be adverted to again,
[Pg 51]
but there are points in the structure which can best be alluded
to here. Again taking Professor de Bary’s researches as our
guide,[s] we will illustrate this by the common Mucor mucedo:
If we bring quite fresh horse-dung into a damp confined
atmosphere, for example, under a bell-glass, there appears on its
surface, after a few days, an immense white mildew. Upright
strong filaments of the breadth of a hair raise themselves over
the surface, each of them soon shows at its point a round little
head, which gradually becomes black, and a closer examination
shows us that in all principal points it perfectly agrees with
the sporangia of other species.
Each of these white filaments
is a sporangia-bearer. They
spring from a mycelium which
is spread in the dung, and
appear singly upon it. Certain
peculiarities in the form
of the sporangium, and the
little long cylindrical spores,
which, when examined separately,
are quite flat and colourless,
are characteristic of
the species. If the latter be
sown in a suitable medium,
for example, in a solution of
sugar, they swell, and shoot
forth germinating utricles, which quickly grow to mycelia, which
bear sporangia. This is easily produced on the most various
organic bodies, and Mucor mucedo is therefore found spontaneously
on every substratum which is capable of nourishing
mildew, but on the above-named the most perfect and exuberant
specimens are generally to be found. The sporangia-bearers
are at first always branchless and without partitions. After
the sporangium is ripe, cross partitions in irregular order and
number often appear in the inner space, and on the upper
[Pg 52]
surface branches of different number and size, each of which
forms a sporangium at its point. The sporangia which are
formed later are often very similar, but sometimes very different,
to those which first appeared, because their partition is very
thick and does not fall to pieces when it is ripe, but irregularly
breaks off, or remains entire, enclosing the spores, and at
last falls to the ground, when the fungus withers. The cross
partition which separates the sporangia from its bearers is in
those which are first formed (which are always relatively thicker
sporangia) very strongly convex, while those which follow later
are often smaller, and in little weak specimens much less arched,
and sometimes quite straight. After a few days, similar filaments
generally show themselves on the dung between the sporangia-bearers,
which appear to the naked eye to be provided with delicate
white frills. Where such an one is to be found, two to four
rectangular expanding little branches spring up to the same
height round the filament. Each of these, after a short and
simple process, branch out into a furcated form; the furcations
being made in such a manner that the ends of the branch at last
so stand together that their surface forms a ball. Finally, each
of the ends of a branch swells to a little round sporangium,
which is limited by a partition (called sporangiolum, to distinguish
it from the larger ones), in which some, generally four,
spores are formed in the manner already known. When the
sporangiola are alone, they have such a peculiar appearance, with
their richly-branched bearers, that they can be taken for something
quite different to the organs of the Mucor mucedo, and
were formerly not considered to belong to it. That they really
belong to the Mucor is shown by the principal filament which it
bears, not always, but very often, ending with a large sporangium,
which is characteristic of the Mucor mucedo; it is still
more evident if we sow the spores of the sporangiolum, for, as
it germinates, a mycelium is developed, which, near a simple
bearer, can form large sporangia, and those form sporangiola,
the first always considerably preponderating in number, and
very often exclusively. If we examine a large number of specimens,
we find every possible middle form between the simple
[Pg 53]
or less branched sporangia-bearers and the typical sporangiola
frills; and we arrive at last at the conclusion simply to place the
latter among the varieties of form which the sporangia-bearer
of the Mucor mucedo shows, like every other typical organic
form within certain limits. On the other hand, propagation
organs, differing from those of the sporangia and their products,
belong to Mucor mucedo, which may be termed conidia. On
the dung (they are rare on any other substance) these appear at
the same time, or generally somewhat later, than the sporangia-bearers,
and are not unlike those to the naked eye. In a more
accurate examination, they appear different; a thicker, partition-less
filament rises up and divides itself, generally three-forked, at
the length of one millimetre, into several series of branchlets.
The forked branches of the last series bear under their points,
which are mostly capillary, short erect
little ramuli, and these, with which
the ends of the principal branches articulate
on their somewhat broad tops,
several spores and conidia, near one
another; about fifteen to twenty are
formed at the end of each little ramulus.
The peculiarities and variations
which so often appear in the
ramification need not be discussed
here. After the articulation of the conidia, their bearers sink
together by degrees, and are quite destroyed. The ripe conidia
are round like a ball, their surface is scarcely coloured, and almost
wholly smooth. These conidioid forms were at first described
as a separate species under the name of Botrytis Jonesii. How,
then, do they belong to the Mucor?[t] That they appear gregariously
is as little proof of an original relation to one another,
here as elsewhere. Attempts to prove that the conidia and sporangia-bearers
originate on one and the same mycelium filament
may possibly hereafter succeed. Till now this has not been the case,
[Pg 54]
and he who has ever tried to disentangle the mass of filaments
which exuberantly covers the substratum of a Mucor vegetation,
which has reached so far as to form conidia, will not be surprised
that all attempts have hitherto proved abortive. The suspicion
of the connection founded on the gregariously springing up, and
external resemblance, is fully justified, if we sow the conidia in a
suitable medium, for example, in a solution of sugar. They
here germinate and produce a mycelium which exactly resembles
that of the Mucor mucedo, and, above all, they produce
in profusion the typical sporangia of the same on its
bearers. The latter are till now alone reproductions of conidia-bearers,
and have never been observed on mycelia which have
grown out of conidia.

Fig. 32.—Small portion of Botrytis Jonesii.

These phenomena of development appear in the Mucor when
it dwells on a damp substance, which must naturally contain
the necessary nourishment for it, and is exposed to the atmospheric
air. Its mycelium represents at first strong branched
utricles without partitions; the branches are of the higher
order, mostly divided into rich and very fine-pointed ramuli.
In old mycelium, and also in the sporangia-bearers, the contents
of which are mostly used for the formation of spores, and
the substratum of which is exhausted for our fungus, short
stationary pieces, filled with protoplasm, are very often formed
into cells through partitions in order to produce spores, that
is, grow to a new fruitful mycelium. These cells are called
gemmules, brooding cells, and resemble such vegetable buds and
sprouts of foliaceous plants which remain capable of development
after the organs of vegetation are dead, in order to grow,
under suitable circumstances, to new vegetating plants, as, for
example, the bulbs of onions, &c.

If we bring a vegetating mycelium of Mucor mucedo into a
medium which contains the necessary nourishment for it, but
excluded from the free air, the formation of sporangia takes place
very sparingly or not at all, but that of gemmules is very abundant.
Single interstitial pieces of the ramuli, or even whole
systems of branches, are quite filled with a rich greasy protoplasm;
the short pieces and ends are bound by partitions which
[Pg 55]
form particular, often tun-like or globular cells; the longer ones
are changed, through the formation of cross partitions, into
chains of similar cells; the latter often attain by degrees strong,
thick walls, and their greasy contents often pass into innumerable
drops of a very regular globular form and of equal size. Similar
appearances show themselves after the sowing of spores, which
are capable of germinating in the medium already described,
from which the air is excluded. Either short germinating
utricles shoot forth, which soon form themselves into rows of
gemmules, or the spores swell to large round bladders filled
with protoplasm, and shoot forth on various parts of their
surface innumerable protuberances, which, fixing themselves
with a narrow basis, soon become round vesiculate cells, and on
which the same sprouts which caused their production are repeated,
formations which remind us of the fungus of fermentation
called globular yeast. Among all the known forms of
gemmules we find a variety which are intermediate, all of which
show, when brought into a normal condition of development,
the same proportion, and the same germination, as those we first
described.

We have detailed rather at length the structure and development
of one of the most common of the Mucors, which will
serve as an illustration of the order. Other distinctions there
may be which are of more interest as defining the limits of
genera, except such as may be noticed when we come to write
more specially of reproduction.

Ascomycetes.—Passing now to the Ascomycetes, which are
especially rich in genera and species, we must first, and but superficially,
allude to Tuberacei, an order of sporidiiferous fungi of
subterranean habit, and rather peculiar structure.[u] In this order
an external stratum of cells forms a kind of perithecium, which
is more or less developed in different genera. This encloses the
hymenium, which is sinuous, contorted, and twisted, often forming
lacunæ. The hymenium in some genera consists of elongated,
nearly cylindrical asci, enclosing a definite number of sporidia;
in the true truffles and their immediate allies, the asci are broad
[Pg 56]
sacs, containing very large and beautiful, often coloured, sporidia.
These latter have either a smooth, warted, spinulose, or lacunose
epispore, and, as will be seen from the figures in Tulasne’s
Monograph,[v] or those in the last volume of Corda’s great work,[w]
are attractive microscopical objects. In some cases, it is not
difficult to detect paraphyses, but in others they would seem to
be entirely absent. A comparatively large number have been
discovered and recorded in Great Britain,[x] but of those none
are more suitable for study of general structure than the ordinary
truffle of the markets.

The structure of the remaining Ascomycetes can be studied
under two groups, i.e., the fleshy Ascomycetes, or, as they have
been termed, the Discomycetes, and the hard, or carbonaceous Ascomycetes,
sometimes called the Pyrenomycetes. Neither of these
names gives an accurate idea of the distinctions between the two
groups, in the former of which the discoid form is not universal,
and the latter contains somewhat fleshy forms. But in the Discomycetes
the hymenium soon becomes more or less exposed,
and in the latter it is enclosed in a perithecium. The Discomycetes
are of two kinds, the pileate and the cup-shaped. Of the
pileate such a genus as Gyromitra or Helvella is, in a certain
sense, analogous to the Agarics amongst Hymenomycetes, with a
superior instead of an inferior hymenium, and enclosed, not
naked, spores. Again, Geoglossum is somewhat analogous to
Clavaria. Amongst the cup-shaped, Peziza is an Ascomycetous
Cyphella. But these are perhaps more fanciful than real
analogies.

Recently Boudier has examined one group of the cup-shaped
Discomycetes, the Ascobolei, and, by making a somewhat free use
of his Memoir,[y] we may arrive at a general idea of the structure
in the cupulate Discomycetes. They present themselves at
[Pg 57]
first under the form of a small rounded globule, and almost
entirely cellular. This small globule, the commencement
of the receptacle, is not long in increasing, preserving its
rounded form up to the development of the asci. At this
period, under the influence of the rapid growth of these organs,
it soon produces at its summit a fissure of the external membrane,
which becomes a more marked depression in the marginate
species. The receptacle thus formed increases rapidly,
becomes plane, more convex, or more or less undulated at the
margin, if at all of large size. Fixed to the place where it is
generated by some more or less abundant mycelioid filaments, the
receptacle becomes somewhat cup-shaped and either stipitate or
sessile, composed of the receptacle proper and the hymenium.

Fig. 33.—Section of cup of Ascobolus. a. External cells. b. Secondary layer. c. Subhymenial tissue (Janczenski).

The receptacle proper comprehends the subhymenial tissue,
the parenchyma, and the external membrane. The subhymenial
tissue is composed of small compact cells, forming generally
a more coloured and dense stratum, the superior cells of which
give rise to the asci and paraphyses. The parenchyma is seated
beneath this, and is generally of interlaced filaments, of a looser
consistency than the preceding, united by intermediate cellules.
The external membrane, which envelopes the parenchyma, and
limits the hymenium, differs from the preceding by the cells
often being polyhedric, sometimes transverse, and united together,
and sometimes separable. Externally it is sometimes
smooth, and sometimes granular or hairy.

The hymenium is, however, the most, important part, consisting
of (1) the paraphyses, (2) the asci, and sometimes (3)
an investing mucilage. The asci are always present, the paraphyses
are sometimes rare, and the mucilage in many cases
seems to be entirely wanting.

The paraphyses, which are formed at the first commencement
of the receptacle, are at first very short, but soon elongate, and
become wholly developed before the appearance of the asci.
They are linear, sometimes branched and sometimes simple,
often more or less thickened at their tips; almost always they
contain within them some oleaginous granules, either coloured or
colourless. Their special function seems still somewhat obscure,
and Boudier suggests that they may be excitatory organs for
the dehiscence of the asci. However this may be, some mycologists
are of opinion that, at least in some of the Ascomycetes,
the paraphyses are abortive asci, or, at any rate, that abortive
asci mixed with the paraphyses cannot be distinguished from
them.

The mucilage forms itself almost at the same time as the
paraphyses, and previous to the formation of the asci. This
substance appears as a colourless or yellowish mucilage, which
envelopes the paraphyses and asci, and so covers the hymenium
with a shining coat.

The asci appear first at the base of the paraphyses, under the
form of oblong cells, filled with colourless protoplasm. By rapid
growth, they soon attain a considerable size and fulness, the
protoplasm being gradually absorbed by the sporidia, the first
indication of which is always the central nucleus. The mucilage
also partly disappears, and the asci, attaining their maturity,
become quite distinct, each enclosing its sporidia. But before
they take their complete growth they detach themselves from
the subhymenial tissue, and being attenuated towards their base,
are forced upwards by pressure of the younger asci, to, and in
some instances beyond, the upper surface of the disc. This
phenomenon commences during the night, and continues during
the night and all the morning. It attains its height at mid-day,
and it is then that the slightest breath of air, the slightest
[Pg 59]
movement, suffices to cause dehiscence, which is generally
followed by a scarcely perceptible contractile motion of the
receptacle.

