ENGLISH GRAMMAR,

IN

FAMILIAR LECTURES;

ACCOMPANIED BY
A COMPENDIUM
EMBRACING

A NEW SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING

A NEW SYSTEM OF PUNCTUATION,

EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX,

AND

A SYSTEM OF PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR,
IN NOTES:

TO WHICH ARE ADDED,

AN APPENDIX AND A KEY TO THE EXERCISES
DESIGNED FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND PRIVATE LEARNERS.

BY SAMUEL KIRKHAM.

STEREOTYPE EDITION

NEW YORK
ROBERT B. COLLINS,
254 PEARL STREET.

Southern District of New-York, ss.

BE IT REMEMBERED, That on the 22d day of August, A.D. 1829, in the L.
S. 54th year of the Independence of the United States of America, Samuel
Kirkham, of the said district, hath deposited in this office the title
of a book, the right whereof he claims as author, in the words
following, to wit:

“English Grammar in familiar Lectures, accompanied by a Compendium,
embracing a new systematic order of Parsing, a new system of
Punctuation, exercises in false Syntax, and a System of Philosophical
Grammar in notes: to which are added an Appendix, and a Key to the
Exercises: designed for the use of Schools and Private Learners. By
Samuel Kirkham. Eleventh Edition, enlarged and improved.” In conformity
to the act of Congress of the United States, entitled “an act for the
encouragement of learning, by securing the copies of maps, charts, and
books, to the authors and proprietors of such copies, during the time
therein mentioned.” And also to an act entitled “an act supplementary to
an act entitled an act for the encouragement of learning, by securing
the copies of maps, charts, and books, to the authors and proprietors of
such copies, during the times therein mentioned, and extending the
benefits thereof to the arts of designing, engraving, and etching
historical and other prints.”

FRED. J. BETTS,
Clerk of the Southern District of New-York.

AN ESSAY ON ELOCUTION,

DESIGNED FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND PRIVATE LEARNERS

BY SAMUEL KIRKHAM.

This work is mainly designed as a Reading-Book for Schools. In the first
part of it, the principles of reading are developed and explained in a
scientific and practical manner, and so familiarly illustrated in
their application to practical examples as to enable even the juvenile
mind very readily to comprehend their nature and character, their design
and use, and thus to acquire that high degree of excellence, both, in
reading and speaking, which all desire, but to which few attain.

The last part of the work, contains Selections from the greatest
master-pieces of rhetorical and poetical composition, both ancient and
modern. Many of these selections are taken from the most elegant and
classical American authors—writers whose noble productions have already
shed an unfading lustre, and stamped immortality upon the literature of
our country.—In the select part of the work, rhetorical marks are
also employed to point out the application of the principles laid down
in the first part.—The very favorable reception of the work by the
public, and its astonishingly rapid introduction into schools, since its
first publication in 1833, excites in the author the most sanguine hopes
in regard to its future success.

NOTICES.

After a careful perusal of this work, we are decidedly of opinion, that
it is the only successful attempt of the kind. The rules are copious,
and the author’s explanations and illustrations are happily adapted to
the comprehension of learners. No school should be without this book,
and it ought to find a place in the library of every gentleman who
values the attainment of a just and forcible elocution.—Pittsburgh
Mer. April, 1834.

Mr. Kirkham has given rules for inflections and emphasis, and has
followed them by illustrative examples, and these by remarks upon the
inflection which he has adopted, and the reasons for his preference of
one inflection to another—a most admirable plan for such a work.
Copious examples occur in which all the various inflections and the
shades of emphasis are distinguished with great accuracy and clearness.
The catechetical appendages of each chapter, give the work new value in
a school, and the selections made for the exercise of scholars, evince
good taste and judgment. U.S. Gazette, Philadelphia, Sept. 17, 1834.

The Essay now before us, needs not depend on any former work of its
author for a borrowed reputation; it has intrinsic merits of its own. It
lays down principles clearly and concisely. It presents the reader with
many new and judicious selections, both in prose and poetry; and
altogether evinces great industry combined with taste and
ingenuity.—Courier of Upper Canada, York, Oct. 12, 1833.

Of the talent and judgment of Mr. Kirkham, we have already had occasion
to speak in terms of honest praise. His work on Elocution raises him
still higher in our estimation.—The book would be of great utility in
schools—such a one as has long been wanted; and we are glad to see it
forthcoming.—Baltimore Visitor, July, 1833.

Every facility for teaching Elocution, which I have so often needed, but
never before found, is exactly furnished in this work:—principles are
clearly and concisely laid down, and are very happily adapted to the
comprehension of the learner. Thoroughly convinced of its utility, I
shall lose no time in introducing it into my school. Hartford, Conn.
Aug.. 20, 1834. NATHANIEL WEBB.

RECOMMENDATIONS.

It is well known that the recommendations which generally accompany new
books have very little weight with the public. This is as it should be,
for that work which rests more on its written testimonials, than on its
intrinsic merits for support, asserts no claims to permanent patronage.
But recommendations which analyze the merits of a work, and which, by
exhibiting its prominent features in a striking light, are calculated to
carry conviction to the reader that the system recommended is
meritorious, the author is proud to have it in his power to present in
this volume. The following are some of the numerous testimonials which
he has received, and for which he tenders his grateful acknowledgments
to those literary gentlemen to whose liberality and politeness he is
indebted for them. More than six hundred others presented to the
author, and many of which are equally flattering with these, he has not
room to insert.

The following notice of this work is extracted from the “Western
Review.” This journal is ably conducted by the Rev. Timothy Flint,
author of “Francis Berrian,” “History and Geography of the Miss.
Valley,” and many other popular and valuable works.

We had not, at that time, seen Mr. Kirkham’s “Grammar in familiar
Lectures,” but have since given it a cursory perusal. If we comprehend
the author’s design, it is not so much to introduce new principles, as
to render more easy and intelligible those which have been long
established, and to furnish additional facilities to an accurate and
thorough knowledge of our language. In this we think he has been
successful.

It is to be expected that a modest, unassuming writer, on presenting
himself before the public tribunal as an author, will, as far as is
consistent with his plan, avail himself of the authority of such as have
written well on the subject before him. Mr. Kirkham has accordingly
followed Mr. Murray in the old beaten track of English writers on
grammar, in the general principles of his science; endeavoring, at the
same time, to avoid whatever appeared to be erroneous or absurd in the
writings of that author, and adopting an entirely new arrangement. The
most useful matter contained in the treatise of Mr. Murray, is embraced
in this; but in the definitions and rules, it is simplified, and
rendered much more intelligible. Though our author follows Mr. Murray,
in the general principles of his work, he has, in numerous instances,
differed from him, pursuing a course that appears to be his own, and
introducing some valuable improvements.

Among these may be mentioned some additional rules and explanatory notes
in syntax, the arrangement of the parts of speech, the mode of
explaining them, manner of parsing, manner of explaining some of the
pronouns, and the use of a synopsis which presents the essentials of the
science at one view, and is well calculated to afford assistance to
learners.

In his arrangement of the parts of speech, Mr. Kirkham seems to have
endeavored to follow the order of nature; and we are not able to see
how he could have done better. The noun and verb, as being the most
important parts of speech, are first explained, and afterwards those
which are considered in a secondary and subordinate character. By
following this order, he has avoided the absurdity so common among
authors, of defining the minor parts before their principals, of which
they were designed to be the appendages, and has rationally prepared the
way for conducting the learner by easy advances to a correct view of the
science.

In his illustrations of the various subjects contained in his work, our
author appears to have aimed, not at a flowery style, nor at the
appearance of being learned, but at being understood. The clearness and
perspicuity of his remarks, and their application to familiar objects,
are well calculated to arrest the attention, and aid the understanding
of the pupil, and thereby to lessen the labor of the instructor. The
principles of the science are simplified, and rendered so perfectly
easy of comprehension, we should think no ordinary mind, having such
help, could find them difficult. It is in this particular that the work
appears to possess its chief merit, and on this account it cannot fail
of being preferred to many others.

It gives us pleasure to remark, in reference to the success of the
amiable and modest author whose work is before us, that we quote from
the fifth edition.

Cincinnati, Aug. 24, 1827.

The following is from the pen of a gentleman of the Bar, formerly a
distinguished Classical teacher. [Extract from the “National Crisis.”]

As a friend to literature, and especially to genuine merit, it is with
peculiar pleasure I allude to a notice in a late paper of this city, in
which Mr. S. Kirkham proposes to deliver a course of Lectures on English
Grammar. To such as feel interested in acquiring a general and practical
knowledge of this useful science an opportunity is now presented which
ought not to be neglected. Having myself witnessed, in several
instances, within the last ten months, the practical results of Mr.
Kirkham’s plan, I am enabled to give a decisive opinion of its merits.
The extensive knowledge acquired in one course by his class in
Pittsburgh, and the great proficiency evinced by his classes elsewhere,
are a demonstration of the utility and superiority of his method of
teaching, and a higher encomium on him than I am able to bestow.

The principles on which Mr. Kirkham’s “New system of Grammar” is
predicated, are judiciously compiled, and happily and briefly expressed;
but the great merit of his work consists in the lucid illustrations
accompanying the principles, and the simple and gradual manner in which
it conducts the learner along from step to step through the successive
stages of the science. The explanations blended with the theory, are
addressed to the understanding of the pupil in a manner so familiar,
that they cannot fail to excite in him a deep interest; and whatever
system is calculated to bring into requisition the mental powers, must,
I conceive, be productive of good results. In my humble opinion, the
system of teaching introduced into this work, will enable a diligent
pupil to acquire, without any other aid, a practical knowledge of
grammar, in less than one-fourth part of the time usually devoted.

My views of Mr. Kirkham’s system are thus publicly given, with the
greater pleasure, on account of the literary empiricisms which have been
so extensively practised in many parts of the western country.

Cincinnati, April 26, 1826.

From Mr. Blood, Principal of the Chambersburgh Academy, Pa.

Mr. Kirkham,—It is now almost twenty years since I became a teacher of
youth, and, during this period, I have not only consulted all, but have
used many of the different systems of English grammar that have fallen
in my way; and, sir, I do assure you, without the least wish to flatter,
that yours far exceeds any I have yet seen.

Your arrangement and systematic order of parsing are most excellent; and
experience has convinced me, (having used it, and it only, for the last
twelve or thirteen months), that a scholar will learn more of the nature
and principles of our language in one quarter, from your system, than
in a whole year from any other I had previously used. I do, therefore,
most cheerfully and earnestly recommend it to the public at large, and
especially to those who, anxious to acquire a knowledge of our language,
are destitute of the advantages of an instructer.

Yours, very respectfully, SAMUEL BLOOD.

Chambersburgh Academy, Feb. 12, 1825.

From Mr. N.R. Smith, editor of a valuable literary journal, styled “The
Hesperus.”

Mr. Kirkham,

Sir, I have examined your Lectures on English Grammar with that degree
of minuteness which enables me to yield my unqualified approbation of
the work as a grammatical system. The engaging manner in which you have
explained the elements of grammar, and accommodated them to the
capacities of youth, is an ample illustration of the utility of your
plan. In addition to this, the critical attention you have paid to an
analytical development of grammatical principles, while it is
calculated to encourage the perseverance of young students in the march
of improvement, is sufficient, also, to employ the researches of the
literary connoisseur. I trust that your valuable compilation will be
speedily introduced into schools and academies.

With respect, yours, N.R. SMITH, A.M.

Pittsburgh, March 22, 1825.

From Mr. Jungmann, Principal of the Frederick Lutheran
Academy:—Extract.

Having carefully examined Mr. S. Kirkham’s new system of “English
Grammar in familiar Lectures,” I am satisfied that the pre-eminent
advantages it possesses over our common systems, will soon convince the
public, that it is not one of those feeble efforts of quackery which
have so often obtruded upon our notice. Its decided superiority over
all other systems, consists in adapting the subject-matter to the
capacity of the young learner, and the happy mode adopted of
communicating it to his mind in a manner so clear and simple, that he
can easily comprehend the nature and the application of every principle
that comes before him.

In short, all the intricacies of the science are elucidated so
clearly, I am confident that even a private learner, of common
docility, can, by perusing this system attentively acquire a better
practical knowledge of this important branch of literature in three
months, than is ordinarily obtained in one year.

Frederick, Md. Sept 17, 1824. JOHN E. JUNGMANN.

Extract: from De Witt Clinton, late Gov. of New-York.

I consider the Compendium of English Grammar, by Samuel Kirkham, a work
deserving encouragement, and well calculated to facilitate the
acquisition of this useful science. DE WITT CLINTON.

Albany, Sept 25, 1824.

S. Kirkham, Esq.—I have examined your Grammar with attention, and with
a particular view to benefit the Institution under my charge. I am fully
satisfied, that it is the best form in which Murray’s principles have
been given to the public. The lectures are ample, and given in so
familiar and easy language, as to be readily understood, even by a
tyro in grammar.

I feel it due to you to say, that I commenced the examination of your
work, under a strong prejudice against it, in consequence of the
numerous “improved systems” with which the public has been inundated, of
late, most of which are by no means improvements on Murray, but the
productions of individuals whom a “little grammar has rendered
grammatically insane.” My convictions, therefore, are the result of
investigation. I wish you, Sir, success in your publication.

Respectfully, EBER. WHEATON,

Pr. of Mechanics’ Society School

With the opinion of Mr. Wheaton respecting Mr. Kirkham’s English Grammar, we heartily concur.

From the Rev. C.P. McIlvaine, and others.

So far as I have examined the plan of grammatical instruction by Samuel
Kirkham I am well satisfied that it meets the wants of elementary
schools in this branch, and deserves to be patronised. CHARLES P.
McILVAINE.

Brooklyn, L.I. July 9, 1829.

EXTRACT.

From the partial examination which I have given Mr. S. Kirkham’s English
Grammar, I do not hesitate to recommend it to the public as the best of
the class I have ever seen, and as filling up an important and almost
impassable chasm in works on grammatical science. D.L. CARROLL.

Brooklyn, L.I. June 29, 1829.

From A.W. Dodge, Esq.

New-York, July 15, 1829.

The experience of every one at all acquainted with the business of
instruction, must have taught him that the study of grammar, important
as it is to every class of learners, is almost invariably a dry and
uninteresting study to young beginners, and for the very obvious reason,
that the systems in general use in the schools, are far beyond the
comprehension of youth, and ill adapted to their years. Hence it is,
that their lessons in this department of learning, are considered as
tasks, and if committed at all, committed to the memory, without
enlightening their understandings; so that many a pupil who has been
through the English grammar, is totally unacquainted with the nature
even of the simplest parts of speech.

The work of Mr. Kirkham on grammar, is well calculated to remedy these
evils, and supply a deficiency which has been so long and so seriously
felt in the imperfect education of youth in the elementary knowledge of
their own language. By a simple, familiar, and lucid method of treating
the subject, he has rendered what was before irksome and unprofitable,
pleasing and instructive. In one word, the grammar of Mr. Kirkham
furnishes a clew by which the youthful mind is guided through the
intricate labyrinth of verbs, nouns and pronouns; and the path which has
been heretofore so difficult and uninviting, as to dampen the ardor of
youth, and waste their energies in fruitless attempts to surmount its
obstacles, is cleared of these obstructions by this pioneer to the
youthful mind, and planted, at every turn, with friendly guide-boards
to direct them in the right road. The slightest perusal of the work
alluded to, will convince even the most skeptical of the truth of these
remarks, and satisfy every one who is not wedded by prejudice to old
rules and forms, that it will meet the wants of the community.

ALLEN W. DODGE.

Philadelphia, Aug. 10, 1829

Having, for several years, been engaged in lecturing on the science of
grammar and, during this period, having thoroughly tested the merits
of Mr. S. Kirkham’s system of “English Grammar in Familiar Lectures” by
using it as a text-book for my classes, I take pleasure in giving this
testimonial of my cordial approbation of the work. Mr. Kirkham has
attempted to improve upon this branch of science, chiefly by unfolding
and explaining the principles of grammar in a manner so clear and
simple, as to adapt them completely to the understanding of the young
learner, and by adopting a new arrangement, which enables the pupil to
commit the principles by a simultaneous application of them to practical
examples. The public may rest assured, that he has been successful in
his attempt in a pre-eminent degree. I make this assertion under a
full conviction that it will be corroborated by every candid judge of
the science who becomes acquainted with the practical advantages of this
manual.

