THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA

A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION

ELEVENTH EDITION

VOLUME II

ANDROS to AUSTRIA

[E-Text Edition of Volume II – Part 01 of 16 – ANDROS to ANISE]

New York

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• Anglican Communion.
• Angola.

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ANDROS, SIR EDMUND (1637-1714), English colonial governor in America,
was born in London on the 6th of December 1637, son of Amice Andros,
an adherent of Charles I., and the royal bailiff of the island of
Guernsey. He served for a short time in the army of Prince Henry of
Nassau, and in 1660-1662 was gentleman in ordinary to the queen of
Bohemia (Elizabeth Stuart, daughter of James I. of England). He then
served against the Dutch, and in 1672 was commissioned major in
what is said to have been the first English regiment armed with the
bayonet. In 1674 he became, by the appointment of the duke of York
(later James II.), governor of New York and the Jerseys, though his
jurisdiction over the Jerseys was disputed, and until his recall in
1681 to meet an unfounded charge of dishonesty and favouritism in
the collection of the revenues, he proved himself to be a capable
administrator, whose imperious disposition, however, rendered him
somewhat unpopular among the colonists. During a visit to England in
1678 he was knighted. In 1686 he became governor, with Boston as his
capital, of the “Dominion of New England,” into which Massachusetts
(including Maine), Plymouth, Rhode Island, Connecticut and New
Hampshire were consolidated, and in 1688 his jurisdiction was extended
over New York and the Jerseys. But his vexatious interference with
colonial rights and customs aroused the keenest resentment, and on the
18th of April 1689, soon after news of the arrival of William, prince
of Orange, in England reached Boston, the colonists deposed and
arrested him. In New York his deputy, Francis Nicholson, was soon
afterwards deposed by Jacob Leisler (q.v.); and the inter-colonial
union was dissolved. Andros was sent to England for trial in 1690, but
was immediately released without trial, and from 1692 until 1698
he was governor of Virginia, but was recalled through the agency of
Commissary James Blair (q.v.), with whom he quarrelled. In 1693-1694
he was also governor of Maryland. From 1704 to 1706 he was governor
of Guernsey. He died in London in February 1714 and was buried at
St. Anne’s, Soho.

See The Andros Tracts (3 vols., Boston, 1869-1872).

ANDROS, or ANDRO, an island of the Greek archipelago, the most
northerly of the Cyclades, 6 m. S.E. of Euboea, and about 2 m. N.
of Tenos; it forms an eparchy in the modern kingdom of Greece. It is
nearly 25 m. long, and its greatest breadth is 10 m. Its surface is
for the most part mountainous, with many fruitful and well-watered
valleys. Andros, the capital, on the east coast, contains about 2000
inhabitants. The ruins of Palaeopolis, the ancient capital, are on the
west coast; the town possessed a famous temple, dedicated to Bacchus.
The island has about 18,000 inhabitants.

The island in ancient times contained an Ionian population, perhaps
with an admixture of Thracian blood. Though originally dependent on
Eretria, by the 7th century B.C. it had become sufficiently prosperous
to send out several colonies to Chalcidice (Acanthus, Stageirus,
Argilus, Sane). In 480 it supplied ships to Xerxes and was
subsequently harried by the Greek fleet. Though enrolled in the Delian
League it remained disaffected towards Athens, and in 447 had to be
coerced by the settlement of a cleruchy. In 411 Andros proclaimed its
freedom and in 408 withstood an Athenian attack. As a member of the
second Delian League it was again controlled by a garrison and an
archon. In the Hellenistic period Andros was contended for as a
frontier-post by the two naval powers of the Aegean Sea, Macedonia and
Egypt. In 333 it received a Macedonian garrison from Antipater; in 308
it was freed by Ptolemy I. In the Chremonidean War (266-263) it passed
again to Macedonia after a battle fought off its shores. In 200 it
was captured by a combined Roman, Pergamene and Rhodian fleet, and
remained a possession of Pergamum until the dissolution of that
kingdom in 133 B.C. Before falling under Turkish rule, Andros was from
A.D. 1207 till 1566 governed by the families Zeno and Sommariva under
Venetian protection.

ANDROTION (c. 350 B.C.), Greek orator, and one of the leading
politicians of his time, was a pupil of Isocrates and a contemporary
of Demosthenes. He is known to us chiefly from the speech of
Demosthenes, in which he was accused of illegality in proposing
the usual honour of a crown to the Council of Five Hundred at the
expiration of its term of office. Androtion filled several important
posts, and during the Social War was appointed extraordinary
commissioner to recover certain arrears of taxes. Both Demosthenes and
Aristotle (Rhet. iii. 4) speak favourably of his powers as
an orator. He is said to have gone into exile at Megara, and to have
composed an Atthis, or annalistic account of Attica from the
earliest times to his own days (Pausanias vi. 7; x. 8). It is disputed
whether the annalist and orator are identical, but an Androtion
who wrote on agriculture is certainly a different person. Professor
Gaetano de Sanctis (in L’Attide di Androzione e un papiro
di Oxyrhynchos, Turin, 1908) attributes to Androtion, the
atthidographer, a 4th-century historical fragment, discovered by B. P.
Grenfell and A. S. Hunt (Oxyrhynchus Papyri, vol. v.). Strong
arguments against this view are set forth by E. M. Walker in the
Classical Review, May 1908.

ANDÚJAR (the anc. Slilurgi), a town of southern Spain, in the
province of Jaén; on the right bank of the river Guadalquivir and the
Madrid-Cordova railway. Pop. (1900) 16,302. Andújar is widely known
for its porous earthenware jars, called alcarrazas, which keep
water cool in the hottest weather, and are manufactured from a whitish
clay found in the neighbourhood.

ANECDOTE (from ἀν-, privative, and ἐκδίδωμι, to give
out or publish), a word originally meaning something not published. It
has now two distinct significations. The primary one is something not
published, in which sense it has been used to denote either secret
histories—Procopius, e.g., gives this as one of the titles
of his secret history of Justinian’s court—or portions of ancient
writers which have remained long in manuscript and are edited for the
first time. Of such anecdota there are many collections; the
earliest was probably L. A. Muratori’s, in 1709. In the more general
and popular acceptation of the word, however, anecdotes are short
accounts of detached interesting particulars. Of such anecdotes the
collections are almost infinite; the best in many respects is that
compiled by T. Byerley (d. 1826) and J. Clinton Robertson (d. 1852),
known as the Percy Anecdotes (1820-1823).

ANEL, DOMINIQUE (1679-1730), French surgeon, was born at Toulouse
about 1679. After studying at Montpellier and Paris, he served as
surgeon-major in the French army in Alsace; then after two years at
Vienna he went to Italy and served in the Austrian army. In 1710 he
was teaching surgery in Rouen, whence he went to Genoa, and in 1716 he
was practising in Paris. He died about 1730. He was celebrated for his
successful surgical treatment of fistula lacrymalis, and
while at Genoa invented for use in connexion with the operation the
fine-pointed syringe still known by his name.

ANEMOMETER (from Gr. ἄνεμος, wind, and μέτρον,
a measure), an instrument for measuring either the velocity or the
pressure of the wind. Anemometers may be divided into two classes, (1)
those that measure the velocity, (2) those that measure the pressure
of the wind, but inasmuch as there is a close connexion between the
pressure and the velocity, a suitable anemometer of either class will
give information about both these quantities.

Velocity anemometers may again be subdivided into two classes, (1)
those which do not require a wind vane or weathercock, (2) those
which do. The Robinson anemometer, invented (1846) by Dr. Thomas Romney
Robinson, of Armagh Observatory, is the best-known and most generally
used instrument, and belongs to the first of these. It consists
of four hemispherical cups, mounted one on each end of a pair of
horizontal arms, which lie at right angles to each other and form a
cross. A vertical axis round which the cups turn passes through the
centre of the cross; a train of wheel-work counts up the number of
turns which this axis makes, and from the number of turns made in any
given time the velocity of the wind during that time is calculated.
The cups are placed symmetrically on the end of the arms, and it is
easy to see that the wind always has the hollow of one cup presented
to it; the back of the cup on the opposite end of the cross also
faces the wind, but the pressure on it is naturally less, and hence
a continual rotation is produced; each cup in turn as it comes round
providing the necessary force. The two great merits of this anemometer
are its simplicity and the absence of a wind vane; on the other hand
it is not well adapted to leaving a record on paper of the actual
velocity at any definite instant, and hence it leaves a short but
violent gust unrecorded. Unfortunately, when Dr. Robinson first
designed his anemometer, he stated that no matter what the size of the
cups or the length of the arms, the cups always moved with one-third
of the velocity of the wind. This result was apparently confirmed by
some independent experiments, but it is very far from the truth, for
it is now known that the actual ratio, or factor as it is commonly
called, of the velocity of the wind to that of the cups depends very
largely on the dimensions of the cups and arms, and may have almost
any value between two and a little over three. The result has been
that wind velocities published in many official publications have
often been in error by nearly 50%.

The other forms of velocity anemometer may be described as belonging
to the windmill type. In the Robinson anemometer the axis of rotation
is vertical, but with this subdivision the axis of rotation must
be parallel to the direction of the wind and therefore horizontal.
Furthermore, since the wind varies in direction and the axis has to
follow its changes, a wind vane or some other contrivance to fulfil
the same purpose must be employed. This type of instrument is very
little used in England, but seems to be more in favour in France. In
cases where the direction of the air motion is always the same, as
in the ventilating shafts of mines and buildings for instance, these
anemometers, known, however, as air meters, are employed, and give
most satisfactory results.

Anemometers which measure the pressure may be divided into the plate
and tube classes, but the former term must be taken as including a
good many miscellaneous forms. The simplest type of this form consists
of a flat plate, which is usually square or circular, while a wind
vane keeps this exposed normally to the wind, and the pressure of the
wind on its face is balanced by a spring. The distortion of the spring
determines the actual force which the wind is exerting on the plate,
and this is either read off on a suitable gauge, or leaves a record in
the ordinary way by means of a pen writing on a sheet of paper moved
by clockwork. Instruments of this kind have been in use for a long
series of years, and have recorded pressures up to and even exceeding
60 lb per sq. ft., but it is now fairly certain that these high values
are erroneous, and due, not to the wind, but to faulty design of the
anemometer.

The fact is that the wind is continually varying in force, and while
the ordinary pressure plate is admirably adapted for measuring the
force of a steady and uniform wind, it is entirely unsuitable for
following the rapid fluctuations of the natural wind. To make
matters worse, the pen which records the motion of the plate is often
connected with it by an extensive system of chains and levers. A
violent gust strikes the plate, which is driven back and carried by
its own momentum far past the position in which a steady wind of the
same force would place it; by the time the motion has reached the pen
it has been greatly exaggerated by the springiness of the connexion,
and not only is the plate itself driven too far back, but also its
position is wrongly recorded by the pen; the combined errors act
the same way, and more than double the real maximum pressure may be
indicated on the chart.

A modification of the ordinary pressure-plate has recently been
designed. In this arrangement a catch is provided so that the plate
being once driven back by the wind cannot return until released by
hand; but the catch does not prevent the plate being driven back
farther by a gust stronger than the last one that moved it. Examples
of these plates are erected on the west coast of England, where in the
winter fierce gales often occur; a pressure of 30 lb per sq. ft. has
not been shown by them, and instances exceeding 20 lb are extremely
rare.

Many other modifications have been used and suggested. Probably a
sphere would prove most useful for a pressure anemometer, since owing
to its symmetrical shape it would not require a weathercock. A small
light sphere hanging from the end of 30 or 40 ft. of fine sewing
cotton has been employed to measure the wind velocity passing over
a kite, the tension of the cotton being recorded, and this plan has
given satisfactory results.

Lind’s anemometer, which consists simply of a U tube containing liquid
with one end bent into a horizontal direction to face the wind, is
perhaps the original form from which the tube class of instrument
has sprung. If the wind blows into the mouth of a tube it causes an
increase of pressure inside and also of course an equal increase in
all closed vessels with which the mouth is in airtight communication.
If it blows horizontally over the open end of a vertical tube it
causes a decrease of pressure, but this fact is not of any practical
use in anemometry, because the magnitude of the decrease depends on
the wind striking the tube exactly at right angles to its axis,
the most trifling departure from the true direction causing great
variations in the magnitude. The pressure tube anemometer (fig. 1)
utilizes the increased pressure in the open mouth of a straight tube
facing the wind, and the decrease
[v.02 p.0003] of pressure caused inside when the wind blows over a
ring of small holes drilled through the metal of a vertical tube which
is closed at the upper end. The pressure differences on which the
action depends are very small, and special means are required to
register them, but in the ordinary form of recording anemometer (fig.
2), any wind capable of turning the vane which keeps the mouth of the
tube facing the wind is capable of registration.

The great advantage of the tube anemometer lies in the fact that the
exposed part can be mounted on a high pole, and requires no oiling
or attention for years; and the registering part can be placed in any
convenient position, no matter how far from the external part. Two
connecting tubes are required. It might appear at first sight as
though one connexion would serve, but the differences in pressure on
which these instruments depend are so minute, that the pressure of
the air in the room where the recording part is placed has to be
considered. Thus if the instrument depends on the pressure or suction
effect alone, and this pressure or suction is measured against the
air pressure in an ordinary room, in which the doors and windows are
carefully closed and a newspaper is then burnt up the chimney, an
effect may be produced equal to a wind of 10 m. an hour; and the
opening of a window in rough weather, or the opening of a door, may
entirely alter the registration.

FIG. 1 & FIG. 2 Anemometers.

The connexion between the velocity and the pressure of the wind is
one that is not yet known with absolute certainty. Many text-books on
engineering give the relation P=.005 v² when P is the pressure
in lb per sq. ft. and v the velocity in miles per hour. The
history of this untrue relation is curious. It was given about the end
of the 18th century as based on some experiments, but with a footnote
stating that little reliance could be placed on it. The statement
without the qualifying note was copied from book to book, and at last
received general acceptance. There is no doubt that under average
conditions of atmospheric density, the .005 should be replaced by
.003, for many independent authorities using different methods have
found values very close to this last figure. It is probable that
the wind pressure is not strictly proportional to the extent of the
surface exposed. Pressure plates are generally of moderate size, from
a half or quarter of a sq. ft. up to two or three sq. ft., are round
or square, and for these sizes, and shapes, and of course for a flat
surface, the relation P=.003 v² is fairly correct.

In the tube anemometer also it is really the pressure that is
measured, although the scale is usually graduated as a velocity scale.
In cases where the density of the air is not of average value, as on a
high mountain, or with an exceptionally low barometer for example, an
allowance must be made. Approximately 1½% should be added to the
velocity recorded by a tube anemometer for each 1000 ft. that it
stands above sea-level.

(W. H. Di.)

ANEMONE, or WIND-FLOWER (from the Gr. ἄνεμος, wind), a
genus of the buttercup order (Ranunculaceae), containing about
ninety species in the north and south temperate zones. Anemone
nemorosa, wood anemone, and A. Pulsatilla, Pasque-flower,
occur in Britain; the latter is found on chalk downs and limestone
pastures in some of the more southern and eastern counties. The plants
are perennial herbs with an underground rootstock, and radical, more
or less deeply cut, leaves. The elongated flower stem bears one or
several, white, red, blue or rarely yellow, flowers; there is an
involucre of three leaflets below each flower. The fruits often bear
long hairy styles which aid their distribution by the wind. Many
of the species are favourite garden plants; among the best known
is Anemone coronaria, often called the poppy anemone, a
tuberous-rooted plant, with parsley-like divided leaves, and large
showy poppy-like blossoms on stalks of from 6 to 9-in. high; the
flowers are of various colours, but the principal are scarlet,
crimson, blue, purple and white. There are also double-flowered
varieties, in which the stamens in the centre are replaced by a tuft
of narrow petals. It is an old garden favourite, and of the double
forms there are named varieties. They grow best in a loamy soil,
enriched with well-rotted manure, which should be dug in below
the tubers. These may be planted in October, and for succession in
January, the autumn-planted ones being protected by a covering of
leaves or short stable litter. They will flower in May and June, and
when the leaves have ripened should be taken up into a dry room till
planting time. They are easily raised from the seed, and a bed of
the single varieties is a valuable addition to a flower-garden, as
it affords, in a warm situation, an abundance of handsome and often
brilliant spring flowers, almost as early as the snowdrop or crocus.
The genus contains many other lively spring-blooming plants, of which
A. hortensis and A. fulgens have less divided leaves
and splendid rosy-purple or scarlet flowers; they require similar
treatment. Another set is represented by A. Pulsatilla, the
Pasque-flower, whose violet blossoms have the outer surface hairy;
these prefer a calcareous soil. The splendid A. japonica, and
its white variety called Honorine Joubert, the latter especially, are
amongst the finest of autumn-blooming hardy perennials; they grow
well in light soil, and reach 2½ to 3 ft. in height, blooming
continually for several weeks. A group of dwarf species, represented
by the native British A. nemorosa and A. apennina, are
amongst the most beautiful of spring flowers for planting in woods and
shady places.

The genus Hepatica is now generally included in anemone as
a subgenus. The plants are known in gardens as hepaticas, and are
varieties of the common South European A. Hepatica; they are
charming spring-flowering plants with usually blue flowers.

ANENCLETUS, or ANACLETUS, second bishop of Rome. About the 4th century
he is treated in the catalogues as two persons—Anacletus and Cletus.
According to the catalogues he occupied the papal chair for twelve
years (c. 77-88).

ANERIO, the name of two brothers, musical composers, very great Roman
masters of 16th-century polyphony. Felice, the elder, was born about
1560, studied under G. M. Nanino and succeeded Palestrina in 1594 as
composer to the papal chapel. Several masses and motets of his are
printed in Proske’s Musica Divina and other modern anthologies,
and it is hardly too much to say that they are for the most part
worthy of Palestrina himself. The date of his death is conjecturally
given as 1630. His brother, Giovanni Francesco, was born about 1567,
and seems to have died about 1620. The occasional attribution of some
of his numerous compositions to his elder brother is a pardonable
mistake, if we may judge by the works that have been reprinted. But
the statement, which continues to be repeated in standard works of
reference, that “he was one of the first of Italians to use the
quaver and its subdivisions” is incomprehensible. Quavers were common
property in all musical countries quite early in the 16th century, and
semiquavers appear in a madrigal of Palestrina published in 1574.
The two brothers are probably the latest composers who handled
16th-century music as their mother-language; suffering neither from
the temptation [v.02 p.0004] to indulge even in such mild neologisms as they might
have learnt from the elder brother’s master, Nanino, nor from the
necessity of preserving their purity of style by a mortified negative
asceticism. They wrote pure polyphony because they understood it and
loved it, and hence their work lives, as neither the progressive work
of their own day nor the reactionary work of their imitators could
live. The 12-part Stabat Mater in the seventh volume of
Palestrina’s complete works has been by some authorities ascribed to
Felice Anerio.

ANET, a town of northern France, in the department of Eure-et-Loir,
situated between the rivers Eure and Vègre, 10 m. N.E. of Dreux by
rail. Pop. (1906) 1324. It possesses the remains of a magnificent
castle, built in the middle of the 16th century by Henry II. for Diana
of Poitiers. Near it is the plain of Ivry, where Henry IV. defeated
the armies of the League in 1590.

ANEURIN, or ANEIRIN, the name of an early 7th-century British (Welsh)
bard, who has been taken by Thomas Stephens (1821-1875), the editor
and translator of Aneurin’s principal epic poem Gododin, for
a son of Gildas, the historian. Gododin is an account of
the British defeat (603) by the Saxons at Cattraeth (identified by
Stephens with Dawstane in Liddesdale), where Aneurin is said to have
been taken prisoner; but the poem is very obscure and is differently
interpreted. It was translated and edited by W. F. Skene in his Four
Ancient Books of Wales (1866), and Stephens’ version was published
by the Cymmrodorion Society in 1888. See CELT: Literature
(Welsh).

ANEURYSM, or ANEURISM (from Gr. ἀνεύρισμα, a dilatation), a
cavity or sac which communicates with the interior of an artery and
contains blood. The walls of the cavity are formed either of the
dilated artery or of the tissues around that vessel. The dilatation
of the artery is due to a local weakness, the result of disease or
injury. The commonest cause is chronic inflammation of the inner coats
of the artery. The breaking of a bottle or glass in the hand is apt to
cut through the outermost coat of the artery at the wrist (radial)
and thus to cause a local weakening of the tube which is gradually
followed by dilatation. Also when an artery is wounded and the wound
in the skin and superficial structures heals, the blood may escape in
to the tissues, displacing them, and by its pressure causing them to
condense and form the sac-wall. The coats of an artery, when diseased,
may be torn by a severe strain, the blood escaping into the condensed
tissues which thus form the aneurysmal sac.

The division, of aneurysms into two classes, true and
false, is unsatisfactory. On the face of it, an aneurysm which
is false is not an aneurysm, any more than a false bank-note is
legal tender. A better classification is into spontaneous and
traumatic. The man who has chronic inflammation of a large
artery, the result, for instance, of gout, arduous, straining work, or
kidney-disease, and whose artery yields under cardiac pressure, has a
spontaneous aneurysm; the barman or window-cleaner who has cut
his radial artery, the soldier whose brachial or femoral artery has
been bruised by a rifle bullet or grazed by a bayonet, and the
boy whose naked foot is pierced by a sharp nail, are apt to be the
subjects of traumatic aneurysm. In those aneurysms which are
a saccular bulging on one side of the artery the blood may be
induced to coagulate, or may of itself deposit layer upon layer of
pale clot, until the sac is obliterated. This laminar coagulation
by constant additions gradually fills the aneurysmal cavity and the
pulsation in the sac then ceases; contraction of the sac and its
contents gradually takes place and the aneurysm is cured. But in those
aneurysms which are fusiform dilatations of the vessel there is
but slight chance of such cure, for the blood sweeps evenly through it
without staying to deposit clot or laminated fibrine.

In the treatment of aneurysm the aim is generally to lower the blood
pressure by absolute rest and moderated diet, but a cure is rarely
effected except by operation, which, fortunately, is now resorted
to more promptly and securely than was previously the case.
Without trying the speculative and dangerous method of treatment
by compression, or the application of an india rubber bandage, the
surgeon now without loss of time cuts down upon the artery, and
applies an aseptic ligature close above the dilatation. Experience
has shown that this method possesses great advantages, and that it has
none of the disadvantages which were formerly supposed to attend it.
Saccular dilatations of arteries which are the result of cuts or
other injuries are treated by tying the vessel above and below, and by
dissecting out the aneurysm. Popliteal, carotid and other aneurysms,
which are not of traumatic origin, are sometimes dealt with on this
plan, which is the old “Method of Antyllus” with modern aseptic
conditions. Speaking generally, if an aneurysm can be dealt with
surgically the sooner that the artery is tied the better. Less heroic
measures are too apt to prove painful, dangerous, ineffectual and
disappointing. For anturysm in the chest or abdomen (which cannot be
dealt with by operation) the treatment may be tried of injecting a
pure solution of gelatine into the loose tissues of the armpit, so
that the gelatine may find its way into the blood stream and increase
the chance of curative coagulation in the distant aneurysmal sac.

(E. O.)

ANFRACTUOSITY (from Lat. anfractuosus, winding), twisting and
turning, circuitousness; a word usually employed in the plural to
denote winding channels such as occur in the depths of the sea,
mountains, or the fissures (sulci) separating the convolutions
of the brain, or, by analogy, in the mind.

ANGARIA (from ἄγγαρος, the Greek form of a Babylonian word
adopted in Persian for “mounted courier”), a sort of postal system
adopted by the Roman imperial government from the ancient Persians,
among whom, according to Xenophon (Cyrop. viii. 6; cf.
Herodotus viii. 98) it was established by Cyrus the Great. Couriers on
horseback were posted at certain stages along the chief roads of the
empire, for the transmission of royal despatches by night and day
in all weathers. In the Roman system the supply of horses and their
maintenance was a compulsory duty from which the emperor alone could
grant exemption. The word, which in the 4th century was used for the
heavy transport vehicles of the cursus publicus, and also for the
animals by which they were drawn, came to mean generally “compulsory
service.” So angaria, angariare, in medieval Latin, and
the rare English derivatives “angariate,” “angariation,” came to mean
any service which was forcibly or unjustly demanded, and oppression in
general.

ANGARY (Lat. jus angariae; Fr. droit d’angarie; Ger.
Angarie; from the Gr. ἀγγαρεία, the office of an
ἄγγαρος, courier or messenger), the name given to the right
of a belligerent to seize and apply for the purposes of war (or to
prevent the enemy from doing so) any kind of property on, belligerent
territory, including that which may belong to subjects or citizens of
a neutral state. Art. 53 of the Regulations respecting the Laws and
Customs of War on Land, annexed to the Hague Convention of 1899 on
the same subject, provides that railway plant, land telegraphs,
telephones, steamers and other ships (other than such as are governed
by maritime law), though belonging to companies or private persons,
may be used for military operations, but “must be restored at
the conclusion of peace and indemnities paid for them.” And
Art. 54 adds that “the plant of railways coming from neutral states,
whether the property of those states or of companies or private
persons, shall be sent back to them as soon as possible.” These
articles seem to sanction the right of angary against neutral
property, while limiting it as against both belligerent and neutral
property. It may be considered, however, that the right to use implies
as wide a range of contingencies as the “necessity of war” can be made
to cover.

(T. Ba.)

ANGEL, a general term denoting a subordinate superhuman being in
monotheistic religions, e.g.. Islam, Judaism, Christianity, and
in allied religions, such as Zoroastrianism. In polytheism the grades
of superhuman beings are continuous; but in monotheism there is a
sharp distinction of kind, as well as degree, between God on the one
hand, and all other superhuman beings on the other; the latter are the
“angels.”

“Angel” is a transcription of the Gr. ἄγγελος, messenger.
ἄγγελος in the New Testament, and the corresponding
mal’akh in the Old Testament, sometimes mean “messenger,” and
[v.02 p.0005] sometimes “angel,” and this double sense is duly
represented in the English Versions. “Angel” is also used in the
English Version for אביר ‘Abbir, Ps. lxxviii. 25.
(lit. “mighty”), for אלהים ‘Elohim, Ps. viii. 5, and
for the obscure שנאן shin’an, in Ps. lxviii. 17.

In the later development of the religion of Israel, ‘Elohim is
almost entirely reserved for the one true God; but in earlier times
‘Elohim (gods), bnē ‘Elohim, bnē Elim (sons of
gods, i.e. members of the class of divine beings) were general
terms for superhuman beings. Hence they came to be used collectively
of superhuman beings, distinct from Yahweh, and therefore inferior,
and ultimately subordinate.^[1] So, too, the angels are styled “holy
ones,”^[2] and “watchers,”^[3] and are spoken of as the “host
of heaven”^[4] or of “Yahweh.”^[5] The “hosts,” צבאות
Sebaoth in the title Yahweh Sebaoth, Lord of Hosts, were
probably at one time identified with the angels.^[6] The New Testament
often speaks of “spirits,” πνεύματα. ^[7] In the earlier
periods of the religion of Israel, the doctrine of monotheism had not
been formally stated, so that the idea of “angel” in the modern sense
does not occur, but we find the Mal’akh Yahweh, Angel of
the Lord, or Mal’akh Elohim, Angel of God. The Mal’akh
Yahweh is an appearance or manifestation of Yahweh in
the form of a man, and the term Mal’akh Yahweh is used
interchangeably with Yahweh (cf. Exod. iii. 2, with iii. 4; xiii. 21
with xiv. 19). Those who see the Mal’akh Yahweh say they have
seen God.^[8] The Mal’akh Yahweh (or Elohim) appears to
Abraham, Hagar, Moses, Gideon, &c., and leads the Israelites in the
Pillar of Cloud.^[9] The phrase Mal’akh Yahweh may have been
originally a courtly circumlocution for the Divine King; but it
readily became a means of avoiding crude anthropomorphism, and later
on, when the angels were classified, the Mal’akh Yahweh came
to mean an angel of distinguished rank.^[10] The identification of the
Mal’akh Yahweh with the Logos, or Second Person of the
Trinity, is not indicated by the references in the Old Testament; but
the idea of a Being partly identified with God, and yet in some sense
distinct from Him, illustrates the tendency of religious thought to
distinguish persons within the unity of the Godhead, and foreshadows
the doctrine of the Trinity, at any rate in some slight degree.

In the earlier literature the Mal’akh Yahweh or Elohim
is almost the only mal’akh (“angel”) mentioned. There are,
however, a few passages which speak of subordinate superhuman beings
other than the Mal’akh Yahweh or Elohim. There are the
cherubim who guard Eden. In Gen. xviii., xix. (J) the appearance of
Yahweh to Abraham and Lot is connected with three, afterwards two, men
or messengers; but possibly in the original form of the story Yahweh
appeared alone.^[11] At Bethel, Jacob sees the angels of God on the
ladder,^[12] and later on they appear to him at Mahanaim.^[13] In all
these cases the angels, like the Mal’akh Yahweh, are connected
with or represent a theophany. Similarly the “man” who wrestles
with Jacob at Peniel is identified with God.^[14] In Isaiah vi. the
seraphim, superhuman beings with six wings, appear as the attendants
of Yahweh. Thus the pre-exilic literature, as we now have it, has
little to say about angels or about superhuman beings other than
Yahweh and manifestations of Yahweh; the pre-exilic prophets hardly
mention angels.^[15] Nevertheless we may well suppose that the popular
religion of ancient Israel had much to say of superhuman beings other
than Yahweh, but that the inspired writers have mostly suppressed
references to them as unedifying. Moreover such beings were not
strictly angels.

The doctrine of monotheism was formally expressed in the period
immediately before and during the Exile, in Deuteronomy^[16] and
Isaiah;^[17] and at the same time we find angels prominent in Ezekiel
who, as a prophet of the Exile, may have been influenced by the
hierarchy of supernatural beings in the Babylonian religion, and
perhaps even by the angelology of Zoroastrianism.^[18] Ezekiel gives
elaborate descriptions of cherubim;^[19] and in one of his visions he
sees seven angels execute the judgment of God upon Jerusalem.^[20] As
in Genesis they are styled “men,” mal’akh for “angel” does not
occur in Ezekiel. Somewhat later, in the visions of Zechariah, angels
play a great part; they are sometimes spoken of as “men,” sometimes as
mal’akh, and the Mal’akh Yahweh seems to hold a certain
primacy among them.^[21] Satan also appears to prosecute (so to speak)
the High Priest before the divine tribunal.^[22] Similarly in Job
the bne Elohim, sons of God, appear as attendants of God,
and amongst them Satan, still in his rôle of public prosecutor, the
defendant being Job.^[23] Occasional references to “angels” occur in
the Psalter;^[24] they appear as ministers of God.

In Ps. lxxviii. 49 the “evil angels” of A. V. conveys a false
impression; it should be “angels of evil,” as R. V., i.e. angels
who inflict chastisement as ministers of God.

The seven angels of Ezekiel may be compared with the seven eyes of
Yahweh in Zech. iii. 9, iv. 10. The latter have been connected by
Ewald and others with the later doctrine of seven chief angels,^[25]
parallel to and influenced by the Ameshaspentas (Amesha Spenta), or
seven great spirits of the Persian mythology, but the connexion is
doubtful.

In the Priestly Code, c. 400 B.C., there is no reference to
angels apart from the possible suggestion in the ambiguous plural in
Genesis i. 26.

During the Persian and Greek periods the doctrine of angels underwent
a great development, partly, at any rate, under foreign influences.
In Daniel, c. 160 B.C., angels, usually spoken of as “men” or
“princes,” appear as guardians or champions of the nations; grades are
implied, there are “princes” and “chief” or “great princes”; and
the names of some angels are known, Gabriel, Michael; the latter is
pre-eminent,^[26] he is the guardian of Judah. Again in Tobit a leading
part is played by Raphael, “one of the seven holy angels.”^[27]

In Tobit, too, we find the idea of the demon or evil angel. In the
canonical Old Testament angels may inflict suffering as ministers
of God, and Satan may act as accuser or tempter; but they appear as
subordinate to God, fulfilling His will; and not as morally evil. The
statement^[28] that God “charged His angels with folly” applies to
all angels. In Daniel the princes or guardian angels of the heathen
nations oppose Michael the guardian angel of Judah. But in Tobit we
find Asmodaeus the evil demon, τὸ πονηρὸν δαιμόνιον, who
strangles Sarah’s husbands, and also a general reference to “a devil
or evil spirit,” πνεῦμα.^[29] The Fall of the Angels is not
properly a scriptural doctrine, though it is based on Gen. vi. 2,
as interpreted by the Book of Enoch. It is true that the bnē
Elohim of that chapter are subordinate superhuman beings (cf.
above), but they belong to a different order of thought from the
angels of Judaism and of Christian doctrine; and the passage in no
way suggests that the bne Elohim suffered any loss of status
through their act.

The guardian angels of the nations in Daniel probably represent the
gods of the heathen, and we have there the first step of the process
by which these gods became evil angels, an idea expanded by Milton in
Paradise Lost. The development of the doctrine of an organized
hierarchy of angels belongs to the Jewish literature of the period 200
B.C. to A.D. 100. In Jewish apocalypses especially, the imagination
ran riot on the rank, classes and names of angels; and such works as
the various books of Enoch and
[v.02 p.0006] the Ascension of Isaiah supply much information on this subject.

In the New Testament angels appear frequently as the ministers of God
and the agents of revelation;^[30] and Our Lord speaks of angels
as fulfilling such functions,^[31] implying in one saying that they
neither marry nor are given in marriage.^[32] Naturally angels are most
prominent in the Apocalypse. The New Testament takes little interest
in the idea of the angelic hierarchy, but there are traces of the
doctrine. The distinction of good and bad angels is recognized; we
have names, Gabriel,^[33] and the evil angels Abaddon or Apollyon,^[34]
Beelzebub.^[35] and Satan;^[36] ranks are implied, archangels,^[37]
principalities and powers,^[38] thrones and dominions.^[39] Angels
occur in groups of four or seven.^[40] In Rev. i.-iii. we meet with
the “Angels” of the Seven Churches of Asia Minor. These are probably
guardian angels, standing to the churches in the same relation that
the “princes” in Daniel stand to the nations; practically the “angels”
are personifications of the churches. A less likely view is that the
“angels” are the human representatives of the churches, the bishops or
chief presbyters. There seems, however, no parallel to such a use
of “angel,” and it is doubtful whether the monarchical government of
churches was fully developed when the Apocalypse was written.

Later Jewish and Christian speculation followed on the lines of the
angelology of the earlier apocalypses; and angels play an important
part in Gnostic systems and in the Jewish Midrashim and the Kabbala.
Religious thought about the angels during the middle ages was much
influenced by the theory of the angelic hierarchy set forth in the
De Hierarchia Celesti, written in the 5th century in the
name of Dionysius the Areopagite and passing for his. The creeds and
confessions do not formulate any authoritative doctrine of angels; and
modern rationalism has tended to deny the existence of such beings,
or to regard the subject as one on which we can have no certain
knowledge. The principle of continuity, however, seems to require the
existence of beings intermediate between man and God.

The Old Testament says nothing about the origin of angels; but the
Book of Jubilees and the Slavonic Enoch describe their
creation; and, according to Col. i. 16, the angels were created in,
unto and through Christ.

Nor does the Bible give any formal account of the nature of angels.
It is doubtful how far Ezekiel’s account of the cherubim and Isaiah’s
account of the seraphim are to be taken as descriptions of actual
beings; they are probably figurative, or else subjective visions.
Angels are constantly spoken of as “men,” and, including even the
Angel of Yahweh, are spoken of as discharging the various functions
of human life; they eat and drink,^[41] walk^[42] and speak.^[43] Putting
aside the cherubim and seraphim, they are not spoken of as having
wings. On the other hand they appear and vanish,^[44] exercise
miraculous powers,^[45] and fly.^[46] Seeing that the anthropomorphic
language used of the angels is similar to that used of God, the
Scriptures would hardly seem to require a literal interpretation in
either case. A special association is found, both in the Bible and
elsewhere, between the angels and the heavenly bodies,^[47] and the
elements or elemental forces, fire, water, &c.^[48] The angels are
infinitely numerous.^[49]

The function of the angels is that of the supernatural servants
of God. His agents and representatives; the Angel of Yahweh, as
we have seen, is a manifestation of God. In old times, the bne
Elohim and the seraphim are His court, and the angels are alike
the court and the army of God; the cherubim are his throne-bearers.
In his dealings with men, the angels, as their name implies, are
specially His messengers, declaring His will and executing His
commissions. Through them he controls nature and man. They are
the guardian angels of the nations; and we also find the idea that
individuals have guardian angels.^[50]. Later Jewish tradition held
that the Law was given by angels.^[51] According to the Gnostic
Basilides, the world was created by angels. Mahommedanism has taken
over and further elaborated the Jewish and Christian ideas as to
angels.

While the scriptural statements imply a belief in the existence of
spiritual beings intermediate between God and men, it is probable that
many of the details may be regarded merely as symbolic imagery. In
Scripture the function of the angel overshadows his personality; the
stress is on their ministry; they appear in order to perform specific
acts.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.—See the sections on “Angels” in the handbooks of O. T.
Theology by Ewald, Schultz, Smend, Kayser-Marti, &c.; and of N. T.
Theology by Weiss, and in van Oosterzee’s Dogmatics. Also
commentaries on special passages, especially Driver and Bevan on
Daniel, and G. A. Smith, Minor Prophets, ii. 310 ff.; and
articles s.v. “Angel” in Hastings’ Bible Dictionary, and
the Encyclopaedia Biblica.

(W. H. Be.)

ANGEL, a gold coin, first used in France (angelot, ange) in
1340, and introduced into England by Edward IV. in 1465 as a new issue
of the “noble,” and so at first called the “angel-noble.” It varied in
value between that period and the time of Charles I. (when it was
last coined) from 6s. 8d. to 10s. The name was derived from the
representation it bore of St. Michael and the dragon. The angel was the
coin given to those who came to be touched for the disease known
as king’s evil; after it was no longer coined, medals, called
touch-pieces, with the same device, were given instead.