Fig. 34.—Asci, sporidia, and paraphyses of Ascobolus (Boudier).

There is manifestly a succession in formation and maturity of
the asci in a receptacle. In the true Ascobolei, in which the
sporidia are coloured, this may be more distinctly
seen. At first some thin projecting
points appear upon the disc, the next day
they are more numerous, and become more
and more so on following days, so as to
render the disc almost covered with raised
black or crystalline points;[z] these afterwards
diminish day by day, until they ultimately
cease. The asci, after separation
from the subhymenial tissue, continue to
lengthen, or it may be that their elasticity
permits of extension, during expulsion.
Boudier considers that an amount of elasticity
is certain, because he has seen an
ascus arrive at maturity, eject its spores,
and then make a sharp and considerable
movement of retraction, then the ascus returned
again, immediately towards its previous
limits, always with a reduction in the
number of its contained sporidia.

The dehiscence of the asci takes place in
the Ascobolei, in some species of Peziza,
Morchella, Helvella, and Verpa, by means
of an apical operculum, and in other Pezizæ,
Helotium, Geoglossum, Leotia, Mitrula, &c.,
by a fissure of the ascus. This operculum
may be the more readily seen when the ascus is coloured by a
drop of tincture of iodine.

The sporidia are usually four or eight, or some multiple of
that number, in each ascus, rarely four, most commonly eight.
At a fixed time the protoplasm, which at first filled the asci, disappears
[Pg 60]
or is absorbed in a mucilaginous matter, which occupies
its place, in the midst of which is a small nucleus, which is the
rudiment of the first spore; other spores are formed consecutively,
and then the substance separates into as many sections as there
are sporidia. From this period each sporidium seems to have a
separate existence. All have a nucleus, which is scarcely visible,
often slightly granular, but which is quite distinct from the
oleaginous sporidioles so frequent amongst the Discomycetes,
and which are sometimes called by the same name. The sporidia
are at first a little smaller than when mature, and are surrounded
by mucilage. After this period the sporidia lose their
nebulous granulations, whilst still preserving their nucleus; their
outlines are distinct, and, amongst the true Ascobolei, commence
acquiring a rosy colour, the first intimation of maturity. This
colour manifests itself rapidly, accumulating exclusively upon
the epispore, which becomes of a deep rose, then violet, and
finally violet blue, so deep as sometimes to appear quite black.
There are some modifications in this coloration, since, in some
species, it passes from a vinous red to grey, then to black, or
from rose-violet to brown.

The epispore acquires a waxy consistence by this pigmentation,
so that it may be detached in granules. It is to this particular
consistency of the epispore that the cracks so frequent in
the coloured sporidia of Ascobolus are due, through contraction
of the epispore. As they approach maturity, the sporidia accumulate
towards the apex of the asci, and finally escape in the
manner already indicated.

In all essential particulars there is a great similarity in the
structure of the other Discomycetes, especially in their reproductive
system. In most of them coloured sporidia are rare. In
some the receptacle is pileate, clavate, or inflated, whilst in
Stictis it is very much reduced, and in the lowest form of all,
Ascomyces, it is entirely absent. In the Phacidiacei, the structure
is very similar to that of the Elvellacei, whilst the Hysteriacei,
with greater affinities with the latter, still tend towards
the Pyrenomycetes by the more horny nature of the receptacle,
and the greater tendency of the hymenium to remain closed, at
[Pg 61]
least when dry. In some species of Hysterium, the sporidia are
remarkably fine. M. Duby[AA] has subjected this group to examination,
and M. Tulasne partly so.[AB]

Sphæriacei.—In this group there is considerable variation,
within certain limits. It contains an immense number of
species, and these are daily being augmented. The general
feature in all is the presence of a perithecium, which contains
and encloses the hymenium, and at length opening by a pore
or ostiolum at the apex. In some the perithecia are simple, in
others compound; in some immersed in a stroma, in others
free; in some fleshy or waxy, in others carbonaceous, and in
others membranaceous. But in all there is this important difference
from the Ascomycetes we have already had under consideration,
that the hymenium is never exposed. The perithecium
consists usually of an external
layer of cellular structure, which is
either smooth or hairy, usually blackish,
and an internal stratum of less
compact cells, which give rise to the
hymenium.

Fig. 35.—Perithecium of Sphæria and Section.

As in the Discomycetes, the hymenium
consists of asci, paraphyses, and mucilage, but the whole
forms a less compact and more gelatinous mass within the perithecium.
The formation and growth of the asci and sporidia
differ little from what we have described, and when mature the
asci dehisce, and the sporidia alone are ejected from the ostiolum.
We are not aware that operculate asci have yet been detected.
It has been shown in some instances, and suspected in others,
that certain moulds, formerly classed with Mucedines and Dematiei,
especially in the genus Helminthosporium, bear the conidia
of species of Sphæria, so that this may be regarded as one form
of fruit.

Perithecia, very similar externally to those of Sphæria, but
containing spores borne on slender pedicels and not enclosed in
asci, have had their relations to certain species of Sphæria indicated,
[Pg 62]
and these are no longer regarded so much as species of
Hendersonia or Diplodia as the pycnidia of Sphæria. Other and
more minute perithecia, containing minute, slender stylospores in
great numbers, formerly classed with Aposphæria, Phoma, &c., but
are now recognized as spermogonia containing the spermatia of
Sphæriæ. How these influence each other, when and under
what circumstances the spermatia are instrumental in impregnation
of the sporidia, is still matter of mystery. It is clear, however,
that in all these conidia, macrospores, microspores, and
some spermatia, or by whatever names they may be called, there
exists a power of germination. Tulasne has indicated in some
instances five or six forms of fruit as belonging to one fungus,
of which the highest and most perfect condition is a species of
Sphæria.

Fig. 36.—Uncinula adunca.

Perisporiacei.—Except in the perithecia rupturing irregularly,
and not dehiscing by a pore, some of
the genera in this group differ little in
structure from the Sphæriacei. On the
other hand, the Erysiphei present important
and very interesting features. They
occur chiefly on the green parts of growing
plants. At first there is a more or
less profuse white mycelium.[AC] This
gives rise to chains of conidia (Oidium),
and afterwards small sphæroid projections appear at certain
points on the mycelium. These enlarge, take an orange colour,
ultimately passing into brown, and then nearly black. Externally
these perithecia are usually furnished with long, spreading,
intertwined, or branching appendages, sometimes beautifully
branched or hooked at their tips. In the interior of the receptacles,
pear-shaped or ovate asci are formed in clusters, attached
together at the base, and containing two or more hyaline
sporidia. Other forms of fruit have also been observed on
the same mycelium. In an exotic genus, Meliola, the fulcra, or
appendages, as well as the mycelium, are black, otherwise it
[Pg 63]
is very analogous to such a genus of Erysiphei as Microsphæria.
In Chætomium, the perithecia bristle with rigid, dark-coloured
hairs, and the sporidia are coloured. Our limits, however, will
not permit of further elucidation of the complex and varied
structure to be found amongst fungi.[AD]

A work of this kind could not be considered complete without
some account of the systematic arrangement or classification
which these plants receive at the hands of botanists. It would
hardly avail to enter too minutely into details, yet sufficient
should be attempted to enable the reader to comprehend the
value and relations of the different groups into which fungi are
divided. The arrangement generally adopted is based upon
the “Systema Mycologicum” of Fries, as modified to meet the
requirements of more recent microscopical researches by Berkeley
in his “Introduction,”[A] and adopted in Lindley’s “Vegetable
Kingdom.” Another arrangement was proposed by Professor
de Bary,[B] but it has never met with general acceptance.

In the arrangement to which we have alluded, all fungi are
divided into two primary sections, having reference to the mode
in which the fructification is produced. In one section, the
spores (which occupy nearly the same position, and perform
similar functions, to the seeds of higher plants) are naked; that
is, they are produced on spicules, and are not enclosed in cysts
or capsules. This section is called Sporifera, or spore-bearing,
because, by general consent, the term spore is limited in fungi
to such germ-cells as are not produced in cysts. The second
section is termed Sporidiifera, or sporidia-bearing, because in
like manner the term sporidia is limited to such germ-cells as
[Pg 65]
are produced in cells or cysts. These cysts are respectively
known as sporangia, and asci or thecæ. The true meaning and
value of these divisions will be better comprehended when we
have detailed the characters of the families composing these two
divisions.

First, then, the section Sporifera contains four families, in two
of which a hymenium is present, and in two there is no proper
hymenium. The term hymenium is employed to represent a
more or less expanded surface, on which the fructification is
produced, and is, in fact, the fruit-bearing surface. When no
such surface is present, the fruit is borne on threads, proceeding
direct from the root-like filaments of the mycelium, or an intermediate
kind of cushion or stroma. The two families in which
an hymenium is present are called Hymenomycetes and Gasteromycetes.
In the former, the hymenium is exposed; in the latter, it
is at first enclosed. We must examine each of these separately.

The common mushroom may be accepted, by way of illustration,
as a type of the family Hymenomycetes, in which the
hymenium is exposed, and is, in fact, the most noticeable
feature in the family from which its name is derived. The
pileus or cap bears on its under surface radiating plates or gills,
consisting of the hymenium, over which are thickly scattered
the basidia, each surmounted by four spicules, and on each
spicule a spore. When mature, these spores fall freely upon the
ground beneath, imparting to it the general colour of the spores.
But it must be observed that the hymenium takes the form of
gill-plates in only one order of Hymenomycetes, namely, the
Agaricini; and here, as in Cantharellus, the hymenium is sometimes
spread over prominent veins rather than gills. Still
further divergence is manifest in the Polyporei, in which order
the hymenium lines the inner surface of pores or tubes, which
are normally on the under side of the pileus. Both these orders
include an immense number of species, the former more or less
fleshy, the latter more or less tough and leathery. There are
still other forms and orders in this family, as the Hydnei, in
which the hymenium clothes the surface of prickles or spines,
and the Auricularini, in which the hymenium is entirely or
[Pg 66]
almost even. In the two remaining orders, there is a still further
divergence from the mushroom form. In the one called Clavariei,
the entire fungus is either simply cylindrical or club-shaped, or
it is very much branched and ramified. Whatever form the
fungus assumes, the hymenium covers the whole exposed surface.
In the Tremellini, a peculiar structure prevails, which at first
seems to agree but little with the preceding. The whole plant
is gelatinous when fresh, lobed and convolute, often brain-like,
and varying in size, according to species, from that of a pin’s
head to that of a man’s head. Threads and sporophores are
imbedded in the gelatinous substance,[C] so that the fertile threads
are in reality not compacted into a true
hymenium. With this introduction we
may state that the technical characters
of the family are thus expressed:—

Hymenium free, mostly naked, or, if
enclosed at first, soon exposed; spores
naked, mostly quaternate, on distinct
spicules = Hymenomycetes.

Fig. 37.—Agaricus nudus.

In this family some mycologists believe
that fungi attain the highest form
of development of which they are capable,
whilst others contend that the
fructification of the Ascomycetes is more
perfect, and that some of the noblest species, such as the pileate
forms, are entitled to the first rank. The morel is a familiar
example. Whatever may be said on this point, it is incontrovertible
that the noblest and most attractive, as well as the
largest, forms are classed under the Hymenomycetes.

In Gasteromycetes, the second family, a true hymenium is
also present, but instead of being exposed it is for a long time
enclosed in an outer peridium or sac, until the spores are fully
matured, or the fungus is beginning to decay. The common
puff-ball (Lycoperdon) is well known, and will illustrate the
principal feature of the family. Externally there is a tough
[Pg 67]
coat or peridium, which is at first pale, but ultimately becomes
brown. Internally is at first a cream-coloured, then greenish,
cellular mass, consisting of the sinuated hymenium and young
spores, which at length, and when the spores are fully matured
become brownish and dusty, the hymenium being broken up
into threads, and the spores become free. In earlier stages,
and before the hymenium is ruptured, the spores have been
found to harmonize with those of Hymenomycetes in their mode
of production, since basidia are present surmounted each by
four spicules, and each spicule normally surmounted by a
spore.[D] Here is, therefore, a cellular hymenium bearing quaternary
spores, but, instead of being exposed, this hymenium
is wholly enclosed within an external sac or peridium, which
is not ruptured until the spores are fully matured, and the
hymenium is resolved into threads, together forming a pulverulent
mass. It must, however, be borne in mind, that in
only some of the orders composing this family is the hymenium
thus evanescent, in others being more or less permanent, and
this has led naturally enough to the recognition of two sub-families,
in one of which the hymenium is more or less permanent,
thus following the Hymenomycetous type; and in the
other, the hymenium is evanescent, and the dusty mass of spores
tends more towards the Coniomycetes, this being characterized
as the coniospermous (or dusty-spored) sub-family.