The explicit brevity and accuracy of the rules and definitions, the
novel, the striking, the lucid, and critical illustrations accompanying
them, the peculiar and advantageous arrangement of the various parts of
the subject, the facilities proffered by the “systematic mode of
parsing” adopted, the convenient and judicious introduction and
adaptation of the exercises introduced, and the deep researches and
critical investigations displayed in the “Philosophical Notes,” render
this system of grammar so decidedly superior to all others extant,
that, to receive general patronage, it needs but to be known.

My knowledge of this system from experience in teaching it, and
witnessing its effects in the hands of private learners, warrants me in
saying, that a learner will, by studying this book four months without
a teacher, obtain a more clear conception of the nature and proper
construction of words and phrases, than is ordinarily obtained in common
schools and academies, in five times four months.

It is highly gratifying to know, that wherever this system has been
circulated, it is very rapidly supplanting those works of dulness which
have so long paralyzed the energies of the youth of our country.

I think the specimens of verbal criticism, additional corrections in
orthography and ortheopy, the leading principles of rhetoric, and the
improvements in the illustrations generally, which Mr. K. is about
introducing into his ELEVENTH EDITION, will render it quite an
improvement on the former editions of this work. H. WINCHESTER.

From the Rev. S. Center, Principal of a Classical Academy.

I have examined the last edition of Kirkham’s Grammar with peculiar
satisfaction. The improvements which appear in it, do, in my estimation,
give it a decided preference to any other system now in use. To point
out the peculiar qualities which secure to it claims of which no other
system can boast, would be, if required, perfectly easy. At present it
is sufficient to remark, that it imbodies all that is essentially
excellent and useful in other systems, while it is entirely free from
that tediousness of method and prolixity of definition which so much
perplex and embarrass the learner.

The peculiar excellence of Mr. Kirkham’s grammar is, the simplicity of
its method, and the plainness of its illustrations. Being conducted
by familiar lectures, the teacher and pupil are necessarily brought into
agreeable contact by each lesson. Both are improved by the same task,
without the slightest suspicion, on the part of the pupil, that there is
anything hard, difficult, or obscure in the subject: a conviction, this,
which must inevitably precede all efforts, or no proficiency will be
made. In a word, the treatise I am recommending, is a practical one;
and for that reason, if there were no others to be urged, it ought to be
introduced into all our schools and academies. From actual experiment I
can attest to the practicability of the plan which the author has
adopted. Of this fact any one may be convinced who will take the pains
to make the experiment. SAMUEL CENTER.

Albany, July 10, 1829.

From a communication addressed to S. Kirkham, by the Rev. J. Stockton,
author of the “Western Calculator” and “Western Spelling-Book.”

Dear Sir,—I am much pleased with both the plan and execution of
your “English Grammar in Familiar Lectures.” In giving a systematic
mode of parsing, calculated alike to exercise the understanding and
memory of the pupil, and also free the teacher from the drudgery of
continued interrogation, you have made your grammar what every
elementary school book ought to be—plain, systematic, and easy to
be understood.

This, with the copious definitions in every part of the work, and other
improvements so judiciously introduced, gives it a decisive
superiority over the imperfect grammar of Murray, now so generally
used. JOSEPH STOCKTON, A.M.

Allegheny-Town, (near Pittsburgh,) March 18, 1825.

TO THE ELEVENTH EDITION.

The author is free to acknowledge, that since this treatise first
ventured on the wave of public opinion, the gales of patronage which
have waited it along, have been far more favorable than he had reason to
anticipate. Had any one, on its first appearance, predicted, that the
demand for it would call forth twenty-two thousand copies during the
past year, the author would have considered the prediction extravagant
and chimerical. In gratitude, therefore, to that public which has smiled
so propitiously on his humble efforts to advance the cause of learning,
he has endeavored, by unremitting attention to the improvement of his
work, to render it as useful and as unexceptionable as his time and
talents would permit.

It is believed that the tenth and eleventh editions have been
greatly improved; but the author is apprehensive that his work is not
yet as accurate and as much simplified as it may be. If, however, the
disadvantages of lingering under a broken constitution, and of being
able to devote to this subject only a small portion of his time,
snatched from the active pursuits of a business life, (active as far
as his imperfect health permits him to be,) are any apology for its
defects, he hopes that the candid will set down the apology to his
credit. This personal allusion is hazarded with the additional hope,
that it will ward off some of the arrows of criticism which may be aimed
at him, and render less pointed and poisonous those that may fall upon
him. Not that he would beg a truce with the gentlemen critics and
reviewers. Any compromise with them would betray a want of
self-confidence and moral courage which he would, by no means, be
willing to avow. It would, moreover, be prejudicial to his interest; for
he is determined, if his life be preserved, to avail himself of the
advantages of any judicious and candid criticisms on his production,
that may appear, and, two or three years hence, revise his work, and
present to the public another and a better edition.

The improvements in the tenth edition, consisted mainly in the
addition of many important principles; in rendering the illustrations
more critical, extensive, accurate, and lucid; in connecting more
closely with the genius and philosophy of our language, the general
principles adopted; and in adding a brief view of philosophical grammar
interspersed in notes. The introduction into the ELEVENTH EDITION, of
many verbal criticisms, of additional corrections in orthography and
orthoepy, of the leading principles of rhetoric, and of general
additions and improvements in various parts of the work, render this
edition, it is believed, far preferable to any of the former
editions of the work.

Perhaps some will regard the philosophical notes as a useless exhibition
of pedantry. If so, the author’s only apology is, that some
investigations of this nature seemed to be called for by a portion of
the community whose minds, of late, appear to be under the influence of
a kind of philosophical mania; and to such these notes are
respectfully submitted for just what they may deem their real value.
The author’s own opinion on this point, is, that they proffer no
material advantages to common learners; but that they may profitably
engage the attention of the curious, and perhaps impart a degree of
interest to the literary connoisseur.

New-York, August 22, 1820.

CONTENTS.

• Address to the learner
• A, an, one: i, ii
• And
• Adjectives: i, ii
• Adverbs
• Agreement of words
• Anomalies
• Articles
• Because
• But, than, as: i, ii, iii
• Case
• • Nominative: i, ii
  • Possessive
  • Objective: i, ii
  • Nominative case independent: i, ii, iii, iv
  • Nominative case absolute: i, ii
  • Apposition of cases: i, ii
  • Nominative and objective after the verb to be
  • Active, passive, and neuter nominatives
• Conjunctions
• Conjugation of regular verbs
• Derivation (all the philosophical notes treat of derivation): i, ii, iii
• Etymology
• Exercises in false syntax
• • In punctuation
• Figures of speech
• Gender
• Government
• Grammar, general division of
• • Philosophical
• Have: i, ii
• Idioms
• Interjections
• It
• If
• Key to the exercises
• Letters, sounds of
• Like
• Manner of meaning of words: i, ii
• • Moods
  • Signs of
  • Subjunctive: i, ii, iii
• Nouns
• • Gender of
  • Person of
  • Number of
  • Case of: i, ii
• Orthography: i, ii
• • Rules of
• Parsing
• Participles
• Poetry transposed
• Prepositions
• Pronouns
• • Personal
  • Compound personal
  • Adjective
  • Relative
• Pronunciation
• Prosody
• Provincialisms
• Punctuation
• Rhetoric
• Rules of syntax
• Sentences, definitions of simple and compound
• • Transposition of: i, ii
• Standard of grammatical accuracy: i, ii
• Syntax
• To
• Tenses: i, ii
• • Signs of the
• The: i, ii
• That: i, ii
• Terminations: i, ii,
  iii, iv, v
• Verbs: i, ii
• • Active-transitive: i, ii
  • Active-intransitive
  • Passive
  • Neuter
  • Defective
  • Auxiliary: i, ii
  • Regular
  • Irregular
  • Compound: i, ii
• Versification
• Worth: i, ii
• What, which, who: i, ii, iii
• You

PREFACE

There appears to be something assuming in the act of writing, and
thrusting into public notice, a new work on a subject which has already
employed many able pens; for who would presume to do this, unless he
believed his production to be, in some respects, superior to every one
of the kind which had preceded it? Hence, in presenting to the public
this system of English Grammar, the author is aware that an apology will
be looked for, and that the arguments on which that apology is grounded,
must inevitably undergo a rigid scrutiny. Apprehensive, however, that no
explanatory effort, on his part, would shield him from the imputation of
arrogance by such as are blinded by self-interest, or by those who are
wedded to the doctrines mid opinions of his predecessors, with them he
will not attempt a compromise, being, in a great measure, indifferent
either to their praise or their censure. But with the candid, he is
willing to negotiate an amicable treaty, knowing that they are always
ready to enter into it on honorable terms. In this negotiation he asks
nothing more than merely to rest the merits of his work on its practical
utility, believing that, if it prove uncommonly successful in
facilitating the progress of youth in the march of mental improvement,
that will be its best apology.

When we bring into consideration the numerous productions of those
learned philologists who have labored so long, and, as many suppose, so
successfully, in establishing the principles of our language; and, more
especially, when we view the labors of some of our modern compilers, who
have displayed so much ingenuity and acuteness in attempting to arrange
those principles in such a manner as to form a correct and an easy
medium of mental conference; it does, indeed, appear a little like
presumption for a young man to enter upon a subject which has so
frequently engaged the attention and talents of men distinguished for
their erudition. The author ventures forward, however, under the
conviction, that most of his predecessors are very deficient, at least,
in manner, if not in matter; and this conviction, he believes, will
be corroborated by a majority of the best judges in community. It is
admitted, that many valuable improvements have been made by some of our
late writers, who have endeavored to simplify and render this subject
intelligible to the young learner, but they have all overlooked what the
author considers a very important object, namely, a systematic order of
parsing; and nearly all have neglected to develop and explain the
principles in such a manner as to enable the learner, without great
difficulty, to comprehend their nature and use.

By some this system will, no doubt, be discarded on account of its
simplicity; while to others its simplicity will prove its principal
recommendation. Its design is an humble one. It proffers no great
advantages to the recondite grammarian; it professes not to instruct the
literary connoisseur; it presents no attractive graces of style to
charm, no daring flights to astonish, no deep researches to gratify
him; but in the humblest simplicity of diction, it attempts to
accelerate the march of the juvenile mind in its advances in the path of
science, by dispersing those clouds that so often bewilder it, and
removing those obstacles that generally retard its progress. In this way
it endeavors to render interesting and delightful a study which has
hitherto been considered tedious, dry, and irksome. Its leading object
is to adopt a correct and an easy method, in which pleasure is blended
with the labors of the learner, and which is calculated to excite in him
a spirit of inquiry, that shall call forth into vigorous and useful
exercise, every latent energy of his mind; and thus enable him soon to
become thoroughly acquainted with the nature of the principles, and with
their practical utility and application.

Content to be useful, instead of being brilliant, the writer of these
pages has endeavored to shun the path of those whose aim appears to have
been to dazzle, rather than to instruct. As he has aimed not so much at
originality as utility, he has adopted the thoughts of his predecessors
whose labors have become public stock, whenever he could not, in his
opinion, furnish better and brighter of his own. Aware that there is, in
the public mind, a strong predilection for the doctrines contained in
Mr. Murray’s grammar, he has thought proper, not merely from motives of
policy, but from choice, to select his principles chiefly from that
work; and, moreover, to adopt, as far as consistent with his own views,
the language of that eminent philologist. In no instance has he varied
from him, unless he conceived that, in so doing, some practical
advantage would be gained. He hopes, therefore, to escape the censure so
frequently and so justly awarded to those unfortunate innovators who
have not scrupled to alter, mutilate, and torture the text of that able
writer, merely to gratify an itching propensity to figure in the world
as authors, and gain an ephemeral popularity by arrogating to themselves
the credit due to another.

The author is not disposed, however, to disclaim all pretensions to
originality; for, although his principles are chiefly selected, (and who
would presume to make new ones?) the manner of arranging, illustrating,
and applying them, is principally his own. Let no one, therefore, if he
happen to find in other works, ideas and illustrations similar to some
contained in the following lectures, too hastily accuse him of
plagiarism. It is well known that similar investigations and pursuits
often elicit corresponding ideas in different minds: and hence it is not
uncommon for the same thought to be strictly original with many
writers. The author is not here attempting to manufacture a garment to
shield him from rebuke, should he unjustly claim the property of
another; but he wishes it to be understood, that a long course of
teaching and investigation, has often produced in his mind ideas and
arguments on the subject of grammar, exactly or nearly corresponding
with those which he afterwards found, had, under similar circumstances,
been produced in the minds of others. He hopes, therefore, to be
pardoned by the critic, even though he should not be willing to reject a
good idea of his own, merely because some one else has, at some time
or other, been blessed with the same thought.

As the plan of this treatise is far more comprehensive than those of
ordinary grammars, the writer could not, without making his work
unreasonably voluminous, treat some topics as extensively as was
desirable. Its design is to embrace, not only all the most important
principles of the science, but also exercises in parsing, false syntax,
and punctuation, sufficiently extensive for all ordinary, practical
purposes, and a key to the exercises, and, moreover, a series of
illustrations so full and intelligible, as completely to adapt the
principles to the capacities of common learners. Whether this design
has been successfully or unsuccessfully executed, is left for the public
to decide. The general adoption of the work into schools, wherever it
has become known, and the ready sale of forty thousand copies, (though
without hitherto affording the author any pecuniary profit,) are
favorable omens.

In the selection and arrangement of principles for his work, the author
has endeavored to pursue a course between the extremes, of taking
blindly on trust whatever has been sanctioned by prejudice and the
authority of venerable names, and of that arrogant, innovating spirit,
which sets at defiance all authority, and attempts to overthrow all
former systems, and convince the world that all true knowledge and
science are wrapped up in a crude system of vagaries of its own
invention. Notwithstanding the author is aware that public prejudice is
powerful, and that he who ventures much by way of innovation, will be
liable to defeat his own purpose by falling into neglect; yet he has
taken the liberty to think for himself, to investigate the subject
critically and dispassionately, and to adopt such principles only as he
deemed the least objectionable, and best calculated to effect the object
he had in view. But what his system claims as improvements on others,
consists not so much in bettering the principles themselves, as in the
method adopted of communicating a knowledge of them to the mind of the
learner. That the work is defective, the author is fully sensible: and
he is free to acknowledge, that its defects arise, in part, from his own
want of judgment and skill. But there is another and a more serious
cause of them, namely, the anomalies and imperfections with which the
language abounds. This latter circumstance is also the cause of the
existence of so widely different opinions on many important points; and,
moreover, the reason that the grammatical principles of our language can
never be indisputably settled. But principles ought not to be rejected
because they admit of exceptions.—He who is thoroughly acquainted with
the genius and structure of our language, can duly appreciate the truth
of these remarks.

Should parents object to the Compendium, fearing it will soon be
destroyed by their children, they are informed that the pupil will not
have occasion to use it one-tenth part as much as he will the book which
it accompanies: and besides, if it be destroyed, he will find all the
definitions and rules which it contains, recapitulated in the series of
Lectures.

HINTS TO TEACHERS AND PRIVATE LEARNERS.

As this work proposes a new mode of parsing, and pursues an arrangement
essentially different from that generally adopted, it may not be deemed
improper for the author to give some directions to those who may be
disposed to use it. Perhaps they who take only a slight view of the
order of parsing, will not consider it new, but blend it with those
long since adopted. Some writers have, indeed, attempted plans somewhat
similar; but in no instance have they reduced them to what the author
considers a regular systematic order.

The methods which they have generally suggested, require the teacher to
interrogate the pupil as he proceeds; or else he is permitted to parse
without giving any explanations at all. Others hint that the learner
ought to apply definitions in a general way, but they lay down no
systematic arrangement of questions as his guide. The systematic order
laid down in this work, if pursued by the pupil, compels him to apply
every definition and every rule that appertains to each word he parses,
without having a question put to him by the teacher; and, in so doing,
he explains every word fully as he goes along. This course enables the
learner to proceed independently; and proves, at the same time, a great
relief to the instructer. The convenience and advantage of this method,
are far greater than can be easily conceived by one who is unacquainted
with it. The author is, therefore, anxious to have the absurd practice,
wherever it has been established, of causing learners to commit and
recite definitions and rules without any simultaneous application of
them to practical examples, immediately abolished. This system obviates
the necessity of pursuing such a stupid course of drudgery; for the
young beginner who pursues it, will have, in a few weeks, all the most
important definitions and rules perfectly committed, simply by applying
them in parsing.