ANGELICA, a genus of plants of the natural order Umbelliferae,
represented in Britain by one species, A. sylvestris, a tall
perennial herb with large bipinnate leaves and large compound umbels
of white or purple flowers. The name Angelica is popularly given to a
plant of an allied genus, Archangelica officinalis, the
tender shoots of which are used in making certain kinds of aromatic
sweetmeats. Angelica balsam is obtained by extracting the roots
with alcohol, evaporating and extracting the residue with ether. It
is of a dark brown colour and contains angelica oil, angelica wax
and angelicin, C₁₈H₃₀O. The essential oil of the roots of
Angelica archangelica contains β-terebangelene,
C₁₀H₁₆, and other terpenes; the oil of the seeds also
contains β-terebangelene, together with methylethylacetic acid and
hydroxymyristic acid.

The angelica tree is a member of the order Avaliaceae, a
species of Aralia (A. spinosa), a native of North America; it
grows 8 to 12 ft. high, has a simple prickle-bearing stem forming an
umbrella-like head, and much divided leaves.

ANGELICO, FRA (1387-1455), Italian painter. Il Beato Fra Giovanni
Angelico da Fiesole is the name given to a far-famed painter-friar of
the Florentine state in the 15th century, the representative, beyond
all other men, of pietistic painting. He is often, but not accurately,
termed simply “Fiesole,” which is merely the name of the town where he
first took the vows; more often Fra Angelico. If we turn his compound
designation into English, it runs thus—”the Beatified Friar John the
Angelic of Fiesole.” In his lifetime he was known no doubt simply as
Fra Giovanni or Friar John; “The Angelic” is a laudatory term which
was assigned to him at an early date,—we find it in use within thirty
years after his death; and, at some period which is not defined in
our authorities, he was beatified by due ecclesiastical process. His
baptismal name was Guido, Giovanni being only his name in religion. He
was born at Vicchio, in the Tuscan province of Mugello, of unknown
but seemingly well-to-do parentage, in 1387 (not 1390 as sometimes
stated); in 1407 he became a novice in the convent of S. Domenico at
Fiesole, and in 1408 he took the vows and entered the Dominican order.
Whether he had previously been a painter by profession is not certain,
but may be pronounced probable. The painter named Lorenzo Monaco may
have contributed to his art-training, and the influence of the Sienese
school is discernible in his work.

According to Vasari, the first paintings of this artist
were in the Certosa of Florence; none such exist there now. His
earliest extant performances, in considerable number, are at Cortona,
whither he was sent during his novitiate, and here apparently he spent
all the opening years of his monastic life. His first works executed
in fresco were probably those, now destroyed, which he painted in the
convent of S. Domenico in this city; as a fresco-painter, he may have
worked under, or as a follower of, Gherardo Starnina. From 1418
to 1436 he was back at Fiesole; in 1436 he was transferred to the
Dominican convent of S. Marco in Florence, and in 1438 undertook to
paint the altarpiece for the choir, followed by many other works;
he may have studied about this time the renowned frescoes in the
Brancacci chapel in the Florentine church of the Carmine and also the
paintings of Orcagna. In or about 1445 he was invited by the pope to
Rome. The pope who reigned from 1431 to 1447 was Eugenius IV., and he
it was who in 1445 appointed another Dominican friar, a colleague of
Angelico, to be archbishop of Florence. If the story (first told by
Vasari) is true—that this appointment was made at the suggestion of
Angelico only after the archbishopric had been offered to himself, and
by him declined on the ground of his inaptitude for so elevated and
responsible a station—Eugenius, and not (as stated by Vasari) his
successor Nicholas V., must have been the pope who sent the invitation
and made the offer to Fra Giovanni, for Nicholas only succeeded in
1447. The whole statement lacks authentication, though in itself
credible enough. Certain it is that Angelico was staying in Rome in
the first half of 1447; and he painted in the Vatican the Cappella del
Sacramento, which was afterwards demolished by Paul III. In June
1447 he proceeded to Orvieto, to paint in the Cappella Nuova of the
cathedral, with the co-operation of his pupil Benozzo Gozzoli. He
afterwards returned to Rome to paint the chapel of Nicholas V. In
this capital he died in 1455, and he lies buried in the church of the
Minerva.

According to all the accounts which have reached us, few men on
whom the distinction of beatification has been conferred could
have deserved it more nobly than Fra Giovanni. He led a holy and
self-denying life, shunning all advancement, and was a brother to
the poor; no man ever saw him angered. He painted with unceasing
diligence, treating none but sacred subjects; he never retouched
or altered his work, probably with a religious feeling that such as
divine providence allowed the thing to come, such it should remain. He
was wont to say that he who illustrates the acts of Christ should
be with Christ. It is averred that he never handled a brush without
fervent prayer and he wept when he painted a Crucifixion. The Last
Judgment and the Annunciation were two of the subjects he most
frequently treated.

Bearing in mind the details already given as to the dates of Fra
Giovanni’s sojournings in various localities, the reader will be able
to trace approximately the sequence of the works which we now proceed
to name as among his most important productions. In Florence, in the
convent of S. Marco (now converted into a national museum), a series
of frescoes, beginning towards 1443; in the first cloister is the
Crucifixion with St. Dominic kneeling; and the same treatment recurs on
a wall near the dormitory; in the chapterhouse is a third Crucifixion,
with the Virgin swooning, a composition of twenty life-sized
figures—the red background, which has a strange and harsh effect, is
the misdoing of some restorer; an “Annunciation,” the figures of about
three-fourths of life-size, in a dormitory; in the adjoining passage,
the “Virgin enthroned,” with four saints; on the wall of a cell,
the “Coronation of the Virgin,” with Saints Paul, Thomas Aquinas,
Benedict, Dominic, Francis and Peter Martyr; two Dominicans welcoming
Jesus, habited as a pilgrim; an “Adoration of the Magi”; the “Marys
at the Sepulchre.” All these works are later than the altarpiece which
Angelico painted (as before mentioned) for the choir connected
with this convent, and which is now in the academy of Florence; it
represents the Virgin with Saints Cosmas and Damian (the patrons of
the Medici family), Dominic, Peter, Francis, Mark, John Evangelist and
Stephen; the pediment illustrated the lives of Cosmas and Damian, but
it has long been severed from the main subject. In the Uffizi gallery,
an altarpiece, the Virgin (life-sized) enthroned, with the Infant and
twelve angels. In S. Domenico, Fiesole, a few frescoes, less fine than
those in S. Marco; also an altarpiece in tempera of the Virgin and
Child between Saints Peter, Thomas Aquinas, Dominic and Peter Martyr,
now much destroyed. The subject which originally formed the predella
of this picture has, since 1860, been in the National Gallery, London,
and worthily represents there the hand of the saintly painter. The
subject is a Glory, Christ with the banner of the Resurrection, and
a multitude of saints, including, at the extremities, the saints or
beati of the Dominican order; here are no fewer than 266 figures
or portions of figures, many of them having names inscribed. This
predella was highly lauded by Vasari; still more highly another
picture which used to form an altarpiece in Fiesole, and which now
obtains world-wide celebrity in the Louvre—the “Coronation of the
Virgin,” with eight predella subjects of the miracles of St. Dominic.
For the church of Santa Trinita, Florence, Angelico executed a
“Deposition from the Cross,” and for the church of the Angeli, a “Last
Judgment,” both now in the Florentine academy; for S. Maria Novella, a
“Coronation of the Virgin,” with a predella in three sections, now
in the Uffizi,—this again is one of his masterpieces. In Orvieto
cathedral he painted three triangular divisions of the ceiling,
portraying respectively Christ in a glory of angels, sixteen saints
and prophets, and the virgin and apostles: all these are now much
repainted and damaged. In Rome, in the Chapel of Nicholas V., the acts
of Saints Stephen and Lawrence; also various figures of saints, and
on the ceiling the four evangelists. These works of the painter’s
advanced age, which have suffered somewhat from restorations, show
vigour superior to that of his youth, along with a more adequate
treatment of the architectural perspectives. Naturally, there are a
number of works currently attributed to Angelico, but not really his;
for instance, a “St Thomas with the Madonna’s girdle,” in the Lateran
museum, and a “Virgin enthroned,” in the church of S. Girolamo,
Fiesole. It has often been said that he commenced and frequently
practised as an illuminator; this is dubious and a presumption arises
that illuminations executed by Giovanni’s brother, Benedetto, also
a Dominican, who died in 1448, have been ascribed to the more famous
artist. Benedetto may perhaps have assisted Giovanni in the frescoes
at S. Marco, but nothing of the kind is distinctly traceable. A folio
series of engravings from these paintings was published in Florence,
in 1852. Along with Gozzoli already mentioned, Zanobi Strozzi and
Gentile da Fabriano are named as pupils of the Beato.

We have spoken of Angelico’s art as “pietistic”; this is in fact
its predominant character. His visages have an air of rapt suavity,
devotional fervency and beaming esoteric consciousness, which is
intensely attractive to some minds and realizes beyond rivalry a
particular ideal—that of ecclesiastical saintliness and detachment
from secular fret and turmoil. It should not be denied that he did not
always escape the pitfalls of such a method of treatment, the faces
becoming sleek and prim, with a smirk of sexless religiosity which
hardly eludes the artificial or even the hypocritical; on other minds,
therefore, and these some of the most masculine and resolute, he
produces little genuine impression. After allowing for this, Angelico
should nevertheless be accepted beyond cavil as an exalted typical
painter according to his own range of conceptions, consonant with his
monastic calling, unsullied purity of life and exceeding devoutness.
Exquisite as he is in his special mode of execution, he undoubtedly
falls far short, not only of his great naturalist contemporaries such
as Masaccio and Lippo Lippi, but even of so distant a precursor as
Giotto, in all that pertains to bold or life-like invention of a
subject or the realization of ordinary appearances, expressions and
actions—the facts of nature, as distinguished from the aspirations or
contemplations of the spirit. Technically speaking, he had much finish
and harmony of composition and colour, without corresponding
mastery of light and shade, and his knowledge of the human frame
was restricted. The brilliancy and fair light scale of his tints
is constantly remarkable, combined with a free use of gilding; this
conduces materially to that celestial character
[v.02 p.0008] which so pre-eminently distinguishes his pictured
visions of the divine persons, the hierarchy of heaven and the glory
of the redeemed.

Books regarding Fra Angelico are numerous. We may mention those by S.
Beissel, 1895; V. M. Crawford, 1900; R. L. Douglas, 1900; I. B. Supino,
1901; D. Tumiati, 1897; G. Williamson, 1901.

(W. M. R.)

ANGELL, GEORGE THORNDIKE (1823-1909), American philanthropist, was
born at Southbridge, Massachusetts, on the 5th of June 1823. He
graduated at Dartmouth in 1846, studied law at the Harvard Law School,
and in 1851 was admitted to the bar in Boston, where he practised
for many years. In 1868 he founded and became president of the
Massachusetts Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, in the
same year establishing and becoming editor of Our Dumb Animals,
a journal for the promotion of organized effort in securing the humane
treatment of animals. For many years he was active in the organization
of humane societies in England and America. In 1882 he initiated the
movement for the establishment of Bands of Mercy (for the promotion
of humane treatment of animals), of which in 1908 there were more than
72,000 in active existence. In 1889 he founded and became president
of the American Humane Education Society. He became well known as a
criminologist and also as an advocate of laws for the safeguarding of
the public health and against adulteration of food. He died at Boston
on the 16th of March 1909.

ANGEL-LIGHTS, in architecture, the outer upper lights in a
perpendicular window, next to the springing; probably a corruption of
the word angle-lights, as they are nearly triangular.

ANGELUS, a Roman Catholic devotion in memory of the Annunciation.
It has its name from the opening words, Angelus Domini nuntiavit
Mariae. It consists of three texts describing the mystery, recited
as versicle and response alternately with the salutation “Hail, Mary!”
This devotion is recited in the Catholic Church three times daily,
about 6 A.M., noon and 6 P.M. At these hours a bell known as the
Angelus bell is rung. This is still rung in some English country
churches, and has often been mistaken for and alleged to be a survival
of the curfew bell. The institution of the Angelus is by some ascribed
to Pope Urban II., by some to John XXII. The triple recitation is
ascribed to Louis XI. of France, who in 1472 ordered it to be thrice
said daily.

ANGELUS SILESIUS (1624-1677), German religious poet, was born in 1624
at Breslau. His family name was Johann Scheffler, but he is generally
known by the pseudonym Angelus Silesius, under which he published his
poems and which marks the country of his birth. Brought up a Lutheran,
and at first physician to the duke of Württemberg-Oels, he joined in
1652 the Roman Catholic Church, in 1661 took orders as a priest, and
became coadjutor to the prince bishop of Breslau. He died at Breslau
on the 9th of July 1677. In 1657 Silesius published under the title
Heilige Seelenlust, oder geistliche Hirtenlieder der in ihren Jesum
verliebten Psyche (1657), a collection of 205 hymns, the most
beautiful of which, such as, Liebe, die du mich zum Bilde deiner
Gottheit hast gemacht and Mir nach, spricht Christus, unser
Held, have been adopted in the German Protestant hymnal. More
remarkable, however, is his Geistreiche Sinn-und Schluss-reime
(1657), afterwards called Cherubinischer Wandersmann (1674).
This is a collection of “Reimsprüche” or rhymed distichs embodying
a strange mystical pantheism drawn mainly from the writings of Jakob
Böhme and his followers. Silesius delighted specially in the subtle
paradoxes of mysticism. The essence of God, for instance, he held to
be love; God, he said, can love nothing inferior to himself; but he
cannot be an object of love to himself without going out, so to speak,
of himself, without manifesting his infinity in a finite form; in
other words, by becoming man. God and man are therefore essentially
one.

A complete edition of Scheffler’s works (Sämtliche poetische
Werke) was published by D. A. Rosenthal, 2 vols. (Regensburg,
1862). Both the Cherubinischer Wandersmann and Heilige
Seelenlust have been republished by G. Ellinger (1895 and 1901);
a selection from the former work by O. E. Hartleben (1896). For further
notices of Silesius’ life and work, see Hoffmann von Fallersleben
in Weimarisches Jahrbuch I. (Hanover, 1854); A. Kahlert,
Angelus Silesius (1853); C. Seltmann, Angelus Silesius und
seine Mystik (1896), and a biog. by H. Mahn (Dresden, 1896).

ANGERMÜNDE, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Brandenburg, on Lake Münde, 43 m. from Berlin by the Berlin-Stettin
railway, and at the junction of lines to Prenzlau, Freien-walde and
Schwedt. Pop. (1900) 7465. It has three Protestant churches, a grammar
school and court of law. Its industries embrace iron founding and
enamel working. In 1420 the elector Frederick I. of Brandenburg gained
here a signal victory over the Pomeranians.

ANGERONA, or ANGERONIA, an old Roman goddess, whose name and functions
are variously explained. According to ancient authorities, she was a
goddess who relieved men from pain and sorrow, or delivered the
Romans and their flocks from angina (quinsy); or she was the
protecting goddess of Rome and the keeper of the sacred name of the
city, which might not be pronounced lest it should be revealed to
her enemies; it was even thought that Angerona itself was this name.
Modern scholars regard her as a goddess akin to Ops, Acca Larentia
and Dea Dia; or as the goddess of the new year and the returning
sun (according to Mommsen, ab angerendo= ἀπὸ τοῦ
ἀναφέρεσθαι. τὸν ἥλιον). Her festival, called Divalia or
Angeronalia, was celebrated on the 21st of December. The priests
offered sacrifice in the temple of Volupia, the goddess of pleasure,
in which stood a statue of Angerona, with a finger on her mouth, which
was bound and closed (Macrobius i. 10; Pliny, Nat. Hist. iii.
9; Varro, L. L. vi. 23). She was worshipped as Ancharia
at Faesulae, where an altar belonging to her has been recently
discovered. (See FAESULAE.)

ANGERS, a city of western France, capital of the department of
Maine-et-Loire, 191 m. S.W. of Paris by the Western railway to Nantes.
Pop. (1906) 73,585. It occupies rising ground on both banks of the
Maine, which are united by three bridges. The surrounding district is
famous for its flourishing nurseries and market gardens. Pierced
with wide, straight streets, well provided with public gardens, and
surrounded by ample, tree-lined boulevards, beyond which lie new
suburbs, Angers is one of the pleasantest towns in France. Of its
numerous medieval buildings the most important is the cathedral of
St. Maurice, dating in the main from the 12th and 13th centuries.
Between the two flanking towers of the west façade, the spires of
which are of the 16th century, rises a central tower of the same
period. The most prominent feature of the façade is the series of
eight warriors carved on the base of this tower. The vaulting of the
nave takes the form of a series of cupolas, and that of the choir and
transept is similar. The chief treasures of the church are its rich
stained glass (12th, 13th and 15th centuries) and valuable tapestry
(14th to 18th centuries). The bishop’s palace which adjoins the
cathedral contains a fine synodal hall of the 12th century. Of the
other churches of Angers, the principal are St. Serge, an abbey-church
of the 12th and 15th centuries, and La Trinité (12th century). The
prefecture occupies the buildings of the famous abbey of St. Aubin; in
its courtyard are elaborately sculptured arcades of the 11th and 12th
centuries, from which period dates the tower, the only survival of the
splendid abbey-church. Ruins of the old churches of Toussaint (13th
century) and Notre-Dame du Ronceray (11th century) are also to be
seen. The castle of Angers, an imposing building girt with towers and
a moat, dates from the 13th century and is now used as an armoury.
The ancient hospital of St. Jean (12th century) is occupied by an
archaeological museum; and the Logis Barrault, a mansion built about
1500, contains the public library, the municipal museum, which has
a large collection of pictures and sculptures, and the Musée David,
containing works by the famous sculptor David d’Angers, who was a
native of the town. One of his masterpieces, a bronze statue of René
of Anjou, stands close by the castle. The Hôtel de Pincé or d’Anjou
(1523-1530) is the finest of the stone mansions of Angers; there are
also many curious wooden houses of the 15th and 16th centuries. The
palais de justice, the Catholic institute, a fine theatre, and
[v.02 p.0009] a hospital with 1500 beds are the more remarkable of
the modern buildings of the town. Angers is the seat of a bishopric,
dating from the 3rd century, a prefecture, a court of appeal and a
court of assizes. It has a tribunal of first instance, a tribunal
of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, a chamber of commerce,
a branch of the Bank of France and several learned societies. Its
educational institutions include ecclesiastical seminaries, a lycée,
a preparatory school of medicine and pharmacy, a university with
free faculties (facultés libres) of theology, law, letters and
science, a higher school of agriculture, training colleges, a school
of arts and handicrafts and a school of fine art. The prosperity of
the town is largely due to the great slate-quarries of the vicinity,
but the distillation of liqueurs from fruit, cable, rope and
thread-making, and the manufacture of boots and shoes, umbrellas and
parasols are leading industries. The weaving of sail-cloth and woollen
and other fabrics, machine construction, wire-drawing, and manufacture
of sparkling wines and preserved fruits are also carried on. The chief
articles of commerce, besides slate and manufactured goods, are hemp,
early vegetables, fruit, flowers and live-stock.

Angers, capital of the Gallic tribe of the Andecavi, was under the
Romans called Juliomagus. During the 9th century it became the seat
of the counts of Anjou (q.v.). It suffered severely from the
invasions of the Northmen in 845 and the succeeding years, and of the
English in the 12th and 15th centuries; the Huguenots took it in 1585,
and the Vendean royalists were repulsed near it in 1793. Till the
Revolution, Angers was the seat of a celebrated university founded in
the 14th century.

See L. M. Thorode, Notice de la ville d’Angers (Angers, 1897).

ANGERSTEIN, JOHN JULIUS (1735-1822), London merchant, and patron of
the fine arts, was born at St. Petersburg and settled in London about
1749. His collection of paintings, consisting of about forty of
the most exquisite specimens of the art, purchased by the British
government, on his death, formed the nucleus of the National Gallery.

ANGILBERT (d. 814), Frankish Latin poet, and minister of Charlemagne,
was of noble Frankish parentage, and educated at the palace school
under Alcuin. As the friend and adviser of the emperor’s son, Pippin,
he assisted for a while in the government of Italy, and was later
sent on three important embassies to the pope, in 792, 794 and 796.
Although he was the father of two children by Charlemagne’s daughter,
Bertha, one of them named Nithard, we have no authentic account of
his marriage, and from 790 he was abbot of St. Riquier, where his
brilliant rule gained for him later the renown of a saint. Angilbert,
however, was little like the true medieval saint; his poems reveal
rather the culture and tastes of a man of the world, enjoying the
closest intimacy with the imperial family. He accompanied Charlemagne
to Rome in 800 and was one of the witnesses to his will in 814.
Angilbert was the Homer of the emperor’s literary circle, and was
the probable author of an epic, of which the fragment which has been
preserved describes the life at the palace and the meeting between
Charlemagne and Leo III. It is a mosaic from Virgil, Ovid, Lucan and
Fortunatus, composed in the manner of Einhard’s use of Suetonius,
and exhibits a true poetic gift. Of the shorter poems, besides the
greeting to Pippin on his return from the campaign against the Avars
(796), an epistle to David (Charlemagne) incidentally reveals a
delightful picture of the poet living with his children in a house
surrounded by pleasant gardens near the emperor’s palace. The
reference to Bertha, however, is distant and respectful, her name
occurring merely on the list of princesses to whom he sends his
salutation.

Angilbert’s poems have been published by E. Dummler in the
Monumenta Germaniae Historica. For criticisms of this edition
see Traube in Roederer’s Schriften für germanische Philologie
(1888). See also A. Molinier, Les Sources de l’histoire de
France.

ANGINA PECTORIS (Latin for “pain of the chest”), a term applied to a
violent paroxysm of pain, arising almost invariably in connexion
with disease of the coronary arteries, a lesion causing progressive
degeneration of the heart muscle (see HEART: Disease). An
attack of angina pectoris usually comes on with a sudden seizure
of pain, felt at first over the region of the heart, but radiating
through the chest in various directions, and frequently extending down
the left arm. A feeling of constriction and of suffocation accompanies
the pain, although there is seldom actual difficulty in breathing.
When the attack comes on, as it often does, in the course of some
bodily exertion, the sufferer is at once brought to rest, and during
the continuance of the paroxysm experiences the most intense agony.
The countenance becomes pale, the surface of the body cold, the pulse
feeble, and death appears to be imminent, when suddenly the attack
subsides and complete relief is obtained. The duration of a paroxysm
rarely exceeds two or three minutes, but it may last for a longer
period. The attacks are apt to recur on slight exertion, and even in
aggravated cases without any such exciting cause. Occasionally the
first seizure proves fatal; but more commonly death takes place as the
result of repeated attacks. Angina pectoris is extremely rare under
middle life, and is much more common in males than in females. It
must always be regarded as a disorder of a very serious nature. In the
treatment of the paroxysm, nitrite of amyl has now replaced all other
remedies. It can be carried by the patient in the form of nitrite
of amyl pearls, each pearl containing the dose prescribed by the
physician. Kept in this way the drug does not lose strength. As soon
as the pain begins the patient crushes a pearl in his handkerchief
and holds it to his mouth and nose. The relief given in this way is
marvellous and usually takes place within a very few seconds. In the
rare cases where this drug does not relieve, hypodermic injections
of morphia are used. But on account of the well-known dangers of this
drug, it should only be administered by a medical man. To prevent
recurrence of the attacks something may be done by scrupulous
attention to the general health, and by the avoidance of mental and
physical strain. But the most important preventive of all is “bed,”
of which fourteen days must be enforced on the least premonition of
anginal pain.

Pseudo-angina.—In connexion with angina pectoris, a far more
common condition must be mentioned that has now universally received
the name of pseudo-angina. This includes the praecordial pains which
very closely resemble those of true angina. The essential difference
lies in the fact that pseudo-angina is independent of structural
disease of the heart and coronary arteries. In true angina there is
some condition within the heart which starts the stimulus sent to the
nerve centres. In pseudo-angina the starting-point is not the heart
but some peripheral or visceral nerve. The impulse passes thence to
the medulla, and so reaching the sensory centres starts a feeling of
pain that radiates into the chest or down the arm. There are three
main varieties:—(1) the reflex, (2) the vaso-motor, (3) the toxic.
The reflex is by far the most common, and is generally due
to irritation from one of the abdominal organs. An attack of
pseudo-angina may be agonizing, the pain radiating through the chest
and into the left arm, but the patient does not usually assume the
motionless attitude of true angina, and the duration of the seizure is
usually much longer. The treatment is that of the underlying neurosis
and the prognosis is a good one, sudden death not occurring.

ANGIOSPERMS. The botanical term “Angiosperm” (ἀγγεῖον,
receptacle, and σπέρμα, seed) was coined in the form
Angiospermae by Paul Hermann in 1690, as the name of that one of
his primary divisions of the plant kingdom, which included flowering
plants possessing seeds enclosed in capsules, in contradistinction to
his Gymnospermae, or flowering plants with achenial or schizo-carpic
fruits—the whole fruit or each of its pieces being here regarded as
a seed and naked. The term and its antonym were maintained by Linnaeus
with the same sense, but with restricted application, in the names of
the orders of his class Didynamia. Its use with any approach to its
modern scope only became possible after Robert Brown had established
in 1827 the existence of truly naked seeds in the Cycadeae and
Coniferae, entitling them to be correctly called Gymnosperms. From
that time onwards, so long as these Gymnosperms were, as was usual,
reckoned as dicotyledonous flowering plants, the term Angiosperm was
used antithetically by botanical writers, but with varying limitation,
as a group-name for other [v.02 p.0010] dicotyledonous plants. The advent in 1851 of
Hofmeister’s brilliant discovery of the changes proceeding in the
embryo-sac of flowering plants, and his determination of the correct
relationships of these with the Cryptogamia, fixed the true position
of Gymnosperms as a class distinct from Dicotyledons, and the
term Angiosperm then gradually came to be accepted as the suitable
designation for the whole of the flowering plants other than
Gymnosperms, and as including therefore the classes of Dicotyledons
and Monocotyledons. This is the sense in which the term is nowadays
received and in which it is used here.

The trend of the evolution of the plant kingdom has been in the
direction of the establishment of a vegetation of fixed habit and
adapted to the vicissitudes of a life on land, and the Angiosperms are
the highest expression of this evolution and constitute the dominant
vegetation of the earth’s surface at the present epoch. There is no
land-area from the poles to the equator, where plant-life is possible,
upon which Angiosperms are not found. They occur also abundantly in
the shallows of rivers and fresh-water lakes, and in less number in
salt lakes and in the sea; such aquatic Angiosperms are not, however,
primitive forms, but are derived from immediate land-ancestors.
Associated with this diversity of habitat is great variety in general
form and manner of growth. The familiar duckweed which covers the
surface of a pond consists of a tiny green “thalloid” shoot, one, that
is, which shows no distinction of parts—stem and leaf, and a
simple root growing vertically downwards into the water. The great
forest-tree has a shoot, which in the course perhaps of hundreds of
years, has developed a wide-spreading system of trunk and branches,
bearing on the ultimate twigs or branchlets innumerable leaves, while
beneath the soil a widely-branching root-system covers an area of
corresponding extent. Between these two extremes is every conceivable
gradation, embracing aquatic and terrestrial herbs, creeping, erect or
climbing in habit, shrubs and trees, and representing a much greater
variety than is to be found in the other subdivision of seed-plants,
the Gymnosperms.

In internal structure also the variety of tissue-formation far exceeds
that found in Gymnosperms (see PLANTS: Anatomy). The vascular
bundles of the stem belong to the collateral type, that is to say,
the elements of the wood or xylem and the bast or phloem stand side
by side on the same radius. In the larger of the two great groups into
which the Angiosperms are divided, the Dicotyledons, the bundles in
the very young stem are arranged in an open ring, separating a central
pith from an outer cortex. In each bundle, separating the xylem and
phloem, is a layer of meristem or active formative tissue, known as
cambium; by the formation of a layer of cambium between the bundles
(interfascicular cambium) a complete ring is formed, and a regular
periodical increase in thickness results from it by the development
of xylem on the inside and phloem on the outside. The soft phloem soon
becomes crushed, but the hard wood persists, and forms the great bulk
of the stem and branches of the woody perennial. Owing to differences
in the character of the elements produced at the beginning and end
of the season, the wood is marked out in transverse section into
concentric rings, one for each season of growth—the so-called annual
rings. In the smaller group, the Monocotyledons, the bundles are more
numerous in the young stem and scattered through the ground tissue.
Moreover they contain no cambium and the stem once formed increases in
diameter only in exceptional cases.

As in Gymnosperms, branching is monopodial; dichotomy or the forking
of the growing point into two equivalent branches which replace the
main stem, is absent both in the case of the stem and the root. The
leaves show a remarkable variety in form (see LEAF), but are generally
small in comparison with the size of the plant; exceptions occur in
some Monocotyledons, e.g. in the Aroid family, where in some
genera the plant produces one huge, much-branched leaf each season.

In rare cases the main axis is unbranched and ends in a flower,
as, for instance, in the tulip, where scale-leaves, forming the
underground bulb, green foliage-leaves and coloured floral leaves are
borne on one and the same axis. Generally, flowers are formed only
on shoots of a higher order, often only on the ultimate branches of
a much branched system. A potential branch or bud, either foliage or
flower, is formed in the axil of each leaf; sometimes more than one
bud arises, as for instance in the walnut, where two or three stand in
vertical series above each leaf. Many of the buds remain dormant, or
are called to development under exceptional circumstances, such as
the destruction of existing branches. For instance, the clipping of
a hedge or the lopping of a tree will cause to develop numerous buds
which may have been dormant for years. Leaf-buds occasionally arise
from the roots, when they are called adventitious; this occurs in many
fruit trees, poplars, elms and others. For instance, the young shoots
seen springing from the ground around an elm are not seedlings but
root-shoots. Frequently, as in many Dicotyledons, the primary root,
the original root of the seedling, persists throughout the life of
the plant, forming, as often in biennials, a thickened tap-root, as
in carrot, or in perennials, a much-branched root system. In many
Dicotyledons and most Monocotyledons, the primary root soon perishes,
and its place is taken by adventitious roots developed from the stem.

The most characteristic feature of the Angiosperm is the flower, which
shows remarkable variety in form and elaboration, and supplies the
most trustworthy characters for the distinction of the series and
families or natural orders, into which the group is divided. The
flower is a shoot (stem bearing leaves) which has a special form
associated with the special function of ensuring the fertilization of
the egg and the development of fruit containing seed. Except where
it is terminal it arises, like the leaf-shoot, in the axil of a leaf,
which is then known as a bract. Occasionally, as in violet, a flower
arises singly in the axil of an ordinary foliage-leaf; it is then
termed axillary. Generally, however, the flower-bearing portion of
the plant is sharply distinguished from the foliage leaf-bearing or
vegetative portion, and forms a more or less elaborate branch-system
in which the bracts are small and scale-like. Such a branch-system is
called an inflorescence. The primary function of the flower is to bear
the spores. These, as in Gymnosperms, are of two kinds, microspores
or pollen-grains, borne in the stamens (or microsporophylls) and
megaspores, in which the egg-cell is developed, contained in the
ovule, which is borne enclosed in the carpel (or megasporophyll). The
flower may consist only of spore-bearing leaves, as in willow, where
each flower comprises only a few stamens or two carpels. Usually,
however, other leaves are present which are only indirectly concerned
with the reproductive process, acting as protective organs for the
sporophylls or forming an attractive envelope. These form the perianth
and are in one series, when the flower is termed monochlamydeous, or
in two series (dichlamydeous). In the second case the outer series
(calyx of sepals) is generally green and leaf-like, its function being
to protect the rest of the flower, especially in the bud; while
the inner series (corolla of petals) is generally white or brightly
coloured, and more delicate in structure, its function being to
attract the particular insect or bird by agency of which pollination
is effected. The insect, &c., is attracted by the colour and scent
of the flower, and frequently also by honey which is secreted in some
part of the flower. (For further details on the form and arrangement
of the flower and its parts, see FLOWER.)

Each stamen generally bears four pollen-sacs (microsporangia)
which are associated to form the anther, and carried up on a stalk
or filament. The development of the microsporangia and the contained
spores (pollen-grains) is closely comparable with that of the
microsporangia in Gymnosperms or heterosporous ferns. The pollen is
set free by the opening (dehiscence) of the anther, generally by means
of longitudinal slits, but sometimes by pores, as in the heath family
(Ericaceae), or by valves, as in the barberry. It is then dropped
or carried by some external agent, wind, water or some member of the
animal kingdom, on to the receptive surface of
[v.02 p.0011] the carpel of the same or another flower. The carpel,
or aggregate of carpels forming the pistil or gynaeceum, comprises an
ovary containing one or more ovules and a receptive surface or stigma;
the stigma is sometimes carried up on a style. The mature pollen-grain
is, like other spores, a single cell; except in the case of some
submerged aquatic plants, it has a double wall, a thin delicate wall
of unaltered cellulose, the endospore or intine, and a tough outer
cuticularized exospore or extine. The exospore often bears spines or
warts, or is variously sculptured, and the character of the markings
is often of value for the distinction of genera or higher groups.
Germination of the microspore begins before it leaves the pollen-sac.
In very few cases has anything representing prothallial development
been observed; generally a small cell (the antheridial or generative
cell) is cut off, leaving a larger tube-cell. When placed on the
stigma, under favourable circumstances, the pollen-grain puts forth a
pollen-tube which grows down the tissue of the style to the ovary, and
makes its way along the placenta, guided by projections or hairs,
to the mouth of an ovule. The nucleus of the tube-cell has meanwhile
passed into the tube, as does also the generative nucleus which
divides to form two male- or sperm-cells. The male-cells are carried
to their destination in the tip of the pollen-tube.

The ovary contains one or more ovules borne on a placenta, which is
generally some part of the ovary-wall. The development of the ovule,
which represents the macrosporangium, is very similar to the
process in Gymnosperms; when mature it consists of one or two coats
surrounding the central nucellus, except at the apex where an opening,
the micropyle, is left. The nucellus is a cellular tissue enveloping
one large cell, the embryo-sac or macrospore. The germination of the
macrospore consists in the repeated division of its nucleus to form
two groups of four, one group at each end of the embryo-sac. One
nucleus from each group, the polar nucleus, passes to the centre of
the sac, where the two fuse to form the so-called definitive nucleus.
Of the three cells at the micropylar end of the sac, all naked cells
(the so-called egg-apparatus), one is the egg-cell or oosphere, the
other two, which may be regarded as representing abortive egg-cells
(in rare cases capable of fertilization), are known as synergidae.
The three cells at the opposite end are known as antipodal cells
and become invested with a cell-wall. The gametophyte or prothallial
generation is thus extremely reduced, consisting of but little more
than the male and female sexual cells—the two sperm-cells in the
pollen-tube and the egg-cell (with the synergidae) in the embryo-sac.

At the period of fertilization the embryo-sac lies in close proximity
to the opening of the micropyle, into which the pollen-tube has
penetrated, the separating cell-wall becomes absorbed, and the male or
sperm-cells are ejected into the embryo-sac. Guided by the synergidae
one male-cell passes into the oosphere with which it fuses, the two
nuclei uniting, while the other fuses with the definitive nucleus, or,
as it is also called, the endosperm nucleus. This remarkable
double fertilization as it has been called, although only recently
discovered, has been proved to take place in widely-separated
families, and both in Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons, and there is
every probability that, perhaps with variations, it is the normal
process in Angiosperms. After impregnation the fertilized oosphere
immediately surrounds itself with a cell-wall and becomes the oospore
which by a process of growth forms the embryo of the new plant. The
endosperm-nucleus divides rapidly to produce a cellular tissue which
fills up the interior of the rapidly-growing embryo-sac, and forms a
tissue, known as endosperm, in which is stored a supply of nourishment
for the use later on of the embryo. It has long been known that after
fertilization of the egg has taken place, the formation of endosperm
begins from the endosperm nucleus, and this had come to be regarded as
the recommencement of the development of a prothallium after a pause
following the reinvigorating union of the polar nuclei. This view is
still maintained by those who differentiate two acts of fertilization
within the embryo-sac, and regard that of the egg by the first
male-cell, as the true or generative fertilization, and that of the
polar nuclei by the second male gamete as a vegetative fertilization
which gives a stimulus to development in correlation with the other.
If, on the other hand, the endosperm is the product of an act of
fertilization as definite as that giving rise to the embryo itself,
we have to recognize that twin-plants are produced within the
embryo-sac—one, the embryo, which becomes the angiospermous plant,
the other, the endosperm, a short-lived, undifferentiated nurse to
assist in the nutrition of the former, even as the subsidiary embryos
in a pluri-embryonic Gymnosperm may facilitate the nutrition of the
dominant one. If this is so, and the endosperm like the embryo is
normally the product of a sexual act, hybridization will give a hybrid
endosperm as it does a hybrid embryo, and herein (it is suggested) we
may have the explanation of the phenomenon of xenia observed in the
mixed endosperms of hybrid races of maize and other plants, regarding
which it has only been possible hitherto to assert that they were
indications of the extension of the influence of the pollen beyond the
egg and its product. This would not, however, explain the formation
of fruits intermediate in size and colour between those of crossed
parents. The signification of the coalescence of the polar nuclei is
not explained by these new facts, but it is noteworthy that the second
male-cell is said to unite sometimes with the apical polar nucleus,
the sister of the egg, before the union of this with the basal polar
one. The idea of the endosperm as a second subsidiary plant is no new
one; it was suggested long ago in explanation of the coalescence of
the polar nuclei, but it was then based on the assumption that these
represented male and female cells, an assumption for which there
was no evidence and which was inherently improbable. The proof of a
coalescence of the second male nucleus with the definitive nucleus
gives the conception a more stable basis. The antipodal cells aid more
or less in the process of nutrition of the developing embryo, and may
undergo multiplication, though they ultimately disintegrate, as do
also the synergidae. As in Gymnosperms and other groups an interesting
qualitative change is associated with the process of fertilization.
The number of chromosomes (see PLANTS: Cytology) in the nucleus
of the two spores, pollen-grain and embryo-sac, is only half the
number found in an ordinary vegetative nucleus; and this reduced
number persists in the cells derived from them. The full number is
restored in the fusion of the male and female nuclei in the process of
fertilization, and remains until the formation of the cells from which
the spores are derived in the new generation.