The first sub-family includes, first of all, the Hypogæi, or subterranean
species. And here again it becomes necessary to remind
the reader that all subterranean fungi are not included in
this order, inasmuch as some, of which the truffle is an example,
are sporidiiferous, developing their sporidia in asci. To
these allusion must hereafter be made. In the Hypogæi, the
hymenium is permanent and convoluted, leaving numerous
minute irregular cavities, in which the spores are produced on
[Pg 68]
sporophores. When specimens are very old and decaying, the
interior may become pulverulent or deliquescent. The structure
of subterranean fungi attracted the attention of Messrs. Tulasne,
and led to the production of a splendid monograph on the
subject.[E] Another order belonging to this sub-family is the
Phalloidei, in which the volva or peridium is ruptured whilst
the plant is still immature, and the hymenium when mature
becomes deliquescent. Not only are some members of this
order most singular in appearance, but they possess an odour
so fœtid as to be unapproached in this property by any other
vegetable production.[F] In this order, the inner stratum of the
investing volva is gelatinous. When still young, and previous
to the rupture of the volva, the hymenium presents sinuous
cavities in which the spores are produced on spicules, after the
manner of Hymenomycetes.[G] Nidulariacei is a somewhat aberrant
order, presenting a peculiar structure. The peridium consists
of two or three coats, and bursts at the apex, either
irregularly or in a stellate manner, or by the separation of
a little lid. Within the cavity are contained one or more
secondary receptacles, which are either free or attached by
elastic threads to the common receptacle. Ultimately the
secondary receptacles are hollow, and spores are produced
in the interior, borne on spicules.[H] The appearance in some
genera as of a little bird’s-nest containing eggs has furnished
the name to the order.

Fig. 38.—Scleroderma vulgare, Fr.

The second sub-family contains the coniospermous puff-balls,
and includes two orders, in which the most readily distinguishable
feature is the cellular condition of the entire plant, in its
earlier stages, in the Trichogastres, and the gelatinous condition
of the early state of the Myxogastres. Both are ultimately
resolved internally into a dusty mass of threads and spores.
[Pg 69]
In the former, the peridium is either single or double, occasionally
borne on a stem, but usually sessile. In Geaster,
the “starry puff-balls,” the outer peridium divides into
several lobes, which fall back in a stellate manner, and expose
the inner peridium, like a ball in the centre. In Polysaccum,
the interior is divided into numerous
cells, filled with secondary peridia. The
mode of spore-production has already
been alluded to in our remarks on Lycoperdon.
All the species are large, as
compared with those of the following
sub-family, and one species of Lycoperdon
attains an enormous size. One
specimen recorded in the “Gardener’s
Chronicle” was three feet four inches
in circumference, and weighed nearly
ten pounds. In the Myxogastres, the early stage has been the
subject of much controversy. The gelatinous condition presents
phenomena so unlike anything previously recorded in plants,
that one learned professor[I] did not hesitate to propose their
exclusion from the vegetable, and recognition in the animal,
kingdom as associates of the Gregarines. When mature, the
spores and threads so much resemble those of the Trichogastres,
and the little plants themselves are so veritably miniature puff-balls,
that the theory of their animal nature did not meet with
a ready acceptance, and is now virtually abandoned. The characters
of the family we have thus briefly reviewed are tersely
stated, as—

Hymenium more or less permanently concealed, consisting in
most cases of closely-packed cells, of which the fertile ones bear
naked spores on distinct spicules, exposed only by the rupture or
decay of the investing coat or peridium = Gasteromycetes.

Fig. 39.—Ceuthospora phacidioides (Greville).

We come now to the second section of the Sporifera, in
which no definite hymenium is present. And here we find
also two families, in one of which the dusty spores are the
[Pg 70]
prominent feature, and hence termed Coniomycetes; the other,
in which the threads are most noticeable, is Hyphomycetes.
In the former of these, the reproductive system seems to preponderate
so much over the vegetative, that the fungus appears
to be all spores. The mycelium is often nearly obsolete, and
the short pedicels so evanescent, that a rusty or sooty powder
represents the mature fungus, infesting the green parts of living
plants. This is more especially true of one or two orders. It
will be most convenient to recognize two artificial sub-families
for the purpose of illustration, in one of which the species are
developed on living, and in the other on dead, plants. We will
commence with the latter, recognizing first those which are
developed beneath the cuticle, and then those which are superficial.
Of the sub-cuticular, two orders may be named as the
representatives of this group in Britain, these are the Sphæronemei,
in which the spores are contained in a more or less perfect
perithecium, and the Melanconiei, in which there is manifestly
none. The first of these is analogous to the Sphæriacei of Ascomycetous
fungi, and probably consists largely of spermogonia
of known species of Sphæria, the relations of which have not
hitherto been traced. The spores are produced on slender
threads springing from the inner wall of the perithecium, and,
when mature, are expelled from an orifice at the apex. This is
the normal condition, to which there are some exceptions. In
the Melanconiei, there is no true perithecium, but the spores are
produced in like manner upon a kind of stroma or cushion
[Pg 71]
formed from the mycelium, and, when mature, are expelled
through a rupture of the cuticle beneath which they are generated,
often issuing in long gelatinous tendrils. Here, again,
the majority of what were formerly regarded as distinct species
have been found, or suspected, to be forms of higher fungi. The
Torulacei represent the superficial fungi of this family, and these
consist of a more or less developed mycelium, which gives rise
to fertile threads, which, by constriction and division, mature
into moniliform chains of spores. The species mostly appear
as blackish velvety patches or stains on the stems of herbaceous
plants and on old weathered wood.

Much interest attaches to the other sub-family of Coniomycetes,
in which the species are produced for the most part on living
plants. So much has been discovered during recent years of the
polymorphism which subsists amongst the species in this section,
that any detailed classification can only be regarded as provisional.
Hence we shall proceed here upon the supposition
that we are dealing with autonomous species. In the first place,
we must recognize a small section in which a kind of cellular
peridium is present. This is the Æcidiacei, or order of “cluster
cups.” The majority of species are very beautiful objects under
the microscope; the peridia are distinctly cellular, and white or
pallid, produced beneath the cuticle, through which they burst,
and, rupturing at the apex, in one genus in a stellate manner,
so that the teeth, becoming reflexed, resemble delicate fringed
cups, with the orange, golden, brown, or whitish spores or
pseudospores nestling in the interior.[J] These pseudospores
are at first produced in chains, but ultimately separate. In
many cases these cups are either accompanied or preceded by
spermogonia. In two other orders there is no peridium. In
the Cæomacei, the pseudospores are more or less globose or
ovate, sometimes laterally compressed and simple; and in
Pucciniæi, they are elongated, often subfusiform and septate.
In both, the pseudospores are produced in tufts or clusters
direct from the mycelium. The Cæomacei might again be subdivided
[Pg 72]
into Ustilagines[K] and Uredines.[L] In the former, the
pseudospores are mostly dingy brown or blackish, and in the
latter more brightly coloured, often yellowish. The Ustilagines
include the smuts and bunt of corn-plants, the Uredines
include the red rusts of wheat and grasses. In some of the
species included in the latter, two forms of fruit are found.
In Melampsora, the summer pseudospores are yellow, globose,
and were formerly classed as a species of Lecythea, whilst
the winter pseudospores are brownish, elongated, wedge-shaped
by compression, and compact. The Pucciniæi[M] differ
primarily in the septate pseudospores, which in one genus
(Puccinia) are uniseptate; in Triphragmium, they are biseptate;
in Phragmidium, multiseptate; and in Xenodochus, moniliform,
breaking up into distinct articulations. It is probable that, in
all of these, as is known to be the case in most, the septate
pseudospores are preceded or accompanied by simple pseudospores,
to which they are mysteriously related. There is still
another, somewhat singular, group usually associated with the
Pucciniæi, in which the septate pseudospores are immersed in
gelatin, so that in many features the species seem to approach
the Tremellini. This group includes two or three genera, the
type of which will be found in Podisoma.[N] These fungi are
parasitic on living junipers in Britain and North America,
appearing year after year upon the same gouty swellings of the
branches, in clavate or horn-shaped gelatinous processes of a
yellowish or orange colour. Anomalous as it may at first sight
appear to include these tremelloid forms with the dust-like fungi,
their relations will on closer examination be more fully appreciated,
when the form of pseudospores, mode of germination, and
other features are taken into consideration, especially when
compared with Podisoma Ellisii, already alluded to. This family
is technically characterized as,—

Distinct hymenium none. Pseudospores either solitary or concatenate,
produced on the tips of generally short threads, which
are either naked or contained in a perithecium, rarely compacted
into a gelatinous mass, at length producing minute spores = Coniomycetes.

The last family of the sporifera is Hyphomycetes, in which the
threads are conspicuously developed. These are what are more
commonly called “moulds,” including some of the most elegant
and delicate of microscopic forms. It is true of many of these,
as well as of the Coniomycetes, that they are only conidial forms
of higher fungi; but there will remain a very large number of
species which, as far as present knowledge extends, must be accepted
as autonomous. In this family, we may again recognize
three subdivisions, in one of which the threads are more or less
compacted into a common stem, in another the threads are free,
and in the third the threads can scarcely be distinguished from
the mycelium. It is this latter group which unites the Hyphomycetes
with the Coniomycetes, the affinities being increased by the
great profusion with which the spores are developed. The first
group, in which the fertile threads are united so as to form a
compound stem, consists of two small orders, the Isariacei and the
Stilbacei, in the former of which the spores are dry, and in the
latter somewhat gelatinous. Many of the species closely imitate
forms met with in the Hymenomycetes, such as Clavaria; and,
in the genus Isaria, it is almost beyond doubt that the species
found on dead insects, moths, spiders, flies, ants, &c., are merely
the conidiophores of species of Torrubia.[O]

The second group is by far the largest, most typical, and
attractive in this family. It contains the black moulds and
white moulds, technically known as the Dematiei and the
Mucedines. In the first, the threads are more or less corticated,
that is, the stem has a distinct investing membrane, which peels
off like a bark; and the threads, often also the spores, are dark-coloured,
as if charred or scorched. In many cases, the spores
are highly developed, large, multiseptate, and nucleate, and seldom
[Pg 74]
are spores and threads colourless or of bright tints. In
the Mucedines, on the contrary, the threads are never coated,
seldom dingy, mostly white or of pure colours, and the spores
have less a tendency to extra development or multiplex septation.
In some genera, as in Peronospora for instance,[P] a
secondary fruit is produced in the form of
resting spores from the mycelium; and
these generate zoospores as well as the
primary spores, similar to those common
in Algæ. This latter genus is very destructive
to growing plants, one species
being the chief agent in the potato disease,
and another no less destructive to crops of
onions. The vine disease is produced by a
species of Oidium, which is also classed
with Mucedines, but which is really the
conidiiferous form of Erysiphe. In other genera, the majority
of species are developed on decaying plants, so that, with the
exception of the two genera mentioned, the Hyphomycetes exert
a much less baneful influence on vegetation than the Coniomycetes.
The last section, including the Sepedoniei, has been
already cited as remarkable for the suppression of the threads,
which are scarcely to be distinguished from the mycelium; the
spores are profuse, nestling on the floccose mycelium; whilst
in the Trichodermacei, the spores are invested by the threads, as
if enclosed in a sort of false peridium. A summary of the
characters of the family may therefore be thus briefly expressed:—

Filamentous; fertile threads naked, for the most part free or
loosely compacted, simple or branched, bearing the spores at their
apices, rarely more closely packed, so as to form a distinct common
stem = Hyphomycetes.

Fig. 40.—Rhopalomyces candidus.

Having thus disposed of the Sporifera, we must advert
to the two families of Sporidiifera. As more closely related
to the Hyphomycetes, the first of these to be noticed is the
[Pg 75]
Physomycetes, in which there is no proper hymenium, and the
threads proceeding from the mycelium bear vesicles containing
an indefinite number of sporidia. The fertile threads are
either free or only slightly felted. In the order Antennariei, the
threads are black and moniliform, more or less felted, bearing
irregular sporangia. A common fungus named Zasmidium
cellare, found in cellars, and incrusting old wine bottles, as
with a blackened felt, belongs to this order. The larger and
more highly-developed order, Mucorini, differs in the threads,
which are simple or branched, being free,
erect, and bearing the sporangia at the tips
of the thread, or branches. Some of the
species bear great external resemblance to
Mucedines until the fruit is examined, when
the fructifying heads, commonly globose or
ovate, are found to be delicate transparent
vesicles, enclosing a large number of minute
sporidia; when mature, the sporangia burst
and the sporidia are set free. In some species,
it has long been known that a sort of
conjugation takes place between opposite threads, which results
in the formation of a sporangium.[Q] None of these species are
destructive to vegetation, appearing only upon decaying, and
not upon living, plants. A state approaching putrescence seems
to be essential to their vigorous development. The following
characters may be compared with those of the family preceding
it:—

Filamentous, threads free or only slightly felted, bearing vesicles,
which contain indefinite sporidia = Physomycetes.