If this plan be once adopted, it is confidently believed that every
teacher who is desirous to consult, either his own convenience, or the
advantage of his pupils, will readily pursue it in preference to any
former method. This belief is founded on the advantages which the
author himself has experienced from it in the course of several years,
devoted to the instruction of youth and adults. By pursuing this system,
he can, with less labor, advance a pupil farther in a practical
knowledge of this abstruse science, in two months, than he could in
one year when he taught in the “old way.” It is presumed that no
instructor, who once gives this system a fair trial, will doubt the
truth of this assertion.

Perhaps some will, on a first view of the work, disapprove of the
transposition of many parts; but whoever examines it attentively, will
find that, although the author has not followed the common “artificial
and unnatural arrangement adopted by most of his predecessors,” yet he
has endeavored to pursue a more judicious one, namely, “the order of the
understanding.”

The learner should commence, not by committing and rehearsing, but by
reading attentively the first two lectures several times over. He
ought then to parse, according to the systematic order, the examples
given for that purpose; in doing which, as previously stated, he has an
opportunity of committing all the definitions and rules belonging to the
parts of speech included in the examples.

The COMPENDIUM, as it presents to the eye of the learner a condensed but
comprehensive view of the whole science, may be properly considered an
“Ocular Analysis of the English language.” By referring to it, the young
student is enabled to apply all his definitions and rules from the very
commencement of his parsing. To some, this mode of procedure may seem
rather tedious; but it must appear obvious to every person of
discernment, that a pupil will learn more by parsing five words
critically, and explaining them fully, than he would by parsing fifty
words superficially, and without understanding their various properties.
The teacher who pursues this plan, is not under the necessity of hearing
his pupils recite a single lesson of definitions committed to memory,
for he has a fair opportunity of discovering their knowledge of these as
they evince it in parsing. All other directions necessary for the
learner in school, as well as for the private learner, will be given
in the succeeding pages of the work. Should these feeble efforts prove a
saving of much time and expense to those young persons who may be
disposed to pursue this science with avidity, by enabling them easily to
acquire a critical knowledge of a branch of education so important and
desirable, the author’s fondest anticipations will be fully realized;
but should his work fall into the hands of any who are expecting, by the
acquisition, to become grammarians, and yet, have not sufficient
ambition and perseverance to make themselves acquainted with its
contents, it is hoped that the blame for their nonimprovement, will not
be thrown upon him.

FAMILIAR LECTURES

ON

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

LECTURE I

DIVISIONS OF GRAMMAR.—ORTHOGRAPHY.

TO THE YOUNG LEARNER.

You are about to enter upon one of the most useful, and, when rightly
pursued, one of the most interesting studies in the whole circle of
science. If, however, you, like many a misguided youth, are under the
impression that the study of grammar is dry and irksome, and a matter of
little consequence, I trust I shall succeed in removing from your mind,
all such false notions and ungrounded prejudices; for I will endeavor to
convince you, before I close these lectures, that this is not only a
pleasing study, but one of real and substantial utility; a study that
directly tends to adorn and dignify human nature, and meliorate the
condition of man. Grammar is a leading branch of that learning which
alone is capable of unfolding and maturing the mental powers, and of
elevating man to his proper rank in the scale of intellectual
existence;—of that learning which lifts the soul from earth, and
enables it to hold converse with a thousand worlds. In pursuing any and
every other path of science, you will discover the truth of these
remarks, and feel its force; for you will find, that, as grammar opens
the door to every department of learning, a knowledge of it is
indispensable: and should you not aspire at distinction in the republic
of letters, this knowledge cannot fail of being serviceable to you, even
if you are destined to pass through the humblest walks of life. I think
it is clear, that, in one point of view, grammatical knowledge possesses
a decisive advantage over every other branch of learning. Penmanship,
arithmetic, geography, astronomy, botany, chemistry, and so on, are
highly useful in their respective places; but not one of them is so
universally applicable to practical purposes, as this. In every
situation, under all circumstances, on all occasions;—when you speak,
read, write, or think, a knowledge of grammar is of essential utility.

Doubtless you have heard some persons assert, that they could detect and
correct any error in language by the ear, and speak and write accurately
without a knowledge of grammar. Now your own observation will soon
convince you, that this assertion is incorrect. A man of refined taste,
may, by perusing good authors, and conversing with the learned, acquire
that knowledge of language which will enable him to avoid those glaring
errors that offend the ear; but there are other errors equally gross,
which have not a harsh sound, and, consequently, which cannot be
detected without a knowledge of the rules that are violated. Believe me,
therefore, when I say, that without the knowledge and application of
grammar rules, it is impossible for any one to think, speak, read, or
write with accuracy. From a want of such knowledge, many often express
their ideas in a manner so improper and obscure as to render it
impossible for any one to understand them: their language frequently
amounts, not only to bad sense, but non-sense. In other instances
several different meanings may be affixed to the words they employ; and
what is still worse, is, that not unfrequently their sentences are so
constructed, as to convey a meaning quite the reverse of that which they
intended. Nothing of a secular nature can be more worthy of your
attention, then, than the acquisition of grammatical knowledge.

The path which leads to grammatical excellence, is not all the way
smooth and flowery, but in it you will find some thorns interspersed,
and some obstacles to be surmounted; or, in simple language, you will
find, in the pursuit of this science, many intricacies which it is
rather difficult for the juvenile mind completely to unravel. I shall,
therefore, as I proceed, address you in plain language, and endeavor to
illustrate every principle in a manner so clear and simple, that you
will be able, if you exercise your mind, to understand its nature, and
apply it to practice as you go along; for I would rather give you one
useful idea, than fifty high-sounding words, the meaning of which you
would probably be unable to comprehend.

Should you ever have any doubts concerning the meaning of a word, or the
sense of a sentence, you must not be discouraged, but persevere, either
by studying my explanations, or by asking some person competent to
inform you, till you obtain a clear conception of it, and till all
doubts are removed. By carefully examining, and frequently reviewing,
the following lectures, you will soon be able to discern the grammatical
construction of our language, and fix in your mind the principles by
which it is governed. Nothing delights youth so much, as a clear and
distinct knowledge of any branch of science which they are pursuing;
and, on the other hand, I know they are apt to be discouraged with any
branch of learning which requires much time and attention to be
understood. It is the evidence of a weak mind, however, to be
discouraged by the obstacles with which the young learner must expect to
meet; and the best means that you can adopt, in order to enable you to
overcome the difficulties that arise in the incipient stage of your
studies, is to cultivate the habit of thinking methodically and
soundly on all subjects of importance which may engage your attention.
Nothing will be more effectual in enabling you to think, as well as to
speak and write, correctly, than the study of English grammar, according
to the method of pursuing it as prescribed in the following pages. This
system is designed, and, I trust, well calculated, to expand and
strengthen the intellectual faculties, in as much as it involves a
process by which the mind is addressed, and a knowledge of grammar
communicated in an interesting and familiar manner.

You are aware, my young friend, that you live in an age of light and
knowledge;—an age in which science and the arts are marching onward
with gigantic strides. You live, too, in a land of liberty;—a land on
which the smiles of Heaven beam with uncommon refulgence. The trump of
the warrior and the clangor of arms no longer echo on our mountains, or
in our valleys; “the garments dyed in blood have passed away;” the
mighty struggle for independence is over; and you live to enjoy the rich
boon of freedom and prosperity which was purchased with the blood of our
fathers. These considerations forbid that you should ever be so
unmindful of your duty to your country, to your Creator, to yourself,
and to succeeding generations, as to be content to grovel in ignorance.
Remember that “knowledge is power;” that an enlightened and a virtuous
people can never be enslaved; and that, on the intelligence of our
youth, rest the future liberty, the prosperity, the happiness, the
grandeur, and the glory of our beloved country. Go on then, with a
laudable ambition, and an unyielding perseverance, in the path which
leads to honor and renown. Press forward. Go, and gather laurels on the
hill of science; linger among her unfading beauties; “drink deep” of her
crystal fountain; and then join in “the march of fame.” Become learned
and virtuous, and you will be great. Love God and serve him, and you
will be happy.

LANGUAGE.

Language, in its most extensive sense, implies those signs by which men
and brutes communicate to each other their thoughts, affections, and
desires.

Language may be divided, 1. into natural and artificial; 2. into spoken
and written.

NATURAL LANGUAGE, consists in the use of those natural signs which
different animals employ in communicating their feelings one to another.
The meaning of these signs all perfectly understand by the principles of
their nature. This language is common both to man and brute. The
elements of natural language in man, may be reduced to three kinds;
modulations of the voice, gestures, and features. By means of these, two
savages who have no common, artificial language, can communicate their
thoughts in a manner quite intelligible: they can ask and refuse, affirm
and deny, threaten and supplicate; they can traffick, enter into
contracts, and plight their faith. The language of brutes consists in
the use of those inarticulate sounds by which they express their
thoughts and affections. Thus, the chirping of a bird, the bleating of a
lamb, the neighing of a horse, and the growling, whining, and barking of
a dog, are the language of those animals, respectively.

ARTIFICIAL LANGUAGE consists in the use of words, by means of which
mankind are enabled to communicate their thoughts to one another.—In
order to assist you in comprehending what is meant by the term word, I
will endeavor to illustrate the meaning of the term.

Idea. The notices which we gain by sensation and perception, and
which are treasured up in the mind to be the materials of thinking and
knowledge, are denominated ideas. For example, when you place your hand
upon a piece of ice, a sensation is excited which we call coldness.
That faculty which notices this sensation or change produced in the
mind, is called perception; and the abstract notice itself, or notion
you form of this sensation, is denominated an idea. This being
premised, we will now proceed to the consideration of words.

Words are articulate sounds, used by common consent, not as natural,
but as artificial, signs of our ideas. Words have no meaning in
themselves. They are merely the artificial representatives of those
ideas affixed to them by compact or agreement among those who use them.
In English, for instance, to a particular kind of metal we assign the
name gold; not because there is, in that sound, any peculiar aptness
which suggests the idea we wish to convey, but the application of that
sound to the idea signified, is an act altogether arbitrary. Were there
any natural connexion between the sound and the thing signified, the
word gold would convey the same idea to the people of other countries
as it does to ourselves. But such is not the fact. Other nations make
use of different sounds to signify the same thing. Thus, aurum denotes
the same idea in Latin, and or in French. Hence it follows, that it is
by custom only we learn to annex particular ideas to particular sounds.

SPOKEN LANGUAGE or speech is made up of articulate sounds uttered by the
human voice.

The voice is formed by air which, after it passes through the glottis,
(a small aperture in the upper part of the wind-pipe,) is modulated by
the action of the throat, palate, teeth, tongue, lips, and nostrils.

WRITTEN LANGUAGE. The elements of written language consist of letters or
characters, which, by common consent and general usage, are combined
into words, and thus made the ocular representatives of the articulate
sounds uttered by the voice.

GRAMMAR.

Grammar may be divided into two species, universal and particular.

UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR explains the principles which are common to all
languages.

PARTICULAR GRAMMAR applies those general principles to a particular
language, modifying them according to its genius, and the established
practice of the best speakers and writers by whom it is used. Hence,

The established practice of the best speakers and writers of any
language, is the standard of grammatical accuracy in the use of that
language.

By the phrase, established practice, is implied reputable, national,
and present usage. A usage becomes good and legal, when it has been
long and generally adopted.

The best speakers and writers, or such as may be considered good
authority in the use of language, are those who are deservedly in high
estimation; speakers, distinguished for their elocution and other
literary attainments, and writers, eminent for correct taste, solid
matter, and refined manner.

PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR investigates and develops the principles of
language, as founded in the nature of things and the original laws of
thought. It also discusses the grounds of the classification of words,
and explains those procedures which practical grammar lays down for our
observance.

PRACTICAL GRAMMAR adopts the most convenient classification of the words
of a language, lays down a system of definitions and rules, founded on
scientific principles and good usage, illustrates their nature and
design, and enforces their application.

PRINCIPLE. A principle in grammar is a peculiar construction of the
language, sanctioned by good usage.

DEFINITION. A definition in grammar is a principle of language expressed
in a definite form.

RULE. A rule describes the peculiar construction or circumstantial
relation of words, which custom has established for our observance.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

GRAMMAR teaches us how to use words in a proper manner. The most
important use of that faculty called speech, is, to convey our thoughts
to others. If, therefore, we have a store of words, and even know what
they signify, they will be of no real use to us unless we can also apply
them to practice, and make them answer the purposes for which they were
invented. Grammar, well understood, enables us to express our
thoughts fully and clearly; and, consequently, in a manner which will
defy the ingenuity of man to give our words any other meaning than that
which we ourselves intend them to express. To be able to speak and write
our vernacular tongue with accuracy and elegance, is, certainly, a
consideration of the highest moment.

1. ORTHOGRAPHY,
2. ETYMOLOGY,
3. SYNTAX,
4. PROSODY.

ORTHOGRAPHY means word-making, or spelling. It teaches us the
different kinds and sounds of letters, how to combine them into
syllables, and syllables into words.

As this is one of the first steps in the path of literature, I presume
you already understand the nature and use of letters, and the just
method of spelling words. If you do, it is unnecessary for you to dwell
long on this part of grammar, which, though very important, is rather
dry and uninteresting, for it has nothing to do with parsing and
analyzing language. And, therefore, if you can spell correctly, you
may omit Orthography, and commence with Etymology and Syntax.

OF THE SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS.

A.—A has four sounds; the long; as in name, basin; the broad; as in
ball, wall; the short; as in fagot, glass; and the flat, Italian
sound; as in bar, farther. The improper diphthong, aa, has the
short sound of a in Balaam, Canaan, Isaac; and the long sound of a
in Baal, Gaal, Aaron.

The Latin diphthong, ae, has the long sound of e in aenigma,
Caesar, and some other words. But many authors reject this useless
excrescence of antiquity, and write, enigma, Cesar.

The diphthong, ai, has the long sound of a; as in pail, sail;
except in plaid, said, again, raillery, fountain, Britain, and some
others.

Au is sounded like broad a in taught, like flat a in aunt,
like long o in hautboy, and like short o in laurel.

Aw has always the sound of broad a; as in bawl, crawl.

Ay has the long sound of a; as in pay, delay.

B.—B has only one sound; as in baker, number, chub.

B is silent when it follows m in the same syllable; as in lamb,
&c. except in accumb, rhomb, and succumb. It is also silent before
t in the same syllable; as in doubt, debtor, subtle, &c.

C.—C sounds like k before a, o, u, r, l, t, and at the end of
syllables; as in cart, cottage, curious, craft, tract, cloth; victim,
flaccid. It has the sound of s before e, i, and y; as in centre,
cigar, mercy. C has the sound of sh when followed by a diphthong, and
is preceded by the accent, either primary or secondary; as in social,
pronunciation, &c.; and of z in discern, sacrifice, sice, suffice.
It is mute in arbuscle, czar, czarina, endict, victuals, muscle.

Ch is commonly sounded like tsh; as in church, chin; but in words
derived from the ancient languages, it has the sound of k; as in
chemist, chorus; and likewise in foreign names; as in Achish, Enoch.
In words from the French, ch sounds like sh; as in chaise,
chevalier; and also like sh when preceded by l or n; as in
milch, bench, clinch, &c.

Ch in arch, before a vowel, sounds like k; as in arch-angel,
except in arched, archery, archer; archenemy; but before a consonant,
it sounds like tsh; as in archbishop. Ch is silent in schedule,
schism, yacht, drachm.

D.—D has one uniform sound; as in death, bandage. It sounds like
dj or j when followed by long u preceded by the accent; as in
educate, verdure. It also sounds like j in grandeur, soldier.

The termination, ed, in adjectives and participial adjectives, retains
its distinct sound; as, a wick-ed man, a learn-ed man, bless-ed
are the meek; but in verbs the e is generally dropped; as, passed,
walked, flashed, aimed, rolled, &c. which are pronounced, past, walkt,
flasht, aimd, rold.