In several natural orders and genera departures from the course of
development just described have been noted. In the natural order
Rosaceae, the series Querciflorae, and the very anomalous genus
Casuarina and others, instead of a single macrospore a more
or less extensive sporogenous tissue is formed, but only one
cell proceeds to the formation of a functional female cell. In
Casuarina, Juglans and the order Corylaceae, the
pollen-tube does not enter by means of the micropyle, but passing down
the ovary wall and through the placenta, enters at the chalazal end
of the ovule. Such a method of entrance is styled chalazogamic, in
contrast to the porogamic or ordinary method of approach by means of
the micropyle.

The result of fertilization is the development of the ovule into
the seed. By the segmentation of the fertilized egg, now invested by
cell-membrane, the embryo-plant arises. A varying number of transverse
segment-walls transform it into a pro-embryo—a cellular row of which
the cell nearest the micropyle becomes attached to the apex of the
embryo-sac, and thus fixes the position of the developing embryo,
while the terminal cell is projected into its cavity. In Dicotyledons
the shoot of the embryo is wholly derived from the terminal cell of
the pro-embryo, from the next cell the root arises, and the remaining
ones form the suspensor. In many Monocotyledons the terminal cell
forms the cotyledonary portion alone of the shoot of the embryo, its
axial part and the root being derived from the adjacent cell; the
cotyledon is thus a terminal structure and the apex of the primary
stem a lateral one—a condition in marked contrast with that of the
Dicotyledons. In some Monocotyledons,
[v.02 p.0012] however, the cotyledon is not really terminal. The
primary root of the embryo in all Angiosperms points towards the
micropyle. The developing embryo at the end of the suspensor grows out
to a varying extent into the forming endosperm, from which by surface
absorption it derives good material for growth; at the same time the
suspensor plays a direct part as a carrier of nutrition, and may even
develop, where perhaps no endosperm is formed, special absorptive
“suspensor roots” which invest the developing embryo, or pass out into
the body and coats of the ovule, or even into the placenta. In some
cases the embryo or the embryo-sac sends out suckers into the nucellus
and ovular integument. As the embryo develops it may absorb all the
food material available, and store, either in its cotyledons or in
its hypocotyl, what is not immediately required for growth, as
reserve-food for use in germination, and by so doing it increases
in size until it may fill entirely the embryo-sac; or its absorptive
power at this stage may be limited to what is necessary for growth and
it remains of relatively small size, occupying but a small area of
the embryo-sac, which is otherwise filled with endosperm in which
the reserve-food is stored. There are also intermediate states. The
position of the embryo in relation to the endosperm varies, sometimes
it is internal, sometimes external, but the significance of this has
not yet been established.

The formation of endosperm starts, as has been stated, from the
endosperm nucleus. Its segmentation always begins before that of the
egg, and thus there is timely preparation for the nursing of the young
embryo. If in its extension to contain the new formations within it
the embryo-sac remains narrow, endosperm formation proceeds upon the
lines of a cell-division, but in wide embryo-sacs the endosperm is
first of all formed as a layer of naked cells around the wall of the
sac, and only gradually acquires a pluricellular character, forming
a tissue filling the sac. The function of the endosperm is primarily
that of nourishing the embryo, and its basal position in the
embryo-sac places it favourably for the absorption of food material
entering the ovule. Its duration varies with the precocity of the
embryo. It may be wholly absorbed by the progressive growth of the
embryo within the embryo-sac, or it may persist as a definite and more
or less conspicuous constituent of the seed. When it persists as
a massive element of the seed its nutritive function is usually
apparent, for there is accumulated within its cells reserve-food, and
according to the dominant substance it is starchy, oily, or rich in
cellulose, mucilage or proteid. In cases where the embryo has stored
reserve food within itself and thus provided for self-nutrition, such
endosperm as remains in the seed may take on other functions, for
instance, that of water-absorption.

Some deviations from the usual course of development may be noted.
Parthenogenesis, or the development of an embryo from an egg-cell
without the latter having been fertilized, has been described in
species of Thalictrum, Antennaria and Alchemilla.
Polyembryony is generally associated with the development of
cells other than the egg-cell. Thus in Erythronium and
Limnocharis the fertilized egg may form a mass of tissue on
which several embryos are produced. Isolated cases show that any of
the cells within the embryo-sac may exceptionally form an embryo,
e.g. the synergidae in species of Mimosa, Iris
and Allium, and in the last-mentioned the antipodal cells also.
In Coelebogyne (Euphorbiaceae) and in Funkia (Liliaceae)
polyembryony results from an adventitious production of embryos from
the cells of the nucellus around the top of the embryo-sac. In a
species of Allium, embryos have been found developing in the
same individual from the egg-cell, synergids, antipodal cells and
cells of the nucellus. In two Malayan species of Balanophora,
the embryo is developed from a cell of the endosperm, which is
formed from the upper polar nucleus only, the egg apparatus
becoming disorganized. The last-mentioned case has been regarded
as representing an apogamous development of the sporophyte from the
gametophyte comparable to the cases of apogamy described in Ferns. But
the great diversity of these abnormal cases as shown in the examples
cited above suggests the use of great caution in formulating definite
morphological theories upon them.

As the development of embryo and endosperm proceeds within the
embryo-sac, its wall enlarges and commonly absorbs the substance of
the nucellus (which is likewise enlarging) to near its outer limit,
and combines with it and the integument to form the seed-coat;
or the whole nucellus and even the integument may be absorbed. In some
plants the nucellus is not thus absorbed, but itself becomes a seat
of deposit of reserve-food constituting the perisperm which may
coexist with endosperm, as in the water-lily order, or may alone
form a food-reserve for the embryo, as in Canna. Endospermic
food-reserve has evident advantages over perispermic, and the latter
is comparatively rarely found and only in non-progressive series.
Seeds in which endosperm or perisperm or both exist are commonly
called albuminous or endospermic, those in which neither
is found are termed exalbuminous or exendospermic. These
terms, extensively used by systematists, only refer, however, to the
grosser features of the seed, and indicate the more or less evident
occurrence of a food-reserve; many so-called exalbuminous seeds show
to microscopic examination a distinct endosperm which may have other
than a nutritive function. The presence or absence of endosperm, its
relative amount when present, and the position of the embryo within
it, are valuable characters for the distinction of orders and groups
of orders. Meanwhile the ovary wall has developed to form the fruit or
pericarp, the structure of which is closely associated with the manner
of distribution of the seed. Frequently the influence of fertilization
is felt beyond the ovary, and other parts of the flower take part in
the formation of the fruit, as the floral receptacle in the apple,
strawberry and others. The character of the seed-coat bears a definite
relation to that of the fruit. Their function is the twofold one of
protecting the embryo and of aiding in dissemination; they may also
directly promote germination. If the fruit is a dehiscent one and the
seed is therefore soon exposed, the seed-coat has to provide for the
protection of the embryo and may also have to secure dissemination. On
the other hand, indehiscent fruits discharge these functions for the
embryo, and the seed-coat is only slightly developed.

Dissemination is effected by the agency of water, of air, of
animals—and fruits and seeds are therefore grouped in respect of this
as hydrophilous, anemophilous and zooidiophilous. The needs for these
are obvious—buoyancy in water and resistance to wetting for the
first, some form of parachute for the second, and some attaching
mechanism or attractive structure for the third. The methods in which
these are provided are of infinite variety, and any and every part of
the flower and of the inflorescence may be called into requisition to
supply the adaptation (see FRUIT). Special outgrowths, arils, of the
seed-coat are of frequent occurrence. In the feature of fruit and
seed, by which the distribution of Angiosperms is effected, we have a
distinctive character of the class. In Gymnosperms we have seeds,
and the carpels may become modified and close around these, as in
Pinus, during the process of ripening to form an imitation of a
box-like fruit which subsequently opening allows the seeds to escape;
but there is never in them the closed ovary investing from the outset
the ovules, and ultimately forming the ground-work of the fruit.

Their fortuitous dissemination does not always bring seeds upon a
suitable nidus for germination, the primary essential of which is a
sufficiency of moisture, and the duration of vitality of the embryo is
a point of interest. Some seeds retain vitality for a period of many
years, though there is no warrant for the popular notion that genuine
“mummy wheat” will germinate; on the other hand some seeds lose
vitality in little more than a year. Further, the older the seed the
more slow as a general rule will germination be in starting, but there
are notable exceptions. This pause, often of so long duration, in
the growth of the embryo between the time of its perfect development
within the seed and the moment of germination, is one of the
remarkable and distinctive features of the life of Spermatophytes. The
aim of germination is the fixing of the embryo in the soil, effected
usually by means of the root, which is the first part of the embryo
to appear, in preparation for the elongation of the epicotyledonary
portion of the shoot, and there is infinite variety in the details of
the process. In albuminous Dicotyledons the cotyledons act as the
absorbents of the reserve-food of the seed and are commonly brought
above ground (epigeal), either withdrawn from the seed-coat or
carrying it upon them, and then they serve as the first green
organs of the plant. The part of the stem below the cotyledons
(hypocotyl) commonly plays the greater part in bringing this
about. Exalbuminous Dicotyledons usually store reserve-food in
their cotyledons, which may in germination remain below ground
(hypogeal). In [v.02 p.0013]
albuminous Monocotyledons the cotyledon itself,
probably in consequence of its terminal position, is commonly the
agent by which the embryo is thrust out of the seed, and it may
function solely as a feeder, its extremity developing as a sucker
through which the endosperm is absorbed, or it may become the first
green organ, the terminal sucker dropping off with the seed-coat when
the endosperm is exhausted. Exalbuminous Monocotyledons are either
hydrophytes or strongly hygrophilous plants and have often peculiar
features in germination.

Distribution by seed appears to satisfy so well the requirements of
Angiosperms that distribution by vegetative buds is only an occasional
process. At the same time every bud on a shoot has the capacity
to form a new plant if placed in suitable conditions, as the
horticultural practice of propagation by cuttings shows; in nature we
see plants spreading by the rooting of their shoots, and buds we know
may be freely formed not only on stems but on leaves and on roots.
Where detachable buds are produced, which can be transported through
the air to a distance, each of them is an incipient shoot which may
have a root, and there is always reserve-food stored in some part of
it. In essentials such a bud resembles a seed. A relation between
such vegetative distribution buds and production of flower is usually
marked. Where there is free formation of buds there is little flower
and commonly no seed, and the converse is also the case. Viviparous
plants are an illustration of substitution of vegetative buds for
flower.

The position of Angiosperms as the highest plant-group is
unassailable, but of the point or points of their origin from the
general stem of the plant kingdom, and of the path or paths of their
evolution, we can as yet say little.

Until well on in the Mesozoic period geological history tells us
nothing about Angiosperms, and then only by their vegetative organs.
We readily recognize in them now-a-days the natural classes of
Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons distinguished alike in vegetative
and in reproductive construction, yet showing remarkable parallel
sequences in development; and we see that the Dicotyledons are the
more advanced and show the greater capacity for further progressive
evolution. But there is no sound basis for the assumption that
the Dicotyledons are derived from Monocotyledons; indeed, the
palaeontological evidence seems to point to the Dicotyledons being
the older. This, however, does not entitle us to assume the origin
of Monocotyledons from Dicotyledons, although there is manifestly a
temptation to connect helobic forms of the former with ranal ones of
the latter. There is no doubt that the phylum of Angiosperms has not
sprung from that of Gymnosperms.

Within each class the flower-characters as the essential feature
of Angiosperms supply the clue to phylogeny, but the uncertainty
regarding the construction of the primitive angiospermous flower gives
a fundamental point of divergence in attempts to construct progressive
sequences of the families. Simplicity of flower-structure has appeared
to some to be always primitive, whilst by others it has been taken to
be always derived. There is, however, abundant evidence that it may
have the one or the other character in different cases. Apart from
this, botanists are generally agreed that the concrescence of parts of
the flower-whorls—in the gynaeceum as the seed-covering, and in the
corolla as the seat of attraction, more than in the androecium and the
calyx—is an indication of advance, as is also the concrescence
that gives the condition of epigyny. Dorsiventrality is also clearly
derived from radial construction, and anatropy of the ovule has
followed atropy. We should expect the albuminous state of the seed
to be an antecedent one to the exalbuminous condition, and the recent
discoveries in fertilization tend to confirm this view. Amongst
Dicotyledons the gamopetalous forms are admitted to be the highest
development and a dominant one of our epoch. Advance has been along
two lines, markedly in relation to insect-pollination, one of which
has culminated in the hypogynous epipetalous bicarpellate forms with
dorsiventral often large and loosely arranged flowers such as occur
in Scrophulariaceae, and the other in the epigynous bicarpellate
small-flowered families of which the Compositae represent the most
elaborate type. In the polypetalous forms progression from hypogyny
to epigyny is generally recognized, and where dorsiventrality with
insect-pollination has been established, a dominant group has been
developed as in the Leguminosae. The starting-point of the class,
however, and the position within it of apetalous families with
frequently unisexual flowers, have provoked much discussion. In
Monocotyledons a similar advance from hypogyny to epigyny is observed,
and from the dorsiventral to the radial type of flower. In this
connexion it is noteworthy that so many of the higher forms are
adapted as bulbous geophytes, or as aerophytes to special xerophilous
conditions. The Gramineae offer a prominent example of a dominant
self-pollinated or wind-pollinated family, and this may find
explanation in a multiplicity of factors.

Though best known for his artificial (or sexual) system, Linnaeus
was impressed with the importance of elaborating a natural system of
arrangement in which plants should be arranged according to their true
affinities. In his Philosophia Botanica (1751) Linnaeus grouped
the genera then known into sixty-seven orders (fragmenta), all
except five of which are Angiosperms. He gave names to these but did
not characterize them or attempt to arrange them in larger groups.
Some represent natural groups and had in several cases been already
recognized by Ray and others, but the majority are, in the light
of modern knowledge, very mixed. Well-defined polypetalous and
gamopetalous genera sometimes occur in the same order, and even
Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons are classed together where they have
some striking physiological character in common.

Work on the lines suggested by the Linnaean fragmenta was
continued in France by Bernard de Jussieu and his nephew, Antoine
Laurent, and the arrangement suggested by the latter in his Genera
Plantarum secundum Ordines Naturales disposita (1789) is the
first which can claim to be a natural system. The orders are carefully
characterized, and those of Angiosperms are grouped in fourteen
classes under the two main divisions Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons.
The former comprise three classes, which are distinguished by the
relative position of the stamens and ovary; the eleven classes of
the latter are based on the same set of characters and fall into
the larger subdivisions Apetalae, Monopetalae and Polypetalae,
characterized respectively by absence, union or freedom of the petals,
and a subdivision, Diclines Irregulares, a very unnatural
group, including one class only. A. P. de Candolle introduced several
improvements into the system. In his arrangement the last subdivision
disappears, and the Dicotyledons fall into two groups, a larger
containing those in which both calyx and corolla are present in the
flower, and a smaller, Monochlamydeae, representing the Apetalae and
Diclines Irregulares of Jussieu. The dichlamydeous group is
subdivided into three, Thalamiflorae, Calyciflorae and Corolliflorae,
depending on the position and union of the petals. This, which we may
distinguish as the French system, finds its most perfect expression in
the classic Genera Plantarum (1862-1883) of Bentham and Hooker,
a work containing a description, based on careful examination of
specimens, of all known genera of flowering plants. The subdivision is
as follows:—

• Polypetalae:
  • Thalamiflorae.
  • Disciflorae.
  • Calyciflorae.
• Gamopetalae:
  • Inferae.
  • Heteromerae.
  • Bicarpellatae.
• Monochlamydeae in eight series.
• Monocotyledons in seven series.

Of the Polypetalae, series 1, Thalamiflorae, is characterized by
hypogynous petals and stamens, and contains 34 orders distributed in 6
larger groups or cohorts. Series 2, Disciflorae, takes its name from
a development of the floral axis which forms a ring or cushion at the
base of the ovary or is broken up into glands; the ovary is superior.
It contains 23 orders in 4 cohorts. Series 3, Calyciflorae, has petals
and stamens perigynous, or sometimes superior. It contains 27 orders
in 5 cohorts.

Of the Gamopetalae, series 1, Inferae, has an interior ovary and
stamens usually as many as the corolla-lobes. It contains 9 orders
in 3 cohorts. Series 2, Heteromerae, has generally a superior ovary,
stamens as many as the corolla-lobes or more, and more than two
carpels. It contains 12 orders in 3 cohorts. Series 3, Bicarpellatae,
has generally a superior ovary and usually two carpels. It contains 24
orders in 4 cohorts.

The eight series of Monochlamydeae, containing 36 orders, form groups
characterized mainly by differences in the ovary and ovules, and are
now recognized as of unequal value.

The seven series of Monocotyledons represent a sequence beginning
with the most complicated epigynous orders, such as Orchideae and
Scitamineae, and passing through the petaloid hypogynous orders
(series Coronarieae) of which Liliaceae is the representative to
Juncaceae and the palms (series Calycinae) where the perianth loses
its petaloid character and thence to the Aroids, screw-pines and
[v.02 p.0014]
others where it is more or less aborted (series
Nudiflorae). Series 6, Apocarpeae, is characterized by 5 carpels, and
in the last series Glumaceae, great simplification in the flower is
associated with a grass-like habit.

The sequence of orders in the polypetalous subdivision of Dicotyledons
undoubtedly represents a progression from simpler to more elaborate
forms, but a great drawback to the value of the system is the
inclusion among the Monochlamydeae of a number of orders which are
closely allied with orders of Polypetalae though differing in absence
of a corolla. The German systematist, A. W. Eichler, attempted
to remove this disadvantage which since the time of Jussieu had
characterized the French system, and in 1883 grouped the Dicotyledons
in two subclasses. The earlier Choripetalae embraces the Polypetalae
and Monochlamydae of the French systems. It includes 21 series, and
is an attempt to arrange as far as possible in a linear series those
orders which are characterized by absence or freedom of petals. The
second subclass, Gamopetalae, includes 9 series and culminates
in those which show the most elaborate type of flower, the series
Aggregatae, the chief representative of which is the great and
wide-spread order Compositae. A modification of Eichler’s system,
embracing the most recent views of the affinities of the orders of
Angiosperms, has been put forward by Dr. Adolf Engler of Berlin, who
adopts the suggestive names Archichlamydeae and Metachlamydeae for the
two subdivisions of Dicotyledons. Dr. Engler is the principal editor
of a large series of volumes which, under the title Die naturlichen
Pflanzenfamilien, is a systematic account of all the known genera
of plants and represents the work of many botanists. More recently
in Das Pflanzenreich the same author organized a series of
complete monographs of the families of seed-plants.

As an attempt at a phylogenetic arrangement, Engler’s system is now
preferred by many botanists. More recently a startling novelty in the
way of system has been produced by van Tieghem, as follows:

• Monocotyledons.
• Liorhizal Dicotyledons.
• Dicotyledons.
  • INSEMINEAE.
  • SEMINEAE.
    • Unitegmineae.
    • Bitegmineae.

The most remarkable feature here is the class of Liorhizal
Dicotyledons, which includes only the families of Nymphaeaceae
and Gramineae. It is based upon the fact that the histological
differentiation of the epidermis of their root is that generally
characteristic of Monocotyledons, whilst they have two cotyledons—the
old view of the epiblast as a second cotyledon in Gramineae being
adopted. But the presence of a second cotyledon in grasses is
extremely doubtful, and though there may be ground for reconsidering
the position of Nymphaeaceae, their association with the grasses as
a distinct class is not warranted by a comparative examination of the
members of the two orders. Ovular characters determine the grouping in
the Dicotyledons, van Tieghem supporting the view that the integument,
the outer if there be two, is the lamina of a leaf of which the
funicle is the petiole, whilst the nucellus is an outgrowth of
this leaf, and the inner integument, if present, an indusium. The
Insemineae include forms in which the nucellus is not developed, and
therefore there can be no seed. The plants included are, however,
mainly well-established parasites, and the absence of nucellus is only
one of those characters of reduction to which parasites are liable.
Even if we admit van Tieghem’s interpretation of the integuments to
be correct, the diagnostic mark of his unitegminous and bitegminous
groups is simply that of the absence or presence of an indusium, not a
character of great value elsewhere, and, as we know, the number of the
ovular coats is inconstant within the same family. At the same time
the groups based upon the integuments are of much the same extent as
the Polypetalae and Gamopetalae of other systems. We do not yet
know the significance of this correlation, which, however, is not an
invariable one, between number of integuments and union of petals.

Within the last few years Prof. John Coulter and Dr. C. J. Chamberlain
of Chicago University have given a valuable general account of the
morphology of Angiosperms as far as concerns the flower, and
the series of events which ends in the formation of the seed
(Morphology of Angiosperms, Chicago, 1903).

AUTHORITIES.—The reader will find in the following works details
of the subject and references to the literature: Bentham and
Hooker, Genera Plantarum (London, 1862-1883); Eichler,
Bluthendiagramme (Leipzig, 1875-1878); Engler and Prantl,
Die naturlichen Pflanzenfamilien (Leipzig, 1887-1899); Engler,
Syllabus der Pflanzenfamilien, 3rd ed. (Berlin, 1903); Knuth,
Handbuch der Blutenbiologie (Leipzig, 1898, 1899); Sachs,
History of Botany, English ed. (Oxford, 1890); Solereder,
Systematische Anatomie der Dicotyledonen (Stuttgart, 1899);
van Tieghem, Elements de botanique; Coulter and Chamberlain,
Morphology of Angiosperms (New York, 1903).

(I. B. B.; A. B. R.)

ANGKOR, an assemblage of ruins in Cambodia, the relic of the ancient
Khmer civilization. They are situated in forests to the north of the
Great Lake (Tonle-Sap), the most conspicuous of the remains being the
town of Angkor-Thom and the temple of Angkor-Vat, both of which lie on
the right bank of the river Siem-Reap, a tributary of Tonle-Sap.
Other remains of the same form and character lie scattered about the
vicinity on both banks of the river, which is crossed by an ancient
stone bridge.

Angkor-Thom lies about a quarter of a mile from the river. According
to Aymonier it was begun about A.D. 860, in the reign of the Khmer
sovereign Jayavarman III., and finished towards A.D. 900. It consists
of a rectangular enclosure, nearly 2 m. in each direction, surrounded
by a wall from 20 to 30 ft. in height. Within the enclosure, which
is entered by five monumental gates, are the remains of palaces and
temples, overgrown by the forest. The chief of these are:—

(1) The vestiges of the royal palace, which stood within an enclosure
containing also the pyramidal religious structure known as the
Phimeanakas. To the east of this enclosure there extends a terrace
decorated with magnificent reliefs.

(2) The temple of Bayon, a square enclosure formed by galleries with
colonnades, within which is another and more elaborate system of
galleries, rectangular in arrangement and enclosing a cruciform
structure, at the centre of which rises a huge tower with a circular
base. Fifty towers, decorated with quadruple faces of Brahma, are
built at intervals upon the galleries, the whole temple ranking as
perhaps the most remarkable of the Khmer remains.

Angkor-Vat, the best preserved example of Khmer architecture, lies
less than a mile to the south of the royal city, within a rectangular
park surrounded by a moat, the outer perimeter of which measures 6060
yds. On the west side of the park a paved causeway, leading over the
moat and under a magnificent portico, extends for a distance of a
quarter of a mile to the chief entrance of the main building. The
temple was originally devoted to the worship of Brahma, but afterwards
to that of Buddha; its construction is assigned by Aymonier to the
first half of the 12th century A.D. It consists of three stages,
connected by numerous exterior staircases and decreasing in dimensions
as they rise, culminating in the sanctuary, a great central tower
pyramidal in form. Towers also surmount the angles of the terraces
of the two upper stages. Three galleries with vaulting supported on
columns lead from the three western portals to the second stage.
They are connected by a transverse gallery, thus forming four square
basins. Khmer decoration, profuse but harmonious, consists chiefly in
the representation of gods, men and animals, which are displayed on
every flat surface. Combats and legendary episodes are often depicted;
floral decoration is reserved chiefly for borders, mouldings and
capitals. Sandstone of various colours was the chief material employed
by the Khmers; limonite was also used. The stone was cut into huge
blocks which are fitted together with great accuracy without the use
of cement.

See E. Aymonier, Le Cambodge (3 vols., 1900-1904); Doudart de
Lagrée, Voyage d’exploration en Indo-Chine (1872-1873); A. H.
Mouhot, Travels in Indo-China, Cambodia and Laos (2 vols.,
1864); Fournereau and Porcher, Les Ruines d’Angkor (1890); L.
Delaporte, Voyage au Cambodge: l’architecture Khmer (1880); J.
Moura, Le Royaume de Cambodge (2 vols., 1883).

ANGLE (from the Lat. angulus, a corner, a diminutive, of which
the primitive form, angus, does not occur in Latin; cognate are
the Lat. angere, to compress into a bend or to strangle, and
the Gr. ἄγκος, a bend; both connected with the Aryan root
ank-, to bend: see ANGLING), in geometry, the inclination of
one line or plane to another. Euclid (Elements, book I) defines
a plane angle as the inclination to each other, in a plane, of two
lines which meet each other, and do not lie straight with respect to
each other (see GEOMETRY, EUCLIDEAN). According to Proclus an angle
must be either a quality or a quantity, or a relationship. The first
concept was utilized by Eudemus, who regarded an angle as a deviation
from a straight line; the second by Carpus of Antioch, who regarded
it as the interval or space between the intersecting lines; Euclid
adopted the third concept, although his definitions of right, acute,
and obtuse angles are certainly quantitative. A discussion of
[v.02 p.0015] these concepts and the various definitions of angles in
Euclidean geometry is to be found in W. B. Frankland, The First Book
of Euclid’s Elements (1905). Following Euclid, a right angle is
formed by a straight line standing upon another straight line so as to
make the adjacent angles equal; any angle less than a right angle is
termed an acute angle, and any angle greater than a right angle an
obtuse angle. The difference between an acute angle and a right angle
is termed the complement of the angle, and between an angle and two
right angles the supplement of the angle. The generalized view of
angles and their measurement is treated in the article TRIGONOMETRY.
A solid angle is definable as the space contained by three or more
planes intersecting in a common point; it is familiarly represented
by a corner. The angle between two planes is termed dihedral, between
three trihedral, between any number more than three polyhedral.
A spherical angle is a particular dihedral angle; it is the angle
between two intersecting arcs on a sphere, and is measured by the
angle between the planes containing the arcs and the centre of the
sphere.

The angle between a line and a curve (mixed angle) or between two
curves (curvilinear angle) is measured by the angle between the line
and the tangent at the point of intersection, or between the tangents
to both curves at their common point. Various names (now rarely, if
ever, used) have been given to particular cases:—amphicyrtic (Gr.
ἀμφί, on both sides, κυρτός, convex) or cissoidal
(Gr. κισσός, ivy), biconvex; xystroidal or sistroidal (Gr.
ξυστρίς, a tool for scraping), concavo-convex; amphicoelic
(Gr. κοίλη, a hollow) or angulus lunularis,
biconcave.

The Angler (Lophius piscatorius).

ANGLER, also sometimes called fishing-frog, frog-fish, sea-devil
(Lophius piscatorius), a fish well known off the coasts of
Great Britain and Europe generally, the grotesque shape of its body
and its singular habits having attracted the attention of naturalists
of all ages. To the North Sea fishermen this fish is known as the
“monk,” a name which more properly belongs to Rhina squatina,
a fish allied to the skates. Its head is of enormous size, broad,
flat and depressed, the remainder of the body appearing merely like an
appendage. The wide mouth extends all round the anterior circumference
of the head; and both jaws are armed with bands of long pointed teeth,
which are inclined inwards, and can be depressed so as to offer no
impediment to an object gliding towards the stomach, but to prevent
its escape from the mouth. The pectoral and ventral fins are so
articulated as to perform the functions of feet, the fish being
enabled to move, or rather to walk, on the bottom of the sea, where it
generally hides itself in the sand or amongst sea-weed. All round
its head and also along the body the skin bears fringed appendages
resembling short fronds of sea-weed, a structure which, combined with
the extraordinary faculty of assimilating the colour of the body to
its surroundings, assists this fish greatly in concealing itself in
places which it selects on account of the abundance of prey. To render
the organization of this creature perfect in relation to its wants, it
is provided with three long filaments inserted along the middle of the
head, which are, in fact, the detached and modified three first spines
of the anterior dorsal fin. The filament most important in the economy
of the angler is the first, which is the longest, terminates in a
lappet, and is movable in every direction. The angler is believed to
attract other fishes by means of its lure, and then to seize them
with its enormous jaws. It is probable enough that smaller fishes are
attracted in this way, but experiments have shown that the action
of the jaws is automatic and depends on contact of the prey with the
tentacle. Its stomach is distensible in an extraordinary degree, and
not rarely fishes have been taken out quite as large and heavy as
their destroyer. It grows to a length of more than 5 ft.; specimens
of 3 ft. are common. The spawn of the angler is very remarkable. It
consists of a thin sheet of transparent gelatinous material 2 or 3
ft. broad and 25 to 30 ft. in length. The eggs in this sheet are in a
single layer, each in its own little cavity. The spawn is free in the
sea. The larvae are free-swimming and have the pelvic fins elongated
into filaments. The British species is found all round the coasts of
Europe and western North America, but becomes scarce beyond 60° N.
lat.; it occurs also on the coasts of the Cape of Good Hope. A second
species (Lophius budegassa) inhabits the Mediterranean, and a
third (L. setigerus) the coasts of China and Japan.

ANGLESEY, ARTHUR ANNESLEY, 1st EARL OF (1614-1686), British statesman,
son of the 1st Viscount Valentia (cr. 1621) and Baron Mountnorris (cr.
1628), and of Dorothy, daughter of Sir John Philipps of Picton Castle,
Pembrokeshire, was born at Dublin on the 10th of July 1614, was
educated at Magdalen College, Oxford, and was admitted to Lincoln’s
Inn in 1634. Having made the grand tour he returned to Ireland; and
being employed by the parliament in a mission to the duke of Ormonde,
now reduced to the last extremities, he succeeded in concluding a
treaty with him on the 19th of June 1647, thus securing the country
from complete subjection to the rebels. In April 1647 he was
returned for Radnorshire to the House of Commons. He supported the
parliamentary as against the republican or army party, and appears
to have been one of the members excluded in 1648. He sat in Richard
Cromwell’s parliament for Dublin city, and endeavoured to take his
seat in the restored Rump Parliament of 1659. He was made president of
the council in February 1660, and in the Convention Parliament sat for
Carmarthen borough. The anarchy of the last months of the commonwealth
converted him to royalism, and he showed great activity in bringing
about the Restoration. He used his influence in moderating measures of
revenge and violence, and while sitting in judgment on the regicides
was on the side of leniency. In November 1660 by his father’s death
he had become Viscount Valentia and Baron Mountnorris in the Irish
peerage, and on the 20th April 1661 he was created Baron Annesley of
Newport Pagnell in Buckinghamshire and earl of Anglesey in the
peerage of Great Britain. He supported the king’s administration in
parliament, but opposed strongly the unjust measure which, on the
abolition of the court of wards, placed the extra burden of
taxation thus rendered necessary on the excise. His services in the
administration of Ireland were especially valuable. He filled the
office of vice-treasurer from 1660 till 1667, served on the committee
for carrying out the declaration for the settlement of Ireland and on
the committee for Irish affairs, while later, in 1671 and 1672, he was
a leading member of various commissions appointed to investigate the
working of the Acts of Settlement. In February 1661 he had obtained a
captaincy of horse, and in 1667 he exchanged his vice-treasuryship of
Ireland for the treasuryship of the navy. His public career was marked
by great independence and fidelity to principle. On the 24th of July
1663 he alone signed a protest against the bill “for the encouragement
of trade,” on the plea that owing to the free export of coin and
bullion allowed by the act, and to the importation of foreign
commodities being greater than the export of home goods, “it must
necessarily follow … that our silver will also be carried away into
foreign parts and all trade fail for want of money.”^[1] He especially
disapproved of another clause in the same bill forbidding the
importation of Irish cattle into England, a mischievous measure
promoted by the duke of Buckingham, and he opposed again the bill
brought in with that object in January
[v.02 p.0016] 1667. This same year his naval accounts were subjected
to an examination in consequence of his indignant refusal to take part
in the attack upon Ormonde;^[2] and he was suspended from his office in
1668, no charge, however, against him being substantiated. He took
a prominent part in the dispute in 1671 between the two Houses
concerning the right of the Lords to amend money bills, and wrote a
learned pamphlet on the question entitled The Privileges of the
House of Lords and Commons (1702), in which the right of the Lords
was asserted. In April 1673 he was appointed lord privy seal, and
was disappointed at not obtaining the great seal the same year on the
removal of Shaftesbury. In 1679 he was included in Sir W. Temple’s
new-modelled council.

In the bitter religious controversies of the time Anglesey showed
great moderation and toleration. In 1674 he is mentioned as
endeavouring to prevent the justices putting into force the laws
against the Roman Catholics and Nonconformists.^[3] In the panic of the
“Popish Plot” in 1678 he exhibited a saner judgment than most of his
contemporaries and a conspicuous courage. On the 6th of December he
protested with three other peers against the measure sent up from the
Commons enforcing the disarming of all convicted recusants and taking
bail from them to keep the peace; he was the only peer to dissent
from the motion declaring the existence of an Irish plot; and though
believing in the guilt and voting for the death of Lord Stafford, he
interceded, according to his own account,^[4] with the king for him as
well as for Langhorne and Plunket. His independent attitude drew
upon him an attack by Dangerfield, and in the Commons by the
attorney-general, Sir W. Jones, who accused him of endeavouring to
stifle the evidence against the Romanists. In March 1679 he protested
against the second reading of the bill for disabling Danby. In 1681
Anglesey wrote A Letter from a Person of Honour in the Country,
as a rejoinder to the earl of Castlehaven, who had published memoirs
on the Irish rebellion defending the action of the Irish and the Roman
Catholics. In so doing Anglesey was held by Ormonde to have censured
his conduct and that of Charles I. in concluding the “Cessation,”
and the duke brought the matter before the council. In 1682 he wrote
The Account of Arthur, Earl of Anglesey … of the true state of
Your Majesty’s Government and Kingdom, which was addressed to the
king in a tone of censure and remonstrance, but appears not to have
been printed till 1694.^[5] In consequence he was dismissed on the 9th
of August 1682 from the office of lord privy seal. In 1683 he appeared
at the Old Bailey as a witness in defence of Lord Russell, and in June
1685 he protested alone against the revision of Stafford’s attainder.
He died at his home at Blechingdon in Oxfordshire on the 26th of April
1686, closing a career marked by great ability, statesmanship and
business capacity, and by conspicuous courage and independence of
judgment. He amassed a large fortune in Ireland, in which country he
had been allotted lands by Cromwell.

The unfavourable character drawn of him by Burnet is certainly unjust
and not supported by any evidence. Pepys, a far more trustworthy
judge, speaks of him invariably in terms of respect and approval as a
“grave, serious man,” and commends his appointment as treasurer of
the navy as that of “a very notable man and understanding and will do
things regular and understand them himself.”^[6] He was a learned and
cultivated man and collected a celebrated library, which was dispersed
at his death. Besides the pamphlets already mentioned, he wrote:—A
True Account of the Whole Proceedings betwixt … the Duke of Ormond
and … the Earl of Anglesey (1682); A Letter of Remarks upon
Jovian (1683); other works ascribed to him being The King’s
Right of Indulgence in Matters Spiritual … asserted (1688);
Truth Unveiled, to which is added a short Treatise on …
Transubstantiation (1676); The Obligation resulting from the
Oath of Supremacy (1688); and England’s Confusion (1659).
Memoirs of Lord Anglesey were published by Sir P. Pett in 1693,
but contain little biographical information and were repudiated as a
mere imposture by Sir John Thompson (Lord Haversham), his son-in-law,
in his preface to Lord Anglesey’s State of the Government in
1694. The author however of the preface to The Rights of the Lords
asserted (1702), while blaming their publication as “scattered and
unfinished papers,” admits their genuineness.

Lord Anglesey married Elizabeth, daughter and co-heiress of Sir James
Altham of Oxey, Hertfordshire, by whom, besides other children, he had
James, who succeeded him, Altham, created Baron Altham, and Richard,
afterwards 3rd Baron Altham. His descendant Richard, the 6th earl
(d. 1761), left a son Arthur, whose legitimacy was doubted, and the
peerage became extinct. He was summoned to the Irish House of Peers as
Viscount Valentia, but was denied his writ to the parliament of Great
Britain by a majority of one vote. He was created in 1793 earl of
Mountnorris in the peerage of Ireland. All the male descendants of the
1st earl of Anglesey became extinct in the person of George, 2nd earl
of Mountnorris, in 1844, when the titles of Viscount Valentia and
Baron Mountnorris passed to his cousin Arthur Annesley (1785-1863),
who thus became 10th Viscount Valentia, being descended from the
1st Viscount Valentia the father of the 1st earl of Anglesey in the
Annesley family. The 1st viscount was also the ancestor of the Earls
Annesley in the Irish peerage.