Fig. 41.—Mucor caninus.

In the last family, the Ascomycetes, we shall meet with a
very great variety of forms, all agreeing in producing sporidia
contained in certain cells called asci, which are produced from
the hymenium. In some of these, the asci are evanescent,
but in the greater number are permanent. In Onygenei, the
receptacle is either club-shaped or somewhat globose, and the
[Pg 76]
peridium is filled with branched threads, which produce asci of a
very evanescent character, leaving the pulverulent sporidia to
fill the central cavity. The species are all small, and singular for
their habit of affecting animal substances, otherwise they are
of little importance. The Perisporiacei, on the other hand, are
very destructive of vegetation, being produced, in the majority
of cases, on the green parts of growing plants. To this order
the hop mildew, rose mildew, and pea mildew belong. The
mycelium is often very much developed, and in the case of the
maple, pea, hop, and some others, it covers the parts attacked
with a thick white coating, so that from a distance the leaves
appear to have been whitewashed. Seated on the mycelium, at
the first as little orange points, are the perithecia, which enlarge
and become nearly black. In some species, very elegant whitish
appendages radiate from the sides of the perithecia, the variations
in which aid in the discrimination of species. The perithecia
contain pear-shaped asci, which spring from the base and enclose
a definite number of sporidia.[R] The asci themselves are soon
dissolved. Simultaneously with the development of sporidia,
other reproductive bodies are produced direct from the mycelium,
and in some species as many as five different kinds of reproductive
bodies have been traced. The features to be remembered in
Perisporiacei, as forming the basis of their classification, are, that
the asci are saccate, springing from the base of the perithecia,
and are soon absorbed. Also that the perithecia themselves are
not perforated at the apex.

The four remaining orders, though large, can be easily characterized.
In Tuberacei, all the species are subterranean, and the
hymenium is mostly sinuated. In Elvellacei, the substance is
more or less fleshy, and the hymenium is exposed. In Phacidiacei,
the substance is hard or leathery, and the hymenium is
soon exposed. And in Sphæriacei, although the substance is
variable, the hymenium is never exposed, being enclosed in
perithecia with a distinct opening at the apex, through which
the mature spores escape. Each of these four orders must be
[Pg 77]
examined more in detail. The Tuberacei, or subterranean
Ascomycetes, are analogous to the Hypogæi of the Gasteromycetes.
The truffle is a familiar and highly prized example. There is a
kind of outer peridium, and the interior consists of a fleshy
hymenium, more or less convoluted, sometimes sinuous and confluent,
so as to leave only minute elongated and irregular cavities,
and sometimes none at all, the two opposing faces of the
hymenium meeting and coalescing.[S] Certain privileged cells
of the hymenium swell, and ultimately become asci, enclosing a
definite number of sporidia. The sporidia in many cases are
large, reticulated, echinulate or verrucose, and mostly somewhat
globose. In the genus Elaphomyces, the asci are more than
commonly diffluent.

The Elvellacei are fleshy in substance, or somewhat waxy,
sometimes tremelloid. There is no peridium, but the hymenium
is always exposed. There is a great variety of forms, some
being pileate, and others cup-shaped, as there is also a great
variation in size, from the minute Peziza, small as a grain of
sand, to the large Helvella gigas, which equals in dimensions
the head of a child. In the pileate forms, the stroma
is fleshy and highly developed; in the cup-shaped, it is
reduced to the external cells of the cup which enclose the
hymenium. The hymenium itself consists of elongated fertile
cells, or asci, mixed with linear thread-like barren cells, called
paraphyses, which are regarded by some authors as barren asci.
These are placed side by side in juxtaposition with the apex
outwards. Each ascus contains a definite number of sporidia,
which are sometimes coloured. When mature, the asci explode
above, and the sporidia may be seen escaping like a miniature
cloud of smoke in the light of the mid-day sun. The disc or
surface of the hymenium is often brightly coloured in the genus
Peziza; tints of orange, red, and brown having the predominance.

In Phacidiacei, the substance is hard and leathery, intermediate
between the fleshy Elvellacei and the more horny of the Sphæriacei.
The perithecia are either orbicular or elongated, and the
[Pg 78]
hymenium soon becomes exposed. In some instances, there is
a close affinity with the Elvellacei, the exposed hymenium being
similar in structure, but in all the disc is at first closed. In
orbicular forms, the fissure takes place in a stellate manner from
the centre, and the teeth are reflexed. In the Hysteriacei, where
the perithecia are elongated, the fissure takes place throughout
their length. As a rule, the sporidia are more elongated, more
commonly septate, and more usually coloured, than in Elvellacei.
Only a few solitary instances occur of individual species that
are parasitic on living plants.

Fig. 42.—Sphæria aquila.

In the Sphæriacei, the substance of the stroma (when present)
and of the perithecia is variable,
being between fleshy and waxy
in Nectriei, and tough, horny, sometimes
brittle, in Hypoxylon. A perithecium,
or cell excavated in the
stroma which fulfils the functions of
a perithecium, is always present.
The hymenium lines the inner walls
of the perithecium, and forms a gelatinous
nucleus, consisting of asci and
paraphyses. When fully mature, the asci are ruptured and the
sporidia escape by a pore which occupies the apex of the perithecium.
Sometimes the perithecia are solitary or scattered, and
sometimes gregarious, whilst in other instances they are closely
aggregated and immersed in a stroma of variable size and form.
Conidia, spermatia, pycnidia, &c., have been traced to and associated
with some species, but the history of others is still obscure.
Many of the coniomycetous forms grouped under the Sphæronemei
are probably conditions of the Sphæriacei, as are also the Melanconiei,
and some of the Hyphomycetes. A very common fungus,
for instance, which is abundant on sticks and twigs, forming
rosy or reddish pustules the size of a millet seed, formerly
named Tubercularia vulgaris, is known to be the conidia-bearing
stroma of the sphæriaceous fungus, Nectria cinnabarina;[T] and so
[Pg 79]
with many others. The following are the technical characters
of the family:—

Fruit consisting of sporidia, mostly definite, contained in asci,
springing from a naked or enclosed stratum of fructifying cells
and forming a hymenium or nucleus = Ascomycetes.

If the characters of the different families are borne in mind,
there will be but little difficulty in assigning any fungus to the
order to which it belongs by means of the foregoing remarks.
For more minute information, and for analytical tables of the
families, orders, and genera, we must refer the student to some
special systematic work, which will present fewer difficulties, if
he keeps in mind the distinctive features of the families.[U]

To assist in this we have given on the following page an
analytical arrangement of the families and orders, according
to the system recognized and adopted in the present volume.
It is, in all essential particulars, the method adopted in our
“Handbook,” based on that of Berkeley’s “Introduction” and
“Outlines.”

TABULAR ARRANGEMENT OF FAMILIES AND ORDERS.

The rigid utilitarian will hardly be satisfied with the short
catalogue which can be furnished of the uses of fungi. Excepting
those which are employed more or less for human food, very
few are of any practical value in arts or medicine. It is true
that imperfect conditions of fungi exert a very important influence
on fermentation, and thus become useful; but, unfortunately,
fungi have the reputation of being more destructive and
offensive than valuable or useful. Notwithstanding that a large
number of species have from time to time been enumerated as
edible, yet those commonly employed and recognized are very
few in number, prejudice in many cases, and fear in others, militating
strongly against additions to the number. In Great
Britain this is especially the case, and however advisable it may
be to exercise great care and caution in experimenting on untried
or doubtful species, it can only be regarded as prejudice which
prevents good, in fact, excellent, esculent species being more
extensively used, instead of allowing them to rot by thousands
on the spots where they have grown. Poisonous species are
also plentiful, and no golden rule can be established by means
of which any one may detect at a glance good from bad,
without that kind of knowledge which is applied to the discrimination
of species. Yet, after all, the characters of half
a dozen good esculent fungi are acquired as easily as the
distinctions between half a dozen birds such as any ploughboy
can discriminate.

The common mushroom (Agaricus campestris) is the best
[83]
known esculent, whether in its uncultivated or in a cultivated
state. In Britain many thousands of people, notably the lower
classes, will not recognize any other as fit for food, whilst in
Italy the same classes have a strong prejudice against this very
species.[A] In Vienna, we found by personal experience that,
although many others are eaten, it is this which has the most
universal preference, yet it appears but sparingly in the markets
as compared with others. In Hungary it does not enjoy by
any means so good a reputation. In France and in Germany
it is a common article of consumption. The different varieties
found, as the results of cultivation, present some variation in
colour, scaliness of pileus, and other minor features, whilst
remaining true to the constituent characters of the species.
Although it is not our intention to enumerate here the botanical
distinctions of the species to which we may call attention, yet,
as mistakes (sometimes fatal) are often being recorded, in which
other fungi are confounded with this, we may be permitted a
hint or two which should be remembered. The spores are
purple, the gills are at first delicate pink, afterwards purple;
there is a permanent ring or collar round the stem, and it must
not be sought in woods. Many accidents might have been
spared had these facts been remembered.

The meadow mushroom (Agaricus arvensis) is common in
meadows and lowland pastures, and is usually of a larger size
than the preceding, with which it agrees in many particulars,
and is sent in enormous quantities to Covent Garden, where it
frequently predominates over Agaricus campestris. Some persons
prefer this, which has a stronger flavour, to the ordinary mushroom,
and it is the species most commonly sold in the autumn
in the streets of London and provincial towns. According to
Persoon, it is preferred in France; and, in Hungary, it is considered
as a special gift from St. George. It has acquired in
England the name of horse mushroom, from the enormous size
[84]
it sometimes attains. Withering mentions a specimen that
weighed fourteen pounds.[B]

One of the commonest (in our experience the most common)
of all edible fungi in the public markets of Vienna is the
Hallimasche (Agaricus melleus), which in England enjoys no
good reputation for flavour or quality; indeed, Dr. Badham
calls it “nauseous and disagreeable,” and adds that “not to
be poisonous is its only recommendation.” In Vienna it is
employed chiefly for making sauce; but we must confess that
even in this way, and with a prejudice in favour of Viennese
cookery, our experience of it was not satisfactory. It is at
best a sorry substitute for the mushroom. In the summer and
autumn this is a very common species in large tufts on old
stumps. In similar localities, and also in tufts, but neither so
large, nor so common, Agaricus fusipes is found. It is preferable
to the foregoing as an esculent, and is easily recognized by
the spindle-shaped stem.

Agaricus rubescens, P., belongs to a very suspicious group of
fungi, in which the cap or pileus is commonly studded or
sprinkled with paler warts, the remains of an investing volva.
To this group the poisonous but splendid fly-agaric (Agaricus
muscarius) belongs. Notwithstanding its bad company, this
agaric has a good reputation, especially for making ketchup;
and Cordier reports it as one of the most delicate mushrooms
of the Lorraine.[C] Its name is derived from its tendency to
become red when bruised.

The white variety of an allied species (Agaricus vaginatus)
has been commended, and Dr. Badham says that it will be found
inferior to but few agarics in flavour.

A scaly-capped fungus (Agaricus procerus), with a slender
stem, called sometimes the parasol mushroom, from its habit, is
an esteemed esculent. In Italy and France it is in high request,
[85]
and is included in the majority of continental works on the
edible fungi.[D] In Austria, Germany, and Spain, it has special
“vulgar” names, and is eaten in all these countries. It is
much more collected in England than formerly, but deserves
to be still better known. When once seen it can scarcely be
confounded with any other British species, save one of its
nearest allies, which partakes of its own good qualities (Agaricus
rachodes), though not quite so good.

Agaricus prunulus, Scop., and Agaricus orcella, Badh., if they
be not forms of the same species (which Dr. Bull contends that
they are not[E]), have also a good reputation as esculents. They
are both neat, white agarics, with a mealy odour, growing
respectively in woods and open glades. Agaricus nebularis,
Batsch, is a much larger species, found in woods, often in large
gregarious patches amongst dead leaves, with a smoky mouse-coloured
pileus, and profuse white spores. It is sometimes as
much as five or six inches in diameter, with rather a faint odour
and mild taste. On the continent, as well as in Britain, this is
included amongst edible fungi. Still larger and more imposing
is the magnificent white species, Agaricus maximus, Fr.,[F] which
is figured by Sowerby,[G] under the name of Agaricus giganteus.
It will attain a diameter of fourteen inches, with a stem, two
inches thick, and rather a strong odour.

A spring fungus, the true St. George’s mushroom, Agaricus
gambosus, Fr., makes its appearance in pastures, usually growing
in rings, in May and June, and is welcome to mycophagists from
its early growth, when esculent species are rare. It is highly
esteemed in France and Italy, so that when dried it will realize
as much as from twelve to fifteen shillings per pound. Guillarmod
includes it amongst Swiss esculents.[H] Professor Buckman
[86]
says that it is one of the earliest and best of English mushrooms,
and others have endorsed his opinions, and Dr. Badham
in writing of it observes, that small baskets of them, when they
first appear in the spring in Italy, are sent as “presents to
lawyers and fees to medical men.”