E.—E has a long sound; as in scheme, severe; a short sound; as in
men, tent; and sometimes the sound of flat a; as in sergeant; and
of short i; as in yes, pretty, England, and generally in the
unaccented terminations, es, et, en.

F.—F has one unvaried sound; as in fancy, muffin; except in of,
which, when uncompounded, is pronounced ov. A wive’s portion, a
calve’s head, are improper. They should be, wife’s portion, calf’s
head.

G.—G has two sounds. It is hard before a, o, u, l, and r, and at
the end of a word; as in gay, go, gun, glory; bag, snug. It is soft
before e, i, and y; as in genius, ginger, Egypt. Exceptions; get,
gewgaw, gimlet, and some others. G is silent before n, as in gnash.

H.—H has an articulate sound; as in hat, horse, hull. It is silent
after r; as in rhetoric, rhubarb.

I.—I has a long sound; as in fine; and a short one; as in fin.
Before r it is often sounded like u short; as in first, third; and
in other words, like short e; as in birth, virtue. In some words it
has the sound of long e; as in machine, profile.

J.—J has the sound of soft g; except in hallelujah, in which it
is pronounced like y.

K.—K has the sound of c hard, and is used before e, i, and y,
where c would be soft; as kept, skirt, murky. It is silent before
n; as in knife, knell, knocker.

L.—L has always a soft liquid sound; as in love, billow. It is
often silent; as in half, talk, almond.

M.—M has always the same sound; as in murmur, monumental; except in
comptroller, which is pronounced controller.

N.—N has two sounds; the one pure; as in man, net, noble; the other
a compound sound; as in ankle, banquet, distinct, &c., pronounced
angkl, bangkwet. N final is silent when preceded by m; as in
hymn, autumn.

O.—O has a long sound; as in note, over; and a short one; as in
not, got. It has the sound of u short; as in son, attorney, doth,
does; and generally in the terminations, op, ot, or, on, om, ol, od,
&c.

P.—P has but one uniform sound; as in pin, slipper; except in
cupboard, clapboard, where it has the sound of b. It is mute in
psalm, Ptolemy, tempt, empty, corps, raspberry, and receipt.

Ph has the sound of f in philosophy, Philip; and of v in
nephew, Stephen.

Q.—Q is sounded like k, and is always followed by u pronounced
like w; as in quadrant, queen, conquest.

R.—R has a rough sound; as in Rome, river, rage; and a smooth one;
as in bard, card, regard. In the unaccented termination re, the r
is sounded after the e; as in fibre, centre.

S.—S has a flat sound like z; as in besom, nasal; and, at the
beginning of words, a sharp, hissing sound; as in saint, sister,
sample. It has the sound of sh when preceded by the accent and
another s or a liquid, and followed by a diphthong or long u; as in
expulsion, censure. S sounds like zh when preceded by the accent
and a vowel, and followed by a diphthong or long u as in brasier,
usual. It is mute in isle, corps, demesne, viscount.

T.—T is sounded in take, temper. T before u, when the accent
precedes, and generally before eou, sounds like tsh; as, nature,
virtue, righteous, are pronounced natshure, virtshue, richeus. Ti
before a vowel, preceded by the accent, has the sound of sh; as in
salvation, negotiation; except in such words as tierce, tiara, &c.
and unless an s goes before; as, question; and excepting also
derivatives from words ending in ty; as in mighty, mightier.

Th, at the beginning, middle, and end of words, is sharp; as in
thick, panther, breath. Exceptions; then, booth, worthy, &c.

U.—U has three sounds; a long; as in mule, cubic; a short; as in
dull, custard; and an obtuse sound; as in full, bushel. It is
pronounced like short e in bury; and like short i in busy,
business.

V.—V has uniformly the sound of flat f; as in vanity, love.

W.—W, when a consonant, has its sound, which is heard in wo,
beware. W is silent before r; as in wry, wrap, wrinkle; and also
in answer, sword, &c. Before h it is pronounced as if written after
the h; as in why, when, what;—hwy, hwen, hwat. When heard as a
vowel, it takes the sound of u; as in draw, crew, now.

X.—X has a sharp sound, like ks, when it ends a syllable with the
accent on it; as, exit, exercise; or when it precedes an accented
syllable which begins with any consonant except h; as, excuse,
extent; but when the following accented syllable begins with a vowel or
h, it has, generally, a flat sound, like gz; as in exert, exhort.
X has the sound of Z at the beginning of proper names of Greek
original; as in Xanthus, Xenophon, Xerxes.

Y.—Y, when a consonant, has its proper sound; as in youth, York,
yes, new-year. When y is employed as a vowel, it has exactly the
sound that i would have in the same situation; as in rhyme, system,
party, pyramid.

Z.—Z has the sound of flat s; as in freeze, brazen.

RULES FOR SPELLING.

The following rules are deemed important in practice, although they
assist us in spelling only a small portion of the words of our language.
This useful art is to be chiefly acquired by studying the spelling-book
and dictionary, and by strict attention in reading.

RULE I. Monosyllables ending in f, l, or s, double the final or
ending consonant when it is preceded by a single vowel; as staff,
mill, pass. Exceptions; of, if, is, as, lids, was, yes, his, this,
us, and thus.

RULE II. Monosyllables ending in any consonant but f, l, or s, never
double the final consonant when it is preceded by a single vowel; as,
man, hat. Exceptions; add, ebb, butt, egg, odd, err, inn, bunn,
purr, and buzz.

RULE III. Words ending in y, form the plural of nouns, the persons of
verbs, participial nouns, past participles, comparatives, and
superlatives, by changing y into i, when the y is preceded by a
consonant; as, spy, spies; I carry, thou carriest, he carries;
carrier, carried; happy, happier, happiest.

The present participle in ing, retains the y that i may not be
doubled; as, carry, carrying.

But when y is preceded by a vowel, in such instances as the above,
it is not changed into i; as, boy, boys; I cloy, he cloys; except
in the words lay, pay, and say I from which are formed laid, paid,
and said; and their compounds, unpaid, unsaid, &c.

RULE IV. When words ending in y, assume an additional syllable
beginning with a consonant, the y, if it is preceded by a consonant,
is commonly changed to i; as, happy, happily, happiness.

But when y is preceded by a vowel, in such instances, it is very
rarely changed to i; as, coy, coyless; boy, boyish; boyhood; joy,
joyless, joyful.

RULE V. Monosyllables, and words accented on the last syllable,
ending with a single consonant that is preceded by a single vowel,
double that consonant when they assume another syllable that begins
with a vowel; as, wit, witty; thin, thinnish; to abet, an abetter.

But if a diphthong precedes, or the accent is not on the last
syllable, the consonant remains single; as, to toil, toiling; to offer,
an offering; maid, maiden.

RULE VI. Words ending in double l, in taking ness, less, ly, or
ful, after them, generally omit one l; as, fulness, skilless, fully
skilful.

But words ending in any double letter but l, and taking ness, less,
ly, or ful, after them, preserve the letter double; as,
harmlessness, carelessness, carelessly, stiffly, successful.

RULE VII. Ness, less, ly, or ful, added to words ending in silent
e, does not cut it off; as, paleness, guileless, closely, peaceful;
except in a few words; as, duly, truly, awful.

RULE VIII. When words ending in silent e, assume the termination,
ment, the e should not be cut off; as, abatement, chastisement.

Ment, like other terminations, changes y into i when the y is
preceded by a consonant; as, accompany, accompaniment; merry,
merriment.

RULE IX. When words ending in silent e, assume the termination, able
or ible, the e should generally be cut off; as, blame, blamable;
cure, curable; sense, sensible. But if c or g soft comes before e
in the original word, the e is preserved in words compounded with
able; as, peace, peaceable; change, changeable.

RULE X. When ing or ish is added to words ending in silent
e, the e is almost always omitted; as, place, placing; lodge,
lodging; slave, slavish; prude, prudish.

RULE XI. Compound words are generally spelled in the same manner as the
simple words of which they are compounded; as, glasshouse, skylight,
thereby, hereafter. Many words ending in double l, are exceptions to
this rule; as, already, welfare, wilful, fulfil; and also the words,
wherever, christmas, lammas, &c.

You may now answer the following

QUESTIONS.

What is language?—How is language divided?—What is natural
language?—What are the elements of natural language in man?—Wherein
consists the language of brutes?—What is artificial language?—What is
an idea?—What are words?—What is grammar?—What does Universal grammar
explain?—Wherein does Particular grammar differ from universal?—What
is the standard of grammatical accuracy?—What is Philosophical
grammar?—What is Practical grammar?—What is a principle of grammar?—A
definition?—A rule?—What is English grammar?—Into how many parts is
grammar divided?—What does Orthography teach?

ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX

LECTURE II

OF NOUNS AND VERBS.

The rules of syntax, which direct to the proper choice of words, and
their judicious arrangement in a sentence, and thereby enable us to
correct and avoid errors in speech, are chiefly based on principles
unfolded and explained by Etymology. Etymological knowledge, then, is a
prerequisite to the study of Syntax; but, in parsing, under the head of
Etymology, you are required to apply the rules of Syntax. It becomes
necessary, therefore, in a practical work of this sort, to treat these
two parts of grammar in connexion.

Conducted on scientific principles, Etymology would comprehend the
exposition of the origin and meaning of words, and, in short, their
whole history, including their application to things in accordance with
the laws of nature and of thought, and the caprice of those who apply
them; but to follow up the current of language to its various sources,
and analyze the springs from which it flows, would involve a process
altogether too arduous and extensive for an elementary work. It would
lead to the study of all those languages from which ours is immediately
derived, and even compel us to trace many words through those languages
to others more ancient, and so on, until the chain of research would
become, if not endless, at least, too extensive to be traced out by one
man. I shall, therefore, confine myself to the following, limited views
of this part of grammar.

1. Etymology treats of the classification of words.

2. Etymology explains the accidents or properties peculiar to each
class or sort of words, and their present modifications. By
modifications, I mean the changes produced on their endings, in
consequence of their assuming different relations in respect to one
another. These changes, such as fruit, fruits, fruit’s; he, his,
him; write, writest, writeth, writes, wrote, written,
writing, writer; a, an; ample, amply, and the like, will be
explained in their appropriate places.

3. Etymology treats of the derivation of words; that is, it teaches
you how one word comes from, or grows out of another. For example,
from the word speak, come the words speakest, speaketh, speaks,
speaking, spoke, spoken, speaker, speaker’s, speakers.
These, you perceive, are all one and the same word, and all, except the
last three, express the same kind of action. They differ from each other
only in the termination. These changes in termination are produced on
the word in order to make it correspond with the various persons who
speak, the number of persons, or the time of speaking; as, I
speak, thou speakest, the man speaketh, or speaks, the men
speak, I spoke; The speaker speaks another speaker’s speech.

The third part of Etymology, which is intimately connected with the
second, will be more amply expanded in Lecture XIV, and in the
Philosophical notes; but I shall not treat largely of that branch of
derivation which consists in tracing words to foreign languages. This is
the province of the lexicographer, rather than of the philologist. It is
not the business of him who writes a practical, English grammar, to
trace words to the Saxon, nor to the Celtic, the Greek, the Dutch, the
Mexican, nor the Persian; nor is it his province to explain their
meaning in Latin, French, or Hebrew, Italian, Mohegan, or Sanscrit; but
it is his duty to explain their properties, their powers, their
connexions, relations, dependancies, and, bearings, not at the period in
which the Danes made an irruption into the island of Great Britain, nor
in the year in which Lamech paid his addresses to Adah and Zillah, but
at the particular period in which he writes. His words are already
derived, formed, established, and furnished to his hand, and he is bound
to take them and explain them as he finds them in his day, without any
regard to their ancient construction and application.

CLASSIFICATION.

In arranging the parts of speech, I conceive it to be
the legitimate object of the practical grammarian, to consult practical
convenience. The true principle of classification seems to be, not a
reference to essential differences in the primitive meaning of words,
nor to their original combinations, but to the manner in which they are
at present employed. In the early and rude state of society, mankind
are quite limited in their knowledge, and having but few ideas to
communicate, a small number of words answers their purpose in the
transmission of thought. This leads them to express their ideas in
short, detached sentences, requiring few or none of those connectives,
or words of transition, which are afterwards introduced into language by
refinement, and which contribute so largely to its perspicuity and
elegance. The argument appears to be conclusive, then, that every
language must necessarily have more parts of speech in its refined, than
in its barbarous state.

The part of speech to which any word belongs, is ascertained, not by the
original signification of that word, but by its present manner of
meaning, or, rather, the office which it performs in a sentence.

The various ways in which a word is applied to the idea which it
represents, are called its manner of meaning. Thus, The painter dips
his paint brush in paint, to paint the carriage. Here, the word
paint, is first employed to describe the brush which the painter
uses; in this situation it is, therefore, an adjective; secondly, to
name the mixture employed; for which reason it is a noun; and,
lastly, to express the action performed; it therefore, becomes a
verb; and yet, the meaning of the word is the same in all these
applications. This meaning, however, is applied in different ways; and
thus the same word becomes different parts of speech. Richard took
water from the water pot, to water the plants.

ETYMOLOGY.

Etymology treats, first, of the classification of words.

THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE is derived chiefly from the Saxon, Danish, Celtic,
and Gothic; but in the progressive stages of its refinement, it has been
greatly enriched by accessions from the Greek, Latin, French, Spanish,
Italian, and German languages.

The number of words in our language, after deducting proper names, and
words formed by the inflections of our verbs, nouns, and adjectives, may
be estimated at about forty thousand.

Thus you perceive, that all the words in the English language are
included in these ten classes: and what you have to do in acquiring a
knowledge of English Grammar, is merely to become acquainted with these
ten parts of speech, and the rules of Syntax that apply to them. The
Noun and Verb are the most important and leading parts of speech;
therefore they are first presented: all the rest (except the
interjection) are either appendages or connectives of these two. As you
proceed, you will find that it will require more time, and cost you more
labor, to get a knowledge of the noun and verb, than it will to become
familiar with all the minor parts of speech.

The principal use of words is, to name things, compare them with
each other, and express their actions.

Nouns, which are the names of entities or things, adjectives which
denote the comparisons and relations of things by describing them, and
expressing their qualities, and verbs, which express the actions and
being of things, are the only classes of words necessarily recognised
in a philosophical view of grammar. But in a treatise which consults,
mainly, the practical advantages of the learner, it is believed, that
no classification will be found more convenient or accurate than the
foregoing, which divides words into ten sorts. To attempt to prove, in
this place, that nothing would be gained by adopting either a less or a
greater number of the parts of speech, would be anticipating the
subject. I shall, therefore, give my reasons for adopting this
arrangement in preference to any other, as the different sorts of words
are respectively presented to you, for then you will be better prepared
to appreciate my arguments.

OF NOUNS.

Nouns are often improperly called substantives. A substantive is the
name of a substance only; but a noun is the name either of a
substance or a quality.

Noun, derived from the Latin word nomen, signifies name. The name
of any thing^[1] that exists, whether animate or inanimate, or
which we can see, hear, feel, taste, smell, or think of, is a noun.
Animal, bird, creature, paper, pen, apple, fold, house, modesty,
virtue, danger, are all nouns. In order that you may easily distinguish
this part of speech from others, I will give you a sign, which will be
useful to you when you cannot tell it by the sense. Any word that will
make sense with the before it, is a noun. Try the following words by
this sign, and see if they are nouns: tree, mountain, soul, mind,
conscience, understanding. The tree, the mountain, the soul, and
so on. You perceive, that they will make sense with the prefixed;
therefore you know they are nouns. There are, however, exceptions to
this rule, for some nouns will not make sense with the prefixed. These
you will be able to distinguish, if you exercise your mind, by their
making sense of themselves; as, goodness, sobriety, hope,
immortality.

Nouns are used to denote the nonentity or absence of a thing, as well as
its reality; as, nothing, naught, vacancy, non-existence,
invisibility.

Nouns are sometimes used as verbs, and verbs, as nouns, according to
their manner of meaning; and nouns are sometimes used as adjectives,
and adjectives, as nouns. This matter will be explained in the
concluding part of this lecture, where you will be better prepared to
comprehend it.