AUTHORITIES.—Dict. of Nat. Biography, with authorities there
collected; lives in Wood’s Athenae Oxonienses (Bliss), iv.
181, Biographia Britannica, and H. Walpole’s Royal and Noble
Authors (1806), iii. 288 (the latter a very inadequate review of
Anglesey’s character and career); also Bibliotheca Anglesiana
… per Thomam Philippum (1686); The Happy Future State of
England, by Sir Peter Pett (1688); Great News from Poland
(1683), where his religious tolerance is ridiculed; Somers
Tracts (Scott, 1812), viii. 344; Notes of the Privy Council
(Roxburghe Club, 1896); Cal. of State Papers, Dom.; State
Trials, viii. and ix. 619.

(P. C. Y.)

ANGLESEY, HENRY WILLIAM PAGET, 1st MARQUESS OF (1768-1854), British
field-marshal, was born on the 17th of May 1768. He was the eldest son
of Henry Paget, 1st earl of Uxbridge (d. 1812), and was educated at
Westminster School and Christ Church, Oxford, afterwards entering
parliament in 1790 as member for Carnarvon, for which he sat for six
years. At the outbreak of the French Revolutionary wars Lord Paget (as
he was then styled), who had already served in the militia, raised on
his father’s estate the regiment of Staffordshire volunteers, in which
he was given the temporary rank of lieutenant-colonel (1793). The
corps soon became part of the regular army as the 80th Foot, and it
took part, under Lord Paget’s command, in the Flanders campaign of
1794. In spite of his youth he held a brigade command for a time, and
gained also, during the campaign, his first experience of the cavalry
arm, with which he was thenceforward associated. His substantive
commission as lieutenant-colonel of the 16th Light Dragoons bore the
date of the 15th of June 1795, and in 1796 he was made a colonel
in the army. In 1795 he married Lady Caroline Elizabeth Villiers,
daughter of the earl of Jersey. In April 1797 Lord Paget was
transferred to a lieut.-colonelcy in the 7th Light Dragoons, of which
regiment he became colonel in 1801. From the first he applied himself
strenuously to the improvement of discipline, and to the perfection of
a new system of cavalry evolutions. In the short campaign of 1799
in Holland, Paget commanded the cavalry brigade, and in spite of the
unsuitable character of the ground, he made, on several occasions,
brilliant and successful charges. After the return of the expedition,
he devoted himself zealously to his regiment, which under his command
became one of the best corps in the service. In 1802 he was promoted
major-general, and six years later lieutenant-general. In command of
the cavalry of Sir John Moore’s army during the Corunna campaign, Lord
Paget won the greatest distinction. At Sahagun, Mayorga and Benavente,
the British cavalry behaved so well under his leadership that Moore
wrote:—”It is impossible for me to say too much in its praise…. Our
cavalry is very superior in quality to any the French have, and
[v.02 p.0017]
the right spirit has been infused into them by the
example and instruction of their … leaders….” At Benavente one
of Napoleon’s best cavalry leaders, General Lefebvre Desnoëttes, was
taken prisoner. Corunna was Paget’s last service in the Peninsula.
His liaison with the wife of Henry Wellesley, afterwards
Lord Cowley, made it impossible at that time for him to serve with
Wellington, whose cavalry, on many occasions during the succeeding
campaigns, felt the want of the true cavalry leader to direct them.
His only war service from 1809 to 1815 was in the disastrous Walcheren
expedition (1809) in which he commanded a division. During these
years he occupied himself with his parliamentary duties as member
for Milborne Port, which he represented almost continuously up to his
father’s death in 1812, when he took his seat in the House of Lords as
earl of Uxbridge. In 1810 he was divorced and married Mrs Wellesley,
who had about the same time been divorced from her husband. Lady
Paget was soon afterwards married to the duke of Argyll. In 1815 Lord
Uxbridge received command of the British cavalry in Flanders. At a
moment of danger such as that of Napoleon’s return from Elba, the
services of the best cavalry general in the British army could not be
neglected. Wellington placed the greatest confidence in him, and on
the eve of Waterloo extended his command so as to include the whole of
the allied cavalry and horse artillery. He covered the retirement of
the allies from Quatre Bras to Waterloo on the 17th of June, and on
the 18th gained the crowning distinction of his military career in
leading the great cavalry charge of the British centre, which checked
and in part routed D’Erlon’s corps d’armée (see WATERLOO
CAMPAIGN). Freely exposing his own life throughout, the earl received,
by one of the last cannon shots fired, a severe wound in the leg,
necessitating amputation. Five days later the prince regent created
him marquess of Anglesey in recognition of his brilliant services,
which were regarded universally as second only to those of the duke
himself. He was made a G. C. B. and he was also decorated by many of the
allied sovereigns.

In 1818 the marquess was made a knight of the Garter, in 1819 he
became full general, and at the coronation of George IV. he acted as
lord high steward of England. His support of the proceedings against
Queen Caroline made him for a time unpopular, and when he was on one
occasion beset by a crowd, who compelled him to shout “The Queen,”
he added the wish, “May all your wives be like her.” At the close of
April 1827 he became a member of the Canning administration, taking
the post of master-general of the ordnance, previously held by
Wellington. He was at the same time sworn a member of the privy
council. Under the Wellington administration he accepted the
appointment of lord-lieutenant of Ireland (March 1828), and in the
discharge of his important duties he greatly endeared himself to
the Irish people. The spirit in which he acted and the aims which
he steadily set before himself contributed to the allaying of party
animosities, to the promotion of a willing submission to the laws,
to the prosperity of trade and to the extension and improvement of
education. On the great question of the time his views were opposed
to those of the government. He saw clearly that the time was come when
the relief of the Catholics from the penal legislation of the past was
an indispensable measure, and in December 1828 he addressed a letter
to the Roman Catholic primate of Ireland distinctly announcing his
view. This led to his recall by the government, a step sincerely
lamented by the Irish. He pleaded for Catholic emancipation in
parliament, and on the formation of Earl Grey’s administration in
November 1830, he again became lord-lieutenant of Ireland. The times
were changed; the act of emancipation had been passed, and the task of
viceroy in his second tenure of office was to resist the agitation for
repeal of the union carried on by O’Connell. He felt it his duty now
to demand Coercion Acts for the security of the public peace; his
popularity was diminished, differences appeared in the cabinet on
the difficult subject, and in July 1833 the ministry resigned. To the
marquess of Anglesey Ireland is indebted for the board of education,
the origination of which may perhaps be reckoned as the most memorable
act of his viceroyalty. For thirteen years after his retirement
he remained out of office, and took little part in the affairs of
government. He joined the Russell administration in July 1846 as
master-general of the ordnance, finally retiring with his chief in
March 1852. His promotion in the army was completed by his advancement
to the rank of field-marshal in 1846. Four years before, he exchanged
his colonelcy of the 7th Light Dragoons which he had held over forty
years, for that of the Royal Horse Guards. He died on the 29th of
April 1854.

The marquess had a large family by each of his two wives, two sons
and six daughters by the first and six sons and four daughters by the
second. His eldest son, Henry, succeeded him in the marquessate;
but the title passed rapidly in succession to the 3rd, 4th and 5th
marquesses. The latter, whose extravagances were notorious, died in
1905, when the title passed to his cousin.

Other members of the Paget family distinguished themselves in the army
and the navy. Of the first marquess’s brothers one, SIR CHARLES PAGET
(1778-1839), rose to the rank of vice-admiral in the Royal Navy;
another, General SIR EDWARD PAGET (1775-1849), won great distinction
by his skilful and resolute handling of a division at Corunna,
and from 1822 to 1825 was commander-in-chief in India. One of the
marquess’s sons by his second marriage, LORD CLARENCE EDWARD PAGET
(1811-1895), became an admiral; another, LORD GEORGE AUGUSTUS
FREDERICK PAGET (1818-1880), led the 4th Light Dragoons in the charge
of the Light Brigade at Balaklava, and subsequently commanded the
brigade, and, for a short time, the cavalry division in the Crimea.
In 1865 he was made inspector-general of cavalry, in 1871
lieutenant-general and K. C. B., and in 1877 full general. His Crimean
journals were published in 1881.

ANGLESEY, or ANGLESEA, an insular northern county of Wales. Its area
is 176,630 acres or about 276 sq. m. Anglesey, in the see of Bangor,
is separated from the mainland by the Menai Straits (Afon Menai),
over which were thrown Telford’s suspension bridge, in 1826, and the
Stephenson tubular railway bridge in 1850. The county is flat,
with slight risings such as Parys, Cadair Mynachdy (or Monachdy,
i.e.. “chair of the monastery”; there is a Nanner, “convent,”
not far away) and Holyhead Mountain. There are a few lakes, such as
Cors cerrig y daran, but rising water is generally scarce. The climate
is humid, the land poor for the most part compared with its old state
of fertility, and there are few industries.

As regards geology, the younger strata in Anglesey rest upon a
foundation of very old pre-Cambrian rocks which appear at the
surface in three areas:—(1) a western region including Holyhead and
Llanfaethlu, (2) a central area about Aberffraw and Trefdraeth,
and (3) an eastern region which includes Newborough, Caerwen and
Pentraeth. These pre-Cambrian rocks are schists and slates, often much
contorted and disturbed. The general line of strike of the formations
in the island is from N.E. to S.W. A belt of granitic rocks lies
immediately north-west of the central pre-Cambrian mass, reaching from
Llanfaelog near the coast to the vicinity of Llanerchymedd. Between
this granite and the pre-Cambrian of Holyhead is a narrow tract of
Ordovician slates and grits with Llandovery beds in places; this
tract spreads out in the N. of the island between Dulas Bay and Carmel
Point. A small patch of Ordovician strata lies on the northern side of
Beaumaris. In parts, these Ordovician rocks are much folded, crushed
and metamorphosed, and they are associated with schists and altered
volcanic rocks which are probably pre-Cambrian. Between the eastern
and central pre-Cambrian masses carboniferous rocks are found. The
carboniferous limestone occupies a broad area S. of Ligwy Bay and
Pentraeth, and sends a narrow spur in a south-westerly direction by
Llangefni to Malldraeth sands. The limestone is underlain on the
N.W. by a red basement conglomerate and yellow sandstone (sometimes
considered to be of Old Red Sandstone age). Limestone occurs again on
the N. coast about Llanfihangel and Llangoed; and in the S.W. round
Llanidan on the border of the Menai Strait. Puffin Island is made
of carboniferous limestone. Malldraeth Marsh is occupied by coal
measures, and a small patch of the same formation appears near
Tall-y-foel Ferry on the Menai Straits. A patch of granitic and
felsitic rocks form Parys Mountain, where copper and iron
[v.02 p.0018]
ochre have been worked. Serpentine (Mona Marble) is
found near Llanfaerynneubwll and upon the opposite shore in Holyhead.
There are abundant evidences of glaciation, and much boulder clay and
drift sand covers the older rocks. Patches of blown sand occur on the
S.W. coast.

The London & North-Western railway (Chester and Holyhead branch)
crosses Anglesey from Llanfairpwllgwyngyll to Gaerwen and Holyhead
(Caer Gybi), also from Gaerwen to Amlwch. The staple of the island is
farming, the chief crops being turnips, oats, potatoes, with flax in
the centre. Copper (near Amlwch), lead, silver, marble, asbestos, lime
and sandstone, marl, zinc and coal have all been worked in Anglesey,
coal especially at Malldraeth and Trefdraeth. The population of the
county in 1901 was 50,606. There is no parliamentary borough, but one
member is returned for the county. It is in the north-western circuit,
and assizes are held at Beaumaris, the only municipal borough (pop.
2326). Amlwch (2994), Holyhead (10,079), Llangefni (1751) and Menai
Bridge (Pont y Borth, 1700) are urban districts. There are six
hundreds and seventy-eight parishes.

Môn (a cow) is the Welsh name of Anglesey, itself a corrupted form of
O. E., meaning the Isle of the Angles. Old Welsh names are Ynys Dywyll
(“Dark Isle”) and Ynys y cedairn (cedyrn or kedyrn; “Isle of brave
folk”). It is the Mona of Tacitus (Ann. xiv. 29, Agr.
xiv. 18), Pliny the Elder (iv. 16) and Dio Cassius (62). It is called
Mam Cymru by Giraldus Cambrensis. Clas Merddin, Y vel Ynys (honey
isle), Ynys Prydein, Ynys Brut are other names. According to the
Triads (67), Anglesey was once part of the mainland, as geology
proves. The island was the seat of the Druids, of whom 28 cromlechs
remain, on uplands overlooking the sea, e.g. at Plâs Newydd.
The Druids were attacked in A.D. 61 by Suetonius Paulinus, and by
Agricola in A.D. 78. In the 5th century Caswallon lived here, and
here, at Aberffraw, the princes of Gwynedd lived till 1277. The
present road from Holyhead to Llanfairpwllgwyngyll is originally
Roman. British and Roman camps, coins and ornaments have been dug up
and discussed, especially by the Hon. Mr. Stanley of Penrhos. Pen Caer
Gybi is Roman. The island was devastated by the Danes (Dub Gint
or black nations, gentes), especially in A.D. 853.

See Edw. Breese, Kalendar of Gwynedd (Venedocia), on Anglesey,
Carnarvon and Merioneth (London, 1873); and The History of Powys
Fadog.

ANGLESITE, a mineral consisting of lead sulphate, PbSO₄,
crystallizing in the orthorhombic system, and isomorphous with
barytes and celestite. It was first recognized as a mineral species
by Dr. Withering in 1783, who discovered it in the Parys copper-mine
in Anglesey; the name anglesite, from this locality, was given by F. S.
Beudant in 1832. The crystals from Anglesey, which were formerly found
abundantly on a matrix of dull limonite, are small in size and simple
in form, being usually bounded by four faces of a prism and four faces
of a dome; they are brownish-yellow in colour owing to a stain of
limonite. Crystals from some other localities, notably from Monteponi
in Sardinia, are transparent and colourless, possessed of a brilliant
adamantine lustre, and usually modified by numerous bright faces. The
variety of combinations and habits presented by the crystals is very
extensive, nearly two hundred distinct forms being figured by V.
von Lang in his monograph of the species; without measurement of the
angles the crystals are frequently difficult to decipher. The hardness
is 3 and the specific gravity 6.3. There are distinct cleavages
parallel to the faces of the prism (110) and the basal plane (001),
but these are not so well developed as in the isomorphous minerals
barytes and celestite.

Anglesite specimen.

Anglesite is a mineral of secondary origin, having been formed by the
oxidation of galena in the upper parts of mineral lodes where these
have been affected by weathering processes. At Monteponi the crystals
encrust cavities in glistening granular galena; and from Leadhills,
in Scotland, pseudomorphs of anglesite after galena are known. At most
localities it is found as isolated crystals in the lead-bearing
lodes, but at some places, in Australia and Mexico, it occurs as large
masses, and is then mined as an ore of lead, of which the pure mineral
contains 68%.

ANGLI, ANGLII or ANGLES, a Teutonic people mentioned by Tacitus in his
Germania (cap. 40) at the end of the 1st century. He gives no
precise indication of their geographical position, but states that,
together with six other tribes, including the Varini (the Warni of
later times), they worshipped a goddess named Nerthus, whose
sanctuary was situated on “an island in the Ocean.” Ptolemy in his
Geography (ii. 11. § 15), half a century later, locates them
with more precision between the Rhine, or rather perhaps the Ems,
and the Elbe, and speaks of them as one of the chief tribes of the
interior. Unfortunately, however, it is clear from a comparison of
his map with the evidence furnished by Tacitus and other Roman writers
that the indications which he gives cannot be correct. Owing to
the uncertainty of these passages there has been much speculation
regarding the original home of the Angli. One theory, which however
has little to recommend it, is that they dwelt in the basin of the
Saale (in the neighbourhood of the canton Engilin), from which region
the Lex Angliorum et Werinorum hoc est Thuringorum is believed
by many to have come. At the present time the majority of scholars
believe that the Angli had lived from the beginning on the coasts of
the Baltic, probably in the southern part of the Jutish peninsula.
The evidence for this view is derived partly from English and Danish
traditions dealing with persons and events of the 4th century (see
below), and partly from the fact that striking affinities to the cult
of Nerthus as described by Tacitus are to be found in Scandinavian,
especially Swedish and Danish, religion. Investigations in this
subject have rendered it very probable that the island of Nerthus was
Sjaelland (Zealand), and it is further to be observed that the kings
of Wessex traced their ancestry ultimately to a certain Scyld, who
is clearly to be identified with Skiöldr, the mythical founder of the
Danish royal family (Skiöldungar). In English tradition this person is
connected with “Scedeland” (pl.), a name which may have been applied
to Sjaelland as well as Skåne, while in Scandinavian tradition he
is specially associated with the ancient royal residence at Leire in
Sjaelland.

Bede states that the Angli before they came to Britain dwelt in a
land called Angulus, and similar evidence is given by the Historia
Brittonum. King Alfred and the chronicler Æthelweard identified
this place with the district which is now called Angel in the province
of Schleswig (Slesvig), though it may then have been of greater
extent, and this identification agrees very well with the indications
given by Bede. Full confirmation is afforded by English and Danish
traditions relating to two kings named Wermund (q.v.) and Offa
(q.v.), from whom the Mercian royal family were descended,
and whose exploits are connected with Angel, Schleswig and Rendsburg.
Danish tradition has preserved record of two governors of Schleswig,
father and son, in their service, Frowinus (Freawine) and Wigo (Wig),
from whom the royal family of Wessex claimed descent. During the
5th century the Angli invaded this country (see BRITAIN,
Anglo-Saxon), after which time their name does not recur on the
continent except in the title of the code mentioned above.

The province of Schleswig has proved exceptionally rich in prehistoric
antiquities which date apparently from the 4th and 5th centuries.
Among the places where these have been found, special mention should
be made of the large cremation cemetery at Borgstedterfeld, between
Rendsburg and Eckernförde, which has yielded many urns and brooches
closely resembling those found in heathen graves in England. Of still
greater importance are the great deposits at Thorsbjaerg (in Angel)
and Nydam, which contained large quantities of arms, ornaments,
articles of clothing, agricultural implements, &c., and in the latter
case even ships. By the help of these discoveries we are able to
reconstruct a fairly detailed picture of English civilization in the
age preceding the invasion of Britain.

AUTHORITIES.—Bede, Hist. Ecc. i. 15: King Alfred’s version of
Orosius, i. 1. §§ 12, 19; Æthelweard’s Chronicle, lib.
i. For traditions concerning the kings of Angel, see under OFFA (1).
L. Weiland, [v.02 p.0019]
Die Angeln (1889); A. Erdmann, Über die Heimat
und den Namen der Angeln (Upsala, 1890—cf. H. Möller in the
Anzeiger für deutsches Altertum und deutsche Litteratur, xxii.
129 ff.); A. Kock in the Historisk Tidskrift (Stockholm), 1895,
xv. p. 163 ff.; G. Schütte, Var Anglerne Tyskere? (Flensborg,
1900); R. Munro Chadwick, The Origin of the English Nation
(Cambridge, 1907); C. Engelhardt, Denmark in the Early Iron
Age (London, 1866); J. Mestorf, Urnenfriedhofe in
Schleswig-Holstein (Hamburg, 1886); S. Müller, Nordische
Altertumskunde (Ger. trans., Strassburg, 1898), ii. p. 122 ff.;
see further ANGLO-SAXONS and BRITAIN, Anglo-Saxon.

(H. M. C.)

ANGLICAN COMMUNION, the name used to denote that great branch of the
Christian Church consisting of the various churches in communion with
the Church of England. The necessity for such a phrase as “Anglican
Communion,” first used in the 19th century, marked at once the immense
development of the Anglican Church in modern times and the change
which has taken place in the traditional conceptions of its character
and sphere. The Church of England itself is the subject of a separate
article (see ENGLAND, CHURCH OF); and it is not without significance
that for more than two centuries after the Reformation the history
of Anglicanism is practically confined to its developments within the
limits of the British Isles. Even in Ireland, where it was for over
three centuries the established religion, and in Scotland, where it
early gave way to the dominant Presbyterianism, its religious was long
overshadowed by its political significance. The Church, in fact,
while still claiming to be Catholic in its creeds and in its religious
practice, had ceased to be Catholic in its institutional conception,
which was now bound up with a particular state and also with a
particular conception of that state. To the native Irishman and the
Scotsman, as indeed to most Englishmen, the Anglican Church was one of
the main buttresses of the supremacy of the English crown and nation.
This conception of the relations of church and state was hardly
favourable to missionary zeal; and in the age succeeding the
Reformation there was no disposition on the part of the English Church
to emulate the wonderful activity of the Jesuits, which, in the 16th
and 17th centuries, brought to the Church of Rome in countries beyond
the ocean compensation for what she had lost in Europe through the
Protestant reformation. Even when English churchmen passed beyond the
seas, they carried with them their creed, but not their ecclesiastical
organization. Prejudice and real or imaginary legal obstacles stood in
the way of the erection of episcopal sees in the colonies; and though
in the 17th century Archbishop Laud had attempted to obtain a bishop
for Virginia, up to the time of the American revolution the churchmen
of the colonies had to make the best of the legal fiction that
their spiritual needs were looked after by the bishop of London, who
occasionally sent commissaries to visit them and ordained candidates
for the ministry sent to England for the purpose.

The change which has made it possible for Anglican churchmen to claim
that their communion ranks with those of Rome and the Orthodox East
as one of the three great historical divisions of the Catholic Church,
was due, in the first instance, to the American revolution. The
severance of the colonies from their allegiance to the crown brought
the English bishops for the first time face to face with the idea of
an Anglican Church which should have nothing to do either with the
royal supremacy or with British nationality. When, on the conclusion
of peace, the church-people of Connecticut sent Dr. Samuel Seabury to
England, with a request to the archbishop of Canterbury to consecrate
him, it is not surprising that Archbishop Moore refused. In the
opinion of prelates and lawyers alike, an act of parliament was
necessary before a bishop could be consecrated for a see abroad; to
consecrate one for a foreign country seemed impossible, since, though
the bestowal of the potestas ordinis would be valid, the
crown, which, according to the law, was the source of the episcopal
jurisdiction, could hardly issue the necessary mandate for the
consecration of a bishop to a see outside the realm (see BISHOP).
The Scottish bishops, however, being hampered by no such legal
restrictions, were more amenable; and on the 11th of November 1784
Seabury was consecrated by them to the see of Connecticut. In 1786,
on the initiative of the archbishop, the legal difficulties in England
were removed by the act for the consecration of bishops abroad; and,
on being satisfied as to the orthodoxy of the church in America and
the nature of certain liturgical changes in contemplation, the two
English archbishops proceeded, on the 14th of February 1787,
to consecrate William White and Samuel Prevoost to the sees of
Pennsylvania and New York (see PROTESTANT EPISCOPAL CHURCH).

This act had a significance beyond the fact that it established in the
United States of America a flourishing church, which, while completely
loyal to its own country, is bound by special ties to the religious
life of England. It marked the emergence of the Church of England from
that insularity to which what may be called the territorial principles
of the Reformation had condemned her. The change was slow, and it is
not yet by any means complete.

Since the Church of England, whatever her attitude towards the
traditional Catholic doctrines, never disputed the validity of
Catholic orders whether Roman or Orthodox, nor the jurisdiction of
Catholic bishops in foreign countries, the expansion of the Anglican
Church has been in no sense conceived as a Protestant aggressive
movement against Rome. Occasional exceptions, such as the consecration
by Archbishop Plunket of Dublin of a bishop for the reformed church in
Spain, raised so strong a protest as to prove the rule. In the main,
then, the expansion of the Anglican Church has followed that of the
British empire, or, as in America, of its daughter states; its claim,
so far as rights of jurisdiction are concerned, is to be the Church
of England and the English race, while recognizing its special duties
towards the non-Christian populations subject to the empire or brought
within the reach of its influence. As against the Church of Rome, with
its system of rigid centralization, the Anglican Church represents the
principle of local autonomy, which it holds to be once more primitive
and more catholic. In this respect the Anglican communion has
developed on the lines defined in her articles at the Reformation;
but, though in principle there is no great difference between a church
defined by national, and a church defined by racial boundaries, there
is an immense difference in effect, especially when the race—as in
the case of the English—is itself ecumenical.

The realization of what may be called this catholic mission of the
English church, in the extension of its organization to the colonies,
was but a slow process.

On the 12th of August 1787 Dr. Charles Inglis was consecrated bishop
of Nova Scotia, with jurisdiction over all the British possessions in
North America. In 1793 the see of the Québec was founded; Jamaica
and Barbados followed in 1824, and Toronto and Newfoundland in 1839.
Meanwhile the needs of India has been tardily met, on the urgent
representations in parliament of William Wilberforce and others, by
the consecration of Dr. T. F. Middleton as bishop of Calcutta, with
three archdeacons to assist him. In 1817 Ceylon was added to his
charge; in 1823 all British subjects in the East Indies and the
islands of the Indian Ocean; and in 1824 “New South Wales and its
dependencies”! Some five years later, on the nomination of the duke
of Wellington, William Broughton was sent out to work in this enormous
jurisdiction as archdeacon of Australia. Soon afterwards, in 1835
and 1837, the sees of Madras and Bombay were founded; whilst in 1836
Broughton himself was consecrated as first bishop of Australia. Thus
down to 1840 there were but ten colonial bishops; and of these several
were so hampered by civil regulations that they were little more
than government chaplains in episcopal orders. In April of that year,
however, Bishop Blomfield of London published his famous letter to the
archbishop of Canterbury, declaring that “an episcopal church without
a bishop is a contradiction in terms,” and strenuously advocating a
great effort for the extension of the episcopate. It was not in vain.
The plan was taken up with enthusiasm, and on Whitsun Tuesday of 1841
the bishops of the United Kingdom met and issued a declaration which
inaugurated the Colonial Bishoprics Council. Subsequent
[v.02 p.0020]
declarations in 1872 and 1891 have served both to record
progress and to stimulate to new effort. The diocese of New Zealand
was founded in 1841, being endowed by the Church Missionary Society
through the council, and George Augustus Selwyn was chosen as the
first bishop. Since then the increase has gone on, as the result both
of home effort and of the action of the colonial churches. Moreover,
in many cases bishops have been sent to inaugurate new missions, as
in the cases of the Universities’ Mission to Central Africa, Lebombo,
Corea and New Guinea; and the missionary jurisdictions so founded
develop in time into dioceses. Thus, instead of the ten colonial
jurisdictions of 1841, there are now about a hundred foreign and
colonial jurisdictions, in addition to those of the Protestant
Episcopal Church of the United States.

It was only very gradually that these dioceses acquired legislative
independence and a determinate organization. At first, sees were
created and bishops were nominated by the crown by means of letters
patent; and in some cases an income was assigned out of public
funds. Moreover, for many years all bishops alike were consecrated in
England, took the customary “oath of due obedience” to the archbishop
of Canterbury, and were regarded as his extra-territorial suffragans.
But by degrees changes have been made on all these points.

(1) Local conditions soon made a provincial organization necessary,
and it was gradually introduced. The bishop of Calcutta received
letters patent as metropolitan of India when the sees of Madras and
Bombay were founded; and fresh patents were issued to Bishop Broughton
in 1847 and Bishop Gray in 1853, as metropolitans of Australia and
South Africa respectively. Similar action was taken in 1858, when
Bishop Selwyn became metropolitan of New Zealand; and again in 1860,
when, on the petition of the Canadian bishops to the crown and the
colonial legislature for permission to elect a metropolitan, letters
patent were issued appointing Bishop Fulford of Montreal to that
office. Since then metropolitans have been chosen and provinces formed
by regular synodical action, a process greatly encouraged by
the resolutions of the Lambeth conferences on the subject. The
constitution of these provinces is not uniform. In some cases, as
South Africa, New South Wales, and Queensland, the metropolitan see
is fixed. Elsewhere, as in New Zealand, where no single city can claim
pre-eminence, the metropolitan is either elected or else is the senior
bishop by consecration. Two further developments must be mentioned:
(a) The creation of diocesan and provincial synods, the first diocesan
synod to meet being that of New Zealand in 1844, whilst the formation
of a provincial synod was foreshadowed by a conference of Australasian
bishops at Sydney in 1850; (b) towards the close of the 19th
century the title of archbishop began to be assumed by the
metropolitans of several provinces. It was first assumed by the
metropolitans of Canada and Rupert’s Land, at the desire of the
Canadian general synod in 1893; and subsequently, in accordance with
a resolution of the Lambeth conference of 1897, it was given by their
synods to the bishop of Sydney as metropolitan of New South Wales
and to the bishop of Cape Town as metropolitan of South Africa. Civil
obstacles have hitherto delayed its adoption by the metropolitan of
India.

(2) By degrees, also, the colonial churches have been freed from their
rather burdensome relations with the state. The church of the West
Indies was disestablished and disendowed in 1868. In 1857 it was
decided, in Regina v. Eton College, that the crown
could not claim the presentation to a living when it had appointed the
former incumbent to a colonial bishopric, as it does in the case of an
English bishopric. In 1861, after some protest from the crown lawyers,
two missionary bishops were consecrated without letters patent for
regions outside British territory: C. F. Mackenzie for the Zambezi
region and J. C. Patteson for Melanesia, by the metropolitans of Cape
Town and New Zealand respectively. In 1863 the privy council declared,
in Long v. The Bishop of Cape Town, that “the Church of
England, in places where there is no church established by law, is in
the same situation with any other religious body.” In 1865 it adjudged
Bishop Gray’s letters patent, as metropolitan of Cape Town, to be
powerless to enable him “to exercise any coercive jurisdiction, or
hold any court or tribunal for that purpose,” since the Cape colony
already possessed legislative institutions when they were issued; and
his deposition of Bishop Colenso was declared to be “null and void in
law” (re The Bishop of Natal). With the exception of Colenso
the South African bishops forthwith surrendered their patents, and
formally accepted Bishop Gray as their metropolitan, an example
followed in 1865 in the province of New Zealand. In 1862, when the
diocese of Ontario was formed, the bishop was elected in Canada, and
consecrated under a royal mandate, letters patent being by this time
entirely discredited. And when, in 1867, a coadjutor was chosen for
the bishop of Toronto, an application for a royal mandate produced
the reply from the colonial secretary that “it was not the part of the
crown to interfere in the creation of a new bishop or bishopric, and
not consistent with the dignity of the crown that he should advise Her
Majesty to issue a mandate which would not be worth the paper on which
it was written, and which, having been sent out to Canada, might be
disregarded in the most complete manner.” And at the present day the
colonial churches are entirely free in this matter. This, however,
is not the case with the church in India. Here the bishops of sees
founded down to 1879 receive a stipend from the revenue (with the
exception of the bishop of Ceylon, who no longer does so). They are
not only nominated by the crown and consecrated under letters
patent, but the appointment is expressly subjected “to such power of
revocation and recall as is by law vested” in the crown; and where
additional oversight was necessary for the church in Tinnevelly, it
could only be secured by the consecration of two assistant bishops,
who worked under a commission for the archbishop of Canterbury which
was to expire on the death of the bishop of Madras. Since then,
however, new sees have been founded which are under no such
restrictions: by the creation of dioceses either in native states
(Travancore and Cochin), or out of the existing dioceses (Chota
Nagpur, Lucknow, &c.). In the latter case there is no legal
subdivision of the older diocese, the new bishop administering
such districts as belonged to it under commission from its bishop,
provision being made, however, that in all matters ecclesiastical
there shall be no appeal but to the metropolitan of India.

(3) By degrees, also, the relations of colonial churches to the
archbishop of Canterbury have changed. Until 1855 no colonial bishop
was consecrated outside the British Isles, the first instance being
Dr. MacDougall of Labuan, consecrated in India under a commission
from the archbishop of Canterbury; and until 1874 it was held to be
unlawful for a bishop to be consecrated in England without taking the
suffragan’s oath of due obedience. This necessity was removed by
the Colonial Clergy Act of 1874, which permits the archbishop at his
discretion to dispense with the oath. This, however, has not been done
in all cases; and as late as 1890 it was taken by the metropolitan of
Sydney at his consecration. Thus the constituent parts of the Anglican
communion gradually acquire autonomy: missionary jurisdictions develop
into organized dioceses, and dioceses are grouped into provinces with
canons of their own. But the most complete autonomy does not involve
isolation. The churches are in full communion with one another, and
act together in many ways; missionary jurisdictions and dioceses are
mapped out by common arrangement, and even transferred if it seems
advisable; e.g. the diocese Honolulu (Hawaii), previously under
the jurisdiction of the archbishop of Canterbury, was transferred
in 1900 to the Episcopal Church in the United States on account of
political changes. Though the see of Canterbury claims no primacy
over the Anglican communion analogous to that exercised over the
Roman Church by the popes, it is regarded with a strong affection and
deference, which shows itself by frequent consultation and interchange
of greetings. There is also a strong common life emphasized by common
action.

The conference of Anglican bishops from all parts of the world,
[v.02 p.0021]
instituted by Archbishop Longley in 1867, and known as
the Lambeth Conferences (q.v.), though even for the Anglican
communion they have not the authority of an ecumenical synod, and
their decisions are rather of the nature of counsels than commands,
have done much to promote the harmony and co-operation of the various
branches of the Church. An even more imposing manifestation of this
common life was given by the great pan-Anglican congress held in
London between the 12th and 24th of June 1908, which preceded the
Lambeth conference opened on the 5th of July. The idea of this
originated with Bishop Montgomery, secretary to the Society for the
Propagation of the Gospel, and was endorsed by a resolution of the
United Boards of Mission in 1903. As the result of negotiations and
preparations extending over five years, 250 bishops, together with
delegates, clerical and lay, from every diocese in the Anglican
communion, met in London, the opening service of intercession being
held in Westminster Abbey. In its general character, the meeting
was but a Church congress on an enlarged scale, and the subjects
discussed, e.g.. the attitude of churchmen towards the question
of the marriage laws or that of socialism, followed much the same
lines. The congress, of course, had no power to decide or to legislate
for the Church, its main value being in drawing its scattered members
closer together, in bringing the newer and more isolated branches into
consciousness of their contact with the parent stem, and in opening
the eyes of the Church of England to the point of view and the
peculiar problems of the daughter-churches.

The Anglican communion consists of the following:—(1) The Church of
England, 2 provinces, Canterbury and York, with 24 and 11 dioceses
respectively. (2) The Church of Ireland, 2 provinces, Armagh and
Dublin, with 7 and 6 dioceses respectively. (3) The Scottish Episcopal
Church, with 7 dioceses. (4) The Protestant Episcopal Church of
the United States, with 89 dioceses and missionary jurisdictions,
including North Tokyo, Kyoto, Shanghai, Cape Palmas, and the
independent dioceses of Hayti and Brazil. (5) The Canadian Church,
consisting of (a) the province of Canada, with 10 dioceses; (b) the
province of Rupert’s Land, with 8 dioceses. (6) The Church in India
and Ceylon, 1 province of 11 dioceses. (7) The Church of the West
Indies, 1 province of 8 dioceses, of which Barbados and the Windward
Islands are at present united. (8) The Australian Church, consisting
of (a) the province of New South Wales, with 10 dioceses; (b) the
province of Queensland, with 5 dioceses; (c) the province of Victoria,
with 5 dioceses. (9) The Church of New Zealand, 1 province of 7
dioceses, together with the missionary jurisdiction of Melanesia.
(10) The South African Church, 1 province of 10 dioceses, with the 2
missionary jurisdictions of Masbonaland and Lebombo. (11) Nearly 30
isolated dioceses and missionary jurisdictions holding mission from
the see of Canterbury.

AUTHORITIES.—Official Year-book of the Church of England;
Phillimore, Ecclesiastical Law, vol. ii. (London, 1895);
Digest of S. P. G. Records (London, 1893); E. Stock, History
of the Church Missionary Society, 3 vols. (London, 1899); H. W.
Tucker, The English Church in Other Lands (London, 1886); A. T.
Wirgman, The Church and the Civil Power (London, 1893).

ANGLING, the art or practice of the sport of catching fish by means
of a baited hook or “angle” (from the Indo-European root ank-,
meaning “bend”).^[1] It is among the most ancient of human activities,
and may be said to date from the time when man was in the infancy of
the Stone Age, eking out a precarious existence by the slaughter of
any living thing which he could reach with the rude weapons at his
command. It is probable that attack on fishes was at first much the
same as attack on animals, a matter of force rather than of guile, and
conducted by means of a rude spear with a flint head. It is probable,
too, that the primitive harpooners were not signally successful in
their efforts, and so set their wits to work to devise other means of
getting at the abundant food which waited for them in every piece of
water near their caves. Observation would soon show them that fish fed
greedily on each other and on other inhabitants of the water or
living things that fell into it, and so, no doubt, arose the idea of
entangling the prey by means of its appetite. Hence came the notion of
the first hook, which, it seems certain, was not a hook at all but a
“gorge,” a piece of flint or stone which the fish could swallow with
the bait but which it could not eject afterwards. From remains found
in cave-dwellings and their neighbourhood in different parts of the
world it is obvious that these gorges varied in shape, but in general
the idea was the same, a narrow strip of stone or flake of flint,
either straight or slightly curved at the ends, with a groove in the
middle round which the line could be fastened. Buried in the bait it
would be swallowed end first; then the tightening of the line would
fix it cross-wise in the quarry’s, stomach or gullet and so the
capture would be assured. The device still lingers in France and in
a few remote parts of England in the method of catching eels which is
known as “sniggling.” In this a needle buried in a worm plays the part
of the prehistoric gorge.

The evolution of the fish-hook from the slightly curved gorge is
easily intelligible. The ends became more and more curved, until
eventually an object not unlike a double hook was attained. This
development would be materially assisted by man’s discovery of the
uses of bronze and its adaptability to his requirements. The single
hook, of the pattern more or less familiar to us, was possibly a
concession of the lake-dweller to what may even then have been a
problem—the “education” of fish, and to a recognition of the fact
that sport with the crude old methods was falling off. But it is
also not improbable that in some parts of the world the single
hook developed pari passu with the double, and that, on the
sea-shore for instance, where man was able to employ so adaptable
a substance as shell, the first hook was a curved fragment of shell
lashed with fibre to a piece of wood or bone, in such a way that the
shell formed the bend of the hook while the wood or bone formed the
shank. Both early remains and recent hooks from the Fiji Islands bear
out this supposition. It is also likely that flint, horn and bone were
pressed into service in a similar manner. The nature of the line or
the rod that may have been used with these early hooks is largely
a matter of conjecture. The first line was perhaps the tendril of a
plant, the first rod possibly a sapling tree. But it is fairly obvious
that the rod must have been suggested by the necessity of getting the
bait out over obstacles which lay between the fisherman and the water,
and that it was a device for increasing both the reach of the arm
and the length of the line. It seems not improbable that the rod very
early formed a part of the fisherman’s equipment.