The closely allied species, Agaricus albellus,[I] D.C., has also
the reputation of being edible, but it is so rare in England that
this quality cannot be put to the test. The curious short-stemmed
Agaricus brevipes, Bull,[J] has a similar reputation.

Two singularly fragrant species are also included amongst the
esculent. These are Agaricus fragrans, Sow., and Agaricus
odorus, Bull. Both have a sweet anise-like odour, which is persistent
for a long time. The former is pale tawny-coloured, nearly
white, the latter of a dirty pale green. Both are white-spored,
and although somewhat local, sufficient specimens of Ag. odorus
may be collected in the autumn for domestic use. We have the
assurance of one who has often proved them that they constitute
an exquisite dish.

A clear ivory-white fungus, Agaricus dealbatus, of which a
crisped variety is occasionally found in great numbers, springing
up on old mushroom beds in dense clusters, is very good eating,
but rather deficient in the delicate aroma of some other species.
The typical form is not uncommon on the ground in fir plantations.
A more robust and larger species, Agaricus geotrupes,
Bull, found on the borders of woods, often forming rings, both
in this country and in the United States, as well as on the continent
of Europe, is recognized as esculent.

We may add to these three or four other species, in which the
stem is lateral, and sometimes nearly obsolete. The largest and
most common is the oyster mushroom (Agaricus ostreatus,
Jacq.[K]), so universally eaten, that it is included in almost every
list and book on edible fungi; it is the most common species in
[87]
Transylvania, tons of it sometimes appearing in the markets. It
does not possess that delicate flavour which is found in many
species, and although extolled by some beyond its merits, it is
nevertheless perfectly wholesome, and, when young and carefully
cooked, not to be despised. It must not be confounded
with a very similar species (Agaricus euosmus, B.), with rosy
spores, which is unpleasant. Agaricus tessellatus, Bull, Agaricus
pometi, Fr., Agaricus glandulosus, Bull, are all allies of the foregoing,
and recorded as edible in the United States, although not
one of the three has hitherto been recorded as occurring in Great
Britain. To these may also be added the following:—Agaricus
salignus,[L] Fr., which is rare in England, but not uncommon
abroad and in the United States. In Austria it is commonly
eaten. Agaricus ulmarius,[M] Bull, is common on elm trunks, not
only in Britain but also in North America, and is by some
preferred to the oyster mushroom. An allied species, Agaricus
fossulatus, Cooke,[N] is found on the Cabul Hills, where it is collected,
dried, and forms an article of commerce with the plains.
Another, but smaller species, is dried in the air on strings passed
through a hole in the short stem (Agaricus subocreatus, Cooke),
and sent, it is believed, from China to Singapore.

The smallest species with which we have any acquaintance,
that is edible, is the “nail fungus” (Agaricus esculentus,[O] Jacq.),
scarcely exceeding one inch in diameter of the pileus, with a
thin rooting stem. The taste in British specimens when raw is
bitter and unpleasant, but it is clearly eaten in Austria, as its
name testifies, and elsewhere in Europe. It is found in fir plantations
in the spring, at which season it is collected from the fir
woods around and sent to Vienna, where it is only used for
flavouring sauces under the name of “Nagelschwämme.”

Before quitting the group of true agarics, to which all
hitherto enumerated belong, we must mention a few others of
less importance, but which are included amongst those good for
[88]
food. Foremost of these is a really splendid orange species
(Agaricus cæsarius, Scop.[P]), which belongs to the same subgenus
as the very deleterious fly-agaric, and the scarcely less fatal
Agaricus vernus, Bull. It is universally eaten on the continent,
but has hitherto never been found in Great Britain. In the
same subgenus, Agaricus strobiliformis,[Q] Fr., which is rare in this
country, and probably also Agaricus Ceciliæ, B. & Br.[R] Besides
these, Agaricus excoriatus, Schæff., Agaricus mastoideus, Fr.,
Agaricus gracilentus, Kromb., and Agaricus holosericeus, Fr.,[S]
all belonging to the same subgenus as the parasol mushroom,
more or less uncommon in England.

Although the larger number of esculent agarics are white-spored,
some few, worthy of note, will be found in the other
sections, and notably amongst these the common mushroom and
its congener the meadow, or horse mushroom. In addition to
those already enumerated, might be included also the Agaricus
pudicus, Bull, which is certainly wholesome, as well as its ally,
Agaricus leochromus, Cooke,[T] both of which have rusty spores.

The late Dr. Curtis,[U] in a letter to the Rev. M. J. Berkeley,
enumerates several of the fungi which are edible amongst those
found in the United States. Of these, he says, Agaricus amygdalinus,
Curt., can scarcely be distinguished when cooked from
the common mushroom. Agaricus frumentaceus, Bull, and three
allied new species, peculiar to the United States, are commended.
Agaricus cæspitosus, Curt., he says, is found in enormous quantities,
a single cluster containing from fifty to one hundred stems,
and might well be deemed a valuable species in times of scarcity.
It would not be highly esteemed where other and better species
can be had, but it is generally preferred to Agaricus melleus, Fr.
It is suitable for drying for winter use. In the same communication,
he observes that the imperial (Agaricus cæsarius, Scop.),
[89]
grows in great quantities in oak forests, and may be obtained
by the cart-load in its season; but to his taste, and that of his
family, it is the most unpalatable of fungi, nor could he find any
of the most passionate mycophagists who would avow that they
liked it. There is a disagreeable saline flavour that they could
not remove nor overlay. In addition to these, the same authority
enumerates Agaricus russula, Schæff., Agaricus hypopithyus,
Curt., and Agaricus consociatus, Curt., the latter two being confined
to the United States; Agaricus columbetta, Fr., found in
Britain, but not eaten, as well as Agaricus radicatus, Bull. Agaricus
bombycinus, Schæff., and Agaricus speciosus, Fr., are found in
Britain, but by no means common; Agaricus squarrosus, Mull.,
has always been regarded with great suspicion in this country,
where it is by no means uncommon; Agaricus cretaceus, Fr., and
Agaricus sylvaticus, Schæff., are close allies of the common
mushroom.

Dr. Curtis says that hill and plain, mountain and valley,
woods, fields, and pastures, swarm with a profusion of good
nutritious fungi, which are allowed to decay where they spring
up, because people do not know how, or are afraid, to use them.
By those of us who know their use, their value was appreciated,
as never before, during the late war, when other food, especially
meat, was scarce and dear. Then such persons as I have heard
express a preference for mushrooms over meat had generally no
need to lack grateful food, as it was easily had for the gathering,
and within easy distance of their homes if living in the country.
Such was not always the case, however. I remember once, during
the gloomy period when there had been a protracted drought,
and fleshy fungi were to be found only in damp shaded woods,
and but few even there, I was unable to find enough of any one
species for a meal, so, gathering of every kind, I brought home
thirteen different kinds, had them all cooked together in one
grand pot pourri, and made an excellent supper.

One important use to which several species of fungi can be
applied, is the manufacture of ketchup. For this purpose, not
only is the mushroom, Agaricus campestris, and the horse mushroom,
Agaricus arvensis, available, but also Agaricus rubescens
[90]
is declared to be excellent for the purpose, and a delicious, but
pale, extract is to be obtained from Marasmius oreades. Other
species, as Coprinus comatus, and Coprinus atramentarius, are
also available, together with Fistulina hepatica, and Morchella
esculenta. In some districts, when mushrooms are scarce, it is
stated that almost any species that will yield a dark juice is
without scruple mixed with the common mushroom, and it
should seem without any bad consequence except the deterioration
of the ketchup.[V] There is an extensive manufacture of
ketchup conducted at Lubbenham, near Market Harborough,
but the great difficulty appears to be the prevention of decomposition.
Messrs. Perkins receive tons of mushrooms from
every part of the kingdom, and they find, even in the same
species, an immense difference in the quality and quantity of
the produce. The price of mushrooms varies greatly with the
season, ranging between one penny and sixpence per pound.
Messrs. Perkins are very careful in their selection, but little
discrimination is used by country manufacturers on a small
scale, who use such doubtful species as Agaricus lacrymabundus,
with Agaricus spadiceus, and a host of allied species, which they
characterize as nonpareils and champignons. In the eastern
counties Agaricus arvensis has the preference for ketchup.

The generic distinctions between the genuine Agarics and
some of the allied genera can hardly be appreciated by the non-botanical
reader, but we have nevertheless preferred grouping
the edible species together in a somewhat botanical order; and,
pursuing this plan, the next species will be those of Coprinus,
in which the gills are deliquescent after the plant has arrived
at maturity. The maned mushroom (Coprinus comatus, Fr.)[W]
is the best of edible species in this group. It is very common
here by roadsides and other places, and whilst still young and
cylindrical, and the gills still whitish or with a roseate tint, it
is highly to be commended. Similar, but perhaps somewhat
inferior, is Coprinus atramentarius, Fr.,[X] equally common about
[91]
old stumps and on the naked soil. Both species are also found
and eaten in the United States.

In Cortinarius, the veil is composed of arachnoid threads, and
the spores are rusty. The number of edible species are few.
Foremost is the really handsome Cortinarius violaeus, Fr.,[Y] often
nearly four inches in diameter, and of a beautiful violet colour;
and the smaller Cortinarius castaneus, Fr.,[Z] scarcely exceeding an
inch in diameter, both being found in woods, and common alike
to Britain and the United States. Cortinarius cinnamomeus, Fr.,
is also a lover of woods, and in northern latitudes is found inhabiting
them everywhere. It has a cinnamon-coloured pileus,
with yellowish flesh, and its odour and flavour is said to partake
of the same spice. In Germany it is held in high esteem. Cortinarius
emodensis, B., is eaten in Northern India.

The small genus Lepista of Smith, (which, however, is not
adopted by Fries in his now edition of the “Epicrisis”) includes
one esculent species in Lepista personata, the Agaricus personatus
of Fries.[a] It is by no means uncommon in Northern Europe
or America, frequently growing in large rings; the pileus is
pallid, and the stem stained with lilac. Formerly it was said
to be sold in Covent Garden Market under the name of “blewits,”
but we have failed to see or hear of it during many years in
London.

Small fungi of ivory-whiteness are very common amongst
grass on lawns in autumn. These are chiefly Hygrophorus
virgineus, Fr.,[b] and although not much exceeding an inch in
diameter, with a short stem, and wide decurrent gills, they are
so plentiful in season that quantity soon compensates for the
small size. Except that it is occasionally eaten in France, it
does not enjoy much reputation abroad. A larger species, varying
from buff to orange, Hygrophorus pratensis, Fr.,[c] is scarcely
less common in open pastures. This is very gregarious in habit,
[92]
often growing in tufts, or portions of rings. The pileus is fleshy
in the centre, and the gills thick and decurrent. In France,
Germany, Bohemia, and Denmark, it is included with esculent
species. In addition may be mentioned Hygrophorus eburneus,
Fr., another white species, as also Hygrophorus niveus, Fr., which
grows in mossy pastures. Paxillus involutus, Fr.,[d] though very
common in Europe, is not eaten, yet it is included by Dr. Curtis
with the esculent species of the United States.

The milky agarics, belonging to the genus Lactarius, are distinguished
by the milky juice which is exuded when they are
wounded. The spores are more or less globose, and rough or
echinulate, at least in many species. The most notable esculent
is Lactarius deliciosus, Fr.,[e] in which the milk is at first saffron-red,
and afterwards greenish, the plant assuming a lurid greenish
hue wherever bruised or broken. Universal commendation seems
to fall upon this species, writers vying with each other to say
the best in its praise, and mycophagists everywhere endorsing
the assumption of its name, declaring it to be delicious. It is
found in the markets of Paris, Berlin, Prague, and Vienna, as
we are informed, and in Sweden, Denmark, Switzerland, Russia,
Belgium; in fact, in nearly all countries in Europe it is esteemed.

Another esculent species, Lactarius volemum, Fr.,[f] has white
milk, which is mild to the taste, whilst in deleterious species
with white milk it is pungent and acrid. This species has been
celebrated from early times, and is said to resemble lamb’s
kidney.

Lactarius piperatus, Fr., is classed in England with dangerous,
sometimes poisonous species, whereas the late Dr. Curtis, of
North Carolina, has distinctly informed us that it is cooked and
eaten in the United States, and that he has partaken of it. He
includes Lactarius insulsus, Fr., and Lactarius subdulcis, Fr.,[g]
amongst esculent species; both are also found in this country,
[93]
but not reputed as edible; and Lactarius angustissimus, Lasch,
which is not British. Species of Lactarius seem to be eaten
almost indiscriminately in Russia when preserved in vinegar and
salt, in which condition they form an important item in the
kinds of food allowed in their long fasts, some Boleti in the
dried state entering into the same category.