The distinction between a common and a proper noun, is very obvious. For
example: boy is a common noun, because it is a name applied to all
boys; but Charles is a proper noun, because it is the name of an
individual boy. Although many boys may have the same name, yet you
know it is not a common noun, for the name Charles is not given to all
boys. Mississippi is a proper noun, because it is the name of an
individual river; but river is a common noun, because it is the name
of a species of things, and the name river is common to all
rivers.

Nouns which denote the genus, species, or variety of beings or things,
are always common; as, tree, the genus; oak, ash, chestnut, poplar,
different species; and red oak, white oak, black oak, varieties.
The word earth, when it signifies a kind or quantity of dirt, is a
common noun; but when it denotes the planet we inhabit, it is a proper
noun. The words person, place, river, mountain, lake, &c. are common
nouns, because they are the names of whole species, or classes of
things containing many sorts; but the names of persons, places,
rivers, mountains, lakes, &c. are proper nouns, because they denote
individuals; as, Augustus, Baltimore, Alps, Huron.

Physician, lawyer, merchant, and shoemaker, are common nouns,
because these names are common to classes of men. God and Lord, when
applied to Jehovah or Jesus Christ, are proper; but when employed to
denote heathen or false gods, or temporal lords, they are common.
The Notes and remarks throughout the work, though of minor importance,
demand your attentive and careful perusal.

NOTES.

GENDER.

Neuter means neither: therefore neuter gender signifies neither
gender; that is, neither masculine nor feminine. Hence, neuter gender
means no gender. Strictly speaking, then, as there are but two sexes,
nouns have but two genders; but for the sake of practical convenience,
we apply to them three genders, by calling that a gender which is no
gender. The English and the pure Persian, appear to be the only
languages which observe, in the distinction of sex, the natural division
of nouns.—The genders of nouns are so easily known, that a farther
explanation of them is unnecessary, except what is given in the
following

NOTES.

PERSON.

Nouns have but two persons, the second and third. When a man speaks,
the pronoun I or we is always used; therefore nouns can never be in
the first person. In examples like the following, some philologists
suppose the noun to be in the first person:—”This may certify, that
I, Jonas Taylor, do hereby give and grant,” &c. But it is evident,
that the speaker or writer, in introducing his own name, speaks of
himself; consequently the noun is of the third person.

If you wish to understand the persons of nouns, a little sober thought
is requisite; and, by exercising it, all difficulties will be removed.
If I say, my son, have you seen the young man? you perceive that the
noun son is of the second person, because I address myself to him;
that is, he is spoken to; but the noun man is of the third
person, because he is spoken of. Again, if I say, young man, have
you seen my son? man is of the second person, and son is of the
third.

“Hast thou left thy blue course in the heavens, golden-haired sun of
the sky?”

“Father, may the Great Spirit so brighten the chain of friendship
between us, that a child may find it, when the sun is asleep in his
wig-wam behind the western waters.”

In these examples, the nouns, sun, father, mountains, valleys, and hope,
are of the second person, and, as you will hereafter learn, in the
nominative case independent. Course, heavens, sky, Spirit, chain,
friendship, child, sun, wig-wam, waters, earth, skies, wings, earth,
bounds, ocean, and shore, are all of the third person.

NUMBER.

NOTES.

CASE.

I deem the essential qualities of case, in English, to consist, not in
the changes or inflections produced on nouns and pronouns, but in
the various offices which they perform in a sentence, by assuming
different positions in regard to other words. In accordance with this
definition, these cases can be easily explained on reasoning
principles, founded in the nature of things.

Now, five grains of common sense will enable any one to comprehend what
is meant by case. Its real character is extremely simple; but in the
different grammars it assumes as many meanings as Proteus had shapes.
The most that has been written on it, however, is mere verbiage. What,
then, is meant by case? In speaking of a horse, for instance, we say
he is in a good case, when he is fat, and in a bad case, when he is
lean, and needs more oats; and in this sense we apply the term case to
denote the state or condition of the horse. So, when we place a noun
before a verb as actor or subject, we say it is in the nominative
case; but when it follows a transitive verb or preposition, we say it
has another case; that is, it assumes a new position or situation
in the sentence: and this we call the objective case. Thus, the boy
gathers fruit. Here the boy is represented as acting. He is,
therefore, in the nominative case. But when I say, Jane struck the
boy, I do not represent the boy as the actor, but as the object of
the action. He is, therefore, in a new case or condition. And when I
say, This is the boy’s hat, I do not speak of the boy either as
acting or as acted upon; but as possessing something: for which
reason he is in the possessive case. Hence, it is clear, that nouns
have three cases or positions.

As the nominative and objective cases of the noun are inseparably
connected with the verb, it is impossible for you to understand them
until you shall have acquired some knowledge of this part of speech. I
will, therefore, now give you a partial description of the verb in
connexion with the noun; which will enable me to illustrate the cases of
the noun so clearly, that you may easily comprehend their nature.

In the formation of language, mankind, in order to hold converse with
each other, found it necessary, in the first place, to give names to
the various objects by which they were surrounded. Hence the origin of
the first part of speech, which we denominate the noun. But merely to
name the objects which they beheld or thought of, was not sufficient for
their purpose. They perceived that these objects existed, moved, acted,
or caused some action to be done. In looking at a man, for instance,
they perceived that he lived, walked, ate, smiled, talked, ran, and so
on. They perceived that plants grow, flowers bloom, and rivers flow.
Hence the necessity of another part of speech, whose office it should be
to express these existences and actions. This second class of words we
call

VERBS.

The term verb is derived from the Latin word verbum, which signifies
a word. This part of speech is called a verb or word, because it
is deemed the most important word in every sentence: and without a verb
and nominative, either expressed or implied, no sentence can exist. The
noun is the original and leading part of speech; the verb comes next in
order, and is far more complex than the noun. These two are the most
useful in the language, and form the basis of the science of grammar.
The other eight parts of speech are subordinate to these two, and, as
you will hereafter learn, of minor importance.

For all practical purposes, the foregoing definition and division of the
verb, though, perhaps, not philosophically correct, will be found as
convenient as any other. I adopt them, therefore, to be consistent
with the principle, that, in arranging the materials of this treatise, I
shall not alter or reject any established definition, rule, or principle
of grammar, unless, in my humble judgment, some practical advantage to
the learner is thereby gained. The following, some consider a good
definition.

In this example, which is the verb? You know it is the word writes,
because this word signifies to do; that is, it expresses action,
therefore, according to the definition, it is an active verb. And you
know, too, that the noun John is the actor, therefore John is in the
nominative case to the verb writes. In the expressions, The man
walks—The boy plays—Thunders roll—- Warriors fight—you perceive that
the words walks, plays, roll, and fight, are active verbs; and you
cannot be at a loss to know, that the nouns man, boy, thunders, and
warriors, are in the nominative case.

As no action can be produced without some agent or moving cause, it
follows, that every active verb must have some actor or agent. This
actor, doer, or producer of the action, is the nominative.
Nominative, from the Latin nomino, literally signifies to name;
but in the technical sense in which it is used in grammar, it means the
noun or pronoun which is the subject of affirmation. This subject or
nominative may be active, passive, or neuter, as hereafter
exemplified.

Now, in this example, John is not represented as an actor, but, as
the subject of the verb sits, therefore John is in the nominative
case to the verb. And you know that the word sits does not express
apparent action, but a condition of being; that is, it represents
John in a particular state of existence; therefore sits is a neuter
verb. In speaking of the neuter gender of nouns, I informed you, that
neuter means neither; from which it follows, that neuter gender
implies neither gender; that is, neither masculine nor feminine. Hence,
by an easy transition of thought, you learn, that neuter, when applied
to verbs, means neither of the other two classes; that is, a neuter
verb is one which is neither active nor passive. In these examples, The
man stands—The lady lives—The child sleeps—The world exists—the
words stands, lives, sleeps, and exists, are neuter verbs; and the
nouns, man, lady, child, and world, are all in the nominative
case, because each is the subject of a verb. Thus you perceive, that
when a noun is in the nominative case to an active verb, it is the
actor; and when it is nominative to a neuter verb, it is not an
actor, but the subject of the verb.

Some neuter verbs express being in general; as, The man is; Kingdoms
exist. Others express being in some particular state; as, The man
stands, sits, lies, or hangs.

I will now give you two signs, which will enable you to distinguish
the verb from other parts of speech, when you cannot tell it by its
signification. Any word that will make sense with to before it, is a
verb. Thus, to run, to write, to smile, to sing, to hear, to ponder, to
live, to breathe, are verbs. Or, any word that will conjugate, is a
verb. Thus, I run, thou runnest, he runs; I write, thou writest, he
writes; I smile, &c. But the words, boy, lady, child, and world, will
not make sense with to prefixed—to boy, to lady, to world, is
nonsense. Neither will they conjugate—I lady, thou ladiest, &c. is
worse than nonsense. Hence you perceive, that these words are not
verbs. There are some exceptions to these rules, for verbs are sometimes
used as nouns. This will be explained by and by.

At present I shall speak only of the number and person of verbs; but
hereafter I will give you a full explanation of all their properties.
And permit me to inform you, that I shall not lead you into the
intricacies of the science, until, by gradual and easy progressions,
you are enabled to comprehend the principles involved in them. Only such
principles will be elucidated, as you are prepared to understand at the
time they are unfolded before you. You must not be too anxious to get
along rapidly; but endeavor to become thoroughly acquainted with one
principle, before you undertake another. This lecture will qualify you
for the next.

NUMBER AND PERSON OF VERBS. You recollect, that the nominative is the
actor or subject, and the active verb is the action performed by
the nominative. By this you perceive, that a very intimate connexion or
relation exists between the nominative case and the verb. If, therefore,
only one creature or thing acts, only one action, at the same
instant, can be done; as, The girl writes. The nominative girl is
here of the singular number, because it signifies but one person; and
the verb writes denotes but one action, which the girl performs;
therefore the verb writes is of the singular number, agreeing with
its nominative girl. When the nominative case is plural, the verb
must be plural; as, girls write. Take notice, the singular verb
ends in s, but the noun is generally plural when it ends in s;
thus, The girl writes—the girls write.

Person, strictly speaking, is a quality that belongs not to verbs,
but to nouns and pronouns. We say, however, that the verb must agree
with its nominative in person, as well as in number; that is, the verb
must be spelled and spoken in such a manner as to correspond with the
first, second, or third person of the noun or pronoun which is its
nominative.

I will now show you how the verb is varied in order to agree with its
nominative in number and person. I, Thou, He, She, It; We, Ye or You,
They, are personal pronouns. I is of the first person, and
singular number; Thou is second person, sing.; He, She, or
It, is third per. sing.; We is first per. plural; Ye or
You is second per. plural; They is third per. plural. These
pronouns are the representatives of nouns, and perform the same office
that the nouns would for which they stand. When placed before the verb,
they are, therefore, the nominatives to the verb.

Notice particularly, the different variations or endings of the verb, as
it is thus conjugated in the

INDICATIVE MOOD, PRESENT TENSE.

This display of the verb shows you, that whenever it ends in est, it
is of the second person singular; but when the verb ends in s, or
eth, it is of the third person singular. Walkest, ridest,
standest, are of the second person singular; and walks or walketh,
rides or rideth, stands or standeth, are of the third person
singular.

I have told you, that when the nominative is singular number, the verb
must be; when the nominative is plural, the verb must be; and when the
nominative is first, second, or third person, the verb must be of the
same person. If you look again at the foregoing conjugation of walk,
you will notice that the verb varies if its endings in the singular,
in order to agree in form with the first, second, and third person of
its nominative; but in the plural it does not vary its endings from
the first person singular. The verb, however, agrees in sense with its
nominative in the plural, as well as in the singular. Exercise a little
mind, and you will perceive that agreement and government in
language do not consist merely in the form of words. Now, is it not
clear, that when I say, I walk, the verb walk is singular, because
it expresses but one action? And when I say, Two men walk, is it not
equally apparent, that walk is plural, because it expresses two
actions? In the sentence, Ten men walk, the verb walk denotes ten
actions, for there are ten actors. Common sense teaches you, that there
must be as many actions as there are actors; and that the verb, when
it has no form or ending to show it, is as strictly plural, as when
it has.—So, in the phrase, We walk, the verb walk is first person,
because it expresses the actions performed by the speakers: Ye or
you walk, the verb is second person, denoting the actions of the
persons spoken to; third person, They walk. The verb, then, when
correctly written, always agrees, in sense, with its nominative in
number and person.

At present you are learning two parts of speech, neither of which can be
understood without a knowledge of the other. It therefore becomes
necessary to explain them both, in the same lecture. You have been
already informed, that nouns have three cases; the nominative, the
possessive, and the objective.

When I say, These are the men’s, and those, the boys’ hats, the two
words, “boys’ hats,” plainly convey the idea, if they have any meaning
at all, that the boys own or possess the hats. “Samuel Badger sells
boys’ hats.” Who owns the hats? Mr. Badger. How is that fact
ascertained? Not by the words, “boys’ hats,” which, taken by themselves,
imply, not that they are Mr. Badger’s hats, nor that they are for
boys, but that they are hats of, or belonging to, or possessed by
boys. But we infer from the words connected with the phrase, “boys’
hats,” that the boys are not yet, as the phrase literally denotes, in
the actual possession of the hats. The possession is anticipated.

In the phrases, fine hats, coarse hats, high-crowned hats,
broad-brimmed hats, woollen, new, ten, some, these, many hats, the
words in italics, are adjectives, because they restrict, qualify, or
define the term hats; but the term boys’ does not describe or
limit the meaning of hats. Boys’, therefore, is not, as some suppose,
an adjective.

“The slave’s master.” Does the slave possess the master? Yes. The
slave has a master. If he has him, then, he possesses him;—he
sustains that relation to him which we call possession.

A noun in the possessive case, is always known by its having an
apostrophe, and generally an s after it; thus, John’s, hat; the
boy’s coat. When a plural noun in the possessive case, ends in s,
the apostrophe is added, but no additional s; as, “Boys’ hats;
Eagles’ wings.” When a singular noun ends in ss, the apostrophe
only is added; as, “For goodness’ sake; for righteousness’ sake;”
except the word witness; as, “The witness’s testimony.” When a noun in
the possessive case ends in ence, the s is omitted, but the
apostrophe is retained; as, “For conscience’ sake.”

Now please to turn back, and read over this and the preceding lecture
three times, and endeavor, not only to understand, but, also, to
remember, what you read. In reading, proceed thus: read one sentence
over slowly, and then look off the book, and repeat it two or three
times over in your mind. After that, take another sentence and proceed
in the same manner, and so on through the whole lecture. Do not presume
to think, that these directions are of no real consequence to you; for,
unless you follow them strictly, you need not expect to make rapid
progress. On the other hand, if you proceed according to my
instructions, you will be sure to acquire a practical knowledge of
grammar in a short time.—When you shall have complied with this
requisition, you may commit the following order of parsing a noun, and
the order of parsing a verb; and then you will be prepared to parse or
analyze the following examples.

ANALYSIS, OR PARSING.

Do you recollect the meaning of the word analysis? If you do not, I
will explain if: and first, I wish you to remember, that analysis is the
reverse of synthesis. Synthesis is the act of combining simples so as
to form a whole or compound. Thus, in putting together letters so as to
form syllables, syllables so as to form words, words so as to form
sentences, and sentences so as to form a discourse, the process is
called synthetic. Analysis, on the contrary, is the act of
decomposition; that is, the act of separating any thing compounded into
its simple parts, and thereby exhibiting its elementary principles.
Etymology treats of the analysis of language. To analyze a sentence, is
to separate from one another and classify the different words of which
it is composed; and to analyze or parse a word, means to enumerate and
describe all its various properties, and its grammatical relations with
respect to other words in a sentence, and trace it through all its
inflections or changes. Perhaps, to you, this will, at first, appear to
be of little importance; but, if you persevere, you will hereafter find
it of great utility, for parsing will enable you to detect, and correct,
errors in composition.

SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING.