Literary History.—From prehistoric times down to comparatively
late in the days of chronicles, angling appears to have remained a
practice; its development into an art or sport is a modern idea. In
the earliest literature references to angling are not very numerous,
but there are passages in the Old Testament which show that
fish-taking with hook as well as net was one of the common industries
in the East, and that fish, where it was obtainable, formed an
important article of diet. In Numbers (xi. 5) the children of
Israel mourn for the fish which they “did eat in Egypt freely.” So
much too is proved by the monuments of Egypt; indeed more, for the
figures found in some of the Egyptian fishing pictures using short
rods and stout lines are sometimes attired after the manner of those
who were great in the land. This indicates that angling had already,
in a highly civilized country, taken its place among the methods
of diversion at the disposal of the wealthy, though from the
uncompromising nature of the tackle depicted and the apparent
simplicity of the fish it would scarcely be safe to assume that in
Egypt angling arrived at the dignity of becoming an “art.” In Europe
it took very much longer for the taking of fish to be regarded even as
an [v.02 p.0022]
amusement, and the earliest references to it in the
Greek and Latin classics are not very satisfying to the sportsman. There is, however, a passage in the Odyssey (xii. 247) which is
of considerable importance, as it shows that fishing with rod and line
was well enough understood in early Greece to be used as a popular
illustration. It occurs in the well-known scene where Scylla seizes
the companions of Odysseus out of the ship and bears them upwards,
just as “some fisher on a headland with a long rod” brings small
fishes gasping to the shore. Another important, though comparatively
late, passage in Greek poetry is the twenty-first idyll of Theocritus.
In this the fisherman Asphalion relates how in a dream he hooked
a large golden fish and describes graphically, albeit with some
obscurity of language, how he “played” it. Asphalion used a rod and
fished from a rock, much after the manner of the Homeric angler. Among
other Greek writers, Herodotus has a good many references to fish and
fishing; the capture of fish is once or twice mentioned or implied
by Plato, notably in the Laws (vii. 823); Aristotle deals with
fishes in his Natural History, and there are one or two fishing
passages in the anthology. But in Greek literature, as a whole the
subject of angling is not at all prominent. In writers of late Greek,
however, there is more material. Plutarch, for instance, gives us the
famous story of the fishing match between Antony and Cleopatra, which
has been utilized by Shakespeare. Moreover, it is in Greek that
the first complete treatise on fishing which has come down to us
is written, the Halieutica of Oppian (c. A.D. 169). It is a
hexameter poem in five books with perhaps more technical than sporting
interest, and not so much even of that as the length of the work would
suggest. Still it contains some information about tackle and methods,
and some passages describing battles with big fish, in the right
spirit of enthusiasm. Also in Greek is what is famous as the first
reference in literature to fly-fishing, in the fifteenth book of
Aelian’s Natural History (3rd century A.D.). It is there
described how the Macedonians captured a certain spotted fish in
the river Astraeus by means of a lure composed of coloured wool
and feathers, which was presumably used in the manner now known as
“dapping.” That there were other Greek writers who dealt with fish and
fishing and composed “halieutics” we know from Athenaeus. In the first
book of his Deipnosophistae he gives a list of them. But he
compares their work unfavourably with the passage of Homer already
cited, in a way which suggests that their knowledge of angling was not
a great advance upon the knowledge of their remote literary ancestors.
In Latin literature allusions to angling are rather more numerous than
in Greek, but on the whole they are unimportant. Part of a poem by
Ovid, the Halieuticon, composed during the poet’s exile at Tomi
after A.D. 9, still survives. In other Roman writers the subject is
only treated by way of allusion or illustration. Martial, however,
provides, among other passages, what may perhaps be entitled to rank
as the earliest notice of private fishery rights—the epigram Ad
Piscatorem, which warns would-be poachers from casting a line
in the Baian lake. Pliny the elder devoted the ninth book of his
Natural History to fishes and water-life, and Plautus, Cicero,
Catullus, Horace, Juvenal, Pliny the younger and Suetonius all allude
to angling here and there. Agricultural writers, too, such as Varro
and Columella, deal with the subject of fish ponds and stews rather
fully. Later than any of these, but still just included in Latin
literature, we have Ausonius (c. A.D. 320) and his well-known
idyll the Mosella, which contains a good deal about the fish
of the Moselle and the methods of catching them. In this poem is to
be found the first recognizable description of members of the
salmon family, and, though the manner of their application is rather
doubtful, the names salmo, salar and fario strike a
responsive note in the breast of the modern angler.

Post-classical Literature.—As to what happened in the world
of angling in the first few centuries of the Christian era we know
little. It may be inferred, however, that both fish and fishermen
occupied a more honourable position in Christendom than they ever did
before. The prominence of fishermen in the gospel narratives would in
itself have been enough to bring this about, but it also happened
that the Greek word for fish, ΙΧΘΥΣ, had an anagrammatic
significance which the devout were not slow to perceive. The initials
of the word resolve into what is practically a confession of faith,
Ἰησοῦς Χριστὸς Θεοῦ Υἱὸς Σωτήρ (Jesus Christ, Son of God,
Saviour). It is therefore not surprising that we find the fish very
prominent as a sacred emblem in the painting and sculpture of
the primitive church, or that Clement of Alexandria should have
recommended it, among other things, as a device for signet rings or
seals. The fisherman too is frequently represented in early Christian
art, and it is worthy of remark that he more often uses a line and
hook than a net. The references to fish and fishing scattered about
in the writings of the early fathers for the most part reflect the two
ideas of the sacredness of the fish and divine authorization of the
fisherman; the second idea certainly prevailed until the time of Izaak
Walton, for he uses it to justify his pastime. It is also not unlikely
that the practice of fasting (in many cases fish was allowed when meat
was forbidden) gave the art of catching fish additional importance.
It seems at any rate to have been a consideration of weight when
sites were chosen for monasteries in Europe, and in many cases when
no fish-producing river was at hand the lack was supplied by the
construction of fish-ponds. Despite all this, however, save for an
occasional allusion in the early fathers, there is hardly a connecting
link between the literature of Pagan Rome and the literature
that sprang up on the invention of printing. One volume, the
Geoponica, a Greek compilation concerning whose authorship
and date there has been much dispute, is attributed in Bibliotheca
Piscatoria to the beginning of the 10th century. It contains one
book on fish, fish-ponds and fishing, with prescriptions for baits,
&c., extracted for the most part from other writers. But it seems
doubtful whether its date should not be placed very much earlier.
Tradition makes it a Carthaginian treatise translated into Greek. A
more satisfactory fragment of fishing literature is to be found in the
Colloquy of Ælfric, written (ad pucros linguae latinae locutionis
exercendos) towards the end of the same century. Ælfric became
archbishop of Canterbury in A.D. 995, and the passage in the
Anglo-Saxon text-book takes honourable rank as the earliest reference
to fishing in English writings, though it is not of any great length.
It is to be noted that the fisher who takes a share in the colloquy
states that he prefers fishing in the river to fishing in the sea.
Ascribed to the 13th or 14th century is a Latin poem De Vetula,
whose author was apparently Richard de Fournival. It contains a
passage on angling, and was placed to the credit of Ovid when first
printed (c. 1470). A manuscript in the British museum, Comptes des
pêcheries de l’église de Troyes (A.D. 1349-1413), gives a minute
account of the fisheries with the weights of fish captured and the
expenses of working. There is, however, practically nothing else
of importance till we come to the first printed book on angling (a
translation of Oppian, 1478, excepted), and so to the beginning of
the literature proper. This first book was a little volume printed
in Antwerp probably in 1492 at the press of Matthias van der Goes. In
size it is little more than a pamphlet, and it treats of birds as well
as fish:—Dit Boecxken leert hoe men mach Voghelen … ende …
visschen vangen metten kanden. Ende oeck andersins…. (“This book
teaches how one may catch birds … and … fish with the hands, and
also otherwise”). Only one copy apparently survives, in the Denison
library, and a translation privately printed for Mr. Alfred Denison in
1872 was limited to twenty-five copies. At least two other editions
of the book appeared in Flemish, and it also made its way, in 1502, to
Germany, where, translated and with certain alterations and additions,
it seems to have been re-issued frequently. Next in date comes
the famous Treatyse of Fysshynge wyth an Angle, printed at
Westminster by Wynkyn de Worde in 1496 as a part of the second edition
of The Book of St. Albans. The treatise is for this reason
associated with the name of Dame Juliana Berners, but that somewhat
dubious compiler can have had nothing whatever to do with it. The
treatise is almost certainly a compilation from some earlier work on
angling (“bokes of credence” are mentioned in its text), possibly
from a manuscript of the earlier part of the 15th century, of which a
portion is [v.02 p.0023]
preserved in the Denison collection. This was published
in 1883 by Mr. Thomas Satchell under the title An Older Form of the
Treatyse of Fysshynge wyth an Angle. But it is also possible that
a still older work was the parent of both books, for it has been held
that the manuscript is an independent version. However this may be, it
is certain that the treatise itself has been the parent of many other
works. Many of the instructions contained in it are handed down
from generation to generation with little change except in diction.
Especially is this the case with the list of trout-flies, a meagre
twelve, which survives in many fishing books until well into the 18th
century.

From the beginning of the 16th century the fisherman’s library begins
to grow apace, as, though books solely devoted to fishing are not yet
frequent, works on husbandry and country pursuits almost all contain
something on the subject. In Italy the fisherman and his occupation
apparently were considered poetically; the word pescatore or
its cognates are common on Italian 16th and 17th century title-pages,
though in many instances the fulfilment of the implied promise is
not adequate, from an angler’s point of view. From the pages of
Bibliotheca Piscatoria a fairly long list of Italian
writers could be gleaned. Among them may be mentioned Sannazaro
(Piscatoria, &c., Rome, 1526) and Andrea Calmo (Rime
pescatorie, Venice, 1557). A century later was Parthenius, who
published a volume of Halieutica at Naples. This writer has
an amusing reference to the art of “tickling” trout as practised in
Britain. In Germany, as has been shown, the original little Flemish
treatise had a wide vogue in the 16th century, and fishing played
a part in a good many books on husbandry such as that of Conrad
Heresbach (1570). Fish and fish-ponds formed the main topic of a Latin
work by Dubravius (1552), while Gesner in the middle of the 16th and
Aldrovandi at the beginning of the 17th centuries wrote at length
on the natural history of fishes. In France the subject is less well
represented, but Les Pescheries of Chris. de Gamon (Lyons,
1599) and Le Plaisir des champs of Cl. Gauchet (Paris, 1604)
deserve to be noted. Les Ruses innocentes by François Fortin,
first published at Paris in 1600, and several times in later editions,
is characterized by Messrs Westwood and Satchell as “on the whole
the most interesting contribution made by France to the literature
of angling.” England during the most part of the 16th century was
evidently well enough served by the original treatise out of The
Book of St. Albans. It was republished twice by Wynkyn de Worde,
six or seven times by Copland, and some five times by other printers.
It was also practically republished in A Booke of Fishing by
L. M. (1590). L. M. (Leonard Mascall) ranks as an angling author, but
he did little more than borrow and edit the treatise. The same may
be said of another version of The Book of St. Albans “now newly
collected by W. G. Faulkener” and issued in 1596.

Modern Literature.—In 1600 appeared John Taverner’s
Certaine Experiments concerning Fish and Fruite, and after
this the period of angling literature proper begins. The Secrets
of Angling (1613), by J(ohn) D(ennys). Esq., is one of the most
important volumes in the angler’s library, both on account of the
excellence of the verse in which it is written and also on account of
its practical value. Gervase Markham, “the first journalist,” as he
has been called, published his first book of husbandry at the same
date, and, as in most of his many books on the same subject, devoted a
certain amount of space to fishing. But Markham gathered his materials
in a rather shameless manner and his angling passages have little
originality. Thomas Barker’s The Art of Angling (1st ed., 1651)
takes a more honourable position, and received warm commendation from
Izaak Walton himself, who followed it in 1653 with The Compleat
Angler. So much has been written about this treasured classic that
it is only necessary to indicate its popularity here by saying that
its editions occupy some twenty pages in Bibliotheca Piscatoria
(1883), and that since that work was published at least forty new
editions have to be added to the list. During Walton’s life-time
the book ran through five editions, and with the fifth (1676) was
incorporated Charles Cotton’s second part, the “instructions how to
angle for a trout or grayling, in a clear stream.” In some cases too
there was added a third book, the fourth edition of The Experienced
Angler, by Robert Venables (1st ed., 1662). The three books
together bore the title of The Universal Angler. Venables’s
portion was dropped later, but it is worth reading, and contained
sound instruction though it has not the literary merit of Walton and
Cotton.

A few other notable books of the century call for enumeration, The
Gentleman’s Recreation by Nicholas Cox (1674), Gilbert’s The
Angler’s Delight (1676), Chetham’s Vade-Mecum (1681),
The Complete Troller by Robert Nobbes (1682), R. Franck’s
Northern Memoirs (1694), and The True Art of Angling by
J. S. (1696). Of these Chetham, Nobbes, Franck and J. S. have the merit
of considerable originality. Franck has gained some notoriety by his
round abuse of Walton. In the 18th century among others we find
The Secrets of Angling by C. G. (1705), Robert Hewlett’s The
Angler’s Sure Guide (1706), The Whole Art of Fishing
(1714), The Compleat Fisherman by James Saunders (1724), The
Art of Angling by R. Brookes (1740), another book with the same
title by R. and C. Bowlker (Worcester, c. 1750), The Complete
Sportsman by Thomas Fairfax (c. 1760), The Angler’s Museum
by T. Shirley (1784), and A Concise Treatise on the Art of
Angling by Thomas Best (1787). Of these only Saunders’s, Bowlker’s
and Best’s books are of much importance, the rest being for the most
part “borrowed.” One volume of verse in the 18th century calls for
notice, Moses Browne’s Piscatory Eclogues (1729). Among greater
names we get angling passages in Pope, Gay and Thomson; the two last
were evidently brothers of the angle.

With the 19th century angling literature becomes too big a subject to
be treated in detail, and it is only possible to glance at a few of
the more important books and writers. Daniel’s Rural Sports
appeared in 1801; it is a treasure-house of odd facts. In 1828 Sir
Humphry Davy published his famous Salmonia, which was reviewed
in the Quarterly by Sir Walter Scott. At about this time
too were appearing the Noctes Ambrosianae in Blackwood’s
Magazine. Christopher North (Professor Wilson) often touched upon
angling in them, besides contributing a good many angling articles
to the magazine. In 1835 that excellent angling writer Thomas Tod
Stoddart began his valuable series of books with The Art of Angling
as Practised in Scotland. In 1839 he published Songs and
Poems, among which are pieces of great merit. During this
period, too, first appeared, year by year, the Newcastle Fishers’
Garlands, collected by Joseph Crawhall afterwards and republished
in 1864. These border verses, like Stoddart’s, have often a genuine
ring about them which is missing from the more polished effusions of
Gay and Thomson. Alfred Ronalds’s The Fly-Fisher’s Entomology
(1st ed., 1836) was a publication of great importance, for it marked
the beginning of the scientific spirit among trout-fishers. It ran
through many editions and is still a valuable book of reference.
A step in angling history is also marked by George Pulman’s
Vade-Mecum of Fly-fishing for Trout (1841), for it contains the
first definite instructions on fishing with a “dry fly.” Another is
marked by Hewett Wheatley’s The Rod and the Line (1849), where
is to be found the earliest reference to the “eyed” hook. Yet another
is marked by W. C. Stewart’s The Practical Angler (1857), in
which is taught the new doctrine of “up-stream” fishing for trout.
This is a book of permanent value. Among the many books of this period
Charles Kingsley’s Miscellanies (1859) stands out, for it
contains the immortal “Chalk-Stream Studies.” The work of Francis
Francis begins at about the same time, though his A Book on
Angling, which is still one of the most valuable text-books,
was not first published till 1867. Another well-known and excellent
writer, Mr. H. Cholmondeley Pennell, began in the early ‘sixties; it
is to him that we owe the admirable volumes on fresh-water fishing in
the “Badminton Library.” Among other English writers mention must be
made of Messrs William Senior, John Bickerdyke and F. M. Halford, who
have all performed signal services for angling and its literature.
(See further bibliography ad fin.) In America the latter half
of the 19th century produced a good deal of fishing literature, much
of it of a high standard.

I go [v.02 p.0024]
a-Fishing by Dr. W. C. Prime (1873),
Fishing with the Fly by C. F. Orvis, A. Nelson Cheney and others
(1883), The American Salmon Fisherman and Fly Rods and Fly
Tackle by H. P. Wells (1886 and 1885), Little Rivers and
other books by the Rev. H. Van Dyke—these are only a few specially
distinguished in style and matter. Germany and France have not
contributed so largely to the modern library, but in the first country
we find several useful works by Max von dem Borne, beginning with the
Handbuch der Angelfischerei of 1875, and there are a good many
other writers who have contributed to the subject, while in France
there are a few volumes on fishing by different hands. The most
noticeable is M. G. Albert Petit’s La Truite de rivière (1897),
an admirable book on fly-fishing. As yet, however, though there are
many enthusiastic anglers in France, the sport has not established
itself so firmly as to have inspired much literature of its own; the
same may be said of Germany.

Modern Conditions.—In the modern history of angling there are
one or two features that should be touched upon. The great increase
in the number of fishermen has had several results. One is a
corresponding increase in the difficulty of obtaining fishing, and a
notable rise in the value of rivers, especially those which are famed
for salmon and trout. Salmon-fishing now may be said to have become
a pastime of the rich, and there are signs that trout-fishing will
before long have to be placed in the same exclusive category, while
even the right to angle for less-esteemed fish will eventually be a
thing of price. The development is natural, and it has naturally
led to efforts on the part of the angling majority to counteract, if
possible, the growing difficulty. These efforts have been directed
chiefly in two ways, one the establishment of fishing clubs, the other
the adoption of angling in salt water. The fishing club of the
big towns was originally a social institution, and its members met
together to sup, converse on angling topics and perhaps to display
notable fish that they had caught. Later, however, arose the idea that
it would be a convenience if a club could give its members privileges
of fishing as well as privileges of reunion. So it comes about that
all over the United Kingdom, in British colonies and dependencies, in
the United States, and also in Germany and France, fishing clubs rent
waters, undertake preservation and restocking and generally lead
an active and useful existence. It is a good sign for the future of
angling and anglers that they are rapidly increasing in number. One of
the oldest fishing clubs, if not the oldest, was the Schuylkill
club, founded in Pennsylvania in 1732. An account of its history was
published in Philadelphia in 1830. Among the earliest clubs in
London are to be numbered such societies as The True Waltonians, The
Piscatorial, The Friendly Anglers and The Gresham, which are still
flourishing. A certain amount of literary activity has been observable
in the world of angling clubs, and several volumes of “papers” are
on the records. Most noticeable perhaps are the three volumes of
Anglers’ Evenings published in 1880-1894, a collection of
essays by members of the Manchester Anglers’ Association. The other
method of securing a continuance of sport, the adoption of sea-angling
as a substitute for fresh-water fishing, is quite a modern thing.
Within the memory of men still young the old tactics of hand-line and
force were considered good enough for sea fish. Now the fresh-water
angler has lent his centuries of experience in deluding his quarry;
the sea-angler has adopted many of the ideas presented to him, has
modified or improved others, and has developed the capture of sea-fish
into a science almost as subtle as the capture of their fresh-water
cousins. One more modern feature, which is also a result of the
increase of anglers, is the great advance made in fish-culture,
fish-stocking and fish-acclimatization during the last half-century.
Fish-culture is now a recognized industry; every trout-stream of
note and value is restocked from time to time as a matter of course;
salmon-hatcheries are numerous, though their practical utility is
still a debated matter, in Great Britain at any rate; coarse fish
are also bred for purposes of restocking; and, lastly, it is now
considered a fairly simple matter to introduce fish from one country
to another, and even from continent to continent. In England the
movement owes a great deal to Francis Francis, who, though he was not
the earliest worker in the field, was among the first to formulate
the science of fish-breeding; his book Fish-Culture, first
published in 1863, still remains one of the best treatises on the
subject. In the United States, where fishery science has had the
benefit of generous governmental and official support and countenance
and so has reached a high level of achievement, Dr. T. Garlick (The
Artificial Reproduction of Fishes, Cleveland, 1857) is honoured
as a pioneer. On the continent of Europe the latter half of the 19th
century saw a very considerable and rapid development in fish-culture,
but until comparatively recently the propagation and care of fish in
most European waters have been considered almost entirely from the
point of view of the fish-stew and the market. As to what has been
done in the way of acclimatization it is not necessary to say much.
Trout (Salmo fario) were introduced to New Zealand in the
late ‘sixties from England; in the ‘eighties rainbow trout (Salmo
irideus) were also introduced from California; now New Zealand
provides the finest trout-fishing of its kind in the world. American
trout of different kinds have been introduced into England, and brown
trout have been introduced to America; but neither innovation can
be said to have been an unqualified success, though the rainbow has
established itself firmly in some waters of the United Kingdom. It
is still regarded with some suspicion, as it has a tendency to wander
from waters which do not altogether suit it. For the rest, trout have
been established in Ceylon, in Kashmir and in South Africa, and early
in 1906 an attempt was made to carry them to British Central Africa.
In fact the possibilities of acclimatization are so great that, it
seems probable, in time no river of the civilized world capable of
holding trout will be without them.

METHODS AND PRACTICE

Angling now divides itself into two main divisions, fishing in fresh
water and fishing in the sea. The two branches of the sport have much
in common, and sea-angling is really little more than an adaptation of
fresh-water methods to salt-water conditions. Therefore it will not
be necessary to deal with it at great length and it naturally comes in
the second place. Angling in fresh water is again divisible into three
principal parts, fishing on the surface, i.e. with the fly; in
mid-water, i.e. with a bait simulating the movements of a small
fish or with the small fish itself; and on the bottom with worms,
paste or one of the many other baits which experience has shown that
fish will take. With the premise that it is not intended here to
go into the minutiae of instruction which may more profitably be
discovered in the many works of reference cited at the end of this
article, some account of the subdivisions into which these three
styles of fishing fall may be given.

Fresh-Water Fishing.

Fly-fishing.—Fly-fishing is the most modern of them, but it
is the most highly esteemed, principally because it is the method par
excellence of taking members of the most valuable sporting family of
fish, the Salmonidae. It may roughly be considered under three
heads, the use of the “wet” or sunk fly, of the “dry” or floating fly,
and of the natural insect. Of these the first is the most important,
for it covers the widest field and is the most universally practised.
There are few varieties of fish which may not either consistently or
occasionally be taken with the sunk fly in one of its two forms. The
large and gaudy bunch of feathers, silk and tinsel with which salmon,
very large trout, black bass and occasionally other predaceous
fish are taken is not, strictly speaking, a fly at all. It rather
represents, if anything, some small fish or subaqueous creature on
which the big fish is accustomed to feed and it may conveniently
receive the generic name of salmon-fly. The smaller lures, however,
which are used to catch smaller trout and other fish that habitually
feed on insect food are in most cases intended to represent that
food in one of its forms and are entitled to the name of “artificial
flies.” The dry or floating fly is simply a development of the
imitation theory, and has been evolved from the wet fly in course of
closer observation of the habits of flies and fish in certain waters.
Both wet and dry fly methods are really a substitute for the third and
[v.02 p.0025]
oldest kind of surface-fishing, the use of a natural
insect as a bait. Each method is referred to incidentally below.

Spinning, &c.—Mid-water fishing, as has been said, broadly
consists in the use of a small fish, or something that simulates it,
and its devices are aimed almost entirely at those fish which prey
on their fellows. Spinning, live-baiting and trolling^[2] are these
devices. In the first a small dead fish or an imitation of it made in
metal, india-rubber, or other substance, is caused to revolve rapidly
as it is pulled through the water, so that it gives the idea of
something in difficulties and trying to escape. In the second a small
fish is put on the angler’s hook alive and conveys the same idea by
its own efforts. In the third a small dead fish is caused to dart up
and down in the water without revolving; it conveys the same idea as
the spinning fish, though the manipulation is different.

Bottom-Fishing.—Bottom-fishing is the branch of angling which
is the most general. There is practically no fresh-water fish that
will not take some one or more of the baits on the angler’s list
if they are properly presented to it when it is hungry. Usually
the baited hook is on or near the bottom of the water, but the rule
suggested by the name “bottom-fishing” is not invariable and often the
bait is best used in mid-water; similarly, in “mid-water fishing”
the bait must sometimes be used as close to the bottom as possible.
Bottom-fishing is roughly divisible into two kinds, float-fishing, in
which a bite is detected by the aid of a float fastened to the line
above the hook and so balanced that its tip is visible above the
water, and hand-fishing, in which no float is used and the angler
trusts to his hand to feel the bite of a fish. In most cases either
method can be adopted and it is a matter of taste, but broadly
speaking the float-tackle is more suited to water which is not very
deep and is either still or not rapid. In great depths or strong
streams a float is difficult to manage.

The Fish.

It is practically impossible to classify the fish an angler catches
according to the methods which he employs, as most fish can be taken
by at least two of these methods, while many of those most highly
esteemed can be caught by all three. Sporting fresh-water fish are
therefore treated according to their families and merits from the
angler’s point of view, and it is briefly indicated which method or
methods best succeed in pursuit of them.

Salmon.—First in importance come the migratory
Salmonidae, and at the head of them the salmon (Salmo
salar), which has a two-fold reputation as a sporting and as
a commercial asset. The salmon fisheries of a country are a very
valuable possession, but it is only comparatively recently that this
has been realized and that salmon rivers have received the legal
protection which is necessary to their well-being. Even now it cannot
be asserted that in England the salmon question, as it is called,
is settled. Partly owing to our ignorance of the life-history of
the fish, partly owing to the difficulty of reconciling the opposed
interests of commerce and sport, the problem as to how a river should
be treated remains only partially solved, though it cannot be denied
that there has been a great advance in the right direction. The
life-history of the salmon, so far as it concerns the matter in hand,
may be very briefly summed up. It is bred in the rivers and fed in the
sea. The parent fish ascend in late autumn as high as they can get,
the ova are deposited on gravel shallows, hatching out in the course
of a few weeks into parr. The infant salmon remains in fresh water at
least one year, generally two years, without growing more than a few
inches, and then about May assumes what is called the smolt-dress,
that is to say, it loses the dark parr-bands and red spots of infancy
and becomes silvery all over. After this it descends without delay
to the sea, where it feeds to such good purpose that in a year it has
reached a weight of 2 lb to 4 lb or more, and it may then reascend
as a grilse. Small grilse indeed may only have been in the sea a few
months, ascending in the autumn of the year of their first descent. If
the fish survives the perils of its first ascent and spawning season
and as a kelt or spawned fish gets down to the sea again, it comes up
a second time as a salmon of weight varying from 8 lb upwards. Whether
salmon come up rivers, and, if so, spawn, every year, why some fish
are much heavier than others of the same age, what their mode of life
is in the sea, why some run up in spring and summer when the breeding
season is not till about November or December, whether they were
originally sea-fish or river-fish—these and other similar questions
await a conclusive answer. One principal fact, however, stands out
amid the uncertainty, and that is that without a free passage up and
down unpolluted rivers and without protection on the spawning beds
salmon have a very poor chance of perpetuating their species. Economic
prudence dictates therefore that every year a considerable proportion
of running salmon should be allowed to escape the dangers that
confront them in the shape of nets, obstructions, pollutions, rods and
poachers. And it is in the adjustment of the interests which are bound
up in these dangers (the last excepted; officially poachers have no
interests, though in practice their plea of “custom and right” has
too often to be taken into consideration) that the salmon question
consists. To secure a fair proportion of fish for the market, a fair
proportion for the rods and a fair proportion for the redds, without
unduly damaging manufacturing interests, this is the object of those
who have the question at heart, and with many organizations and
scientific observers at work it should not be long before the object
is attained. Already the system of “marking” kelts with a small silver
label has resulted in a considerable array of valuable statistics
which have made it possible to estimate the salmon’s ordinary rate
of growth from year to year. It is very largely due to the efforts of
anglers that the matter has gone so far. Whether salmon feed in fresh
water is another question of peculiar interest to anglers, for it
would seem that if they do not then the whole practice of taking
them must be an anomaly. Champions have arisen on both sides of the
argument, some, scientists, asserting that salmon (parr and kelts
excluded, for both feed greedily as opportunity occurs) do not
feed, others, mostly anglers, maintaining strongly that they do, and
bringing as evidence their undoubted and customary capture by rod and
line, not only with the fly, but also with such obvious food-stuffs as
dead baits, worms and prawns. On the other side it is argued that
food is never found inside a salmon after it has been long enough in a
river to have digested its last meal taken in salt water. The very few
instances of food found in salmon which have been brought forward to
support the contrary opinion are in the scientific view to be regarded
with great caution; certainly in one case of recent years, which at
first appeared to be well authenticated, it was afterwards found that
a small trout had been pushed down a salmon’s throat after capture
by way of a joke. A consideration of the question, however, which
may perhaps make some appeal to both sides, is put forward by Dr. J.
Kingston Barton in the first of the two volumes on Fishing
(Country Life Series). He maintains that salmon do not
habitually feed in fresh water, but he does not reject the possibility
of their occasionally taking food. His view is that after exertion,
such as that entailed by running from pool to pool during a spate, the
fish may feel a very transient hunger and be impelled thereby to snap
at anything in its vicinity which looks edible. The fact that the
angler’s best opportunity is undoubtedly when salmon have newly
arrived into a pool, supports this contention. The longer they are
compelled to remain in the same spot by lack of water the worse
becomes the prospect of catching them, and “unfishable” is one of the
expressive words which fishermen use to indicate the condition of a
river during the long periods of drought which too often distinguish
the sport.

Salmon Tackle and Methods.—It is when the drought breaks up
and the long-awaited rain has come that the angler has his chance
and makes ready his tackle, against the period of a few days (on some
short streams only a few hours) during which the water will be right;
right is a very exact term on some rivers, meaning not only
that the colour of the water is suitable to the fly, but that its
height shall be within an inch or two of a given mark, prescribed by
experience. As to the tackle which is made ready,
[v.02 p.0026]
there is, as in most angling matters, divergence of
opinion. Salmon fly-rods are now made principally of two materials,
greenheart and split-cane; the former is less expensive, the latter is
more durable; it is entirely a matter of taste which a man uses,
but the split-cane rod is now rather more in favour, and for
salmon-fishing it is in England usually built with a core of steel
running from butt to tip and known as a “steel centre.” How long the
rod shall be is also a matter on which anglers differ, but from 16
ft. to 17 ft. 6 in. represents the limits within which most rods
are preferred. The tendency is to reduce rather than to increase the
length of the rod, which may be accounted for by the adoption of a
heavy line. Early in the 19th century anglers used light-topped rods
of 20 ft. and even more, and with them a light line composed partly of
horse-hair; they thought 60 ft. with such material a good cast. Modern
experience, however, has shown that a shorter rod with a heavier top
will throw a heavy dressed silk line much farther with less exertion.
Ninety feet is now considered a good fishing cast, while many men can
throw a great deal more. In the United States, where rods have long
been used much lighter than in England, the limits suggested would be
considered too high. From 12 ft. 6 in. to 15 ft. 6 in. is about
the range of the American angler’s choice, though long rods are not
unknown with him. The infinite variety of reels, lines, gut collars^[3]
and other forms of tackle which is now presented to the angler’s
consideration and for his bewilderment is too wide a subject to be
touched upon here. Something, however, falls to be said about flies.
One of the perennially fruitful topics of inquiry is what the fish
takes a salmon-fly to be. Beyond a fairly general admission that it
is regarded as something endowed with life, perhaps resembling a
remembered article of marine diet, perhaps inviting gastronomic
experiment, perhaps irritating merely and rousing an impulse to
destroy, the discussion has not reached any definite conclusion. But
more or less connected with it is the controversy as to variety of
colour and pattern. Some authorities hold that a great variety of
patterns with very minute differences in colour and shades of colour
is essential to complete success; others contend that salmon do not
differentiate between nice shades of colour, that they only draw
distinctions between flies broadly as being light, medium or dark in
general appearance, and that the size of a fly rather than its colour
is the important point for the angler’s consideration. Others again
go some way with the supporters of the colour-scheme and admit the
efficacy of flies whose general character is red, or yellow, or black,
and so on. The opinion of the majority, however, is probably based on
past experience, and a man’s favourite flies for different rivers
and condition of water are those with which he or someone else has
previously succeeded. It remains a fact that in most fly-books great
variety of patterns will be discoverable, while certain old standard
favourites such as the Jock Scott, Durham Ranger, Silver Doctor, and
Thunder and Lightning will be prominent. Coming out of the region of
controversy it is a safe generalization to say that the general rule
is: big flies for spring fishing when rivers are probably high, small
flies for summer and low water, and flies medium or small in autumn
according to the conditions. Spring fishing is considered the cream of
the sport. Though salmon are not as a rule so numerous or so heavy as
during the autumn run, and though kelts are often a nuisance in the
early months, yet the clean-run fish of February, March or April amply
repays patience and disappointment by its fighting powers and its
beauty. Summer fishing on most rivers in the British Islands is
uncertain, but in Norway summer is the season, which possibly explains
to some extent the popularity of that country with British anglers,
for the pleasure of a sport is largely increased by good weather.

Two methods of using the fly are in vogue, casting and harling. The
first is by far the more artistic, and it may be practised either from
a boat, from the bank or from the bed of the river itself; in the last
case the angler wades, wearing waterproof trousers or wading-stockings
and stout nail-studded brogues. In either case the fishing is similar.
The fly is cast across and down stream, and has to be brought over the
“lie” of the fish, swimming naturally with its head to the stream,
its feathers working with tempting movement and its whole appearance
suggesting some live thing dropping gradually down and across stream.
Most anglers add to the motion of the fly by “working” it with short
pulls from the rod-top. When a fish takes, the rise is sometimes seen,
sometimes not; in any case the angler should not respond with the rod
until he feels the pull. Then he should tighten, not
strike. The fatal word “strike,” with its too literal interpretation,
has caused many a breakage. Having hooked his fish, the angler must
be guided by circumstances as to what he does; the salmon will usually
decide that for him. But it is a sound rule to give a well-hooked fish
no unnecessary advantage and to hold on as hard as the tackle will
allow. Good tackle will stand an immense strain, and with this “a
minute a pound” is a fair estimate of the time in which a fish should
be landed. A foul-hooked salmon (no uncommon thing, for a fish not
infrequently misses the fly and gets hooked somewhere in the body)
takes much longer to land. The other method of using the fly, harling,
which is practised on a few big rivers, consists in trailing the
fly behind a boat rowed backward and forwards across the stream and
dropping gradually downwards. Fly-fishing for salmon is also practised
on some lakes, into which the fish run. On lakes the boat drifts
slowly along a “beat,” while the angler casts diagonally over the
spots where salmon are wont to lie. Salmon may also be caught by
“mid-water fishing,” with a natural bait either spun or trolled
and with artificial spinning-baits of different kinds, and by
“bottom-fishing” with prawns, shrimps and worms. Spinning is usually
practised when the water is too high or too coloured for the fly;
trolling is seldom employed, but is useful for exploring pools which
cannot be fished by spinning or with the fly; the prawn is a valuable
lure in low water and when fish are unwilling to rise; while the worm
is killing at all states of the river, but except as a last resource
is not much in favour. There are a few waters where salmon have the
reputation of not taking a fly at all; in them spinning or prawning
are the usual modes of fishing. But most anglers, wherever possible,
prefer to use the fly. The rod for the alternative methods is
generally shorter and stiffer than the fly-rod, though made of like
material. Twelve to fourteen feet represents about the range of
choice. Outside the British Islands the salmon-fisher finds the
headquarters of his sport in Europe in Scandinavia and Iceland, and in
the New World in some of the waters of Canada and Newfoundland.

Land-locked Salmon.—The land-locked salmon (Salmo salar
sebago) of Canada and the lakes of Maine is, as its name implies,
now regarded by scientists as merely a land-locked form of the salmon.
It does not often attain a greater size than 20 ft, but it is a fine
fighter and is highly esteemed by American anglers. In most waters it
does not take a fly so well as a spinning-bait, live-bait or worm. The
methods of angling for it do not differ materially from those employed
for other Salmonidae.

Pacific Salmon.—Closely allied to Salmo salar both in
appearance and habits is the genus Oncorhynchus, commonly known
as Pacific salmon. It contains six species, is peculiar to the North
Pacific Ocean, and is of some importance to the angler, though of
not nearly so much as the Atlantic salmon. The quinnat is the largest
member of the genus, closely resembles salar in
[v.02 p.0027]
appearance and surpasses him in size. The others,
sockeye, humpback, cohoe, dog-salmon and masu, are smaller and of
less interest to the angler, though some of them have great commercial
value. The last-named is only found in the waters of Japan, but the
rest occur in greater or less quantities in the rivers of Kamchatka,
Alaska, British Columbia and Oregon. The problems presented to science
by solar are offered by Oncorhynchus also, but there are
variations in his life-history, such as the fact that few if any fish
of the genus are supposed to survive their first spawning season. When
once in the rivers none of these salmon is of very much use to the
angler; as, though it is stated that they will occasionally take a fly
or spoon in fresh water, they are not nearly so responsive as their
Atlantic cousin and in many streams are undoubtedly not worth trying
for. At the mouths of some rivers, however, where the water is
distinctly tidal, and in certain bays of the sea itself they give very
fine sport, the method of fishing for them being usually to trail a
heavy spoonbait behind a boat. By this means remarkable bags of fish
have been made by anglers. The sport is of quite recent development.