The species of Russula in many respects resemble Lactarii
without milk. Some of them are dangerous, and others esculent.
Amongst the latter may be enumerated Russula heterophylla,
Fr., which is very common in woods. Vittadini pronounces it
unsurpassed for fineness of flavour by even the notable Amanita
cæsarea.[h] Roques gives also an account in its favour as consumed
in France. Both these authors give favourable accounts
of Russula virescens, P.,[i] which the peasants about Milan are
in the habit of putting over wood embers to toast, and eating
afterwards with a little salt. Unfortunately it is by no means
common in England. A third species of Russula, with buff-yellow
gills, is Russula alutacea, Fr., which is by no means to
be despised, notwithstanding that Dr. Badham has placed it
amongst species to be avoided. Three or four others have also
the merit of being harmless, and these recorded as esculent by
some one or more mycological authors: Russula lactea, Fr., a
white species, found also in the United States; Russula lepida,
Fr., a roseate species, found also in lower Carolina, U.S.; and
another reddish species, Russula vesca, Fr., as well as Russula
decolorans, Fr. Whilst writing of this genus, we may observe,
by way of caution, that it includes also one very noxious red
species, Russula emetica, Fr., with white gills, with which some
of the foregoing might be confounded by inexperienced persons.

The chantarelle Cantharellus cibarius, Fr., has a most charming
and enticing appearance and odour. In colour, it is of a
bright golden yellow, and its smell has been compared to that of
ripe apricots. It is almost universally eaten in all countries
[94]
where it is found, England excepted, where it is only to be
met with at the “Freemason’s Tavern” on state occasions, and
at the tables of pertinacious mycophagists.[j] Trattinnick says:
“Not only this same fungus never did any one harm, but might
even restore the dead.”[k]

The fairy-ring champignon Marasmius oreades, Fr., though
small, is plentiful, and one of the most delicious of edible fungi.
It grows in exposed pastures, forming rings, or parts of rings.
This champignon possesses the advantage of drying readily,
and preserving its aroma for a long time. We have often
regretted that no persistent attempts and experiments have
been made with the view of cultivating this excellent and useful
species. Marasmius scorodonius, Fr.,[l] a small, strong-scented,
and in all respects inferior species, found on heaths and dry
pastures, extending even to the United States, is consumed in
Germany, Austria, and other continental countries, where, perhaps
its garlic odour has been one of its recommendations as
an ingredient in sauces. In this enumeration we have not exhausted
all the gill-bearing species which might be eaten, having
included only those which have some reputation as esculents,
and of these more particularly those found in Great Britain and
the United States.

Amongst the Polyporei, in which the gill plates are represented
by pores or tubes, fewer esculent species are to be met with than
in the Agaricini, and the majority of these belong to the genus
Boletus. Whilst in Vienna and Hanover, we were rather
surprised to find Boletus edulis, Fr., cut into thin slices and
dried, exposed for sale in almost every shop where meal, peas,
and other farinaceous edibles were sold. This species is common
enough in England, but as a rule it does not seem to please
the English palate, whereas on the continent no fungus is more
commonly eaten. This is believed to be the suillus eaten by
the ancient Romans,[m] who obtained it from Bithynia. The
[95]
modern Italians dry them on strings for winter use, and in
Hungary a soup is made from them when fresh. A more
excellent species, according to our judgment, is Boletus æstivalis,
Fr.,[n] which appears in early summer, and has a peculiar nutty
flavour when raw, reminding one more of a fresh mushroom.
Boletus scaber, Fr.,[o] is also common in Britain, as well as the
continent, but does not enjoy so good a reputation as B. edulis.
Krombholz says that Boletus bovinus, Fr., a gregarious species,
found on heaths and in fir woods, is much sought after abroad
as a dish, and is good when dried. Boletus castaneus, Fr.,[p] is
a small species with a mild, pleasant taste when raw, and very
good when properly cooked. It is not uncommonly eaten on
the continent. Boletus chrysenteron, Fr.,[q] and Boletus subtomentosus,
Fr., are said to be very poor eating, and some authors
have considered them injurious; but Mr. W. G. Smith states
that he has on more than one occasion eaten the former, and
Trattinnick states that the latter is eaten in Germany. The late
Mr. Salter informed us that, when employed on the geological
staff, he at one time lived almost entirely on different species of
Boleti, without using much discrimination. Sir W. C. Trevelyan
also informs us that he has eaten Boletus luridus without any
unpleasant consequences, but we confess that we should be sorry
to repeat the experiment. Dr. Badham remarks that he has
eaten Boletus Grevillei, B., Boletus flavus, With., and Boletus
granulatus, L., the latter being recognized also as edible abroad.
Dr. Curtis experimented, in the United States, on Boletus collinitus,
and although he professes not to be particularly fond of
the Boleti, he recognizes it as esculent, and adds that it had been
pronounced delicious by some to whom he had sent it. He also
enumerates as edible Boletus luteus, Fr., Boletus elegans, Fr.,
Boletus flavidus, Fr., Boletus versipellis, Fr., Boletus leucomelas,
Tr., and Boletus ovinus, Sch. Two Italian species of Polyporus
must not be forgotten. These are Polyporus tuberaster, Pers.,
[96]
which is procured by watering the pietra funghaia, or fungus
stone, a kind of tufa, in which the mycelium is embedded. It
is confined to Naples. The other species is Polyporus corylinus,
Mauri., procured artificially in Rome from charred stumps of the
cob-nut tree.[r]

Of true Polyporus, only two or three species have been
regarded favourably as esculents. These are—Polyporus intybaceus,
Fr., which is of very large size, sometimes attaining as
much as forty pounds; Polyporus giganteus, Fr., also very large,
and leathery when old. Both these species are natives of
Britain. Only young and juicy specimens must be selected for
cooking. Polyporus umbellatus, Fr., is stated by Fries to be
esculent, but it is not found in Britain. Polyporus squamosus,
Fr., has been also included; but Mrs. Hussey thinks that one
might as well think of eating saddle-flaps. None of these
receive very much commendation. Dr. Curtis enumerates,
amongst North American species, the Polyporus cristatus, Fr.,
Polyporus poripes, Fr., which, when raw, tastes like the best
chestnuts or filberts, but is rather too dry when cooked.
Polyporus Berkeleii, Fr., is intensely pungent when raw, but
when young, and before the pores are visible, it may be eaten
with impunity, all its pungency being dissipated by cooking.
Polyporus confluens, Fr., he considers superior, and, in fact,
quite a favourite. Polyporus sulfureus, Fr., which is not eaten in
Europe, he considers just tolerably safe, but not to be coveted.
It is by no means to be recommended to persons with weak
stomachs. In his catalogue, Dr. Curtis enumerates one hundred
and eleven species of edible fungi found in Carolina.[s]

With Fistulina hepatica, Fr., it is different; for here we
encounter a fleshy, juicy fungus, resembling beefsteak a little in
appearance, and so much more in its uses, that the name of
“beefsteak fungus” has been given to it. Some authors are
rapturous in their praise of Fistulina. It sometimes attains a
very large size, Dr. Badham quoting[t] one found by himself
[97]
nearly five feet in circumference, and weighing eight pounds;
whilst another found by Mr. Graves weighed nearly thirty
pounds. In Vienna it is sliced and eaten with salad, like beetroot,
which it then much resembles. On the continent it is
everywhere included amongst the best of edible species.

The Hydnei, instead of pores or tubes, are characterized by
spines or warts, over which the fructifying surface is expanded.
The most common is Hydnum repandum, Fr., found in woods
and woody places in England, and on the continent, extending
into the United States. When raw, it is peppery to the taste,
but when cooked is much esteemed. From its drier nature, it
can readily be dried for winter use. Less common in England
is Hydnum imbricatum, Fr., although not so uncommon on the
continent. It is eaten in Germany, Austria, Switzerland,
France, and elsewhere. Hydnum lævigatum, Swartz, is eaten in
Alpine districts.[u] Of the branched species, Hydnum coralloides,
Scop.,[v] and Hydnum Caput Medusæ, Bull,[w] are esculent, but very
rare in England. The latter is not uncommon in Austria and
Italy, the former in Germany, Switzerland, and France. Hydnum
erinaceum, Bull, is eaten in Germany[x] and France.

The Clavarioid fungi are mostly small, but of these the majority
of the white-spored are edible. Clavaria rugosa, Bull, is a
common British species, as also is Clavaria coralloides, L., the
former being found also in the United States. Clavaria fastigiata,
D. C., is not uncommon; but Clavaria amethystina, Bull, a
beautiful violet species, is rare. In France and Italy, Clavaria
cinerea, Bull, is classed with esculents; and it is not uncommon
in Britain. Clavaria botrytis, P., and Clavaria aurea, Schæff.,
are large and beautiful species, but rare with us; they extend
also into the United States. Others might be named (Dr.
Curtis enumerates thirteen species eaten in Carolina), which are
[98]
certainly wholesome, but they are of little importance as edible
species. Sparassis crispa, Fr., is, on the contrary, very large,
resembling in size,[y] and somewhat in appearance, a cauliflower;
it has of late years been found several times in this country.
In Austria it is fricasseed with butter and herbs.

Of the true Tremellæ, none merit insertion here. The curious
Jew’s ear (Hirneola auricula-Judæ, Fr.), with one or two other
species of Hirneola, are collected in great quantities in Tahiti,
and shipped in a dried state to China, where they are used for
soup. Some of these find their way to Singapore.

The false truffles (Hypogæi) are of doubtful value, one species
(Melanogaster variegatus, Tul.) having formerly been sold in the
markets of Bath as a substitute for the genuine truffle.[z] Neither
amongst the Phalloidei do we meet with species of any economic
value. The gelatinous volva of a species of Ileodictyon is eaten
by the New Zealanders, to whom it is known as thunder dirt;
whilst that of Phallus Mokusin is applied to a like purpose in
China;[AA] but these examples would not lead us to recommend a
similar use for Phallus impudicus, Fr., in Britain, or induce us
to prove the assertion of a Scotch friend that the porous stem is
very good eating.

One species of puff-ball, Lycoperdon giganteum, Fr,[AB] has
many staunch advocates, and whilst young and cream-like, it is,
when well manipulated, an excellent addition to the breakfast-table.
A decided advantage is possessed by this species, since
one specimen is often found large enough to satisfy the appetites
of ten or twelve persons. Other species of Lycoperdon have
been eaten when young, and we have been assured by those
who have made the experiment, that they are scarcely inferior
to their larger congener. Bovista nigrescens, Fr., and Bovista
plumbea, Fr., are also eaten in the United States. More than
one species of Lycoperdon and Bovista appear in the bazaars of
India, as at Secunderabad and Rangoon; while the white ant-hills,
[99]
together with an excellent Agaric, produce one or more
species of Podaxon which are esculent when young. A species
of Scleroderma which grows abundantly in sandy districts, is
substituted for truffles in Perigord pies, of which, however, it
does not possess any of the aroma.

Fig. 43.—Morchella gigaspora, from Kashmir.

Passing over the rest of the sporiferous fungi, we find
amongst the Ascomycetous group several that are highly esteemed.
Amongst these may first be named the species of morel, which
are regarded as delicacies wherever they are found. Morchella
esculenta, Pers., is the most common species, but we have also
Morchella semilibera, D. C., and the much larger Morchella
crassipes, Pers. Probably all the species of Morchella are
esculent, and we know that many besides the above are eaten
in Europe and other places; Morchella deliciosa, Fr., in Java;
Morchella bohemica, Kromb., in Bohemia; Morchella gigaspora,
Cooke, and Morchella deliciosa, Fr., in Kashmere.[AC] Morchella
rimosipes, D. C., occurs in France and Bohemia; Morchella
[100]
Caroliniana, Bosc., in the Southern United States of America.
W. G. Smith records the occurrence in Britain of specimens of
Morchella crassipes, P., ten inches in height, and one specimen
was eleven inches high, with a diameter of seven and a half
inches.[AD]

Similar in uses, though differing in appearance, are the species
of Helvella, of which several are edible. In both these genera,
the individuals can be dried so readily that they are the more
valuable on that account, as they can be used for flavouring in
winter when fresh specimens of any kind of fungus are difficult
to procure. The most common English species is Helvella
crispa, Fr., but Helvella lacunosa, Fr., is declared to be
equally good, though not so large and somewhat rare. Helvella
infula, Fr., is also a large species, but is not British, although it
extends to North America, as also does Helvella sulcata, Afz.
Intermediate between the morel and Helvella is the species
which was formerly included with the latter, but now known as
Gyromitra esculenta, Fr.[AE] It is rarely found in Great Britain,
but is more common on the continent, where it is held in esteem.
A curious stipitate fungus, with a pileus like a hood, called
Verpa digitaliformis, Pers.,[AF] is uncommon in England, but
Vittadini states that it is sold in the Italian markets, although
only to be recommended when no other esculent fungus offers,
which is sometimes the case in spring.[AG]

Two or three species of Peziza have the reputation of being
esculent, but they are of very little value; one of these is Peziza
acetabulum, L., another is Peziza cochleata, Huds., and a third
is Peziza venosa, Pers.[AH] The latter has the most decided nitrous
odour, and also fungoid flavour, whilst the former seem to have
but little to recommend them; we have seen whole baskets full
of Peziza cochleata gathered in Northamptonshire as a substitute
for morels.