I will now parse two nouns according to the order, and, in so doing, by
applying the definitions and rules, I shall answer all those questions
given in the order. If you have perfectly committed the order of
parsing a noun and verb, you may proceed with me; but, recollect, you
cannot parse a verb in full, until you shall have had a more complete
explanation of it.

John’s hand trembles.

John’s is a noun, [because it is] the name of a person—proper, the
name of an individual—masculine gender, it denotes a male—third
person, spoken of—singular number, it implies but one—and in the
possessive case, it denotes possession—it is governed by the noun
“hand,” according to

RULE 12. A noun or pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by the
noun it possesses.

Declined—Sing. nom. John, poss. John’s, obj. John. Plural—nom.
Johns, poss. Johns’, obj. Johns.

Hand is a noun, the name of a thing—common, the name of a sort or
species of things—neuter gender, it denotes a thing without sex—third
person, spoken of—sing. number, it implies but one—and in the
nominative case, it is the actor and subject of the verb “trembles,” and
governs it agreeably to

RULE 3. The nominative case governs the verb:—that is, the nominative
determines the number and person of the verb.

Declined—Sing. nom. hand, poss. hand’s, obj. hand. Plur. nom. hands,
poss. hands’, obj. hands.

Trembles is a verb, a word which signifies to do—active, it expresses
action—third person, singular number, because the nominative “hand” is
with which it agrees, according to

RULE 4. The verb must agree with its nominative in number and person.

You must not say that the verb is of the third person because it is
spoken of. The verb is never spoken of; but it is of the third person,
and singular or plural number, because its nominative is.

Conjugated—First pers. sing. I tremble, 2 pers. thou tremblest, 3 pers.
he trembles, or, the hand trembles. Plural, 1 pers. we tremble, 2 pers.
ye or you tremble, 3 pers. they or the hands tremble.

ILLUSTRATION.

RULE 3. The nominative case governs the verb.

If you employ the pronoun I, which is of the first person, singular
number, as the nominative to a verb, the verb must be of the first pers.
sing, thus, I smile; and when your nominative is second pers. sing,
your verb must be; as, thou smilest. Why, in the latter instance, does
the ending of the verb change to est? Because the nominative changes.
And if your nominative is third person, the verb will vary again;
thus, he smiles, the man smiles. How clear it is, then, that the
nominative governs the verb; that is, the nominative has power to
change the form and meaning of the verb, in respect to num. and
person. Government, thus far, is evinced in the form of the words, as
well as in the sense.

RULE 4. The verb must agree with its nominative in number and person.

It is improper to say, thou hear, the men hears. Why improper?
Because hear is first pers. and the nominative thou is second
pers. Hears is singular, and the nom. men is plural. Rule 4th
says, The verb must agree with its nominative. The expressions should,
therefore, be, thou hearest, the men hear; and then the verb would
agree with its nominatives. But why must the verb agree with its
nominative? Why must we say, thou talkest, the man talks, men talk?
Because the genius of our language, and the common consent of those who
speak it, require such a construction: and this requisition amounts
to a law or rule. This rule, then, is founded in the nature of
things, and sanctioned by good usage.

RULE 12. A noun or pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by the
noun which it possesses.

It is correct to say, The man eats, he eats; but we cannot say, the
man dog eats, he dog eats. Why not? Because the man is here
represented as the possessor, and dog, the property, or thing
possessed; and the genius of our language requires, that when we add to
the possessor, the thing which he is represented as possessing, the
possessor shall take a particular form to show its case, or relation
to the property; thus, The man’s dog eats, his dog eats. You
perceive, then, that the added noun, denoting the thing possessed, has
power to change the form of the noun or pronoun denoting the
possessor, according to RULE 12. thus, by adding dog in the preceding
examples, man is changed to man’s, and he, to his.

Now parse the sentence which I have parsed, until the manner is quite
familiar to you; and then you will be prepared to analyze correctly and
systematically, the following exercises. When you parse, you may
spread the Compendium before you; and, if you have not already committed
the definitions and rules, you may read them on that, as you apply them.
This mode of procedure will enable you to learn all the definitions
and rules by applying them to practice.

EXERCISES IN PARSING.

Rain descends—Rains descend—Snow falls—Snows fall—Thunder
rolls—Thunders roll—Man’s works decay—Men’s labors cease—John’s dog
barks—Eliza’s voice trembles—Julia’s sister’s child improves—Peter’s
cousin’s horse limps.

In the next place, I will parse a noun and a neuter verb, which verb,
you will notice, differs from an active only in one respect.

“Birds repose on the branches of trees.”

Birds is a noun, the name of a thing or creature—common, the name of
a genus or class—masculine and feminine gender, it denotes both males
and females—third person, spoken of—plural number, it implies more
than one—and in the nominative case, it is the subject of the verb
“repose,” and governs it according to RULE 3. The nominative case
governs the verb. Declined—Sing. nom. bird, poss. bird’s, obj. bird.
Plural, nom. birds, poss. birds’, obj. birds.

Repose is a verb, a word that signifies to be—neuter, it expresses
neither action nor passion, but a state of being—third person, plural
number, because the nominative “birds” is with which it agrees,
agreeably to RULE 4. The verb must agree with its nominative in number
and person.

Declined—1. pers. sing. I repose, 2. pers. thou reposest, 3. pers. he
reposes, or the bird reposes. Plur. 1. pers. we repose, 2. pers. ye or
you repose, 3. pers. they repose, or birds repose.

Now parse those nouns and neuter verbs that are distinguished by
italics, in the following

EXERCISES IN PARSING.

The book lies on the desk—The cloak hangs on the wall—Man’s days
are few—Cathmor’s warriors sleep in death—Caltho reposes in the
narrow house—Jocund day stands tiptoe on the misty mountain tops. The
sunbeams rest on the grave where her beauty sleeps.

You may parse these and the preceding exercises, and all that follow,
five or six times over, if you please.

OBJECTIVE CASE.—ACTIVE-TRANSITIVE VERBS.

A noun is in the objective case when it is the object of something. At
present I shall explain this case only as the object of an action; but
when we shall have advanced as far as to the preposition, I will also
illustrate it as the object of a relation.

Transitive means passing. In this sentence the action of the verb
strikes is transitive, because it passes over from the nominative
Richard to the object John; and you know that the noun John is in the
objective case, because it is the object of the action expressed by
the active-transitive verb strikes. This matter is very plain. For
example: Gallileo invented the telescope. Now it is evident, that
Gallileo did not exert his powers of invention, without some object in
view. In order to ascertain that object, put the question, Gallileo
invented what? The telescope. Telescope, then, is the real object of
the action, denoted by the transitive verb invented; and, therefore,
telescope is in the objective case. If I say, The horse kicks the
servant—Carpenters build houses—Ossian wrote poems—Columbus
discovered America—you readily perceive, that the verbs kick, build,
wrote, and discovered, express transitive actions; and you cannot be
at a loss to tell which nouns are in the objective case:—they are
servant, houses, poems, and America.

The nominative and objective cases of nouns are generally known by the
following rule: the nominative does something; the objective has
something done to it. The nominative generally comes before the verb;
and the objective, after it. When I say, George struck the servant,
George is in the nominative, and servant is in the objective case;
but, when I say, The servant struck George, servant is in the
nominative case, and George is in the objective. Thus you perceive,
that Case means the different state or situation of nouns with regard
to other words.

It is sometimes very difficult to tell the case of a noun. I shall,
therefore, take up this subject again, when I come to give you an
explanation of the participle and preposition.

Besides the three cases already explained, nouns are sometimes in the
nominative case independent, sometimes in the nominative case
absolute, sometimes in apposition in the same case, and sometimes in the
nominative or objective case after the neuter to be, or after an
active-intransitive or passive verb. These cases are illustrated in
Lecture X. and in the 21 and 22 rules of Syntax.

ACTIVE-INTRANSITIVE VERBS.

You perceive that the verb walks, in this example, is intransitive,
because the action does not pass over to an object; that is, the action
is confined to the agent John. The following sign will generally
enable you to distinguish a transitive verb from an intransitive.
Any verb that will make sense with the words a thing or a person,
after it, is transitive. Try these verbs by the sign, love, help,
conquer, reach, subdue, overcome. Thus, you can say, I love a person
or thing—I can help a person or thing—and so on. Hence you know
that these verbs are transitive. But an intransitive verb will not make
sense with this sign, which fact will be shown by the following
examples: smile, go, come, play, bark, walk, fly. We cannot say, if we
mean to speak English, I smile a person or thing—I go a person or
thing:—hence you perceive that these verbs are not transitive, but
intransitive.

If you reflect upon these examples for a few moments, you will have a
clear conception of the nature of transitive and intransitive verbs.
Before I close this subject, however, it is necessary farther to remark,
that some transitive and intransitive verbs express what is called a
mental or moral action; and others, a corporeal or physical
action. Verbs expressing the different affections or operations of the
mind, denote moral actions; as, Brutus loved his country; James
hates vice; We believe the tale:—to repent, to relent, to
think, to reflect, to mourn, to muse. Those expressing the
actions produced by matter, denote physical actions; as, The dog hears
the bell; Virgil wrote the Aenead; Columbus discovered America;—to
see, to feel, to taste, to smell, to run, to talk, to fly,
to strike. In the sentence, Charles resembles his father, the verb
resembles does not appear to express any action at all; yet the
construction of the sentence, and the office which the verb performs,
are such, that we are obliged to parse it as an active-transitive
verb, governing the noun father in the objective case. This you may
easily reconcile in your mind, by reflecting, that the verb has a
direct reference to its object. The following verbs are of this
character: Have, own, retain; as, I have a book.

Active intransitive verbs are frequently made transitive. When I
say, The birds fly, the verb fly is intransitive; but when I say,
The boy flies the kite, the verb fly is transitive, and governs
the noun kite in the objective case. Almost any active intransitive
verb, and sometimes even neuter verbs, are used as transitive. The horse
walks rapidly; The boy runs swiftly; My friend lives well; The man
died of a fever. In all these examples the verbs are intransitive;
in the following they are transitive: The man walks his horse; The
boy ran a race; My friend lives a holy life; Let me die the death
of the righteous.

The foregoing development of the character of verbs, is deemed
sufficiently critical for practical purposes; but if we dip a little
deeper into the verbal fountain, we shall discover qualities which do
not appear on its surface. If we throw aside the veil which art has
drawn over the real structure of speech, we shall find, that almost
every verb has either a personal or a verbal object, expressed or
implied. Verbal objects, which are the effects or productions
resulting from the actions, being necessarily implied, are seldom
expressed.

The fire burns. If the fire burns, it must burn wood, coal, tallow,
or some other combustible substance. The man laughs. Laughs what?
Laughs laughter or laugh. They walk; that is, They walk or take
walks. Rivers flow (move or roll them-selves or their waters)
into the ocean.

“I sing the shady regions of the west.”

“And smile the wrinkles from the brow of age.”

The child wept itself sick; and then, by taking (or sleeping) a
short nap, it slept itself quiet and well again. “He will soon
sleep his everlasting sleep”; that is, “He will sleep the sleep
of death.”

Thinkers think thoughts; Talkers talk or employ words, talk, or
speeches; The rain rains rain. “Upon Sodom and Gomorrah the Lord
rained fire and brimstone.” “I must go the whole length.” “I
shall soon go the way of all the earth.”

Now please to turn back again, and peruse this lecture attentively;
after which you may parse, systematically, the following exercises
containing nouns in the three cases, and active-transitive verbs.

The printer prints books.

Prints is a verb, a word that signifies to do—active, it expresses
action—transitive, the action passes over from the nominative “printer”
to the object “books”—third pers. sing. numb. because the nominative
printer is with which it agrees.

RULE 4. The verb must agree with its nominative case in number and
person.

Declined—1. pers. sing. I print, 2. pers. thou printest, 3. pers. he
prints, or the printer prints, and so on.

Books is a noun, the name of a thing—common, the name of a sort of
things,—neut. gend. it denotes a thing without sex—third pers. spoken
of—plur. num. it implies more than one—and in the objective case, it
is the object of the action, expressed by the active-transitive verb
“prints,” and is governed by it according to

RULE 20. Active-transitive verbs govern the objective case.

The noun books is thus declined—Sing. nom. book, poss. book’s, obj.
book—Plur. nom. books, poss. books’, obj. books.

RULE 20. Transitive verbs govern the objective case; that is, they
require the noun or pronoun following them to be in that case; and
this requisition is government. Pronouns have a particular form to
suit each case; but nouns have not. We cannot say, She struck he; I
gave the book to they. Why not? Because the genius of our language
requires the pronoun following a transitive verb or preposition (to is
a preposition) to assume that form which we call the objective form
or case. Accordingly, the construction should be, She struck him; I
gave the book to them.—Read, again, the illustration of “government”
on page 52.

EXERCISES IN PARSING.

As you have been analyzing nouns in their three cases, it becomes
necessary to present, in the next place, the declension of nouns, for
you must decline every noun you parse. Declension means putting a noun
through the different cases: and you will notice, that the possessive
case varies from the nominative in its termination, or ending, but the
objective case ends like the nominative. The nominative and objective
cases of nouns, must, therefore, be ascertained by their situation in
the sentence, or by considering the office they perform.

DECLENSION OF NOUNS.

Now, if you have parsed every word in the preceding examples, (except
the, that, those, and his) you may proceed with me and parse the
examples in the following exercises, in which are presented nouns and
active-intransitive verbs.

“My flock increases yearly.”

Flock is a noun, a name denoting animals—a noun of multitude, it
signifies many in one collective body—masculine and feminine gender,
denoting both sexes—third person, spoken of—singular number, it
denotes but one flock—and in the nominative case, it is the active
agent of the verb “increases,” and governs it, according to RULE 3, The
nominative case governs the verb. (Decline it.)

Increases is a verb, a word that signifies to do—active, it expresses
action—intransitive, the action does not pass over to an object—of the
third person, singular number, because its nominative “flock” conveys
unity of idea, and it agrees with “flock” agreeably to

RULE 10. A noun of multitude conveying unity of idea, must have a
verb or pronoun agreeing with it in the singular.

“The divided multitude hastily disperse.”

Multitude is a noun, a name that denotes persons—a collective noun,
or noun of multitude, it signifies many—masculine and feminine gender,
it implies both sexes—third person, spoken of—singular number, it
represents but one multitude, or collective body; (but in another sense,
it is plural, as it conveys plurality of idea, and, also, implies more
individuals than one;)—and in the nominative case, it is the actor
and subject of the verb “disperse,” which it governs, according to RULE
3. The nom. case governs the verb.—Declined.—Sing. nom. multitude,
poss. multitude’s, obj. multitude—Plur. nom. multitudes, poss.
multitudes’, obj. multitudes.

Disperse is a verb, a word that signifies to do—active, it expresses
action—intransitive, the action does not terminate on an object—third
person, plural number, because its nominative “multitude” conveys
plurality of idea; and it agrees with “multitude” agreeably to RULE 11.
A noun of multitude conveying plurality of idea, must have a verb or
pronoun agreeing with it in the plural.

Rules 10, and 11, rest on a sandy foundation. They appear not to be
based on the principles of the language; and, therefore, it might,
perhaps, be better to reject than to retain them. Their application is
quite limited. In many instances, they will not apply to nouns of
multitude. The existence of such a thing as “unity or plurality of
idea,” as applicable to nouns of this class, is doubtful. It is just
as correct to say, “The meeting was divided in its sentiments,” as
to say, “The meeting were divided in their sentiments.” Both are
equally supported by the genius of the language, and by the power of
custom. It is correct to say, either that, “The fleet were dispersed;”
“The council were unanimous;” “The council were divided;” or that,
“The fleet was dispersed;” “The council was unanimous;” “The
council was divided.” But, perhaps for the sake of euphony, in some
instances, custom has decided in favor of a singular, and in others, of
a plural construction, connected with words of this class. For example;
custom gives a preference to the constructions, “My people do not
consider;” “The peasantry go barefoot;” “The flock is his object;”
instead of, “My people doth not consider;” “The peasantry goes
barefoot;” “The flock are his object.” In instances like these, the
application of the foregoing rules may be of some use; but the
constructions in which they do not apply, are probably more numerous
than those in which they do.

EXERCISES IN PARSING.

Your improvement in grammar depends, not on the number of words which
you parse, but on the attention which you give the subject. You may
parse the same exercises several times over.