Sea-Trout.—Next to the salmon comes the sea-trout, the other
migratory salmonid of Europe. This is a fish with many local names and
a good deal of local variation. Modern science, however, recognises
two “races” only, Salmo trutta, the sea-trout proper, and
Salmo cambricus or eriox, the bull-trout, or sewin of
Wales, which is most prominent in such rivers as the Coquet and Tweed.
The life-history of sea-trout is much the same as that of salmon, and
the fish on their first return from the sea in the grilse-stage are
called by many names, finnock, herling and whitling being perhaps the
best known. Of the two races Salmo trutta alone is of much use
to the fly-fisher. The bull-trout, for some obscure reason, is not at
all responsive to his efforts, except in its kelt stage. Then it will
take greedily enough, but that is small consolation. The bull-trout
is a strong fish and grows to a great size and it is a pity that it
is not of greater sporting value, if only to make up for its bad
reputation as an article of food. Some amends, however, are made by
its cousin the sea-trout, which is one of the gamest and daintiest
fish on the angler’s list. It is found in most salmon rivers and also
in not a few streams which are too small to harbour the bigger fish,
while there are many lakes in Scotland and Ireland (where the fish
is usually known as white trout) where the fishing is superb when the
trout have run up into them. Fly-fishing for sea-trout is not a thing
apart. A three-pounder that will impale itself on a big salmon-fly,
might equally well have taken a tiny trout-fly. Many anglers, when
fishing a sea-trout river where they run large, 5 lb or more, and
where there is also a chance of a salmon, effect a compromise by using
a light 13 ft. or 14 ft. double-handed rod, and tackle not so slender
as to make hooking a salmon a certain disaster. But undoubtedly to get
the full pleasure out of sea-trout-fishing a single-handed rod of 10
ft. to 12 ft. with reasonably fine gut and small flies should be used,
and the way of using it is much the same as in wet-fly fishing for
brown trout, which will be treated later. When the double-handed rod
and small salmon-flies are used, the fishing is practically the same
as salmon-fishing except that it is on a somewhat smaller scale. Flies
for sea-trout are numberless and local patterns abound, as may be
expected with a fish which has so catholic a taste. But, as with
salmon-fishers so with sea-trout-fishers, experience forms belief and
success governs selection. Among the small salmon-flies and loch-flies
which will fill his book, the angler will do well to have a store of
very small trout-flies at hand, while experience has shown that even
the dry fly will kill sea-trout on occasion, a thing that is worth
remembering where rivers are low and fish shy. July, August and
September are in general the best months for sea-trout, and as they
are dry months the angler often has to put up with indifferent sport.
The fish will, however, rise in tidal water and in a few localities
even in the sea itself, or in salt-water lochs into which streams run.
Sea-trout have an irritating knack of “coming short,” that is to
say, they will pluck at the fly without really taking it. There are
occasions, on the other hand, in loch-fishing where plenty of time
must be given to the fish without tightening on it, especially if it
happens to be a big one. Like salmon, sea-trout are to be caught with
spinning-baits and also with the worm. The main controversy that is
concerned with sea-trout is whether or no the fish captured in early
spring are clean fish or well-mended kelts. On the whole, as sea-trout
seldom run before May, the majority of opinion inclines to their being
kelts.

Non-migratory Salmonidae.—Of the non-migratory members of the
Salmonidae the most important in Great Britain is the brown
trout (Salmo fario). Its American cousin the rainbow trout
(S. irideus) is now fairly well established in the country too,
while other transatlantic species both of trout and char (which are
some of them partially migratory, that is to say, migratory when
occasion offers), such as the steelhead (S. rivularis),
fontinalis (S. fonlinalis) and the cut-throat trout (S.
clarkii), are at least not unknown. All these fish, together with
their allied forms in America, can be captured with the fly, and,
speaking broadly, the wet-fly method will do well for them all.
Therefore it is only necessary to deal with the methods applicable to
one species, the brown trout.

Trout.—Of the game-fishes the brown trout is the most popular,
for it is spread over the whole of Great Britain and most of Europe,
wherever there are waters suited to it. It is a fine sporting fish and
is excellent for the table, while in some streams and lakes it grows
to a very considerable size, examples of 16 lb from southern rivers
and 20 lb from Irish and Scottish lakes being not unknown. One of the
signs of its popularity is that its habits and history have produced
some very animated controversies. Some of the earliest discussions
were provoked by the liability of the fish to change its appearance
in different surroundings and conditions, and so at one time many a
district claimed its local trout as a separate species. Now, however,
science admits but one species, though, to such well-defined varieties
as the Loch Leven trout, the estuarine trout and the gillaroo, it
concedes the right to separate names and “races.” In effect all, from
the great ferox of the big lakes of Scotland and Ireland to
the little fingerling of the Devonshire brook, are one and the
same—Salmo fario.

Wet-Fly Fishing for Trout.—Fly-fishing for trout is divided
into three kinds: fishing with the artificial fly sunk or “wet,”
fishing with it floating or “dry” and fishing with the natural insect.
Of the two first methods the wet fly is the older and may be taken
first. Time was when all good anglers cast their flies downstream and
thought no harm. But in 1857 W. C. Stewart published his Practical
Angler, in which he taught that it paid better to fish up-stream,
for by so doing the angler was not only less likely to be seen by
the trout but was more likely to hook his fish. The doctrine was much
discussed and criticized, but it gradually won adherents, until now
up-stream fishing is the orthodox method where it is possible. Stewart
was also one of the first to advocate a lighter rod in place of the
heavy 12 ft. and 13 ft. weapons that were used in the North in his
time. There are still many men who use the long rod for wet-fly
fishing in streams, but there are now more who find 10 ft. quite
enough for their purpose. For lake-fishing from a boat, however, the
longer rod is still in many cases preferred. In fishing rivers the
main art is to place the right flies in the right places and to let
them come naturally down with the stream. The right flies may be
ascertained to some extent from books and from local wisdom, but the
right places can only be learnt by experience. It does not, however,
take long to acquire “an eye for water” and that is half the battle,
for the haunts of trout in rapid rivers are very much alike. In
lake-fishing chance has a greater share in bringing about success, but
here too the right fly and the right place are important; the actual
management of rod, line and flies, of course, is easier, for there is
no stream to be reckoned with. Though there is little left to be said
about wet-fly fishing where the fly is an imitation more or less exact
of a natural insect, there is another branch of the art which has been
stimulated by modern developments. This is the use of salmon-flies for
big trout much in the same way as for salmon. In such rivers as the
Thames, where the trout are cannibals and run very large, ordinary
trout-flies are of little use, and the fly-fisher’s only
[v.02 p.0028]
chance is to use a big fly and “work” it, casting across
and down stream. The big fly has also been found serviceable with the
great fish of New Zealand and with the inhabitants of such a piece of
water as Blagdon Lake near Bristol, where the trout run very large.
For this kind of fishing much stronger tackle and a heavier rod are
required than for catching fish that seldom exceed the pound.

Dry Fly.—Fishing with the floating fly is a device of southern
origin, and the idea no doubt arose from the facts that on the placid
south country streams the natural fly floats on the surface and that
the trout are accustomed to feed on it there. The controversy “dry
versus wet” was long and spirited, but the new idea won the day
and now not only on the chalk-streams, but on such stretches of even
Highland rivers as are suitable, the dry-fly man may be seen testing
his theories. These theories are simple and consist in placing before
the fish an exact imitation of the insect on which it is feeding, in
such a way that it shall float down exactly as if it were an insect
of the same kind. To this end special tackle and special methods have
been found necessary. Not only the fly but also the line has to float
on the wafer; the line is very heavy and therefore the rod (split-cane
or greenheart) must be stiff and powerful; special precautions have
to be taken that the fly shall float unhindered and shall not “drag”;
special casts have to be made to counteract awkward winds; and,
lastly, the matching of the fly with the insect on the water is a
matter of much nicety, for the water-flies are of many shades and
colours. Many brains have busied themselves with the solution of these
problems with such success that dry-fly fishing is now a finished art.
The entomology of the dry-fly stream has been studied very deeply by
Mr. F. M. Halford, the late G. S. Marryat and others, and improvements
both in flies and tackle have been very great. Quite lately, however,
there has been a movement in favour of light rods for dry-fly fishing
as well as wet-fly fishing. The English split-cane rod for dry-fly
work weighs about an ounce to the foot, rather more or rather
less. The American rod of similar action and material weighs much
less—approximately 6 oz. to 10 ft. The light rod, it is urged, is
much less tiring and is quite powerful enough for ordinary purposes.
Against it is claimed that dry-fly fishing is not “ordinary purposes,”
that chalk-stream weeds are too strong and chalk-stream winds too wild
for the light rod to be efficient against them. However, the light rod
is growing in popular favour; British manufacturers are building rods
after the American style; and anglers are taking to them more and
more. The dry-fly method is now practised by many fishermen both in
Germany and France, but it has scarcely found a footing as yet in the
United States or Canada.

Fishing with the Natural Fly.—The natural fly is a very
killing bait for trout, but its use is not wide-spread except
in Ireland. In Ireland “dapping” with the green drake or the
daddy-longlegs is practised from boats on most of the big loughs.
A light whole-cane rod of stiff build, about 16 ft. in length, is
required with a floss-silk line light enough to be carried out on the
breeze; the “dap” (generally two mayflies or daddy-longlegs on a small
stout-wired hook) is carried out by the breeze and just allowed to
touch the water. When a trout rises it is well to count “ten” before
striking. Very heavy trout are caught in this manner during the mayfly
season. In the North “creeper-fishing” is akin to this method, but
the creeper is the larva of the stone-fly, not a fly itself, and it
is cast more like an ordinary fly and allowed to sink. Sometimes,
however, the mature insect is used with equally good results. A few
anglers still practise the old style of dapping or “dibbling” after
the manner advised by Izaak Walton. It is a deadly way of fishing
small overgrown brooks. A stiff rod and strong gut are necessary, and
a grasshopper or almost any large fly will serve for bait.

Other Methods.—The other methods of taking trout principally
employed are spinning, live-baiting and worming. For big river trout
such as those of the Thames a gudgeon or bleak makes the best spinning
or live bait, for great lake trout (Jerox) a small fish of
their own species and for smaller trout a minnow. There are numberless
artificial spinning-baits which kill well at times, the Devon being
perhaps the favourite. The use of the drop-minnow, which is trolling
on a lesser scale, is a killing method employed more in the north of
England than elsewhere. The worm is mostly deadly in thick water, so
deadly that it is looked on askance. But there is a highly artistic
mode of fishing known as “clear-water worming.” This is most
successful when rivers are low and weather hot, and it needs an expert
angler to succeed in it. The worm has to be cast up-stream rather like
a fly, and the method is little inferior to fly-fishing in delicacy
and difficulty. The other baits for trout, or rather the other baits
which they will take sometimes, are legion. Wasp-grubs, maggots,
caterpillars, small frogs, bread, there is very little the fish will
not take. But except in rural districts little effort is made to catch
trout by means less orthodox than the fly, minnow and worm, and the
tendency nowadays both in England and America is to restrict anglers
where possible to the use of the artificial fly only.

Grayling.—The only other member of the salmon family in
England which gives much sport to the fly-fisher is the grayling, a
fish which possesses the recommendation of rising well in winter. It
can be caught with either wet or dry fly, and with the same tackle
as trout, which generally inhabit the same stream. Grayling will
take most small trout-flies, but there are many patterns of fly tied
specially for them, most of them founded on the red tag or the green
insect. Worms and maggots are also largely used in some waters
for grayling, and there is a curious contrivance known as the
“grasshopper,” which is a sort of compromise between the fly and
bait. It consists of a leaded hook round the shank of which is twisted
bright-coloured wool. The point is tipped with maggots, and the lure,
half artificial, half natural, is dropped into deep holes and worked
up and down in the water. In some places the method is very killing.
The grayling has been very prominent of late years owing to the
controversy “grayling versus trout.” Many people hold that
grayling injure a trout stream by devouring trout-ova and trout-food,
by increasing too rapidly and in other ways. Beyond, however, proving
the self-evident fact that a stream can only support a given amount
of fish-life, the grayling’s opponents do not seem to have made out
a very good case, for no real evidence of its injuring trout has been
adduced.

Char.—The chars (Sahelinus) are a numerous family
widely distributed over the world, but in Great Britain are not
very important to the angler. One well-defined species (Sahelinus
alpinus) is found in some lakes of Wales and Scotland, but
principally in Westmorland and Cumberland. It sometimes takes a small
fly but is more often caught with small artificial spinning-baits. The
fish seldom exceeds 1½ lb in Great Britain, though in Scandinavia
it is caught up to 5 lb or more. There are some important chars
in America, fontinalis being one of the most esteemed. Some
members of the genus occasionally attain a size scarcely excelled
by the salmon. Among them are the Great Lake trout of America,
Cristinomer namaycush, and the Danubian “salmon” or huchen,
Salmo hucho. Both of these fish are caught principally with
spinning-baits, but both will on occasion take a salmon-fly, though
not with any freedom after they have reached a certain size. An
attempt has been made to introduce huchen into the Thames but at the
time of writing the result cannot yet be estimated.

Pike.—The pike (Esox lucius), which after the
Salmonidae is the most valued sporting fish in Great Britain,
is a fish of prey pure and simple. Though it will occasionally take a
large fly, a worm or other ground-bait, its systematic capture is only
essayed with small fish or artificial spinning-baits. A live bait is
supposed to be the most deadly lure for big pike, probably because it
is the method employed by most anglers. But spinning is more artistic
and has been found quite successful enough by those who give it a fair
and full trial. Trolling, the method of “sink and draw” with a dead
bait, referred to previously in this article, is not much practised
nowadays, though at one time it was very popular. It was given up
because the traditional form of trolling-tackle was such that the bait
had to be swallowed by the pike before the hook would take hold, and
that necessitated killing all fish caught, whether large or small. The
same objection formerly applied to
live-baiting with what was known as a gorge-hook. Now,
however, what is called snap-tackle is almost invariably used in
[v.02 p.0029]
live-baiting, and the system is by some few anglers extended to the
other method too. Pike are autumn and winter fish and are at their
best in December. They grow to a very considerable size, fish of 20
lb being regarded as “specimens” and an occasional thirty-pounder
rewarding the zealous and fortunate. The heaviest pike caught with a
rod in recent years which is sufficiently authenticated, weighed 37
lb, but heavier specimens are said to have been taken in Irish lakes.
River pike up to about 10 lb in weight are excellent eating.

America has several species of pike, of which the muskelunge of the
great lake region (Esox masquinongy) is the most important.
It is a very fine fish, excelling Esox lucius both in size and
looks. From the angler’s point of view it may be considered simply
as a large pike and may be caught by similar methods. It occasionally
reaches the weight of 80 lb or perhaps more. The pickerel (Esox
reticulatus) is the only other of the American pikes which gives
any sport. It reaches a respectable size, but is as inferior to the
pike as the pike is to the muskelunge.

Perch.—Next to the pikes come the perches, also predatory
fishes. The European perch (Perca fluviatilis) has a place by
itself in the affections of anglers. When young it is easy to catch by
almost any method of fishing, and a large number of Walton’s disciples
have been initiated into the art with its help. Worms and small
live-baits are the principal lures, but at times the fish will take
small bright artificial spinning-baits well, and odd attractions such
as boiled shrimps, caddis-grubs, small frogs, maggots, wasp-grubs, &c.
are sometimes successful. The drop-minnow is one of the best methods
of taking perch. Very occasionally, and principally in shallow pools,
the fish will take an artificial fly greedily, a small salmon-fly
being the best thing to use in such a case. A perch of 2 lb is a
good fish, and a specimen of 4½ lb about the limit of angling
expectation. There have been rare instances of perch over 5 lb,
and there are legends of eight-pounders, which, however, need
authentication.

Black Bass.—The yellow perch of America (Perca
flavescens) is very much like its European cousin in appearance
and habits, but it is not so highly esteemed by American anglers,
because they are fortunate in being possessed of a better fish in the
black bass, another member of the perch family. There are two kinds
of black bass (Micropterus salmoides and Micropterus
dolomieu), the large-mouthed and the small-mouthed. The first is
more a lake and pond fish than the second, and they are seldom found
in the same waters. As the black bass is a fly-taking fish and a
strong fighter, it is as valuable to the angler as a trout and is
highly esteemed. Bass-flies are sui generis, but incline more
to the nature of salmon-flies than trout-flies. An artificial frog
cast with a fly-rod or very light spinning-rod is also a favourite
lure. For the rest the fish will take almost anything in the nature of
worms or small fish, like its cousin the perch. A 4 lb bass is a good
fish, but five-pounders are not uncommon. Black bass have to some
extent been acclimatized in France.

The ruffe or pope (Acerina vulgaris) is a little
fish common in the Thames and many other slow-flowing English rivers.
It is very like the perch in shape but lacks the dusky bars which
distinguish the other, and is spotted with dark brown spots on a
golden olive background. It is not of much use to the angler as it
seldom exceeds 3 oz. in weight. It takes small worms, maggots and
similar baits greedily, and is often a nuisance when the angler is
expecting better fish. Allied to the perches is the pike-perch,
of which two species are of some importance to the angler, one the
wall-eye of eastern America (Stizostedion vitreum) and the
other the zander of Central Europe (Sandrus lucioperca). The
last especially is a fine fighter, occasionally reaching a weight of
20 lb. It is usually caught by spinning, but will take live-baits,
worms and other things of that nature. The Danube may be described as
its headquarters. It is a fish whose sporting importance will be more
realized as anglers on the continent become more numerous.

Cyprinidae.—The carp family (Cyprinidae) is a large one
and its members constitute the majority of English sporting fishes.
In America the various kinds of chub, sucker, dace, shiner, &c. are
little esteemed and are regarded as spoils for the youthful angler
only, or as baits for the better fish in which the continent is so
rich. In England, however, the Cyprinidae have an honoured
place in the affections of all who angle “at the bottom,” while in
Europe some of them have a commercial value as food-fishes. In India
at least one member of the family, the mahseer, takes rank with the
salmon as a “big game” fish.

Carp, Tench, Barbel, Bream.—The family as represented in
England may be roughly divided into two groups, those which feed on
the bottom purely and those which occasionally take flies. The first
consists of carp, tench, barbel and bream. Of these carp, tench and
bream are either river or pool fish, while the barbel is found only in
rivers, principally in the Thames and Trent. The carp grows to a great
size, 20 lb being not unknown; tench are big at 5 lb; barbel have been
caught up to 14 lb or rather more; and bream occasionally reach 8 lb,
while a fish of over 11 lb is on record. All these fish are capricious
feeders, carp and barbel being particularly undependable. In some
waters it seems to be impossible to catch the large specimens, and the
angler who seeks to gain trophies in either branch of the sport needs
both patience and perseverance. Tench and bream are not quite so
difficult. The one fish can sometimes be caught in great quantities,
and the other is generally to be enticed by the man who knows how to
set about it. Two main principles have to be observed in attacking all
these fish, ground-baiting and early rising. Ground-baiting consists
in casting food into the water so as to attract the fish to a certain
spot and to induce them to feed. Without it very little can be done
with shy and large fish of these species. Early rising is necessary
because they only feed freely, as a rule, from daybreak till about
three hours after sun-rise. The heat of a summer or early autumn day
makes them sluggish, but an hour or two in the evening is sometimes
remunerative. The bait for them all should usually lie on the bottom,
and it consists mainly of worms, wasp and other grubs, pastes of
various kinds; and for carp, and sometimes bream, of vegetable baits
such as small boiled potatoes, beans, peas, stewed wheat, pieces of
banana, &c. None of these fish feed well in winter.

Roach, Rudd, Dace, Chub.—The next group of Cyprinidae
consists of fish which will take a bait similar to those already
mentioned and also a fly. The sizes which limit the ordinary angler’s
aspirations are roach about 2 lb, rudd about 2½ lb, dace about 1 lb
and chub about 5 lb. There are instances of individuals heavier than
this, one or two roach and many rudd of over 3 lb being on record,
while dace have been caught up to 1 lb 6 oz., and chub of over 7 lb
are not unknown. Roach only take a fly as a rule in very hot weather
when they are near the surface, or early in the season when they
are on the shallows; the others will take it freely all through the
summer. Ordinary trout flies do well enough for all four species,
but chub often prefer something larger, and big bushy lures called
“palmers,” which represent caterpillars, are generally used for them.
The fly may be used either wet or dry for all these fish, and there
is little to choose between the methods as regards effectiveness.
Fly-fishing for these fish is a branch of angling which might be more
practised than it is, as the sport is a very fair substitute for trout
fishing. Roach, chub and dace feed on bottom food and give good sport
all the winter.

Gudgeon, Bleak, Minnow, &c.—The small fry of European
waters, gudgeon, bleak, minnow, loach, stickleback and bullhead, are
principally of value as bait for other fish, though the first-named
species gives pretty sport on fine tackle and makes a succulent dish.
Small red worms are the best bait for gudgeon and minnows, a maggot
or small fly for bleak, and the rest are most easily caught in a
small-meshed net. The loach is used principally in Ireland as a trout
bait, and the other two are of small account as hook-baits, though
sticklebacks are a valuable form of food for trout in lakes and pools.

Mahseer.—Among the carps of India, several of which give
good sport, special mention must be made of the mahseer (Barbus
mosal), a fish which rivals the salmon both in size and strength.
It reaches a weight of 60 lb and sometimes more and is fished for in
much the same manner as salmon, with the
[v.02 p.0030]
difference that after about 10 lb it takes a
spinning-bait, usually a heavy spoon-bait, better than a fly.

Cat-fish.—None of the fresh-water cat-fishes (of which no
example is found in England) are what may be called sporting fish, but
several may be caught with rod and line. There are several kinds in
North America, and some of them are as heavy as 150 lb, but the
most important is the wels (Silurus glanis) of the Danube and
neighbouring waters. This is the largest European fresh-water fish,
and it is credited with a weight of 300 lb or more. It is a bottom
feeder and will take a fish-bait either alive or dead; it is said
occasionally to run at a spinning bait when used very deep.

Burbot.—The burbot (Lota vulgaris) is the only
fresh-water member of the cod family in Great Britain, and it is found
only in a few slow-flowing rivers such as the Trent, and there not
often, probably because it is a fish of sluggish habits which feeds
only at night. It reaches a weight of 3 lb or more, and will take most
flesh or fish baits on the bottom. The burbot of America has similar
characteristics.

Sturgeon.—The sturgeons, of which there are a good many
species in Europe and America, are of no use to the angler. They
are anadromous fishes of which little more can be said than that a
specimen might take a bottom bait once in a way. In Russia they
are sometimes caught on long lines armed with baited hooks, and
occasionally an angler hooks one. Such a case was reported from
California in The Field of the 19th of August 1905.

Shad.—Two other anadromous fish deserve notice. The first is
the shad, a herring-like fish of which two species, allice and twaite
(Clupea alosa and C. finta), ascend one or two British
and several continental rivers in the spring. The twaite is the more
common, and in the Severn, Wye and Teme it sometimes gives very fair
sport to anglers, taking worm and occasionally fly or small spinning
bait. It is a good fighter, and reaches a weight of about 3 lb. Its
sheen when first caught is particularly beautiful. America also has
shads.

Flounder.—The other is the flounder (Pleuronectes
flesus), the only flat-fish which ascends British rivers. It
is common a long way up such rivers as the Severn, far above tidal
influence, and it will take almost any flesh-bait used on the bottom.
A flounder of 1 lb is, in a river, a large one, but heavier examples
are sometimes caught.

Eel.—The eel (Anguilla vulgaris) is regarded by
the angler more as a nuisance than a sporting fish, but when of
considerable size (and it often reaches a weight of 8 lb or more) it
is a splendid fighter and stronger than almost any fish that swims.
Its life history has long been disputed, but it is now accepted that
it breeds in the sea and ascends rivers in its youth. It is found
practically everywhere, and its occurrence in isolated ponds to which
it has never been introduced by human agency has given rise to a
theory that it travels overland as well as by water. The best baits
for eels are worms and small fish, and the best time to use them is at
night or in thundery or very wet weather.

Sea Angling.

Sea angling is attended by almost as many refinements of tackle and
method as fresh-water angling. The chief differences are differences
of locality and the habits of the fish. To a certain extent sea
angling may also be divided into three classes—fishing on the surface
with the fly, at mid-water with spinning or other bait, and on the
bottom; but the first method is only practicable at certain times and
in certain places, and the others, from the great depths that often
have to be sounded and the heavy weights that have to be used in
searching them, necessitate shorter and stouter rods, larger reels and
stronger tackle than fresh-water anglers employ. Also, of course, the
sea-fisherman is liable to come into conflict with very large fish
occasionally. In British waters the monster usually takes the form of
a skate or halibut. A specimen of the former weighing 194 lb has
been landed off the Irish coast with rod and line in recent years. In
American waters there is a much greater opportunity of catching fish
of this calibre.

Great Game Fishes.—There are several giants of the sea which
are regularly pursued by American anglers, chief among them being
the tarpon (Tarpon atlanticus) and the tuna or tunny (Thunnus
thynnus), which have been taken on rod and line up to 223 lb and 251
lb respectively. Jew-fish and black sea-bass of over 400 lb have been
taken on rod and line, and there are many other fine sporting fish
of large size which give the angler exciting hours on the reefs of
Florida, or the coasts of California, Texas or Mexico. Practically
all of them are taken with a fish-bait either live or dead, and used
stationary on the bottom or in mid-water trailed behind a boat.

British Game Fishes.—On a much smaller scale are the fishes
most esteemed in British waters. The bass (Labrax lupus) heads
the list as a plucky and rather difficult opponent. A fish of 10 lb is
a large one, but fifteen-pounders have been taken. Small or “school”
bass up to 3 lb or 4 lb may sometimes be caught with the fly
(generally a roughly constructed thing with big wings), and when they
are really taking the sport is magnificent. In some few localities it
is possible to cast for them from rocks with a salmon rod, but usually
a boat is required. In other places bass may be caught from the shore
with fish bait used on the bottom in quite shallow water. They may
again sometimes be caught in mid-water, and in fact there are few
methods and few lures employed in sea angling which will not account
for them at times. The pollack (Gadus pollachius) and coal-fish
(Gadus virens) come next in esteem. Both in some places reach a
weight of 20 lb or more, and both when young will take a fly. Usually,
however, the best sport is obtained by trailing some spinning-bait,
such as an artificial or natural sand-eel, behind a boat. Sometimes,
and especially for pollack, the bait must be kept near the bottom and
heavy weights on the line are necessary; the coal-fish are more prone
to come to the surface for feeding. The larger grey mullet (Mugil
capito) is a great favourite with many anglers, as it is extremely
difficult to hook, and when hooked fights strongly. Fishing for mullet
is more akin to fresh-water fishing than any branch of sea-angling,
and indeed can be carried on in almost fresh water, for the fish
frequent harbours, estuaries and tidal pools. They can be caught
close to the surface, at mid-water and at the bottom, and as a rule
vegetable baits, such as boiled macaroni, or ragworms are found to
answer best. Usually ground-baiting is necessary, and the finer the
tackle used the greater is the chance of sport. Not a few anglers fish
with a float as if for river fish. The fish runs up to about 8 lb in
weight. The cod (Gadus morhua) grows larger and fights less
gamely than any of the fish already mentioned. It is generally caught
with bait used on the bottom from a boat, but in places codling, or
young cod, give some sport to anglers fishing from the shore. The
mackerel (Scomber scomber) gives the best sport to a bait,
usually a strip of fish skin, trailed behind a boat fairly close to
the surface, but it will sometimes feed on the bottom. Mackerel on
light tackle are game fighters, though they do not usually much exceed
2 lb. Whiting and whiting-pout (Gadus merlangus and Gadus
luscus) both feed on or near the bottom, do not grow to any great
size, and are best sought with fine tackle, usually an arrangement
of three or four hooks at intervals above a lead which is called
a “paternoster.” If one or more of the hooks are on the bottom the
tackle will do for different kinds of flat fish as well, flounders
and dabs being the two species most often caught by anglers. The
bream (Pagellus centrodontus) is another bottom-feeder which
resembles the fresh-water bream both in appearance and habits. It is
an early morning or rather a nocturnal fish, and grows to a weight of
3 lb or 4 lb. Occasionally it will feed in mid-water or even close
to the surface. The conger eel (Conger vulgaris) is another
night-feeder, which gives fine sport, as it grows to a great size, and
is very powerful. Strong tackle is essential for conger fishing, as so
powerful an opponent in the darkness cannot be given any law. The bait
must be on or near the bottom. There are, of course, many other fish
which come to the angler’s rod at times, but the list given is fairly
complete as representing the species which are especially sought.
Beside them are occasional (in some waters too frequent) captures such
as dog-fish and sharks, skates and rays. Many of them run to a great
size and give [v.02 p.0031]
plenty of sport on a rod, though they are not as a rule
welcomed. Lastly, it must be mentioned that certain of the Salmonidae,
smelts (Osmerus eperlanus), sea-trout, occasionally brown
trout, and still more occasionally salmon can be caught in salt water
either in sea-lochs or at the mouths of rivers. Smelts are best fished
for with tiny hooks tied on fine gut and baited with fragments of
shrimp, ragworm, and other delicacies.

MODERN AUTHORITIES AND REFERENCE BOOKS.—History and
Literature: Prof. A. N. Mayer, Sport with Gun and Rod (New
York and Edinburgh), with a chapter on “The Primitive Fish-Hook,” by
Barnet Phillips; Dr. R. Munro, Lake Dwellings of Europe (London,
1890), with many illustrations and descriptions of early fish-books,
&c.; H. Cholmondeley Pennell and others, Fishing Gossip
(Edinburgh, 1866), contains a paper on “Fishing and Fish-Hooks of
the Earliest Date,” by Jonathan Couch; C. D. Badham, Prose
Halieutics (London, 1854), full of curious lore, relating,
however, more to ichthyophagy than angling; The Angler’s Note-Book
and Naturalist’s Record (London, 1st series 1881, 2nd series
1888), edited by T. Satchell, the two volumes containing much valuable
matter on angling history, literature, and other topics; R. Blakey,
Angling Literature (London, 1856), inaccurate and badly
arranged, but containing a good deal of curious matter not to be found
elsewhere; O. Lambert, Angling Literature in England (London,
1881), a good little general survey; J. J. Manley, Fish and
Fishing (London, 1881), with chapters on fishing literature,
&c.; R. B. Marston, Walton and Some Earlier Writers on Fish and
Fishing (London and New York, 1894); Piscatorial Society’s
Papers (vol. i. London, 1890), contains a paper on “The Useful
and Fine Arts in their Relation to Fish and Fishing,” by S. C. Harding;
Super Flumina (Anon.; London, 1904), gives passim
useful information on fishing literature; T. Westwood and T. Satchell,
Bibliotheca Piscatoria (London, 1883) an admirable bibliography
of the sport: together with the supplement prepared by R. B. Marston,
1901, it may be considered wonderfully complete.

Methods and Practice.—General Fresh-water Fishing: F. Francis,
A Book on Angling (London, 1885), though old, a thoroughly
sound text-book, particularly good on salmon fishing; H. C. Pennell
and others, Fishing—Salmon and Trout and Pike and Coarse Fish
(Badminton Library, 2 vols., London, 1904); John Bickerdyke, The
Book of the All-Round Angler (London, 1900); Horace G. Hutchinson
and others, Fishing (Country Life Series, 2 vols., London,
1904), contains useful ichthyological notes by G. A. Boulenger, a
chapter on “The Feeding of Salmon in Fresh-Water,” by Dr. J. Kingston
Barton, and a detailed account of the principal salmon rivers of
Norway, by C. E. Radclyffe.

Salmon and Trout.—Major J. P. Traherne, The Habits of the
Salmon (London, 1889); G. M. Kelson, The Salmon Fly (London,
1895), contains instructions on dressing salmon-flies; A. E. Gathorne
Hardy, The Salmon (“Fur, Feather and Fin Series,” London,
1898); Sir H. Maxwell, Bt., Salmon and Sea Trout (Angler’s
Library, London, 1898); Sir E. Grey, Bt., Fly Fishing (Haddon
Hall Library, London and New York, 1899); W. Earl Hodgson, Salmon
Fishing (London, 1906), contains a series of coloured plates of
salmon flies; Marquis of Granby, The Trout (“Fur, Feather and
Fin Series,” London, 1898). Wet Fly Fishing: W. C. Stewart, The
Practical Angler (London, 1905), a new edition of an old but still
valuable work; E. M. Tod, Wet Fly Fishing (London, 1903); W.
Earl Hodgson, Trout Fishing (London, 1905), contains a series
of admirable coloured plates of artificial flies. Dry Fly Fishing:
F. M. Halford, Dry-Fly Fishing in Theory and Practice (London,
1902), the standard work on the subject; G. A. B. Dewar, The Book of
the Dry Fly (London, 1897). Grayling: T. E. Pritt, The Book of
the Grayling (Leeds, 1888); H. A. Rolt, Grayling Fishing in South
Country Streams (London, 1905).

Coarse Fish.—C. H. Wheeley, Coarse Fish (Angler’s
Library, London, 1897); J. W. Martin, Practical Fishing
(London); Float-fishing and Spinning (London, 1885); W. Senior
and others, Pike and Perch (“Fur, Feather and Fin Series,”
London, 1900); A. J. Jardine, Pike and Perch (Angler’s Library,
London, 1898); H. C. Pennell, The Book of the Pike (London,
1884); Greville Fennell, The Book of the Roach (London, 1884).

Sea Fishing.—J. C. Wilcocks, The Sea Fisherman (London,
1884); John Bickerdyke (and others), Sea Fishing (Badminton
Library, London, 1895); Practical Letters to Sea Fishers
(London, 1902); F. G. Aflalo, Sea Fish (Angler’s Library,
London, 1897); P. L. Haslope, Practical Sea Fishing (London,
1905).

Tackle, Flies, &c.—H. C. Pennell, Modern Improvements in
Fishing Tackle (London, 1887); H. P. Wells, Fly Rods and
Fly Tackle (New York and London, 1901); A. Ronalds, The
Fly-Fisher’s Entomology (London, 1883); F. M. Halford, Dry Fly
Entomology (London, 1902); Floating Flies and How to Dress
them (London, 1886); T. E. Pritt, North Country Flies
(London, 1886); H. G. M’Clelland, How to tie Flies for Trout and
Grayling (London, 1905); Capt. J. H. Hale, How to tie Salmon
Flies (London, 1892); F. G. Aflalo, John Bickerdyke and C. H.
Wheeley. How to buy Fishing Tackle (London).

Ichthyology, Fisheries, Fish-Culture, &c.—Dr. Francis Day,
Fishes of Great Britain and Ireland (2 vols., London, 1889);
British and Irish Salmonidae (London, 1887); Dr. A. C. L. G.
Günther, Introduction to the Study of Fishes (London, 1880);
Dr. D. S. Jordan, A Guide to the Study of Fishes (2 vols.,
New York and London, 1905); F. Francis, Practical Management of
Fisheries (London, 1883); Fish Culture (London, 1865); F. M.
Halford, Making a Fishery (London, 1902); J. J. Armistead,
An Angler’s Paradise (Dumfries, 1902); F. Mather, Modern
Fish-Culture (New York, 1899); Livingstone Stone, Domesticated
Trout (Charlestown and London, 1896).

Angling Guide Books, Geographical Information, &c.—Great
Britain: The Angler’s Diary (London), gives information about
most important waters in the British Isles, and about some foreign
waters, published annually; The Sportsman’s and Tourist’s Guide to
Scotland (London), a good guide to angling in Scotland, published
twice a year; Augustus Grimble, The Salmon Rivers of Scotland
(London, 1900, 4 vols.); The Salmon Rivers of Ireland (London,
1903); The Salmon and Sea Trout Rivers of England and Wales
(London, 1904, 2 vols.), this fine series gives minute information
as to salmon pools, flies, seasons, history, catches, &c.; W. M.
Gallichan, Fishing in Wales (London, 1903); Fishing in
Derbyshire (London, 1905); J. Watson, English Lake District
Fisheries (London, 1899); C. Wade, Exmoor Streams (London,
1903); G. A. B. Dewar, South Country Trout Streams (London,
1899); “Hi Regan,” How and Where to Fish in Ireland (London,
1900); E. S. Shrubsole, The Land of Lakes (London, 1906), a
guide to fishing in County Donegal. Europe: “Palmer Hackle,” Hints
on Angling (London, 1846), contains “suggestions for angling
excursions in France and Belgium,” but they are too old to be of much
service; W. M. Gallichan, Fishing and Travel in Spain (London,
1905); G. W. Hartley, Wild Sport with Gun, Rifle and Salmon Rod
(Edinburgh, 1903), contains a chapter on huchen fishing; Max von dem
Borne, Wegweiser für Angler durch Deutschland, Oesterreich und die
Schweiz (Berlin, 1877), a book of good conception and
arrangement, and still useful, though out of date in many particulars;
Illustrierte Angler-Schule (der deutschen Fischerei Zeitung),
Stettin, contains good chapters on the wels and huchen; H. Storck, Der
Angelsport (Munich, 1898), contains a certain amount of geographical
information; E. B. Kennedy, Thirty Seasons in Scandinavia
(London, 1904), contains useful information about fishing; General
E. F. Burton, Trouting in Norway (London, 1897); Abel Chapman,
Wild Norway (London, 1897); F. Sandeman, Angling Travels in
Norway (London, 1895). America: C. F. Holder, Big Game Fishes of
the United States (New York, 1903); J. A. Henshall, Bass,
Pike, Perch and Pickerel (New York, 1903); Dean Sage and others,
Salmon and Trout (New York, 1902); E. T. D. Chambers, Angler’s
Guide to Eastern Canada (Québec, 1899); Rowland Ward, The English
Angler in Florida (London, 1898); J. Turner Turner, The Giant
Fish of Florida (London, 1902). India: H. S. Thomas, The Rod
in India (London, 1897); “Skene Dhu,” The Mighty Mahseer
(Madras, 1906), contains a chapter on the acclimatization of trout
in India and Ceylon. New Zealand: W. H. Spackman, Trout in New
Zealand (London, 1894); Capt. Hamilton, Trout Fishing and Sport
in Maoriland (Wellington, 1905), contains a valuable section on
fishing waters.