A very interesting genus of edible fungi, growing on evergreen
[101]
beech trees in South America, has been named Cyttaria.
One of these, Cyttaria Darwinii, B., occurs in Terra del Fuego,
where it was found by Mr. C. Darwin[AI] growing in vast numbers,
and forming a very essential article of food for the natives.
Another is Cyttaria Berteroi, B., also seen by Mr. Darwin in
Chili, and eaten occasionally, but apparently not so good as
the preceding.[AJ] Another species is Cyttaria Gunnii, B., which
abounds in Tasmania, and is held in repute amongst the settlers
for its esculent properties.[AK]

Fig. 44.—Cyttaria Gunnii, B.

It remains for us only to note the subterranean fungi, of which
the truffle is the type, to complete our enumeration of esculent
species. The truffle which is consumed in England is Tuber
æstivum, Vitt.; but in France the more highly-flavoured Tuber
melanospermum, Vitt.,[AL] and also Tuber magnatum, Pico, with
some other species. In Italy they are very common, whilst
some are found in Algeria. One species at least is recorded in
the North-west of India, but in Northern Europe and North
America they appear to be rare, and Terfezia Leonis is used as
an esculent in Damascus. A large species of Mylitta, sometimes
several inches in diameter, occurs plentifully in some parts of
Australia. Although often included with fungi, the curious
production known under the name of Pachyma cocos, Fr., is not
[102]
a fungus, as proved by the examinations made by the Rev. M. J.
Berkeley. It is eaten under the name of “Tuckahoe” in the
United States, and as it consists almost entirely of pectic acid,
it is sometimes used in the manufacture of jelly.

In the Neilgherries (S. India), a substance is occasionally
found which is allied to the native bread of southern latitudes.
It is found at an elevation of 5,000 feet. The natives call it
“a little man’s bread,” in allusion to the tradition that the Neilgherries
were once peopled by a race of dwarfs.[AM] At first it was
supposed that these were the bulbs of some orchid, but later
another view was held of their character. Mr. Scott, who
examined the specimens sent down to him, remarks that, instead
of being the product of orchids, it is that of an underground
fungus of the genus Mylitta. It indeed seems, he says, very
closely allied to, if really distinct from, the so-called native
bread of Tasmania.[AN]

Of the fungi employed in medicine, the first place must be
assigned to ergot, which is the sclerotioid condition of a species
of Claviceps. It occurs not only on rye but on wheat, and many
of the wild grasses. On account of its active principle, this
fungus still holds its place in the Materia Medica. Others which
formerly had a reputation are now discarded, as, for instance, the
species of Elaphomyces; and Polyporus officinalis, Fr., which has
been partly superseded as a styptic by other substances, was
formerly employed as a purgative. The ripe spongy capillitium
of the great puff-ball Lycoperdon giganteum, Fr., has been used
for similar purposes, and also recommended as an anodyne;
indeed formidable surgical operations have been performed under
its influence, and it is frequently used as a narcotic in the
taking of honey. Langsdorf gives a curious account of its
employment as a narcotic; and in a recent work on Kamtschatka
it is said to obtain a very high price in that country.
Dr. Porter Smith writes of its employment medicinally by the
Chinese, but from his own specimens it is clearly a species of
Polysaccum, which he has mistaken for Lycoperdon. In China
[103]
several species are supposed to possess great virtue, notably the
Torrubia sinensis, Tul.,[AO] which is developed on dead caterpillars;
as it is, however, recommended to administer it as a stuffing to
roast duck, we may be sceptical as to its own sanitary qualities.
Geaster hygrometricus, Fr., we have also detected amongst
Chinese drugs, as also a species of Polysaccum, and the small
hard Mylitta lapidescens, Horn. In India, a large but imperfect
fungus, named provisionally Sclerotium stipitatum, Curr.,
found in nests of the white ant, is supposed to possess great
medicinal virtues.[AP] A species of Polyporus (P. anthelminticus,
B.), which grows at the root of old bamboos, is employed in
Burmah as an anthelmintic.[AQ] In former times the Jew’s ear
(Hirneola auricula Judæ, Fr.) was supposed to possess great
virtues, which are now discredited. Yeast is still included
amongst pharmaceutical substances, but could doubtless be very
well dispensed with. Truffles are no longer regarded as aphrodisiacs.

For other uses, we can only allude to amadou, or German
tinder, which is prepared in Northern Europe from Polyporus
fomentarius, Fr., cut in slices, dried, and beaten until it is soft.
This substance, besides being used as tinder, is made into warm
caps, chest protectors, and other articles. This same, or an
allied species of Polyporus, probably P. igniarius, Fr., is dried
and pounded as an ingredient in snuff by the Ostyacks on
the Obi. In Bohemia some of the large Polyporei, such as
P. igniarius and P. fomentarius, have the pores and part of the
inner substance removed, and then the pileus is fastened in an
inverted position to the wall, by the part where originally it
adhered to the wood. The cavity is then filled with mould,
and the fungus is used, with good effect, instead of flower-pots,
for the cultivation of such creeping plants as require but little
moisture.[AR]

The barren mycelioid condition of Penicillium crustaceum,
[104]
Fr., is employed in country districts for the domestic manufacture
of vinegar from saccharine liquor, under the name of
the “vinegar plant.” It is stated that Polysaccum crassipes,
D. C.,[AS] is employed in the South of Europe to produce a yellow
dye; whilst recently Polyporus sulfureus, Fr., has been recommended
for a similar purpose. Agaricus muscarius, Fr., the fly-agaric,
known to be an active poison, is used in decoction in
some parts of Europe for the destruction of flies and bugs.
Probably Helotium æruginosum, Fr.,[AT] deserves mention here,
because it stains the wood on which it grows, by means of
its diffuse mycelium, of a beautiful green tint, and the wood
thus stained is employed for its colour in the manufacture of
Tonbridge ware.

This completes the list, certainly of the most important, of
the fungi which are of any direct use to humanity as food, medicine,
or in the arts. As compared with lichens, the advantage
is certainly in favour of fungi; and even when compared with
algæ, the balance appears in their favour. In fact, it may be
questioned whether, after all, fungi do not present a larger proportion
of really useful species than any other of the cryptogams;
and without any desire to disparage the elegance of
ferns, the delicacy of mosses, the brilliancy of some algæ, or
the interest which attaches to lichens, it may be claimed for
fungi that in real utility (not uncombined with injuries as real)
they stand at the head of the cryptogams, and in closest
alliance with the flowering plants.

There are no phenomena associated with fungi that are of
greater interest than those which relate to luminosity. The
fact that fungi under some conditions are luminous has long
been known, since schoolboys in our juvenile days were in the
habit of secreting fragments of rotten wood penetrated by
mycelium, in order to exhibit their luminous properties in the
dark, and thus astonish their more ignorant or incredulous fellows
Rumphius noted its appearance in Amboyna, and Fries,
in his Observations, gives the name of Thelephora phosphorea
to a species of Corticium now known as Corticium cæruleum,
on account of its phosphorescence under certain conditions.
The same species is the Auricularia phosphorea of Sowerby,
but he makes no note of its phosphorescence. Luminosity in
fungi “has been observed in various parts of the world, and
where the species has been fully developed it has been generally
a species of Agaricus which has yielded the phenomenon.”[A]
One of the best-known species is the Agaricus olearius of the
South of Europe, which was examined by Tulasne with especial
view to its luminosity.[B] In his introductory remarks, he says
that four species only of Agaricus that are luminous appear at
present to be known. One of them, A. olearius, D. C., is indigenous
to Central Europe; another, A. igneus, Rumph., comes
from Amboyna; the third, A. noctileucus, Lév., has been discovered
[106]
at Manilla by Gaudichaud, in 1836; the last, A. Gardneri,
Berk., is produced in the Brazilian province of Goyaz, upon
dead leaves. As to the Dematium violaceum, Pers., the Himantia
candida, Pers., cited once by Link, and the Thelephora cærulea,
D. C. (Corticium cæruleum, Fr.), Tulasne is of opinion that their
phosphorescent properties are still problematical; at least no
recent observation confirms them.

The phosphorescence of A. olearius, D. C., appears to have
been first made known by De Candolle, but it seems that he was
in error in stating that these phosphorescent properties manifest
themselves only at the time of its decomposition. Fries,
describing the Cladosporium umbrinum, which lives upon the
Agaric of the olive-tree, expressed the opinion that the Agaric
only owes its phosphorescence to the presence of the mould.
This, however, Tulasne denies, for he writes, “I have had the
opportunity of observing that the Agaric of the olive is really
phosphorescent of itself, and that it is not indebted to any
foreign production for the light it emits.” Like Delile, he
considers that the fungus is only phosphorescent up to the time
when it ceases to grow; thus the light which it projects, one
might say, is a manifestation of its vegetation.

“It is an important fact,” writes Tulasne, “which I can confirm,
and which it is important to insist upon, that the phosphorescence
is not exclusively confined to the hymenial surface.
Numerous observations made by me prove that the whole of the
substance of the fungus participates very frequently, if not
always, in the faculty of shining in the dark. Among the first
Agarics which I examined, I found many, the stipe of which
shed here and there a light as brilliant as the hymenium, and
led me to think that it was due to the spores which had fallen
on the surface of the stipe. Therefore, being in the dark, I
scraped with my scalpel the luminous parts of the stipe, but it
did not sensibly diminish their brightness; then I split the stipe,
bruised it, divided it into small fragments, and I found that
the whole of this mass, even in its deepest parts, enjoyed, in a
similar degree to its superficies, the property of light. I found,
besides, a phosphorescence quite as brilliant in all the cap, for,
[107]
having split it vertically in the form of plates, I found that the
trama, when bruised, threw out a light equal to that of their
fructiferous surfaces, and there is really only the superior
surface of the pileus, or its cuticle, which I have never seen
luminous.

“As I have said, the Agaric of the olive-tree, which is itself
very yellow, reflects a strong brilliant light, and remains
endowed with this remarkable faculty whilst it grows, or, at
least, while it appears to preserve an active life, and remains
fresh. The phosphorescence is at first, and more ordinarily, recognizable
at the surface of the hymenium. I have seen a great
number of young fungi which were very phosphorescent in the
gills, but not in any other part. In another case, and amongst
more aged fungi, the hymenium of which had ceased to give
light, the stipe, on the contrary, threw out a brilliant glare.
Habitually, the phosphorescence is distributed in an unequal
manner upon the stipe, and the same upon the gills. Although
the stipe is luminous at its surface, it is not always necessarily
so in its interior substance, if one bruises it, but this substance
frequently becomes phosphorescent after contact with the air.
Thus, I had irregularly split and slit a large stipe in its length,
and I found the whole flesh obscure, whilst on the exterior were
some luminous places. I roughly joined the lacerated parts,
and the following evening, on observing them anew, I found
them all flashing a bright light. At another time, I had with
a scalpel split vertically many fungi in order to hasten their
dessication; the evening of the same day, the surface of all these
cuts was phosphorescent, but in many of these pieces of fungi
the luminosity was limited to the cut surface which remained
exposed to the air; the flesh beneath was unchanged.

“I have seen a stipe opened and lacerated irregularly, the
whole of the flesh of which remained phosphorescent during
three consecutive evenings, but the brightness diminished in
intensity from the exterior to the interior, so that on the third
day it did not issue from the inner part of the stipe. The
phosphorescence of the gills is in no way modified at first by
immersing the fungus in water; when they have been immersed
[108]
they are as bright as in the air, but the fungi which I left
immersed until the next evening lost all their phosphorescence,
and communicated to the water an already sensible yellow tint;
alcohol put upon the phosphorescent gills did not at once completely
obliterate the light, but visibly enfeebled it. As to the
spores, which are white, I have found many times very dense
coats of them thrown down on porcelain plates, but I have
never seen them phosphorescent.

“As to the observation made by Delile that the Agaric of the
olive does not shine during the day when placed in total darkness,
I think that it could not have been repeated. From what
I have said of the phosphorescence of A. olearius, one naturally
concludes that there does not exist any necessary relation
between this phenomenon and the fructification of the fungus;
the luminous brightness of the hymenium shows, says Delile,
‘the greater activity of the reproductive organs,’ but it is
not in consequence of its reproductive functions, which may
be judged only as an accessory phenomenon, the cause of which
is independent of, and more general than these functions, since
all the parts of the fungus, its entire substance, throws forth
at one time, or at successive times, light. From these experiments
Tulasne infers that the same agents, oxygen, water, and
warmth, are perfectly necessary to the production of phosphorescence
as much in living organized beings as in those which
have ceased to live. In either case, the luminous phenomena
accompany a chemical reaction which consists principally in
a combination of the organized matter with the oxygen of the
air; that is to say, in its combustion, and in the discharge
of carbonic acid which thus shows itself.”