For the gratification of those who prefer it, I here present another

DIVISION OF VERBS.

Verbs are of two kinds, transitive and intransitive.

A verb is transitive when the action affects an object; as, “Earthquakes
rock kingdoms; thrones and palaces are shaken down; and potentates,
princes, and subjects, are buried in one common grave.”

A verb is intransitive when it has no object; as, “The waters came
upon me;” “I am he who was, and is, and is to come.”

As an exercise on what you have been studying, I will now put to you a
few questions, all of which you ought to be able to answer before you
proceed any farther.

QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING.

With what two general divisions of grammar does the second lecture
begin?—Of what does Etymology treat?—Of what does Syntax treat?—On
what is based the true principle of classification?—How do you
ascertain the part of speech to which a word belongs?—What is meant by
its manner of meaning?—Name the ten parts of speech.—Which of these
are considered the most important?—By what sign may a noun be
distinguished?—How many kinds of nouns are there?—What belong to
nouns?—What is gender?—How many genders have nouns?—What is
person?—How many persons have nouns?—What is number?—How many numbers
have nouns?—What is case?—How many cases have nouns?—Does case
consist in the inflections of a noun?—How many kinds of verbs are
there?—By what sign may a verb be known?—What belong to verbs?—What
is synthesis?—What is analysis?—What is parsing?—Repeat the order of
parsing the noun.—Repeat the order of parsing the verb.—What rule do
you apply in parsing a noun in the possessive case?—What rule, in
parsing a noun in the nominative case?—What rule applies in parsing a
verb?—What is meant by government?—Explain rules 3, 4, and 12.—By
what rule are the nominative and objective cases of nouns known?—By
what sign can you distinguish a transitive from an intransitive
verb?—Do transitive verbs ever express a moral action?—Are
intransitive and neuter verbs ever used as transitive?—Give some
examples of transitive verbs with personal and verbal objects.—What
rule do you apply in parsing a noun in the objective case?—Explain rule
20.—In parsing a verb agreeing with a noun of multitude conveying
plurality of idea, what rule do you apply?

QUESTIONS ON THE NOTES.

NOTES ON PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR.

OF THE PHILOSOPHICAL CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS.

PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.

OF THE VERB.

QUESTIONS ON THE PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.

REMARKS ON VERBS AND NOUNS.

Thus you see, it is impossible for you to become a grammarian without
exercising your judgment. If you have sufficient resolution to do this,
you will, in a short time, perfectly understand the nature and office of
the different parts of speech, their various properties and relations,
and the rules of syntax that apply to them; and, in a few weeks, be able
to speak and write accurately. But you must not take things for granted,
without examining their propriety and correctness. No. You are not a
mere automaton, or boy-machine; but a rational being. You ought,
therefore, to think methodically, to reason soundly, and to
investigate every principle critically. Don’t be afraid to think for
yourself. You know not the high destiny that awaits you. You know not
the height to which you may soar in the scale of intellectual existence.
Go on, then, boldly, and with unyielding perseverance; and if you do not
gain admittance into the temple of fame, strive, at all hazards, to
drink of the fountain which gurgles from its base.

EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX.

NOTE 1, TO RULE 12. A noun in the possessive case, should always be
distinguished by the apostrophe, or mark of elision; as, The nation’s
glory.

That girls book is cleaner than those boys books.

Thy ancestors virtue is not thine.

A mothers tenderness and a fathers care, are natures gift’s for mans
advantage. Wisdoms precept’s form the good mans interest and happiness.
They suffer for conscience’s sake. He is reading Cowpers poems. James
bought Johnsons Dictionary.

RULE 4. A verb must agree with its nominative in number and person.

Those boys improves rapidly. The men labors in the field. Nothing
delight some persons. Thou shuns the light. He dare not do it. They
reads well.

FALSE SYNTAX.

A variety of pleasing objects charm the eye. The number of inhabitants
of the United States exceed nine millions. Nothing but vain and foolish
pursuits delight some persons.

LECTURE III.

OF ARTICLES.

The small claims of the article to a separate rank as a distinct part of
speech, ought not to be admitted in a scientific classification of
words. A and the, this and that, ten, few, and fourth, and many
other words, are used to restrict, vary, or define the signification of
the nouns to which they are joined. They might, therefore, with
propriety, be ranked under the general head of Restrictives, Indexes,
or Defining Adjectives. But, as there is a marked distinction in their
particular meaning and application, each class requires a separate
explanation. Hence, no practical advantage would be gained, by rejecting
their established classification, as articles, numerals, and
demonstratives, and by giving them new names. The character and
application of a and the can be learned as soon when they are styled
articles, as when they are denominated specifying or defining
adjectives.

The history of this part of speech is very brief. As there are but two
articles, a or an and the, you will know them wherever they occur.

A noun used without an article, or any other restrictive, is taken in
its general sense; as, “Fruit is abundant;” “Gold is heavy;”
“Man is born to trouble” Here we mean, fruit and gold in general;
and all men, or mankind.

When we wish to limit the meaning of the noun to one object, but to no
particular one, we employ a or an. If I say, “Give me a pen;”
“Bring me an apple;” you are at liberty to fetch any pen or any
apple you please. A or an, then, is indefinite, because it leaves
the meaning of the noun to which it is applied, as far as regards the
person spoken to, vague, or indeterminate; that is, not definite.
But when reference is made to a particular object, we employ the,
as, “Give me the pen;” “Bring me the apple, or the apple.” When
such a requisition is made, you are not at liberty to bring any pen or
apple you please, but you must fetch the particular pen or apple to
which you know me to refer. The is, therefore, called the definite
article.

“A star appears.” Here, the star referred to, may be known as a
particular star, definite, and distinguished from all others, in the
mind of the speaker; but to the hearer, it is left, among the
thousands that bedeck the vault of heaven, undistinguished and
indefinite. But when the star has previously been made the subject of
discourse, it becomes, in the minds of both speaker and hearer a
definite object, and he says, “The star appears;” that is, that
particular star about which we were discoursing.

“Solomon built a temple.” Did he build any temple, undetermined
which? No; it was a particular temple, pre-eminently distinguished
from all others. But how does it become a definite object in the mind
of the hearer? Certainly, not by the phrase, “a temple,” which
indicates any temple, leaving it altogether undetermined which; but
supposing the person addressed was totally unacquainted with the fact
asserted, and it becomes to him, in one respect only, a definite and
particular temple, by means of the associated words, “Solomon built;”
that is, by the use of these words in connexion with the others, the
hearer gets the idea of a temple distinguished as the one erected by
Solomon. If the speaker were addressing one whom he supposed to be
unacquainted with the fact related, he might make the temple referred to
a still more definite object in the mind of the hearer by a farther
explanation of it; thus, “Solomon built a temple on mount Zion; and
that was the temple to which the Jews resorted to worship.”

“The lunatic, the poet, and the lover,
“Are of imagination all compact.”

“The horse is a noble animal;” “The dog is a faithful creature;”
“The wind blows;” “The wolves were howling in the woods.” In these
examples, we do not refer to any particular lunatics, poets, lovers,
horses, dogs, winds, wolves, and woods, but we refer to these
particular classes of things, in contradistinction to other objects or
classes. The phrase, “Neither the one nor the other,” is an idiom of
the language.

NOTES.

You may proceed and parse the following articles, when you shall have
committed this

SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING

“He is the son of a king.”

The is an article, a word prefixed to a noun to limit its
signification—definite, it limits the noun to a particular object—it
belongs to the noun “son,” according to

RULE 2. The definite article the belongs to nouns in the singular or
plural number.

A is an article, a word placed before a noun to limit its
signification—indefinite, it limits the noun to one of a kind, but to
no particular one—it agrees with “king,” agreeably to

RULE 1. The article a or an agrees with nouns in the singular
number only.

EXERCISES IN PARSING.

A bird sings. An eagle flies. Mountains stand. The multitude pursue
pleasure. The reaper reaps the farmer’s grain. Farmers mow the grass.
Farmers’ boys spread the hay. The clerk sells the merchant’s goods. An
ostrich outruns an Arab’s horse. Cecrops founded Athens. Gallileo
invented the telescope. James Macpherson translated Ossian’s poems. Sir
Francis Drake circumnavigated the globe. Doctor Benjamin Franklin
invented the lightning-rod. Washington Irving wrote the Sketch-Book.

I will now offer a few remarks on the misapplication of the articles,
which, with the exercise of your own discriminating powers, will enable
you to use them with propriety. But, before you proceed, please to
answer the following

QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING.

How many articles are there?—In what sense is a noun taken, when it has
no article to limit it?—Repeat the order of parsing an article.—What
rule applies in parsing the definite article?—What rule in parsing
the indefinite?

PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.

A, AN, THE.

QUESTIONS ON THE NOTES.

EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX.

NOTE TO RULE 1. An is used before a vowel or silent h, and a
before a consonant or u long, and also before the word one.

EXAMPLES.

A enemy, a inkstand, a hour, an horse, an herald, an heart, an heathen,
an union, a umbrella, an useful book, many an one. This is an hard
saying. They met with an heavy loss. He would not give an hat for an
horse.

NOTE 1, TO RULE 2. The articles are often properly omitted: when used
they should be justly applied, according to their distinct character;
as, “Gold is corrupting; The sea is green; A lion is bold.” It would
be improper to say, The gold is corrupting; Sea is green; Lion is
bold.

The grass is good for horses, and the wheat for men. Grass is good for
the horses, and wheat for the men. Grass looks well. Wheat is blighted.

NOTE 2. When a noun is used in its general sense, the article should
be omitted; as, “Poetry is a pleasing art;” “Oranges grow in New
Orleans.”

FALSE SYNTAX.

Corn in the garden, grows well; but corn in the field, does not. How
does the tobacco sell? The tobacco is dear. How do you like the study of
the grammar? The grammar is a pleasing study. A candid temper is proper
for the man. World is wide. The man is mortal. And I persecuted this way
unto the death. The earth, the air, the fire, and the water, are the
four elements of the old philosophers.

LECTURE IV.

OF ADJECTIVES.

In the phrases, a good apple, a bad apple, a large apple, a
small apple, a red apple, a white apple, a green apple, a
sweet apple, a sour apple, a bitter apple, a round apple, a
hard apple, a soft apple, a mellow apple, a fair apple, a May
apple, an early apple, a late apple, a winter apple, a crab
apple, a thorn apple, a well-tasted apple, an ill-looking apple, a
water-cored apple, you perceive that all those words in italics are
adjectives, because each expresses some quality or property of the noun
apple, or it shows what kind of an apple it is of which we are
speaking.

The distinction between a noun and an adjective is very clear. A
noun is the name of a thing; but an adjective denotes simply the
quality or property of a thing. This is fine cloth. In this
example, the difference between the word denoting the thing, and that
denoting the quality of it, is easily perceived. You certainly cannot
be at a loss to know, that the word cloth expresses the name, and
fine, the quality, of the thing; consequently fine must be an
adjective. If I say, He is a wise man, a prudent man, a wicked
man, or an ungrateful man, the words in italics are adjectives,
because each expresses a quality of the noun man. And, if I say, He is
a tall man, a short man, a white man, a black man, or a
persecuted man, the words, tall, short, white, black, and
persecuted, are also adjectives, because they tell what kind of a
man he is of whom I am speaking, or they attribute to him some
particular property.

Some adjectives restrict or limit the signification of the nouns to
which they are joined, and are, therefore, sometimes called
definitives; as, one era, seven ages, the first man, the whole
mass, no trouble, those men, that book, all regions.

Other adjectives define or describe nouns, or do both; as, fine
silk, blue paper, a heavy shower, pure water, green mountains,
bland breezes, gurgling rills, glass window, window glass,
beaver hats, chip bonnets, blackberry ridge, Monroe garden,
Juniata iron, Cincinnati steam-mill.

Some adjectives are secondary, and qualify other adjectives; as,
pale red lining, dark blue silk, deep sea green sash, soft iron
blooms, red hot iron plate.

You will frequently find the adjective placed after the noun; as, “Those
men are tall; A lion is bold; The weather is calm; The
tree is three feet thick.”

Should you ever be at a loss to distinguish an adjective from the other
parts of speech, the following sign will enable you to tell it. Any word
that will make sense with the word thing added, or with any other noun
following it, is an adjective; as, a high thing, a low thing, a
hot thing, a cold thing, an unfinished thing, a new-fashioned
thing:—or, a pleasant prospect, a long-deserted dwelling, an
American soldier, a Greek Testament. Are these words adjectives,
distant, yonder, peaceful, long-sided, double-headed? A distant
object or thing, yonder hill, &c. They are. They will make sense
with a noun after them. Adjectives sometimes become adverbs. This matter
will be explained in Lecture VI. In parsing, you may generally know an
adjective by its qualifying a noun or pronoun.

Most words ending in ing are present participles. These are
frequently used as adjectives; therefore, most participles will make
sense with the addition of the word thing, or any other noun, after
them; as, a pleasing thing, a moving spectacle, mouldering ruins.

In the Latin language, and many others, adjectives, like nouns, have
gender, number, and case; but in the English language, they have neither
gender, person, number, nor case. These properties belong to creatures
and things, and not to their qualities; therefore gender, person,
number, and case, are the properties of nouns, and not of
adjectives.

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.

More and most form the comparative and superlative degrees by
increasing the positive; and less and least, by diminishing it.

Comparison by increasing the positive

Comparison by diminishing the positive.

NUMERAL ADJECTIVES.

Read this Lecture carefully, particularly the NOTES; after which you may
parse the following adjectives and neuter verb, and, likewise, the
examples that follow. If you cannot repeat all the definitions and
rules, spread the Compendium when you parse. But before you proceed,
please to commit the

SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING.

That great nation was once powerful; but now it is feeble.

Great is an adjective, a word added to a noun to express its
quality—pos. great, com. greater, sup. greatest—it is in the positive
degree, it expresses the quality of an object without any increase or
diminution, and belongs to the noun “nation,” according to

RULE 18. Adjectives belong to, and qualify, nouns expressed or
understood.

Was is a verb, a word that signifies to be—neuter, it expresses
neither action nor passion, but being or a state of being—third person
singular, because its nominative “nation” is a noun of multitude
conveying unity of idea—it agrees with “nation,” agreeably to RULE
10. A noun of multitude conveying unity of idea, may have a verb or
pronoun agreeing with it in the singular.

Powerful is an adjective belonging to “nation,” according to Rule 18.
Feeble belongs to “it,” according to Note 1, under Rule 18. Is is a
neuter verb agreeing with “it,” agreeably to Rule 4.

“Bonaparte entered Russia with 400,000 men.”

Four-hundred-thousand is a numeral adjective of the cardinal kind, it
is a word used in counting, and belongs to the noun “men,” according to
Note 2, under Rule 18. Numeral adjectives belong to nouns, which nouns
must agree in number with their adjectives.

If, in parsing the following examples, you find any words about which
you are at a loss, you will please to turn back, and parse all the
foregoing examples again. This course will enable you to proceed without
any difficulty.

More is an adverb. Of and to are prepositions, governing the nouns
that follow them in the objective case.

EXERCISES IN PARSING.

A benevolent man helps indigent beggars.
Studious scholars learn many long lessons. Wealthy merchants own large
ships. The heavy ships bear large burdens; the lighter ships carry less
burdens. Just poets use figurative language. Ungrammatical expressions
offend a true critic’s ear. Weak critics magnify trifling errors. No
composition is perfect. The rabble was tumultuous. The late-washed grass
looks green. Shady trees form a delightful arbor. The setting sun makes
a beautiful appearance; the variegated rainbow appears more beautiful.
Epaminondas was the greatest of the Theban generals; Pelopidas was next
to Epaminondas.

The first fleet contained three hundred men; the second contained four
thousand. The earth contains one thousand million inhabitants. Many a
cheering ray brightens the good man’s pathway.

REMARKS ON ADJECTIVES AND NOUNS.

Before you proceed any farther, you may answer the following

QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING.