Fishery Law.—G. C. Oke, A Handy Book of the Fishery Laws
(edited by J. W. Willis Band and A. C. M’Barnet, London, 1903).

ANGLO-ISRAELITE THEORY, the contention that the British people in the
United Kingdom, its colonies, and the United States, are the racial
descendants of the “ten tribes” forming the kingdom of Israel, large
numbers of whom were deported by Sargon king of Assyria on the fall
of Samaria in 721 B.C. The theory (which is fully set forth in a book
called Philo-Israel) rests on premises which are deemed by
scholars—both theological and anthropological—to be utterly unsound.

ANGLO-NORMAN LITERATURE:—The French language (q.v.) came over
to England with William the Conqueror. During the whole of the 12th
century it shared with Latin the distinction of being the literary
language of England, and it was in use at the court until the 14th
century. It was not until the reign of Henry IV. that English became
the native tongue of the kings of England. After the loss of the
French provinces, schools for the teaching of French were established
in England, among the most celebrated of which we may quote that
of Marlborough. The language then underwent certain changes which
gradually distinguished it from the French spoken in France; but,
except for some graphical characteristics, from which certain rules
of pronunciation are to be inferred, the changes to which the language
was subjected were the individual modifications of the various
authors, so that, while we may still speak of Anglo-Norman writers, an
Anglo-Norman language, properly so called, gradually ceased to exist.
The prestige enjoyed by the French language, which, in the 14th
century, the author of the Manière de language calls “le plus
bel et le plus gracious language
[v.02 p.0032]
et plus noble parler, apres latin d’escole, qui soit au
monde et de touz genz mieulx prisée et amée que nul autre (quar Dieux
le fist si douce et amiable principalement à l’oneur et loenge de luy
mesmes. Et pour ce il peut comparer au parler des angels du ciel, pour
la grand doulceur et biaultée d’icel),” was such that it was not till
1363 that the chancellor opened the parliamentary session with an
English speech. And although the Hundred Years’ War led to a
decline in the study of French and the disappearance of Anglo-Norman
literature, the French language continued, through some vicissitudes,
to be the classical language of the courts of justice until the 17th
century. It is still the language of the Channel Islands, though there
too it tends more and more to give way before the advance of English.

It will be seen from the above that the most flourishing period of
Anglo-Norman literature was from the beginning of the 12th century to
the end of the first quarter of the 13th. The end of this period is
generally said to coincide with the loss of the French provinces to
Philip Augustus, but literary and political history do not correspond
quite so precisely, and the end of the first period would be more
accurately denoted by the appearance of the history of William
the Marshal in 1225 (published for the Societe de l’histoire de
France, by Paul Meyer, 3 vols., 1891-1901). It owes its brilliancy
largely to the protection accorded by Henry II. of England to the men
of letters of his day. “He could speak French and Latin well, and is
said to have known something of every tongue between’the Bay of Biscay
and the Jordan.’ He was probably the most highly educated sovereign of
his day, and amid all his busy active life he never lost his interest
in literature and intellectual discussion; his hands were never empty,
they always had either a bow or a book” (Dict. of Nat. Biog.).
Wace and Benoît de Sainte-More compiled their histories at his
bidding, and it was in his reign that Marie de France composed her
poems. An event with which he was closely connected, viz. the murder
of Thomas Becket, gave rise to a whole series of writings, some of
which are purely Anglo-Norman. In his time appeared the works of
Béroul and Thomas respectively, as well as some of the most celebrated
of the Anglo-Norman romans d’aventure. It is important to keep
this fact in mind when studying the different works which Anglo-Norman
literature has left us. We will examine these works briefly, grouping
them into narrative, didactic, hagiographic, lyric, satiric and
dramatic literature.

Narrative Literature: (a) Epic and Romance.—The
French epic came over to England at an early date. We know that the
Chanson de Roland was sung at the battle of Hastings, and
we possess Anglo-Norman MSS. of a few chansons de geste.
The Pèlerinage de Charlemagne (Koschwitz, Altfranzösische
Bibliothek, 1883) was, for instance, only preserved in an
Anglo-Norman manuscript of the British Museum (now lost), although
the author was certainly a Parisian. The oldest manuscript of the
Chanson de Roland that we possess is also a manuscript written
in England, and amongst the others of less importance we may mention
La Chançun de Willame, the MS. of which has (June 1903) been
published in facsimile at Chiswick (cf. Paul Meyer, Romania,
xxxii. 597-618). Although the diffusion of epic poetry in England did
not actually inspire any new chansons de geste, it developed
the taste for this class of literature, and the epic style in which
the tales of Horn, of Bovon de Hampton, of Guy of
Warwick (still unpublished), of Waldef (still unpublished),
and of Fulk Fitz Warine are treated, is certainly partly due to
this circumstance. Although the last of these works has come down
to us only in a prose version, it contains unmistakable signs of a
previous poetic form, and what we possess is really only a rendering
into prose similar to the transformations undergone by many of the
chansons de geste (cf. L. Brandin, Introduction to Fulk Fitz
Warine, London, 1904).

The interinfluence of French and English literature can be studied in
the Breton romances and the romans d’aventure even better than
in the epic poetry of the period. The Lay of Orpheus is known
to us only through an English imitation; the Lai du cor was
composed by Robert Biket, an Anglo-Norman poet of the 12th century
(Wulff, Lund, 1888). The lais of Marie de France were written
in England, and the greater number of the romances composing the
matière de Bretagne seem to have passed from England to France
through the medium of Anglo-Norman. The legends of Merlin and Arthur,
collected in the Historia Regum Britanniae by Geoffrey
of Monmouth († 1154), passed into French literature, bearing the
character which the bishop of St. Asaph had stamped upon them.
Chrétien de Troye’s Perceval (c. 1175) is doubtless based on an
Anglo-Norman poem. Robert de Boron (c. 1215) took the subject of his
Merlin (published by G. Paris and J. Ulrich, 1886, 2 vols., Société
des Anciens Textes) from Geoffrey of Monmouth. Finally, the
most celebrated love-legend of the middle ages, and one of the most
beautiful inventions of world-literature, the story of Tristan and
Iseult, tempted two authors, Béroul and Thomas, the first of whom
is probably, and the second certainly, Anglo-Norman (see ARTHURIAN
LEGEND; GRAIL, THE HOLY; TRISTAN). One Folie Tristan was
composed in England in the last years of the 12th century. (For all
these questions see Soc. des Anc. Textes, Muret’s ed. 1903;
Bédier’s ed. 1902-1905). Less fascinating than the story of Tristan
and Iseult, but nevertheless of considerable interest, are the
two romans d’aventure of Hugh of Rutland, Ipomedon
(published by Kölbing and Koschwitz, Breslau, 1889) and
Protesilaus (still unpublished) written about 1185. The first
relates the adventures of a knight who married the young duchess of
Calabria, niece of King Meleager of Sicily, but was loved by Medea,
the king’s wife. The second poem is the sequel to Ipomedon, and
deals with the wars and subsequent reconciliation between Ipomedon’s
sons, Daunus, the elder, lord of Apulia, and Protesilaus, the younger,
lord of Calabria. Protesilaus defeats Daunus, who had expelled him
from Calabria. He saves his brother’s life, is reinvested with the
dukedom of Calabria, and, after the death of Daunus, succeeds to
Apulia. He subsequently marries Medea, King Meleager’s widow, who
had helped him to seize Apulia, having transferred her affection for
Ipomedon to his younger son (cf. Ward, Cat. of Rom., i.
728). To these two romances by an Anglo-Norman author, Amadas et
Idoine, of which we only possess a continental version, is to be
added. Gaston Paris has proved indeed that the original was composed
in England in the 12th century (An English Miscellany presented
to Dr. Furnivall in Honour of his Seventy-fifth Birthday, Oxford,
1901, 386-394). The Anglo-Norman poem on the Life of Richard Coeur
de Lion is lost, and an English version only has been preserved.
About 1250 Eustace of Kent introduced into England the roman
d’Alexandre in his Roman de toute chevalerie, many passages
of which have been imitated in one of the oldest English poems on
Alexander, namely, King Alisaunder (P. Meyer, Alexandre le
grand, Paris, 1886, ii. 273, and Weber, Metrical Romances,
Edinburgh).

(b) Fableaux, Fables and Religious Tales.—In spite of
the incontestable popularity enjoyed by this class of literature, we
have only some half-dozen fableaux written in England, viz.
Le chevalier à la corbeille, Le chevalier qui faisait parler les
muets, Le chevalier, sa dame et un clerc, Les trois dames, La gageure,
Le prêtre d’Alison, La bourgeoise d’Orléans (Bédier, Les
Fabliaux, 1895). As to fables, one of the most popular collections
in the middle ages was that written by Marie de France, which she
claimed to have translated from King Alfred. In the Contes
moralisés, written by Nicole Bozon shortly before 1320 (Soc.
Anc. Textes, 1889), a few fables bear a strong resemblance to
those of Marie de France.

The religious tales deal mostly with the Mary Legends, and have been
handed down to us in three collections:

(i.) The Adgar’s collection. Most of these were translated from
William of Malmesbury († 1143?) by Adgar in the 12th century
(“Adgar’s Marien-Legenden,” Altfr. Biblioth. ix.; J. A. Herbert,
Rom. xxxii. 394).

(ii.) The collection of Everard of Gateley, a monk of St. Edmund at
Bury, who wrote c. 1250 three Mary Legends (Rom. xxix.
27).

(iii.) An anonymous collection of sixty Mary Legends composed
c. 1250 (Brit. Museum Old Roy. 20 B, xiv.), some of which have
been published in Suchier’s Bibliotheca Normannica; in
the Altf. Bibl. See also Mussafia, “Studien zu den
mittelalterlichen
[v.02 p.0033]
Marien-legenden” in Sitzungsh. der Wien. Akademie
(t. cxiii., cxv., cxix., cxxiii., cxxix.).

Another set of religious and moralizing tales is to be found in
Chardri’s Set dormans and Josaphat, c. 1216 (Koch,
Altfr. Bibl., 1880; G. Paris, Poèmes et légendes du moyen
âge).

(c) History.—Of far greater importance, however, are
the works which constitute Anglo-Norman historiography. The first
Anglo-Norman historiographer is Geoffrey Gaimar, who wrote his
Estorie des Angles (between 1147 and 1151) for Dame Constance,
wife of Robert Fitz-Gislebert (The Anglo-Norman Metrical
Chronicle, Hardy and Martin, i. ii., London, 1888). This history
comprised a first part (now lost), which was merely a translation of
Geoffrey of Monmouth’s Historia regum Britanniae, preceded by
a history of the Trojan War, and a second part which carries us as far
as the death of William Rufus. For this second part he has consulted
historical documents, but he stops at the year 1087, just when he has
reached the period about which he might have been able to give us some
first-hand information. Similarly, Wace in his Roman de Rou et des
dues de Normandie (ed. Andresen, Heilbronn, 1877-1879, 2 vols.),
written 1160-1174, stops at the battle of Tinchebray in 1107 just
before the period for which he would have been so useful. His
Brut or Geste des Bretons (Le Roux de Lincy, 1836-1838,
2 vols.), written in 1155, is merely a translation of Geoffrey of
Monmouth. “Wace,” says Gaston Paris, speaking of the Roman de
Rou, “traduit en les abrégeant des historiens latins que nous
possédons; mais çà et là il ajoute soit des contes populaires, par
exemple sur Richard 1’er, sur Robert 1’er, soit des particularités
qu’il savait par tradition (sur ce même Robert le magnifique, sur
l’expédition de Guillaume, &c.) et qui donnent à son oeuvre un réel
intérêt historique. Sa langue est excellente; son style clair, serré,
simple, d’ordinaire assez monotone, vous plaît par sa saveur archaïque
et quelquefois par une certaine grâce et une certaine malice.”

The History of the Dukes of Normandy by Benoît de Sainte-More
is based on the work of Wace. It was composed at the request of
Henry II. about 1170, and takes us as far as the year 1135 (ed. by
Francisque Michel, 1836-1844, Collection de documents inédits,
3 vols.). The 43,000 lines which it contains are of but little
interest to the historian; they are too evidently the work of
a romancier courtois, who takes pleasure in recounting
love-adventures such as those he has described in his romance of
Troy. Other works, however, give us more trustworthy information, for
example, the anonymous poem on Henry II.’s Conquest of Ireland
in 1172 (ed. Francisque Michel, London, 1837), which, together with
the Expugnatio hibernica of Giraud de Barri, constitutes our
chief authority on this subject. The Conquest of Ireland was
republished in 1892 by Goddard Henry Orpen, under the title of The
Song of Dermot and the Earl (Oxford, Clarendon Press). Similarly,
Jourdain Fantosme, who was in the north of England in 1174, wrote an
account of the wars between Henry II., his sons, William the Lion of
Scotland and Louis VII., in 1173 and 1174 (Chronicle of the reigns
of Stephen … III., ed. by Joseph Stevenson and Fr. Michel,
London, 1886, pp. 202-307). Not one of these histories, however, is to
be compared in value with The History of William the Marshal, Count
of Striguil and Pembroke, regent of England from 1216-1219,
which was found and subsequently edited by Paul Meyer (Société de
l’histoire de France, 3 vols., 1891-1901). This masterpiece of
historiography was composed in 1225 or 1226 by a professional poet of
talent at the request of William, son of the marshal. It was compiled
from the notes of the marshal’s squire, John d’Early († 1230 or 1231),
who shared all the vicissitudes of his master’s life and was one of
the executors of his will. This work is of great value for the history
of the period 1186-1219, as the information furnished by John d’Early
is either personal or obtained at first hand. In the part which deals
with the period before 1186, it is true, there are various mistakes,
due to the author’s ignorance of contemporary history, but these
slight blemishes are amply atoned for by the literary value of
the work. The style is concise, the anecdotes are well told, the
descriptions short and picturesque; the whole constitutes one of the
most living pictures of medieval society. Very pale by the side of
this work appear the Chronique of Peter of Langtoft, written
between 1311 and 1320, and mainly of interest for the period 1294-1307
(ed. by T. Wright, London, 1866-1868); the Chronique of
Nicholas Trevet (1258?-1328?), dedicated to Princess Mary, daughter
of Edward I. (Duffus Hardy, Descr. Catal. III., 349-350); the
Scala Chronica compiled by Thomas Gray of Heaton († c.
1369), which carries us to the year 1362-1363 (ed. by J. Stevenson,
Maitland Club, Edinburgh, 1836); the Black Prince, a poem by
the poet Chandos, composed about 1386, and relating the life of the
Black Prince from 1346-1376 (re-edited by Francisque Michel,
London and Paris, 1883); and, lastly, the different versions of the
Brutes, the form and historical importance of which have
been indicated by Paul Meyer (Bulletin de la Société des Anciens
Textes, 1878, pp. 104-145), and by F. W. D. Brie (Geschichte und
Quellen der mittelenglischen Prosachronik, The Brute of England or The
Chronicles of England, Marburg, 1905).

Finally we may mention, as ancient history, the translation of
Eutropius and Dares, by Geoffrey of Waterford (13th century), who gave
also the Secret des Secrets, a translation from a work
wrongly attributed to Aristotle, which belongs to the next division
(Rom. xxiii. 314).

Didactic Literature.—This is the most considerable, if not the
most interesting, branch of Anglo-Norman literature: it comprises a
large number of works written chiefly with the object of giving both
religious and profane instruction to Anglo-Norman lords and ladies.
The following list gives the most important productions arranged in
chronological order:—

Philippe de Thaun, Comput, c. 1119 (edited by E. Mall,
Strassburg, 1873), poem on the calendar; Bestiaire, c. 1130
(ed. by E. Walberg, Paris, 1900; cf. G. Paris, Rom. xxxi. 175);
Lois de Guillaume le Conquérant (redaction between 1150 and
1170, ed. by J. E. Matzke, Paris, 1899); Oxford Psalter, c. 1150
(Fr. Michel, Libri Psalmorum versio antiqua gallica, Oxford,
1860); Cambridge Psalter, c. 1160 (Fr. Michel, Le Livre
des Psaumes, Paris, 1877); London Psalter, same as Oxford
Psalter (cf. Beyer, Zt. f. rom. Phil. xi. 513-534; xii. 1-56);
Disticha Catonis, translated by Everard de Kirkham and Elie
de Winchester (Stengel, Ausg. u. Abhandlungen); Le Roman de
fortune, summary of Boetius’ De consolatione philosophiae,
by Simon de Fresne (Hist. lit. xxviii. 408); Quatre livres
des rois, translated into French in the 12th century, and imitated
in England soon after (P. Schlösser, Die Lautverhältnisse der
quatre livres des rois, Bonn, 1886; Romania, xvii. 124);
Donnei des Amanz,, the conversation of two lovers, overheard
and carefully noted by the poet, of a purely didactic character,
in which are included three interesting pieces, the first being an
episode of the story of Tristram, the second a fable, L’homme et
le serpent, the third a tale, L’homme et l’oiseau, which is
the basis of the celebrated Lai de l’oiselet (Rom. xxv.
497); Livre des Sibiles (1160); Enseignements Trebor, by
Robert de Ho (=Hoo, Kent, on the left bank of the Medway) [edited by
Mary Vance Young, Paris; Picard, 101; cf. G. Paris, Rom.
xxxii. 141]; Lapidaire de Cambridge (Pannier, Les Lapidaires
français); Frére Angier de Ste. Frideswide, Dialogues,
29th of November 1212 (Rom. xii. 145-208, and xxix.; M. K.
Pope, Étude sur la langue de Frère Angier, Paris, 1903);
Li dialoge Grégoire le pape, ed. by Foerster, 1876; Petit
Plet, by Chardri, c. 1216 (Koch, Altfr Bibliothek.
i., and Mussafia, Z. f. r. P. iii. 591); Petite philosophie,
c. 1225 (Rom. xv. 356; xxix. 72); Histoire de Marie et
de Jésus (Rom. xvi. 248-262); Poème sur l’Ancien Testament
(Not. et Extr. xxxiv. 1, 210; Soc. Anc. Textes, 1889,
73-74); Le Corset and Le Miroir, by Robert de Gretham
(Rom. vii. 345; xv. 296); Lumière as Lais, by Pierre
de Peckham, c. 1250 (Rom. xv. 287); an Anglo-Norman
redaction of Image du monde, c. 1250 (Rom. xxi. 481);
two Anglo-Norman versions of Quatre soeurs (Justice,
Truth, Peace, Mercy), 13th century (ed. by Fr. Michel, Psautier
d’Oxford, pp. 364-368, Bulletin Soc. Anc. Textes, 1886,
57, Romania, xv. 352); another Comput by Raüf de Lenham,
1256 (P. Meyer, Archives des missions, 2nd series iv. 154 and
160-164; Rom. xv. 285); Le chastel d’amors, by Robert
Grosseteste or Greathead, bishop of
[v.02 p.0034]
Lincoln († 1253) [ed. by Cooke, Carmina
Anglo-Normannica, 1852, Caxton Society]; Poème sur l’amour
de Dieu et sur la haine du péché, 13th century, second part
(Rom. xxix. 5); Le mariage des neuf filles du diable
(Rom. xxix. 54); Ditie d’ Urbain, attributed without any
foundation to Henry I. (P. Meyer, Bulletin Soc. Anc. Textes,
1880, p. 73 and Romania xxxii, 68); Dialogue de l’évêque
Saint Julien et son disciple (Rom. xxix. 21); Poème sur
l’antichrist et le jugement dernier, by Henri d’Arci (Rom.
xxix. 78; Not. et. Extr. 35, i. 137). Wilham de Waddington
produced at the end of the 13th century his Manuel des péchés,
which was adapted in England by Robert of Brunne in his Handlying
Sinne (1303) [Hist. lit. xxviii. 179-207; Rom. xxix.
5, 47-53]; see Furnivall,Robert of Brunne’s Handlying Synne
(Roxb. Club, 1862); in the 14th century we find Nicole Bozon’s
Contes moralisés (see above); Traité de naturesse
(Rom. xiii. 508); Sermons in verse (P. Meyer, op. cit.
xlv.); Proverbes de bon enseignement (op. cit. xlvi.). We have
also a few handbooks on the teaching of French. Gautier de Biblesworth
wrote such a treatise à Madame Dyonise de Mountechensi pur aprise
de langage (Wright, A Volume of Vocabularies; P. Meyer,
Rec. d’anc. textes, p. 360 and Romania xxxii, 22);
Orthographia gallica (Sturzinger, Altfr. Bibl. 1884);
La manière de language, written in 1396 (P. Meyer, Rev.
crit. d’hist. et de litt. nos. compl. de 1870); Un petit livre
pour enseigner les enfants de leur entreparler comun françois, c.
1399 (Stengel, Z. für n.f. Spr. u. Litt. i. 11). The important
Mirour de l’omme, by John Gower, contains about 30,000 lines
written in very good French at the end of the 14th century (Macaulay,
The Complete Works of John Gower, i., Oxford, 1899).

Hagiography.—Among the numerous lives of saints written in
Anglo-Norman the most important ones are the following, the list of
which is given in chronological order:—Voyage de Saint Brandan
(or Brandain), written in 1121, by an ecclesiastic for Queen
Aelis of Louvain (Rom. St. i. 553-588; Z. f. r. P.
ii. 438-459; Rom. xviii. 203. C. Wahlund, Die altfr.
Prosaübersetz. von Brendan’s Meerfahrt, Upsala, 1901); life of
St. Catherine by Clemence of Barking (Rom. xiii. 400, Jarnik,
1894); life of St Giles, c. 1170, by Guillaume de Berneville (Soc.
Anc. Textes fr., 1881; Rom. xi. and xxiii. 94); life of
St. Nicholas, life of Our Lady, by Wace (Delius, 1850; Stengel, Cod.
Digby, 66); Uhlemann, Gram. Krit. Studien zu Wace’s Conception
und Nicolas, 1878; life of St. George by Simon de Fresne
(Rom. x. 319; J. E. Matzke, Public. of the Mod. Lang. Ass. of
Amer. xvii. 1902; Rom. xxxiv. 148); Expurgatoire de Ste.
Patrice, by Marie de France (Jenkins, 1894; Eckleben, Aelteste
Schilderung vom Fegefeuer d.H. Patricius, 1851; Ph. de Felice,
1906); La vie de St. Edmund le Rei, by Denis Pyramus, end of
12th century (Memorials of St. Edmund’s Abbey, edited by T.
Arnold, ii. 1892; Rom. xxii. 170); Henri d’Arci’s life of
St. Thais, poem on the Antichrist, Visio S. Pauli (P. Meyer,
Not. et Extr. xxxv. 137-158); life of St. Gregory the Great by
Frère Angier, 30th of April 1214 (Rom. viii. 509-544; ix. 176;
xviii. 201); life of St. Modwenna, between 1225 and 1250 (Suchier,
Die dem Matthäus Paris zugeschriebene Vie de St. Auban, 1873,
pp. 54-58); Fragments of a life of St Thomas Becket, c. 1230 (P.
Meyer, Soc. Anc. Text. fr., 1885); and another life of the same
by Benoit of St. Alban, 13th century (Michel, Chron. des ducs de
Normandie; Hist. Lit. xxiii. 383); a life of Edward the Confessor,
written before 1245 (Luard, Lives of Edward the Confessor,
1858; Hist. Lit. xxvii. 1), by an anonymous monk of
Westminster; life of St. Auban, c. 1250 (Suchier, op. cit.; Uhlemann,
“Über die vie de St. Auban in Bezug auf Quelle,” &c. Rom. St.
iv. 543-626; ed. by Atkinson, 1876). The Vision of Tnudgal,
an Anglo-Norman fragment, is preserved in MS. 312, Trinity College,
Dublin; the MS. is of the 14th century; the author seems to belong to
the 13th (La vision de Tondale, ed. by Friedel and Kuno Meyer,
1906). In this category we may add the life of Hugh of Lincoln, 13th
century (Hist. Lit. xxiii. 436; Child, The English
and Scottish Popular Ballads, 1888, p. v; Wolter, Bibl.
Anglo-Norm., ii. 115). Other lives of saints were recognized to
be Anglo-Norman by Paul Meyer when examining the MSS. of the Welbeck
library (Rom. xxxii. 637 and Hist. Lit. xxxiii.
338-378).

Lyric Poetry.—The only extant songs of any importance are
the seventy-one Ballads of Gower (Stengel, Gower’s
Minnesang, 1886). The remaining songs are mostly of a religious
character. Most of them have been discovered and published by Paul
Meyer (Bulletin de la Soc. Anc. Textes, 1889; Not. et
Extr. xxxiv; Rom. xiii. 518, t. xiv. 370; xv. p. 254,
&c.). Although so few have come down to us such songs must have
been numerous at one time, owing to the constant intercourse between
English, French and Provençals of all classes. An interesting passage
in Piers Plowman furnishes us with a proof of the extent to
which these songs penetrated into England. We read of:

One of the finest productions of Anglo-Norman lyric poetry written in
the end of the 13th century, is the Plainte d’amour (Vising,
Göteborg, 1905; Romania xiii. 507, xv. 292 and xxix. 4), and
we may mention, merely as literary curiosities, various works of
a lyrical character written in two languages, Latin and French, or
English and French, or even in three languages, Latin, English and
French. In Early English Lyrics (Oxford, 1907) we have a poem
in which a lover sends to his mistress a love-greeting composed in
three languages, and his learned friend replies in the same style
(De amico ad amicam, Responcio, viii and ix).

Satire.—The popularity enjoyed by the Roman de Renart
and the Anglo-Norman version of the Riote du Monde (Z. f.
rom. Phil. viii. 275-289) in England is proof enough that the
French spirit of satire was keenly appreciated. The clergy and the
fair sex presented the most attractive target for the shots of the
satirists. However, an Englishman raised his voice in favour of
the ladies in a poem entitled La Bonté des dames (Meyer,
Rom. xv. 315-339), and Nicole Bozon, after having represented
“Pride” as a feminine being whom he supposes to be the daughter of
Lucifer, and after having fiercely attacked the women of his day in
the Char d’Orgueil (Rom. xiii. 516), also composed a
Bounté des femmes (P. Meyer, op. cit. 33) in which he covers
them with praise, commending their courtesy, their humility, their
openness and the care with which they bring up their children. A
few pieces of political satire show us French and English exchanging
amenities on their mutual shortcomings. The Roman des Français,
by André de Coutances, was written on the continent, and cannot be
quoted as Anglo-Norman although it was composed before 1204 (cf.
Gaston Paris: Trois versions rimées de l’évangile de Nicodème, Soc.
Anc. Textes, 1885), it is a very spirited reply to French authors
who had attacked the English.

Dramatic Literature.—This must have had a considerable
influence on the development of the sacred drama in England, but none
of the French plays acted in England in the 12th and 13th centuries
has been preserved. Adam, which is generally considered to be
an Anglo-Norman mystery of the 12th century, was probably written in
France at the beginning of the 13th century (Romania xxxii.
637), and the so-called Anglo-Norman Resurrection belongs also
to continental French. It is necessary to state that the earliest
English moralities seem to have been imitations of the French ones.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Apart from the works already mentioned see generally:
Scheibner, “Über die Herrschaft der frz. Sprache in England”
(Annaberg, Progr. der Königlichen Realschule, 1880, 38 f.); Groeber,
Grundr. der romanischen Philologie, ii. iii. (Strassburg,
1902); G. Paris, La Litt. fr. au moyen âge (1905); Esquisse
historique de la litt. fr. au moyen âge (1907); La Litt. norm,
avani l’annexion 912-1204 (Paris, 1899); “L’Esprit normand en
Angleterre,” La Poésie au moyen âge (2nd series 45-74,
Paris, 1906); Thomas Wright, Biographia britannica literaria
(Anglo-Norman period, London, 1846); Ten Brink, Geschichte der
englischen Litteratur (Berlin, 1877, i. 2); J. J. Jusserand,
Hist. litt. du peuple anglais (2nd ed. 1895, vol. i.);
W. H. Schofield, English Literature from the Norman Conquest
to Chaucer (London, 1906); Johan Vising, Franska Sprâket i
England (Göteborg, 1900, 1901, 1902).

(L. Br.)

ANGLO-SAXON CHRONICLE. It is usual to speak of “the Anglo-Saxon
Chronicle”; it would be more correct to say that there are four
Anglo-Saxon Chronicles. It is true that these all grow out of a common
stock, that in some even of their later entries two or more of them
use common materials; but the same
[v.02 p.0035]
may be said of several groups of medieval chronicles,
which no one dreams of treating as single chronicles. Of this fourfold
Chronicle there are seven MSS. in existence; C. C. C. Cant. 173
(A); Cott. Tib. A vi. (B); Cott. Tib. B i. (C); Cott.
Tib. B iv. (D); Bodl. Laud. Misc. 636 (E); Cott.
Domitian A viii. (F); Cott. Otho B xi. (G). Of these G is
now a mere fragment, and it is known to have been a transcript of A.
F is bilingual, the entries being given both in Saxon and Latin. It
is interesting as a stage in the transition from the vernacular to
the Latin chronicle; but it has little independent value, being a
mere epitome, made at Canterbury in the 11th or 12th century, of a
chronicle akin to E. B, as far as it goes (to 977), is identical with
C, both having been copied from a common original, but A, C, D, E have
every right to be treated as independent chronicles. The relations
between the four vary very greatly in different parts, and the neglect
of this consideration has led to much error and confusion. The common
stock, out of which all grow, extends to 892. The present writer sees
no reason to doubt that the idea of a national, as opposed to earlier
local chronicles, was inspired by Alfred, who may even have dictated,
or at least revised, the entries relating to his own campaigns; while
for the earlier parts pre-existing materials, both oral and written,
were utilized. Among the latter the chronological epitome appended to
Bede’s Ecclesiastical History may be specially mentioned. But
even this common stock exists in two different recensions, in A, B, C,
on the one hand, and D, E on the other. The main points of
difference are that in D, E (1) a series of northern annals have
been incorporated; (2) the Bede entries are taken, not from the
brief epitome, but from the main body of the Eccl. Hist. The
inference is that, shortly after the compiling of this Alfredian
chronicle, a copy of it was sent to some northern monastery, probably
Ripon, where it was expanded in the way indicated. Copies of this
northernized Chronicle afterwards found their way to the south. The
impulse given by Alfred was continued under Edward, and we have what
may be called an official continuation of the history of the Danish
wars, which, in B, C, D extends to 915, and in A to 924. After 915 B,
C insert as a separate document a short register of Mercian affairs
during the same period (902-924), which might be called the acts
of Æthelflaed, the famous “Lady of the Mercians,” while D has
incorporated it, not very skilfully, with the official continuation.
Neither of these documents exists in E. From 925 to 975 all the
chronicles are very fragmentary; a few obits, three or four poems,
among them the famous ballad on the battle of Brunanburh, make up
the meagre tale of their common materials, which each has tried to
supplement in its own way. A has inserted a number of Winchester
entries, which prove that A is a Winchester book. And this local and
scrappy character it retains to 1001, where it practically ends. At
some subsequent time it was transferred bodily to Canterbury, where it
received numerous interpolations in the earlier part, and a few later
local entries which finally tail off into the Latin acts of Lanfranc.
A may therefore be dismissed. C has added to the common stock one or
two Abingdon entries, with which place the history of C is closely
connected; while D and E have a second group of northern annals
901-966, E being however much more fragmentary than D, omitting, or
not having access to, much both of the common and of the northern
material which is found in D. From 983 to 1018 C, D and E are
practically identical, and give a connected history of the Danish
struggles under Æthelred II. This section was probably composed at
Canterbury. From 1018 the relations of C, D, E become too complicated
to be expressed by any formula; sometimes all three agree together,
sometimes all three are independent; in other places each pair in
turn agree against the third. It may be noted that C is strongly
anti-Godwinist, while E is equally pro-Godwinist, D occupying an
intermediate position. C extends to 1066, where it ends abruptly, and
probably mutilated. D ends at 1079 and is certainly mutilated. In
its later history D is associated with some place in the diocese of
Worcester, probably Evesham. In its present form D is a comparatively
late MS., none of it probably much earlier, and some of it later, than
1100. In the case of entries in the earlier part of the chronicles,
which are peculiar to D, we cannot exclude the possibility that they
may be late interpolations. E is continued to 1154. In its present
form it is unquestionably a Peterborough book. The earlier part is
full of Peterborough interpolations, to which place many of the later
entries also refer. But (apart from the interpolations) it is only the
entries after 1121, where the first hand in the MS. ends, which were
actually composed at Peterborough. The section 1023-1067
certainly, and possibly also the section 1068-1121, was composed at
St. Augustine’s, Canterbury; and the former is of extreme interest
and value, the writer being in close contact with the events which he
describes. The later parts of E show a great degeneration in language,
and a querulous tone due to the sufferings of the native population
under the harsh Norman rule; “but our debt to it is inestimable; and
we can hardly measure what the loss to English history would have
been, if it had not been written; or if, having been written, it had,
like so many another English chronicle, been lost.”

BIBLIOGRAPHY.—The above account is based on the introduction in vol.
ii. of the Rev. C. Plummer’s edition of Two of the Saxon Chronicles
Parallel (Clarendon Press, 1892, 1899); to which the student may
be referred for detailed arguments. The editio princeps of the
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle was by Abraham Wheloc, professor of Arabic at
Cambridge, where the work was printed (1643-1644). It was based mainly
on the MS. called G above, and is the chief source of our knowledge of
that MS. which perished, all but three leaves, in the Cottonian fire
of 1723. Edmund Gibson of Queen’s College, Oxford, afterwards bishop
of London, published an edition in 1692. He used Wheloc’s edition, and
E, with collations or transcripts of B and F. Both Wheloc and Gibson
give Latin translations. In 1823 appeared an edition by Dr. Ingram, of
Trinity College, Oxford, with an English translation. Besides A, B, E,
F, Ingram used C and D for the first time. But both he and Gibson made
the fatal error of trying to combine the disparate materials contained
in the various chronicles in a single text. An improvement in this
respect is seen in the edition made by Richard Price (d. 1833) for
the first (and only) volume of Monumenta Historica Britannica
(folio 1848). There is still, however, too much conflation, and
owing to the plan of the volume, the edition only extends to 1066. A
translation is appended. In 1861 appeared Benjamin Thorpe’s six-text
edition in the Rolls Series. Though not free from defects, this
edition is absolutely indispensable for the study of the chronicles
and the mutual relations of the different MSS. A second volume
contains the translation. In 1865 the Clarendon Press published Two
Saxon Chronicles (A and E) Parallel, with supplementary extracts
from the others, by the Rev. John Earle. This edition has no
translation, but in the notes and introduction a very considerable
advance was made. On this edition is partly based the later edition
by the Rev. C. Plummer, already cited above. In addition to the
translations contained in the editions already mentioned, the
following have been issued separately. The first translation into
modern English was by Miss Anna Gurney, privately printed in 1819.
This was largely based on Gibson’s edition, and was in turn the basis
of Dr. Giles’ translation, published in 1847, and often reprinted. The
best translation is that by the Rev. Joseph Stevenson, in his series
of Church Historians of England (1853). Up to the Conquest it
is a revision of the translation contained in Mon. Hist. Brit.
From that point it is an independent translation.

(C. Pl.)

ANGLO-SAXON LAW. 1. The body of legal rules and customs which
obtained in England before the Norman conquest constitutes, with
the Scandinavian laws, the most genuine expression of Teutonic legal
thought. While the so-called “barbaric laws” (leges barbarorum)
of the continent, not excepting those compiled in the territory now
called Germany, were largely the product of Roman influence, the
continuity of Roman life was almost completely broken in the island,
and even the Church, the direct heir of Roman tradition, did not carry
on a continuous existence: Canterbury was not a see formed in a Roman
province in the same sense as Tours or Reims. One of the striking
expressions of this Teutonism is presented by the language in which
the Anglo-Saxon laws were written. They are uniformly worded in
English, while continental laws, apart from the Scandinavian, are all
in Latin. The English dialect in which the Anglo-Saxon laws have been
handed down to us is in most cases a common speech derived from West
Saxon—naturally enough as Wessex became the predominant English
state, and the court of its kings the principal literary centre from
which most of the compilers and scribes derived their dialect and
spelling. Traces of Kentish speech may be detected, however, in the
Textus Roffensis, the MS. of the Kentish laws, and Northumbrian
dialectical peculiarities are also noticeable on some occasions,
[v.02 p.0036]
while Danish words occur only as technical terms. At the
conquest, Latin takes the place of English in the compilations made
to meet the demand for Anglo-Saxon law texts as still applied in
practice.