We have quoted at considerable length from these observations
of Tulasne on the Agaric of the olive, as they serve very
much to illustrate similar manifestations in other species, which
doubtless resemble each other in their main features.

Mr. Gardner has graphically described his first acquaintance
in Brazil with the phosphorescent species which now bears his
name. It was encountered on a dark night of December, while
passing through the streets of Villa de Natividate. Some boys
[109]
were amusing themselves with some luminous object, which at
first he supposed to be a kind of large fire-fly, but on making
inquiry he found it to be a beautiful phosphorescent Agaric,
which he was told grew abundantly in the neighbourhood on
the decaying fronds of a dwarf palm. The whole plant gives
out at night a bright light somewhat similar to that emitted
by the larger fire-flies, having a pale greenish hue. From this
circumstance, and from growing on a palm, it was called by the
inhabitants “flor de coco.”[C]

The number of recognized phosphorescent species of Agaricus
is not large, although two or three others may be enumerated
in addition to those cited by Tulasne. Of these, Agaricus
lampas, and some others, are found in Australia.[D] In addition
to the Agaricus noctileucus, discovered by Gaudichaud, and the
Agaricus igneus of Rumphius, found in Amboyna, Dr. Hooker
speaks of the phenomenon as common in Sikkim, but he seems
never to have been able to ascertain with what species it was
associated.

Dr. Cuthbert Collingwood has communicated some further
information relative to the luminosity of a species of Agaricus
in Borneo (supposed to be A. Gardneri), in which he says,
“The night being dark, the fungi could be very distinctly seen,
though not at any great distance, shining with a soft pale
greenish light. Here and there spots of much more intense
light were visible, and these proved to be very young and
minute specimens. The older specimens may more properly
be described as possessing a greenish luminous glow, like the
glow of the electric discharge, which, however, was quite sufficient
to define its shape, and, when closely examined, the chief
details of its form and appearance. The luminosity did not
impart itself to the hand, and did not appear to be affected by
the separation from the root on which it grew, at least not for
some hours. I think it probable that the mycelium of this
fungus is also luminous, for, upon turning up the ground in
search of small luminous worms, minute spots of light were
[110]
observed, which could not be referred to any particular object
or body when brought to the light and examined, and were
probably due to some minute portions of its mycelium.”[E] The
same writer also adds, “Mr. Hugh Low has assured me that he
saw the jungle all in a blaze of light (by which he could see to
read) as, some years ago, he was riding across the island by
the jungle road; and that this luminosity was produced by an
Agaric.”

Similar experiences were detailed by Mr. James Drummond
in a letter from Swan River, in which two species of Agaric
are concerned. They grew on the stumps of trees, and had
nothing remarkable in their appearance by day, but by night
emitted a most curious light, such as the writer never saw
described in any book. One species was found growing on the
stump of a Banksia in Western Australia. The stump was at
the time surrounded by water. It was on a dark night, when
passing, that the curious light was first observed. When the
fungus was laid on a newspaper, it emitted by night a phosphorescent
light, enabling persons to read the words around it, and
it continued to do so for several nights with gradually decreasing
intensity as the plant dried up. In the other instance,
which occurred some years after, the author, during one of his
botanical trips, was struck by the appearance of a large Agaric,
measuring sixteen inches in diameter, and weighing about five
pounds. This specimen was hung up to dry in the sitting-room,
and on passing through the apartment in the dark it was
observed to give out the same remarkable light. The luminous
property continued, though gradually diminishing, for four or
five nights, when it ceased on the plant becoming dry. “We
called some of the natives,” he adds, “and showed them this
fungus when emitting light, and the poor creatures cried out
‘chinga,’ their name for a spirit, and seemed much afraid
of it.”[F]

Although the examples already cited are those of species of
Agaric, luminosity is not by any means wholly confined to that
[111]
genus. Mr. Worthington Smith has recorded his experiences of
some specimens of the common Polyporus annosus which were
found on some timbers in the Cardiff coal mines. He remarks
that the colliers are well acquainted with phosphorescent fungi,
and the men state that sufficient light is given “to see their
hands by.” The specimens of Polyporus were so luminous
that they could be seen in the dark at a distance of twenty
yards. He observes further, that he has met with specimens of
Polyporus sulfureus which were phosphorescent. Some of the
fungi found in mines, which emit light familiar to the miners,
belong to the incomplete genus Rhizomorpha, of which Humboldt
amongst others gives a glowing account. Tulasne has also
investigated this phenomenon in connection with the common
Rhizomorpha subterranea, Pers. This species extends underneath
the soil in long strings, in the neighbourhood of old tree stumps,
those of the oak especially, which are becoming rotten, and
upon these it is fixed by one of its branches. These are cylindrical,
very flexible, branching, and clothed with a hard bark,
encrusting and fragile, at first smooth and brown, becoming
later very rough and black. The interior tissue, at first whitish,
afterwards of a more or less deep brown colour, is formed of
extremely long parallel filaments from .0035 to .015 mm. in
diameter.

On the evening of the day when I received the specimens,[G]
he writes, the temperature being about 22° Cent., all the young
branches brightened with an uniform phosphoric light the whole
of their length; it was the same with the surface of some of the
older branches, the greater number of which were still brilliant in
some parts, and only on their surface. I split and lacerated many
of these twigs, but their internal substance remained dull. The
next evening, on the contrary, this substance, having been exposed
to contact with the air, exhibited at its surface the same
brightness as the bark of the branches. I made this observation
upon the old stalks as well as upon the young ones. Prolonged
friction of the luminous surfaces reduced the brightness
[112]
and dried them to a certain degree, but did not leave on the
fingers any phosphorescent matter. These parts continued with
the same luminous intensity after holding them in the mouth so
as to moisten them with saliva; plunged into water, held to the
flame of a candle so that the heat they acquired was very appreciable
to the touch, they still emitted in the dark a feeble light; it
was the same after being held in water heated to 30° C.; but putting
them in water bearing a temperature of 55° C. extinguished
them entirely. They are equally extinguished if held in the mouth
until they catch the temperature; perhaps, still, it might be
attributed less to the heat which is communicated to them than
to the deficiency of sufficient oxygen, because I have seen some
stalks, having become dull in the mouth, recover after a few
instants a little of their phosphorescence. A young stalk
which had been split lengthwise, and the internal substance of
which was very phosphorescent, could imbibe olive oil many
times and yet continue for a long time to give a feeble light.
By preserving these Rhizomorphæ in an adequate state of
humidity, I have been able for many evenings to renew the
examination of their phosphorescence; the commencement of
dessication, long before they really perish, deprives them of the
faculty of giving light. Those which had been dried for more
than a month, when plunged into water, commenced to vegetate
anew and send forth numerous branches in a few days; but I
could only discover phosphorescence at the surface of these new
formations, or very rarely in their immediate neighbourhood,
the mother stalks appearing to have lost by dessication their
luminous properties, and did not recover them on being recalled
to life. These observations prove that what Schmitz has written
was not true, that all parts of these fungi were seldom phosphorescent.

The luminous phenomenon in question is without doubt more
complicated than it appears, and the causes to which we attribute
it are certainly powerfully modified by the general character
of the objects in which they reside. Most of the German
botanists give this explanation, others suppose that it forms at
first or during its continuance a special matter, in which the
[113]
luminous property resides; this matter, which is said to be
mucilaginous in the luminous wood, appears to be in the
Rhizomorpha only a kind of chemical combination between the
membrane and some gummy substance which they contain.
Notwithstanding this opinion, I am assured that all external
mucous matter was completely absent from the Agaricus olearius,
and I neither discovered it upon the branches of Rhizomorpha
subterranea nor upon the dead leaves which I have seen phosphorescent;
in all these objects the luminous surfaces were
nothing else than their proper tissue.

It may be remarked here that the so-called species of Rhizomorpha
are imperfect fungi, being entirely devoid of fructification,
consisting in fact only of a vegetative system—a sort of
compact mycelium—(probably of species of Xylaria) with some
affinity to Sclerotium.

Recently an extraordinary instance of luminosity was recorded
as occurring in our own country.[H] “A quantity of wood had
been purchased in a neighbouring parish, which was dragged up
a very steep hill to its destination. Amongst them was a log of
larch or spruce, it is not quite certain which, 24 feet long and a
foot in diameter. Some young friends happened to pass up the
hill at night, and were surprised to find the road scattered with
luminous patches, which, when more closely examined, proved to
be portions of bark or little fragments of wood. Following the
track, they came to a blaze of white light which was perfectly
surprising. On examination, it appeared that the whole of the
inside of the bark of the log was covered with a white byssoid
mycelium of a peculiarly strong smell, but unfortunately in such
a state that the perfect form could not be ascertained. This was
luminous, but the light was by no means so bright as in those
parts of the wood where the spawn had penetrated more deeply,
and where it was so intense that the roughest treatment scarcely
seemed to check it. If any attempt was made to rub off the
luminous matter it only shone the more brightly, and when wrapped
up in five folds of paper the light penetrated through all the folds
on either side as brightly as if the specimen was exposed; when,
[114]
again, the specimens were placed in the pocket, the pocket when
opened was a mass of light. The luminosity had now been
going on for three days. Unfortunately we did not see it ourselves
till the third day, when it had, possibly from a change in
the state of electricity, been somewhat impaired; but it was
still most interesting, and we have merely recorded what we
observed ourselves. It was almost possible to read the time on
the face of a watch even in its less luminous condition. We do
not for a moment suppose that the mycelium is essentially
luminous, but are rather inclined to believe that a peculiar concurrence
of climatic conditions is necessary for the production
of the phenomenon, which is certainly one of great rarity.
Observers as we have been of fungi in their native haunts for
fifty years, it has never fallen to our lot to witness a similar case
before, though Prof. Churchill Babington once sent us specimens
of luminous wood, which had, however, lost their luminosity
before they arrived. It should be observed that the parts of the
wood which were most luminous were not only deeply penetrated
by the more delicate parts of the mycelium, but were those
which were most decomposed. It is probable, therefore, that
this fact is an element in the case as well as the presence of
fungoid matter.”

In all cases of phosphorescence recorded, the light emitted
is described as of the same character, varying only in intensity.
It answers well to the name applied to it, as it seems remarkably
similar to the light emitted by some living insects and other
animal organisms, as well as to that evolved, under favourable
conditions, by dead animal matter—a pale bluish light, resembling
that emitted by phosphorus as seen in a dark room.

Another phenomenon worthy of note is the change of colour
which the bruised or cut surface of some fungi undergo. Most
prominent amongst these are certain poisonous species of
Boletus, such, for instance, as Boletus luridus, and some
others, which, on being bruised, cut, or divided, exhibit an
intense, and in some cases vivid, blue. At times this change
is so instantaneous that before the two freshly-cut portions
of a Boletus can be separated, it has already commenced, and
[115]
proceeds rapidly till the depth of intensity has been gained.
This blue colour is so universally confined to dangerous species
that it is given as a caution that all species which exhibit a blue
colour when cut or bruised, should on no account be eaten. The
degree of intensity varies considerably according to the condition
of the species. For example, Boletus cærulescens is
sometimes only very slightly, if at all, tinged with blue when
cut, though, as the name implies, the peculiar phenomenon is
generally highly developed. It cannot be said that this change
of colour has as yet been fully investigated. One writer some
time since suggested, if he did not affirm, that the colour was
due to the presence of aniline, others have contented themselves
with the affirmation that it was a rapid oxidization and chemical
change, consequent upon exposure of the surfaces to the air.
Archdeacon Robinson examined this phenomenon in different
gases, and arrived at the conclusion that the change depends on
an alteration of molecular arrangement.[I]

One of the best of the edible species of Lactarius, known as
Lactarius deliciosus, changes, wherever cut or bruised, to a dull
livid green. This fungus is filled with an orange milky fluid,
which becomes green on exposure to the air, and it is consequently
the juice which oxidizes on exposure. Some varieties
more than others of the cultivated mushroom become brownish
on being cut, and a similar change we have observed, though
not recorded, in other species.

The presence of a milky juice in certain fungi has been
alluded to. This is by no means confined to the genus Lactarius,
in which such juice is universal, sometimes white, sometimes
yellow, and sometimes colourless. In Agarics, especially
in the subgenus Mycena, the gills and stem are replete with a
milky juice. Also in some species of Peziza, as for instance in
Peziza succosa, B., sometimes found growing on the ground in
gardens, and in Peziza saniosa, Schrad., also a terrestrial species,
the same phenomenon occurs. To this might be added such
species as Stereum spadiceum, Fr., and Stereum sanguinolentum,
[116]
Fr., both of which become discoloured and bleeding when
bruised, while Corticium lactescens distils a watery milk.