What is the distinction between a noun and an adjective?—By what sign
may an adjective be known?—Are participles ever used as
adjectives?—Does gender, person, number, or case, belong to
adjectives?—How are they varied?—Name the three degrees of
comparison.—What effect have less and least in comparing
adjectives?—Repeat the order of parsing an adjective.—What rule
applies in parsing an adjective?—What rule in parsing a verb agreeing
with a noun of multitude conveying unity of idea?—What Note should be
applied in parsing an adjective which belongs to a pronoun?—What Note
in parsing numeral adjectives?

QUESTIONS ON THE NOTES.

EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX.

NOTE 9, under RULE 18. Double Comparatives
and Superlatives should be avoided; such as, worser, lesser, more
deeper, more wickeder, &c.: chiefest, supremest, perfectest,
rightest; or more perfect, most perfect, most supreme, &c.

Virtue confers the most supreme dignity on man, and it should be his
chiefest desire.

He made the greater light to rule the day, and the lesser light to
rule the night.

The pleasures of the understanding are more preferable than those of
imagination or sense. The tongue is like a race-horse, which runs the
faster the lesser weight it carries. The nightingale’s voice is the most
sweetest in the grove. The Most Highest hath created us for his glory,
He was admitted to the chiefest offices. The first witness gave a strong
proof of the fact; the next more stronger still; but the last witness,
the most stronger of all. He gave the fullest and the most sincere proof
of the truer friendship.

LECTURE V.

OF PARTICIPLES.

The term Participle comes from the Latin word participio, which
signifies to partake: and this name is given to this part of speech,
because it partakes of the nature of the verb and of the adjective.

By many writers, the participle is classed with the verb, and treated as
a part of it; but, as it has no nominative, partakes of the nature of an
adjective, requires many syntactical rules which apply not to the verb,
and, in some other respects, has properties peculiar to itself, it is
believed that its character is sufficiently distinct from the verb, to
entitle it to the rank of a separate part of speech. It is, in fact, the
connecting link between, not only the adjective and the verb, but also
the noun and the verb.

All participles are compound in their meaning and office. Like verbs,
they express action and being, and denote time; and, like adjectives,
they describe the nouns of which they denote the action or being. In the
sentences, The boatman is crossing the river; I see a man laboring
in the field; Charles is standing; you perceive that the participles
crossing and laboring express the actions of the boatman and the
man, and standing the state of being of Charles. In these respects,
then, they partake of the nature of verbs. You also notice, that they
describe the several nouns associated with them, like describing
adjectives; and that, in this respect, they participate the properties
of adjectives. And, furthermore, you observe they denote actions which
are still going on; that is, incomplete or unfinished actions; for
which reason we call them imperfect participles.

Perhaps I can illustrate their character more clearly. When the
imperfect or present and perfect participles are placed before nouns,
they become defining or describing adjectives, and are denominated
participial adjectives; as, A loving companion; The rippling
stream; Roaring winds; A wilted leaf; An accomplished scholar.
Here the words loving, rippling, roaring, wilted, and accomplished,
describe or define the nouns with which they are associated. And where
the participles are placed after their nouns, they have, also, this
descriptive quality. If I say, I see the moon rising; The horse is
running a race; The dog is beaten; I describe the several objects,
as a rising moon, a running horse, and a beaten dog, as well as
when I place these participles before the nouns. The same word is a
participle or a participial adjective, according to its manner of
meaning. The preceding illustration, however, shows that this
distinction is founded on a very slight shade of difference in the
meaning of the two. The following examples will enable you to
distinguish the one from the other.

The present or imperfect participle is known by its ending in ing;
as, floating, riding, hearing, seeing. These are derived from
the verbs, float, ride, hear, and see. But some words ending in
ing are not participles; such as evening, morning, hireling, sapling,
uninteresting, unbelieving, uncontrolling. When you parse a word ending
in ing, you should always consider whether it comes from a verb or
not. There is such a verb as interest, hence you know that the word
interesting is a participle; but there is no such verb as
uninterest, consequently, uninteresting can not be a participle:
but it is an adjective; as, an uninteresting story. You will be able
very easily to distinguish the participle from the other parts of
speech, when you shall have acquired a more extensive knowledge of the
verb.

Speak the participles from each of these verbs, learn, walk, shun,
smile, sail, conquer, manage, reduce, relate, discover, overrate,
disengage. Thus, Pres. learning, Perf. learned, Comp. having
learned. Pres. walking, Perf. walked, Compound, having walked,
and so on.

You may now commit the order of parsing a participle, and then proceed
with me.

SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING.

“I saw a vessel sailing”

Sailing is a participle, a word derived from a verb, and partakes of
the nature of a verb, and also of an adjective—it comes from the verb
to sail—pres. sailing, perf. sailed, comp. having sailed—it is a
present or imperfect participle, because it denotes the continuance of
an unfinished action—and refers to the noun “vessel” for its subject,
according to

RULE 27. The present participle refers to some noun or pronoun denoting
the subject or actor.

“Not a breath disturbs the sleeping billow.”

Sleeping is a participial adjective, a word added to a noun to express
its quality—it cannot, with propriety, be compared—- it belongs to the
noun “billow,” agreeably to

RULE 18. Adjectives belong to, and qualify, nouns expressed or
understood.

You will please to parse these two words several times over, and, by a
little reflection, you will perfectly understand the 27th RULE.
Recollect, the participle never varies its termination to agree with a
noun or pronoun, for, as it has no nominative, it has no agreement;
but it simply refers to an actor. Examples: I see a vessel sailing;
or, I see three vessels sailing. You perceive that the participle
sailing refers to a singular noun in the first example, and to a
plural noun in the second; and yet the participle is in the same form in
both examples. The noun vessel is in the objective case, and governed
by the transitive verb see. But when a verb follows a noun, the ending
of the verb generally varies in order to agree with the noun which is
its nominative; as, the vessel sails; the vessels sail.

In this place it may not be improper to notice another Rule that relates
to the participle. In the sentence, “The man is beating his horse,”
the noun horse is in the objective case, because it is the object of
the action expressed by the active-transitive participle “beating,” and
it is governed by the participle beating, according to

RULE 26. Participles have the same government as the verbs have from
which they are derived.

The principle upon which this rule is founded, is quite apparent. As a
participle derived from a transitive verb, expresses the same kind of
action as its verb, it necessarily follows, that the participle must
govern the same case as the verb from which it is derived.

When you shall have studied this lecture attentively, you may proceed
and parse the following exercises, containing five parts of speech. If,
in analyzing these examples, you find any words which you cannot parse
correctly and systematically by referring to your Compend for
definitions and rules, you will please to turn back and read over again
the whole five lectures. You must exercise a little patience; and, for
your encouragement, permit me to remind you, that when you shall have
acquired a thorough knowledge of these five parts of speech, only five
more will remain for you to learn. Be ambitious to excel. Be thorough in
your investigations. Give your reasoning powers free scope. By studying
these lectures with attention, you will acquire more grammatical
knowledge in three months, than is commonly obtained in two years.

In the following examples, the words purling, crusted, slumbering, and
twinkling, are participial adjectives. There and its you may omit.

EXERCISES IN PARSING.

Orlando left the herd grazing. The hunters heard the young dog barking.
The old fox heard the sportsman’s horn sounding. Deep rivers float long
rafts. Purling streams moisten the earth’s surface. The sun approaching,
melts the crusted snow. The slumbering seas calmed the grave old
hermit’s mind. Pale Cynthia declining, clips the horizon. Man beholds
the twinkling stars adorning night’s blue arch. The stranger saw the
desert thistle bending there its lowly head.

REMARKS ON PARTICIPLES.

You may now answer these

QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING.

How many kinds of participles are there?—What is the ending of a
present participle?—What does a perfect participle denote?—With what
does the perfect participle of a regular verb correspond?—What is a
compound participle?—From what word is the term participle
derived?—Why is this part of speech thus named?—Wherein does this part
of speech partake of the nature of a verb?—Do all participles
participate the properties of adjectives?—In what respect?—When are
participles called participial adjectives?—Give examples.—How may a
present participle be known?—Repeat the order of parsing a
participle.—What rule applies in parsing a present participle?—What
Rule in parsing a participial adjective?—Do participles vary in their
terminations in order to agree with their subject or actor?—What Rule
applies in parsing a noun in the objective case, governed by a
participle?—Do participles ever become nouns?—Give examples.

PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES.

LECTURE VI.

OF ADVERBS.

Recollect, an adverb never qualifies a noun. It qualifies any of the
four parts of speech abovenamed, and none others.

To modify or qualify, you know, means to produce some change. The
adverb modifies. If I say, Wirt’s style excels Irving’s, the
proposition is affirmative, and the verb excels expresses the
affirmation. But when I say, Wirt’s style excels not Irving’s, the
assertion is changed to a negative. What is it that thus modifies or
changes the meaning of the verb excels? You perceive that it is the
little word not. This word has power to reverse the meaning of the
sentence. Not, then, is a modifier, qualifier, or negative adverb.

When an adverb is used to modify the sense of a verb or participle, it
generally expresses the manner, time, or place, in which the action is
performed, or some accidental circumstance respecting it. In the
phrases, The man rides gracefully, awkwardly, badly, swiftly,
slowly, &c.; or, I saw the man riding swiftly, slowly, leisurely, very
fast, &c., you perceive that the words gracefully, awkwardly, very
fast, &c., are adverbs, qualifying the verb rides, or the participle
riding, because they express the manner in which the action denoted
by the verb and participle, is done.

In the phrases, The man rides daily, weekly, seldom, frequently, often,
sometimes, never; or, The man rode yesterday, heretofore, long since,
long ago, recently, lately, just now or, The man will ride soon,
presently, directly, immediately, by and by, to-day, hereafter, you
perceive that all these words in italics, are adverbs, qualifying the
meaning of the verb, rides, because they express the time of the
action denoted by the verb.

Again, if I say, The man lives here, near by, yonder, remote, far off,
somewhere, nowhere, everywhere, &c., the words in italics are adverbs
of place, because they tell where he lives.

Adverbs likewise qualify adjectives, and sometimes other adverbs; as,
more wise, most wise; or more wisely, most wisely. When an adverb
is joined to an adjective or adverb, it generally expresses the degree
of comparison; for adverbs, like adjectives, have degrees of comparison.
Thus, in the phrase, A skilful artist, you know the adjective skilful
is in the positive degree; but, by placing the adverb more before the
adjective, we increase the degree of quality denoted by the adjective to
the comparative; as, A more skilful artist: and most renders it
superlative; as, A most skilful artist. And if we place more and most
before other adverbs, the effect is the same; as, skilfully, more
skilfully, most skilfully.

COMPARISON OF ADVERBS.

You will generally know an adverb at sight; but sometimes you will find
it more difficult to be distinguished, than any other part of speech in
the English language. I will, therefore, give you some signs which
will assist you a little.

Most words ending in ly are adverbs; such as, politely, gracefully,
judiciously. Any word or short phrase that will answer to any one of
the questions, how? how much? when? or where? is an adverb; as, The
river flows rapidly; He walks very fast; He has gone far away; but
he will soon return; She sings sweetly; They learn none at all.
How, or in what manner does the river flow? Rapidly. How does he walk?
Very fast. Where has he gone? Far away. When will he return? Soon.
How does she sing? Sweetly. How much do they learn? None at all.
From this illustration, you perceive, that, if you could not tell these
adverbs by the sense, you would know them by their answering to the
questions. However, your better way will be to distinguish adverbs by
considering the office they perform in the sentence; or by noticing
their grammatical relation, or their situation, with respect to other
words. To gain a thorough knowledge of their real character, is highly
important. Rapidly, fast, far away, soon, sweetly, &c. are known to be
adverbs by their qualifying the sense of verbs. “A very good pen
writes extremely well.” Well, in this sentence, is known to be an
adverb by its qualifying the sense of the verb writes; extremely, by
its ending in ly, or by its being joined to the adverb well to
qualify it; and very is known as an adverb by its joining the
adjective good.

Expressions like these, none at all, a great deal, a few days ago, long
since, at length, in vain, when they are used to denote the manner or
time of the action of verbs or participles, are generally termed
adverbial phrases.

Adverbs, though very numerous, may, for the sake of practical
convenience, be reduced to particular classes.

1. Of Number; as, Once, twice, thrice, &c.

2. Of Order; as, First, secondly, lastly, finally, &c.

3. Of Place; as, Here, there, where, elsewhere, anywhere, somewhere,
nowhere, herein, whither, hither, thither, upward, downward, forward,
backward, whence, thence, whithersoever, &c.

4. Of Time. Present; as, Now, to-day, &c. Past; as, Already,
before, lately, yesterday, heretofore, hitherto, long since, long ago,
&c. Future; as, To-morrow, not yet, hereafter, henceforth,
henceforward, by and by, instantly, presently, immediately, ere long,
straightways, &c. Time indefinite; as, Oft, often, oft-times,
often-times, sometimes, soon, seldom, daily, weekly, monthly, yearly,
always, when, then, ever, never, again, &c.

5. Of Quantity; as, Much, little, sufficiently, how much, how great,
enough, abundantly, &c.

6. Of Manner or quality; as, Wisely, foolishly, justly, unjustly,
quickly, slowly, &c. Adverbs of quality are the most numerous kind; and
they are generally formed by adding the termination ly to an adjective
or a participle, or by changing le into ly; as, Bad, badly;
cheerful, cheerfully; able, ably; admirable, admirably.

7. Of Doubt; as, Haply, perhaps, peradventure, possibly, perchance.

8. Of Affirmation; as, Verily, truly, undoubtedly, doubtless,
certainly, yea, yes, surely, indeed, really, &c.

9. Of Negation; as, Nay, no, not, by no means, not at all, in no wise,
&c.

10. Of Interrogation; as, How, why, wherefore, whither, &c., and
sometimes when, whence, where.

11. Of Comparison; as, More, most, better, best, worse, worst, less,
least, very, almost, little, alike, &c.

NOTES.

You will now please to read this lecture four times over, and read
slowly and carefully, for unless you understand well the nature and
character of this part of speech, you will be frequently at a loss to
distinguish it from others in composition. Now do you notice, that, in
this sentence which you have just read, the words slowly, carefully,
well, and frequently, are adverbs? And do you again observe, that, in
the question I have just put to you, the words now and just are
adverbs? Exercise a little sober thought. Fifteen minutes spent in
reflection, are worth whole days occupied in careless reading.

In the following exercises six parts of speech are presented, namely,
Nouns, Verbs, Articles, Adjectives, Participles, and Adverbs; and I
believe you are now prepared to parse them all agreeably to the
systematic order, four times over. Those words in italics are
adverbs.

SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING.

“My friend has returned again; but his health is not very good.”

Again, is an adverb, a word used to modify the sense of a verb—of
time indefinite, it expresses a period of time not precisely defined—it
qualifies the verb “has returned,” according to

Rule 29. Adverbs qualify verbs, participles, adjectives, and other
adverbs.

Not is an adverb, a word used to modify the sense of an adverb—of
negation, it makes the assertion negative; that is, it changes the
proposition from an affirmative to a negative—and it qualifies the
adverb “very,” agreeably to Rule 29. Adverbs qualify verbs, &c.

Very is an adverb, a word used to qualify the sense of an
adjective—of comparison, it compares the adjective “good,” and
qualifies it according to Rule 29. Adverbs qualify adjectives, &c.

EXERCISES IN PARSING.

The traveller described a lofty castle decaying gradually. Very few
literary men ever became distinguished poets. The great Milton excels
not Homer. The Roman women, once voluntarily contributed their
most precious jewels to save the city.

Many small streams uniting, form very large rivers. The river Funza
falling perpendicularly forms a vast cataract. Attentive servants
always drive horses very carefully; negligent servants often drive
horses very carelessly. Assiduous scholars improve very fast; idle
scholars learn none at all. Friendship often ends in love; but love
in friendship, never.

Before you proceed to correct the following exercises in false Syntax,
you may answer these

QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING.

Does an adverb ever qualify a noun?—What parts of speech does it
qualify?—When an adverb qualifies a verb or participle, what does it
express?—When an adverb qualifies an adjective or adverb, what does it
generally express?—Compare some adverbs.—By what signs may an adverb
be known?—Give examples.—Repeat some adverbial phrases.—Name the
different classes of adverbs.—Repeat some of each class.—Repeat the
order of parsing an adverb.—What rule do you apply in parsing an
adverb?

QUESTIONS ON THE NOTES.