2. It is easy to group the Anglo-Saxon laws according to the manner of
their publication. They would fall into three divisions: (1) laws and
collections of laws promulgated by public authority; (2) statements of
custom; (3) private compilations of legal rules and enactments. To
the first division belong the laws of the Kentish kings, Æthelberht,
Hlothhere and Eadric, Withraed; those of Ine of Wessex, of Alfred,
Edward the Elder, Æthelstan,^[1] Edmund, Edgar, Æthelred and Canute;
the treaty between Alfred and Guthrum and the so-called treaty between
Edward and Guthrum. The second division is formed by the convention
between the English and the Welsh Dunsaetas, the law of the
Northumbrian priests, the customs of the North people, the fragments
of local custumals entered in Domesday Book. The third division
would consist of the collections of the so-called Pseudo-leges
Canuti, the laws of Edward the Confessor, of Henry I., and the
great compilation of the Quadripartitus, then of a number of
short notices and extracts like the fragments on the “wedding of a
wife,” on oaths, on ordeals, on the king’s peace, on rural customs
(Rectitudines singularum personarum), the treatises on the
reeve (gerefa) and on the judge (dema), formulae of
oaths, notions as to wergeld, &c. A fourth group might be made of the
charters, as they are based on Old English private and public law
and supply us with most important materials in regard to it. Looking
somewhat deeper at the sources from which Old English law was derived,
we shall have to modify our classification to some extent, as the
external forms of publication, although important from the point of
view of historical criticism, are not sufficient standards as to
the juridical character of the various kinds of material. Direct
statements of law would fall under the following heads, from the point
of view of their legal origins: i. customary rules followed by divers
communities capable of formulating law; ii. enactments of authorities,
especially of kings; iii. private arrangements made under recognized
legal rules. The first would comprise, besides most of the statements
of custom included in the second division according to the first
classification, a great many of the rules entered in collections
promulgated by kings; most of the paragraphs of Æthelberht’s,
Hlothhere’s, and Eadric’s and Ine’s laws, are popular legal customs
that have received the stamp of royal authority by their insertion in
official codes. On the other hand, from Withraed’s and Alfred’s laws
downwards, the element of enactment by central authority becomes more
and more prominent. The kings endeavour, with the help of secular
and clerical witan, to introduce new rules and to break the power
of long-standing customs (e.g. the precepts about the keeping of
holidays, the enactments of Edmund restricting private vengeance,
and the solidarity of kindreds as to feuds, and the like). There are,
however, no outward signs enabling us to distinguish conclusively
between both categories of laws in the codes, nor is it possible to
draw a line between permanent laws and personal ordinances of single
sovereigns, as has been attempted in the case of Frankish legislation.

3. Even in the course of a general survey of the legal lore at
our disposal, one cannot help being struck by peculiarities in the
distribution of legal subjects. Matters which seem to us of primary
importance and occupy a wide place in our law-books are almost
entirely absent in Anglo-Saxon laws or relegated to the background.
While it is impossible to give here anything like a complete or
exact survey of the field—a task rendered almost impossible by the
arbitrary manner in which paragraphs are divided, by the difficulty
of making Old English enactments fit into modern rubrics, and by the
necessity of counting several times certain paragraphs bearing on
different subjects—a brief statistical analysis of the contents of
royal codes and laws may be found instructive.

We find roughly 419 paragraphs devoted to criminal law and procedure
as against 91 concerned with questions of private law and civil
procedure. Of the criminal law clauses, as many as 238 are taken
up with tariffs of fines, while 80 treat of capital and corporal
punishment, outlawry and confiscation, and 101 include rules of
procedure. On the private law side 18 clauses apply to rights of
property and possession, 13 to succession and family law, 37 to
contracts, including marriage when treated as an act of sale; 18 touch
on civil procedure. A subject which attracted special attention was
the law of status, and no less than 107 paragraphs contain disposition
dictated by the wish to discriminate between the classes of society.
Questions of public law and administration are discussed in 217
clauses, while 197 concern the Church in one way or another, apart
from purely ecclesiastical collections. In the public law division it
is chiefly the power, interests and privileges of the king that are
dealt with, in roughly 93 paragraphs, while local administration comes
in for 39 and purely economic and fiscal matter for 13 clauses. Police
regulations are very much to the fore and occupy no less than 72
clauses of the royal legislation. As to church matters, the most
prolific group is formed by general precepts based on religious and
moral considerations, roughly 115, while secular privileges conferred
on the Church hold about 62, and questions of organization some 20
clauses.

The statistical contrasts are especially sharp and characteristic when
we take into account the chronological sequence in the elaboration of
laws. Practically the entire code of Æthelberht, for instance, is a
tariff of fines for crimes, and the same subject continues to occupy
a great place in the laws of Hlothhere and Eadric, Ine and Alfred,
whereas it appears only occasionally in the treaties with the Danes,
the laws of Withraed, Edward the Elder, Æthelstan, Edgar, Edmund and
Æthelred. It reappears in some strength in the code of Canute, but the
latter is chiefly a recapitulation of former enactments. The system of
“compositions” or fines, paid in many cases with the help of kinsmen,
finds its natural place in the ancient, tribal period of English
history and loses its vitality later on in consequence of the growth
of central power and of the scattering of maegths. Royalty and the
Church, when they acquire the lead in social life, work out a
new penal system based on outlawry, death penalties and corporal
punishments, which make their first appearance in the legislation of
Withraed and culminate in that of Æthelred and Canute.

As regards status, the most elaborate enactments fall into the period
preceding the Danish settlements. After the treaties with the Danes,
the tendency is to simplify distinctions on the lines of an opposition
between twelvehynd-men and twyhynd-men, paving the way towards
the feudal distinction between the free and the unfree. In the
arrangements of the commonwealth the clauses treating of royal
privileges are more or less evenly distributed over all reigns, but
the systematic development of police functions, especially in regard
to responsibility for crimes, the catching of thieves, the suppression
of lawlessness, is mainly the object of 10th and 11th century
legislation. The reign of Æthelred, which witnessed the greatest
national humiliation and the greatest crime in English history, is
also marked by the most lavish expressions of religious feeling and
the most frequent appeals to morality. This sketch would, of course,
have to be modified in many ways if we attempted to treat the
unofficial fragments of customary law in the same way as the
paragraphs of royal codes, and even more so if we were able to
tabulate the indirect evidence as to legal rules. But, imperfect as
such statistics may be, they give us at any rate some insight into the
direction of governmental legislation.

4. The next question to be approached concerns the pedigree of
Anglo-Saxon law and the latter’s natural affinities. What is its
position in the legal history of Germanic nations? How far has it been
influenced by non-Germanic elements, especially by Roman and Canon
law? The oldest Anglo-Saxon codes, especially the Kentish and the
West Saxon ones, disclose a close relationship to the barbaric laws
of Lower Germany—those of Saxons, Frisians, Thuringians. We find a
division of social ranks which reminds us of the threefold gradation
of Lower Germany
[v.02 p.0037]
(edelings, frilings, lazzen-eorls, ceorls, laets), and
not of the twofold Frankish one (ingenui Franci, Romani), nor
of the minute differentiation of the Upper Germans and Lombards. In
subsequent history there is a good deal of resemblance between the
capitularies’ legislation of Charlemagne and his successors on one
hand, the acts of Alfred, Edward the Elder, Æthelstan and Edgar on the
other, a resemblance called forth less by direct borrowing of
Frankish institutions than by the similarity of political problems
and condition. Frankish law becomes a powerful modifying element
in English legal history after the Conquest, when it was introduced
wholesale in royal and in feudal courts. The Scandinavian invasions
brought in many northern legal customs, especially in the districts
thickly populated with Danes. The Domesday survey of Lincolnshire,
Nottinghamshire, Yorkshire, Norfolk, &c., shows remarkable deviations
in local organization and justice (lagmen, sokes), and great
peculiarities as to status (socmen, freemen), while from laws and
a few charters we can perceive some influence on criminal law
(nidings-vaerk), special usages as to fines (lahslit),
the keeping of peace, attestation and sureties of acts
(faestermen), &c. But, on the whole, the introduction of Danish
and Norse elements, apart from local cases, was more important owing
to the conflicts and compromises it called forth and its social
results,—than on account of any distinct trail of Scandinavian
views in English law. The Scandinavian newcomers coalesced easily and
quickly with the native population.

The direct influence of Roman law was not great during the Saxon
period: we notice neither the transmission of important legal
doctrines, chiefly through the medium of Visigothic codes, nor the
continuous stream of Roman tradition in local usage. But indirectly
Roman law did exert a by no means insignificant influence through the
medium of the Church, which, for all its insular character, was still
permeated with Roman ideas and forms of culture. The Old English
“books” are derived in a roundabout way from Roman models, and the
tribal law of real property was deeply modified by the introduction of
individualistic notions as to ownership, donations, wills, rights of
women, &c. Yet in this respect also the Norman Conquest increased the
store of Roman conceptions by breaking the national isolation of the
English Church and opening the way for closer intercourse with France
and Italy.

5. It would be useless to attempt to trace in a brief sketch
the history of the legal principles embodied in the documents of
Anglo-Saxon law. But it may be of some value to give an outline of a
few particularly characteristic subjects.

(a) The Anglo-Saxon legal system cannot be understood unless one
realizes the fundamental opposition between folk-right and privilege.
Folk-right is the aggregate of rules, formulated or latent but
susceptible of formulation, which can be appealed to as the expression
of the juridical consciousness of the people at large or of the
communities of which it is composed. It is tribal in its origin, and
differentiated, not according to boundaries between states, but on
national and provincial lines. There may be the folk-right of West and
East Saxons, of East Angles, of Kentish men, Mercians, Northumbrians,
Danes, Welshmen, and these main folk-right divisions remain even when
tribal kingdoms disappear and the people is concentrated in one or
two realms. The chief centres for the formulation and application of
folk-right were in the 10th and 11th centuries the shire-moots, while
the witan of the realm generally placed themselves on the higher
ground of State expediency, although occasionally using folk-right
ideas. The older law of real property, of succession, of contracts,
the customary tariffs of fines, were mainly regulated by folk-right;
the reeves employed by the king and great men were supposed to take
care of local and rural affairs according to folk-right. The law had
to be declared and applied by the people itself in its communities,
while the spokesmen of the people were neither democratic majorities
nor individual experts, but a few leading men—the twelve eldest
thanes or some similar quorum. Folk-right could, however, be broken
or modified by special law or special grant, and the fountain of such
privileges was the royal power. Alterations and exceptions were, as
a matter of fact, suggested by the interested parties themselves,
and chiefly by the Church. Thus a privileged land-tenure was
created—bookland; the rules as to the succession of kinsmen were set
at nought by concession of testamentary power and confirmations of
grants and wills; special exemptions from the jurisdiction of the
hundreds and special privileges as to levying fines were conferred.
In process of time the rights originating in royal grants of privilege
overbalanced, as it were, folk-right in many respects, and became
themselves the starting-point of a new legal system—the feudal one.

(b) Another feature of vital importance in the history of Anglo-Saxon
law is its tendency towards the preservation of peace. Society
is constantly struggling to ensure the main condition of its
existence—peace. Already in Æthelberht’s legislation we find
characteristic fines inflicted for breach of the peace of householders
of different ranks—the ceorl, the eorl, and the king himself
appearing as the most exalted among them. Peace is considered not so
much a state of equilibrium and friendly relations between parties,
but rather as the rule of a third within a certain region—a house,
an estate, a kingdom. This leads on one side to the recognition of
private authorities—the father’s in his family, the master’s as to
servants, the lord’s as to his personal or territorial dependents.
On the other hand, the tendency to maintain peace naturally takes
its course towards the strongest ruler, the king, and we witness in
Anglo-Saxon law the gradual evolution of more and more stringent and
complete rules in respect of the king’s peace and its infringements.

(c) The more ancient documents of Anglo-Saxon law show us the
individual not merely as the subject and citizen of a certain
commonwealth, but also as a member of some group, all the fellows
of which are closely allied in claims and responsibilities. The most
elementary of these groups is the maegth, the association
of agnatic and cognatic relations. Personal protection and revenge,
oaths, marriage, wardship, succession, supervision over settlement,
and good behaviour, are regulated by the law of kinship. A man’s
actions are considered not as exertions of his individual will, but
as acts of the kindred, and all the fellows of the maegth are held
responsible for them. What began as a natural alliance was used later
as a means of enforcing responsibility and keeping lawless individuals
in order. When the association of kinsmen failed, the voluntary
associations—guilds—appeared as substitutes. The gild brothers
associated in mutual defence and support, and they had to share in
the payment of fines. The township and the hundred came also in for
certain forms of collective responsibility, because they presented
groups of people associated in their economic and legal interests.

(d) In course of time the natural associations get loosened and
intermixed, and this calls forth the elaborate police legislation of
the later Anglo-Saxon kings. Regulations are issued about the sale of
cattle in the presence of witnesses. Enactments about the pursuit
of thieves, and the calling in of warrantors to justify sales of
chattels, are other expressions of the difficulties attending peaceful
intercourse. Personal surety appears as a complement of and
substitute for collective responsibility. The hlaford and his
hiredmen are an institution not only of private patronage, but
also of police supervision for the sake of laying hands on malefactors
and suspected persons. The landrica assumes the same part in
a territorial district. Ultimately the laws of the 10th and 11th
centuries show the beginnings of the frankpledge associations, which
came to act so important a part in the local police and administration
of the feudal age.

The points mentioned are not many, but, apart from their intrinsic
importance in any system of law, they are, as it were, made prominent
by the documents themselves, as they are constantly referred to in the
latter.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Editions: Liebermann, Die Gesetze der
Angelsachsen (1903, 1906) is indispensable, and leaves nothing to
be desired as to the constitution of the texts. The translations and
notes are, of course, to be considered in the light of an instructive,
but not final, commentary. R. Schmid, Gesetze der Angelsachsen
(2nd ed., Leipzig, 1858) is still valuable on account of its handiness
[v.02 p.0038]
and the fulness of its glossary. B. Thorpe, Ancient
Laws and Institutes of England (1840) is not very trustworthy.
Domesday Book, i. ii. (Rec. Comm.); Codex Diplomaticus
Aevi Saxonici, i.-vi. ed. J. M. Kemble (1839-1848); Cartularium
Saxonicum (up to 940), ed. W. de Gray Birch (1885-1893); J.
Earle, Land Charters (Oxford, 1888); Thorpe, Diplomatarium
Anglicanum; Facsimiles of Ancient Charters, edited by the Ordnance
Survey and by the British Museum; Haddan and Stubbs, Councils of
Great Britain, i.-iii. (Oxford, 1869-1878).

Modern works.—Konrad Maurer, Über Angelsachsische
Rechtsverhaltnisse, Kritische Ueberschau (Munich, 1853 ff.),
still the best account of the history of Anglo-Saxon law; Essays
on Anglo-Saxon Law, by H. Adams, H. C. Lodge, J. L. Laughlin and
E. Young (1876); J. M. Kemble, Saxons in England; F. Palgrave,
History of the English Commonwealth; Stubbs, Constitutional
History of England, i.; Pollock and Maitland, History
of English Law, i.; H. Brunner, Zur Rechtsgeschichte der
romisch-germanischen Urkunde (1880); Sir F. Pollock, The
King’s Peace (Oxford Lectures); F. Seebohm; The English
Village Community; Ibid. Tribal Custom in Anglo-Saxon Law;
Marquardsen, Haft und Burgschaft im Angelsachsischen Recht;
Jastrow, “Über die Strafrechtliche Stellung der Sklaven,” Gierke’s
Untersuchungen, i.; Steenstrup, Normannerne, iv.; F. W.
Maitland, Domesday and Beyond (Cambridge, 1897); H. M. Chadwick,
Studies on Anglo-Saxon Institutions (1905); P. Vinogradoff,
“Folcland” in the English Historical Review, 1893;
“Romanistische Einflusse im Angelsächsischen Recht: Das Buchland”
in the Mélanges Fitting, 1907; “The Transfer of Land in Old
English Law” in the Harvard Law Review, 1907.

(P. Vi.)

ANGLO-SAXONS. The term “Anglo-Saxon” is commonly applied to that
period of English history, language and literature which preceded the
Norman Conquest. It goes back to the time of King Alfred, who seems to
have frequently used the title rex Anglorum Saxonum or rex
Angul-Saxonum. The origin of this title is not quite clear. It is
generally believed to have arisen from the final union of the various
kingdoms under Alfred in 886. Bede (Hist. Eccl. i. 15) states
that the people of the more northern kingdoms (East Anglia, Mercia,
Northumbria, &c.) belonged to the Angli, while those of Essex, Sussex
and Wessex were sprung from the Saxons (q.v.), and those of
Kent and southern Hampshire from the Jutes (q.v.). Other early
writers, however, do not observe these distinctions, and neither
in language nor in custom do we find evidence of any appreciable
differences between the two former groups, though in custom Kent
presents most remarkable contrasts with the other kingdoms. Still more
curious is the fact that West Saxon writers regularly speak of their
own nation as a part of the Angelcyn and of their language as
Englisc, while the West Saxon royal family claimed to be of the
same stock as that of Bernicia. On the other hand, it is by no means
impossible that the distinction drawn by Bede was based solely on the
names Essex (East Seaxan), East Anglia, &c. We need not doubt that the
Angli and the Saxons were different nations originally; but from the
evidence at our disposal it seems likely that they had practically
coalesced in very early times, perhaps even before the invasion. At
all events the term Angli Saxones seems to have first come
into use on the continent, where we find it, nearly a century before
Alfred’s time, in the writings of Paulus Diaconus (Paul the Deacon).
There can be little doubt, however, that there it was used to
distinguish the Teutonic inhabitants of Britain from the Old Saxons of
the continent.

See W. H. Stevenson, Asser’s Life of King Alfred (Oxford,
1904, pp. 148 ff.); H. Munro Chadwick, The Origin of the English
Nation (Cambridge, 1907); also BRITAIN, Anglo-Saxon.

(H. M. C.)

ANGOLA, the general name of the Portuguese possessions on the west
coast of Africa south of the equator. With the exception of the
enclave of Kabinda (q.v.) the province lies wholly south of the
river Congo. Bounded on the W. by the Atlantic Ocean, it extends along
the coast from the southern bank of the Congo (6° S., 12° E.) to the
mouth of the Kunene river (17° 18′ S., 11° 50′ E.). The coast-line is
some 900 m. long. On the north the Congo forms for 80 m. the boundary
separating Angola from the Congo Free State. The frontier thence
(in 5° 52′ S.) goes due east to the Kwango river. The eastern
boundary—dividing the Portuguese possessions from the Congo State and
Barotseland (N. W. Rhodesia)—is a highly irregular line. On the south
Angola borders German South-West Africa, the frontier being drawn
somewhat S. of the 17th degree of S. latitude. The area of the
province is about 480,000 sq. m. The population is estimated (1906) at
4,119,000.

The name Angola (a Portuguese corruption of the Bantu word
Ngola) is sometimes confined to the 105 m. of coast, with its
hinterland, between the mouths of the rivers Dande and Kwanza, forming
the central portion of the Portuguese dominions in West Africa; in
a looser manner Angola is used to designate all the western coast of
Africa south of the Congo in the possession of Portugal; but the name
is now officially applied to the whole of the province. Angola is
divided into five districts: four on the coast, the fifth, Lunda,
wholly inland, being the N.E. part of the province. Lunda is part
of the old Bantu kingdom of Muata Yanvo, divided by international
agreement between Portugal and the Congo Free State.

The coast divisions of Angola are Congo on the N. (from the river
Congo to the river Loje), corresponding roughly with the limits of the
“kingdom of Congo” (see History below); Loanda, which includes
Angola in the most restricted sense mentioned above; Benguella
and Mossamedes to the south. Mossamedes is again divided into two
portions—the coast region and the hinterland, known as Huilla.

Physical Features.—The coast is for the most part flat, with
occasional low cliffs and bluffs of red sandstone. There is but one
deep inlet of the sea—Great Fish Bay (or Bahia dos Tigres), a little
north of the Portuguese-German frontier. Farther north are Port
Alexander, Little Fish Bay and Lobito Bay, while shallower bays are
numerous. Lobito Bay has water sufficient to allow large ships to
unload close inshore. The coast plain extends inland for a distance
varying from 30 to 100 m. This region is in general sparsely watered
and somewhat sterile. The approach to the great central plateau of
Africa is marked by a series of irregular terraces. This intermediate
mountain belt is covered with luxuriant vegetation. Water is fairly
abundant, though in the dry season obtainable only by digging in the
sandy beds of the rivers. The plateau has an altitude ranging from
4000 to 6000 ft. It consists of well-watered, wide, rolling plains,
and low hills with scanty vegetation. In the east the tableland falls
away to the basins of the Congo and Zambezi, to the south it merges
into a barren sandy desert. A large number of rivers make their way
westward to the sea; they rise, mostly, in the mountain belt, and are
unimportant, the only two of any size being the Kwanza and the Kunene,
separately noticed. The mountain chains which form the edge of the
plateau, or diversify its surface, run generally parallel to the
coast, as Tala Mugongo (4400 ft.), Chella and Vissecua (5250 ft. to
6500 ft.). In the district of Benguella are the highest points of the
province, viz. Loviti (7780 ft.), in 12° 5′ S., and Mt. Elonga (7550
ft.). South of the Kwanza is the volcanic mountain Caculo-Cabaza (3300
ft.). From the tableland the Kwango and many other streams flow north
to join the Kasai (one of the largest affluents of the Congo), which
in its upper course forms for fully 300 m. the boundary between Angola
and the Congo State. In the south-east part of the province the rivers
belong either to the Zambezi system, or, like the Okavango, drain to
Lake Ngami.

Geology.—The rock formations of Angola are met with in three
distinct regions: (1) the littoral zone, (2) the median zone formed
by a series of hills more or less parallel with the coast, (3) the
central plateau. The central plateau consists of ancient crystalline
rocks with granites overlain by unfossiliferous sandstones and
conglomerates considered to be of Palaeozoic age. The outcrops are
largely hidden under laterite. The median zone is composed largely of
crystalline rocks with granites and some Palaeozoic unfossiliferous
rocks. The littoral zone contains the only fossiliferous strata. These
are of Tertiary and Cretaceous ages, the latter rocks resting on a
reddish sandstone of older date. The Cretaceous rocks of the Dombe
Grande region (near Benguella) are of Albian age and belong to
the Acanthoceras mamillari zone. The beds containing
Schloenbachia inflata are referable to the Gault. Rocks of
Tertiary age are met with at Dombe Grande, Mossamedes and near Loanda.
The sandstones with gypsum, copper and sulphur of Dombe are doubtfully
considered to be of Triassic age. Recent eruptive rocks, mainly
basalts, form a line
[v.02 p.0039]
of hills almost bare of vegetation between Benguella and
Mossamedes. Nepheline basalts and liparites occur at Dombe Grande. The
presence of gum copal in considerable quantities in the superficial
rocks is characteristic of certain regions.

Climate.—With the exception of the district of Mossamedes, the
coast plains are unsuited to Europeans. In the interior, above 3300
ft., the temperature and rainfall, together with malaria, decrease.
The plateau climate is healthy and invigorating. The mean annual
temperature at Sao Salvador do Congo is 72.5° F.; at Loanda, 74.3°;
and at Caconda, 67.2°. The climate is greatly influenced by the
prevailing winds, which arc W., S.W. and S.S.W. Two seasons are
distinguished—the cool, from June to September; and the rainy,
from October to May. The heaviest rainfall occurs in April, and is
accompanied by violent storms.

Flora and Fauna.—Both flora and fauna are those characteristic
of the greater part of tropical Africa. As far south as Benguella the
coast region is rich in oil-palms and mangroves. In the northern part
of the province are dense forests. In the south towards the Kunene are
regions of dense thorn scrub. Rubber vines and trees are abundant, but
in some districts their number has been considerably reduced by the
ruthless methods adopted by native collectors of rubber. The species
most common are various root rubbers, notably the Carpodinus
chylorrhiza. This species and other varieties of carpodinus are
very widely distributed. Landolphias are also found. The coffee,
cotton and Guinea pepper plants are indigenous, and the tobacco plant
flourishes in several districts. Among the trees are several
which yield excellent timber, such as the tacula (Pterocarpus
tinctorius), which grows to an immense size, its wood being
blood-red in colour, and the Angola mahogany. The bark of the musuemba
(Albizzia coriaria) is largely used in the tanning of leather.
The mulundo bears a fruit about the size of a cricket ball
covered with a hard green shell and containing scarlet pips like a
pomegranate. The fauna includes the lion, leopard, cheetah, elephant,
giraffe, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, buffalo, zebra, kudu and many other
kinds of antelope, wild pig, ostrich and crocodile. Among fish are the
barbel, bream and African yellow fish.

Inhabitants.—The great majority of the inhabitants are of
Bantu-Negro stock with some admixture in the Congo district with the
pure negro type. In the south-east are various tribes of Bushmen. The
best-known of the Bantu-Negro tribes are the Ba-Kongo (Ba-Fiot), who
dwell chiefly in the north, and the Abunda (Mbunda, Ba-Bundo), who
occupy the central part of the province, which takes its name from the
Ngola tribe of Abunda. Another of these tribes, the Bangala, living
on the west bank of the upper Kwango, must not be confounded with the
Bangala of the middle Congo. In the Abunda is a considerable strain of
Portuguese blood. The Ba-Lunda inhabit the Lunda district. Along the
upper Kunene and in other districts of the plateau are settlements of
Boers, the Boer population being about 2000. In the coast towns the
majority of the white inhabitants are Portuguese. The Mushi-Kongo
and other divisions of the Ba-Kongo retain curious traces of the
Christianity professed by them in the 16th and 17th centuries and
possibly later. Crucifixes are used as potent fetish charms or as
symbols of power passing down from chief to chief; whilst every native
has a “Santu” or Christian name and is dubbed dom or dona.
Fetishism is the prevailing religion throughout the province. The
dwelling-places of the natives are usually small huts of the simplest
construction, used chiefly as sleeping apartments; the day is spent in
an open space in front of the hut protected from the sun by a roof of
palm or other leaves.

Chief Towns.—The chief towns are Sao Paulo de Loanda, the
capital, Kabinda, Benguella and Mossamedes (q.v.). Lobito, a
little north of Benguella, is a town which dates from 1905 and owes
its existence to the bay of the same name having been chosen as the
sea terminus of a railway to the far interior. Noki is on the southern
bank of the Congo at the head of navigation from the sea, and close
to the Congo Free State frontier. It is available for ships of large
tonnage, and through it passes the Portuguese portion of the trade of
the lower Congo. Ambriz—the only seaport of consequence in the Congo
district of the province—is at the mouth of the Loje river, about 70
m. N. of Loanda. Novo Redondo and Egito are small ports between Loanda
and Benguella. Port Alexander is in the district of Mossamedes and S.
of the town of that name.

In the interior Humpata, about 95 m. from Mossamedes, is the chief
centre of the Boer settlers; otherwise there are none but native towns
containing from 1000 to 3000 inhabitants and often enclosed by a ring
of sycamore trees. Ambaca and Malanje are the chief places in the
fertile agricultural district of the middle Kwanza, S.E. of Loanda,
with which they are in railway communication. Sao Salvador (pop. 1500)
is the name given by the Portuguese to Bonza Congo, the chief town
of the “kingdom of Congo.” It stands 1840 ft. above sea-level and is
about 160 m. inland and 100 S.E. of the river port of Noki, in 6°
15′ S. Of the cathedral and other stone buildings erected in the 16th
century, there exist but scanty ruins. The city walls were destroyed
in the closing years of the 19th century and the stone used to build
government offices. There is a fort, built about 1850, and a small
military force is at the disposal of the Portuguese resident. Bembe
and Encoje are smaller towns in the Congo district south of Sao
Salvador. Bihe, the capital of the plateau district of the same
name forming the hinterland of Benguella, is a large caravan centre.
Kangomba, the residence of the king of Bihe, is a large town. Caconda
is in the hill country S.E. of Benguella.

Agriculture and Trade.—Angola is rich in both agricultural
and mineral resources. Amongst the cultivated products are mealies
and manioc, the sugar-cane and cotton, coffee and tobacco plants.
The chief exports are coffee, rubber, wax, palm kernels and palm-oil,
cattle and hides and dried or salt fish. Gold dust, cotton, ivory and
gum are also exported. The chief imports are food-stuffs, cotton and
woollen goods and hardware. Considerable quantities of coal come
from South Wales. Oxen, introduced from Europe and from South Africa,
flourish. There are sugar factories, where rum is also distilled and a
few other manufactures, but the prosperity of the province depends
on the “jungle” products obtained through the natives and from the
plantations owned by Portuguese and worked by indentured labour, the
labourers being generally “recruited” from the far interior. The trade
of the province, which had grown from about £800,000 in 1870 to
about £3,000,000 in 1905, is largely with Portugal and in Portuguese
bottoms. Between 1893 and 1904 the percentage of Portuguese as
compared with foreign goods entering the province increased from 43 to
201%, a result due to the preferential duties in force.

The minerals found include thick beds of copper at Bembe, and deposits
on the M’Brije and the Cuvo and in various places in the southern
part of the province; iron at Ociras (on the Lucalla affluent of the
Kwanza) and in Bailundo; petroleum and asphalt in Dande and Quinzao;
gold in Lombije and Cassinga; and mineral salt in Quissama. The native
blacksmiths are held in great repute.

Communications.—There is a regular steamship communication
between Portugal, England and Germany, and Loanda, which port is
within sixteen days’ steam of Lisbon. There is also a regular service
between Cape Town, Lobito and Lisbon and Southampton. The Portuguese
line is subsidized by the government. The railway from Loanda to
Ambaca and Malanje is known as the Royal Trans-African railway. It
is of metre gauge, was begun in 1887 and is some 300 m. long. It was
intended to carry the line across the continent to Mozambique,
but when the line reached Ambaca (225 m.) in 1894 that scheme
was abandoned. The railway had created a record in being the most
expensive built in tropical Africa—£8942 per mile. A railway from
Lobito Bay, 25 m.N. of Benguella, begun in 1904, runs towards the
Congo-Rhodesia frontier. It is of standard African gauge (3 ft. 6
in.) and is worked by an English company. It is intended to serve the
Katanga copper mines. Besides these two main railways, there are other
short lines linking the seaports to their hinterland. Apart from the
railways, [v.02 p.0040]
communication is by ancient caravan routes and by
ox-wagon tracks in the southern district. Riding-oxen are also used.
The province is well supplied with telegraphic communication and is
connected with Europe by submarine cables.

Government and Revenue.—The administration of the province
is carried on under a governor-general, resident at Loanda, who acts
under the direction of the ministry of the colonies at Lisbon. At the
head of each district is a local governor. Legislative powers, save
those delegated to the governor-general, are exercised by the home
government. Revenue is raised chiefly from customs, excise duties
and direct taxation. The revenue (in 1904-1905 about £350,000)
is generally insufficient to meet expenditure (in 1904-1905 over
£490,000)—the balance being met by a grant from the mother country.
Part of the extra expenditure is, however, on railways and other
reproductive works.

History.—The Portuguese established themselves on the west
coast of Africa towards the close of the 15th century. The river Congo
was discovered by Diogo Cam or Cao in 1482. He erected a stone pillar
at the mouth of the river, which accordingly took the title of Rio
de Padrao, and established friendly relations with the natives, who
reported that the country was subject to a great monarch, Mwani Congo
or lord of Congo, resident at Bonza Congo. The Portuguese were not
long in making themselves influential in the country. Gonçalo de Sousa
was despatched on a formal embassy in 1490; and the first missionaries
entered the country in his train. The king was soon afterwards
baptized and Christianity was nominally established as the national
religion. In 1534 a cathedral was founded at Bonza Congo (renamed Sao
Salvador), and in 1560 the Jesuits arrived with Paulo Diaz de Novaes.
Of the prosperity of the country the Portuguese have left the most
glowing and indeed incredible accounts. It was, however, about this
time ravaged by cannibal invaders (Bangala) from the interior,
and Portuguese influence gradually declined. The attention of the
Portuguese was, moreover, now turned more particularly to the southern
districts of Angola. In 1627 the bishop’s seat was removed to Sao
Paulo de Loanda and Sao Salvador declined in importance. In the 18th
century, in spite of hindrances from Holland and France, steps were
taken towards re-establishing Portuguese authority in the northern
regions; in 1758 a settlement was formed at Encoje; from 1784 to 1789
the Portuguese carried on a war against the natives of Mussolo (the
district immediately south of Ambriz); in 1791 they built a fort at
Quincollo on the Loje, and for a time they worked the mines of
Bembe. Until, however, the “scramble for Africa” began in 1884, they
possessed no fort or settlement on the coast to the north of Ambriz,
which was first occupied in 1855. At Sao Salvador, however, the
Portuguese continued to exercise influence. The last of the native
princes who had real authority was a potentate known as Dom Pedro
V. He was placed on the throne in 1855 with the help of a Portuguese
force, and reigned over thirty years. In 1888 a Portuguese resident
was stationed at Salvador, and the kings of Congo became pensioners of
the government.

Angola proper, and the whole coast-line of what now constitutes the
province of that name, was discovered by Diogo Cam during 1482 and
the three following years. The first governor sent to Angola was Paulo
Diaz, a grandson of Bartholomew Diaz, who reduced to submission the
region south of the Kwanza nearly as far as Benguella. The city of
Loanda was founded in 1576, Benguella in 1617. From that date the
sovereignty of Portugal over the coast-line, from its present southern
limit as far north as Ambriz (7° 50′ S.) has been undisputed save
between 1640 and 1648, during which time the Dutch attempted to expel
the Portuguese and held possession of the ports. Whilst the economic
development of the country was not entirely neglected and many useful
food products were introduced, the prosperity of the province was
very largely dependent on the slave trade with Brazil, which was not
legally abolished until 1830 and in fact continued for many years
subsequently.

In 1884 Great Britain, which up to that time had steadily refused
to acknowledge that Portugal possessed territorial rights north of
Ambriz, concluded a treaty recognizing Portuguese sovereignty over
both banks of the lower Congo; but the treaty, meeting with opposition
in England and Germany, was not ratified. Agreements concluded with
the Congo Free State, Germany and France in 1885-1886 (modified in
details by subsequent arrangements) fixed the limits of the province,
except in the S.E., where the frontier between Barotseland (N.W.
Rhodesia) and Angola was determined by an Anglo-Portuguese agreement
of 1891 and the arbitration award of the king of Italy in 1905 (see
AFRICA: History). Up to the end of the 19th century the hold
of Portugal over the interior of the province was slight, though its
influence extended to the Congo and Zambezi basins. The abolition of
the external slave trade proved very injurious to the trade of the
seaports, but from 1860 onward the agricultural resources of the
country were developed with increasing energy, a work in which
Brazilian merchants took the lead. After the definite partition of
Africa among the European powers, Portugal applied herself with some
seriousness to exploit Angola and her other African possessions.
Nevertheless, in comparison with its natural wealth the development
of the country has been slow. Slavery and the slave trade continued
to flourish in the interior in the early years of the 20th century,
despite the prohibitions of the Portuguese government. The extension
of authority over the inland tribes proceeded very slowly and was not
accomplished without occasional reverses. Thus in September 1904 a
Portuguese column lost over 300 men killed, including 114 Europeans,
in an encounter with the Kunahamas on the Kunene, not far from the
German frontier. The Kunahamas are a wild, raiding tribe and
were probably largely influenced by the revolt of their southern
neighbours, the Hereros, against the Germans. In 1905 and again in
1907 there was renewed fighting in the same region.

AUTHORITIES.—E. de Vasconcellos, As Colonias
Portuguesas (Lisbon, 1896-1897); J. J. Monteiro, Angola and
the River Congo (2 vols. London, 1875); Viscount de Paiva Manso,
Historia do Congo…. (Documentos) (Lisbon, 1877); A Report
of the Kingdom of Congo (London, 1881), an English translation,
with notes by Margarite Hutchinson, of Filippo Pigafetta’s
Relatione del Reame di Congo (Rome, 1591), a book founded on
the statements and writings of Duarte Lopez; Rev. Thos. Lewis, “The
Ancient Kingdom of Kongo” in Geographical Journal, vol. xix.
and vol. xxxi. (London, 1902 and 1908); The Strange Adventures
of Andrew Battell of Leigh in Angola and the Adjoining Regions
(London, 1901), a volume of the Hakluyt Society, edited by E. G.
Ravenstein, who gives in appendices the history of the country from
its discovery to the end of the 17th century; J. C. Feo Cardozo,
Memorias contendo … a historia dos governadores e capitaens
generaes de Angola, desde 1575 até 1825 (Paris, 1825); H. W.
Nevinson, A Modern Slavery (London, 1906), an examination of
the system of indentured labour and its recruitment; Ornithologie
d’Angola, by J. V. Barboza du Bocage (Lisbon, 1881); “Géologie des
Colonies portugaises en Afrique,” by P. Choffat, in Com. d. service
géol. du Portugal. See also the annual reports on the Trade of
Angola, issued by the British Foreign Office.

ANGORA, or ENGURI. (1) A city of Turkey (anc. Ancyra) in Asia,
capital of the vilayet of the same name, situated upon a steep, rocky
hill, which rises 500 ft. above the plain, on the left bank of the
Enguri Su, a tributary of the Sakaria (Sangarius), about 220 m.
E.S.E. of Constantinople. The hill is crowned by the ruins of the old
citadel, which add to the picturesqueness of the view; but the town
is not well built, its streets being narrow and many of its houses
constructed of sun-dried mud bricks; there are, however, many
fine remains of Graeco-Roman and Byzantine architecture, the most
remarkable being the temple of Rome and Augustus, on the walls of
which is the famous Monumentum Ancyranum (see ANCYRA). Ancyra
was the centre of the Tectosages, one of the three Gaulish tribes
which settled in Galatia in the 3rd century B.C., and became the
capital of the Roman province of Galatia when it was formally
constituted in 25 B.C. During the Byzantine period, throughout
which it occupied a position of great importance, it was captured by
Persians and Arabs; then it fell into the hands of the Seljuk Turks,
was held for eighteen years by the Latin Crusaders, and finally passed
to the Ottoman Turks in 1360. In 1402 a great battle was fought in the
vicinity of Angora, in which the Turkish sultan Bayezid was defeated
and made prisoner by the Tatar conqueror Timur. In 1415 it was
recovered by the Turks under Mahommed I., and since that period has
[v.02 p.0041]
belonged to the Ottoman empire. In 1832 it was taken
by the Egyptians under Ibrahim Pasha. Angora is connected with
Constantinople by railway, and exports wool, mohair, grain and yellow
berries. Mohair cloth is manufactured, and the town is noted for its
honey and fruit. From 1639 to 1768 there was an agency of the Levant
Company here; there is now a British consul. Pop. estimated at 28,000
(Moslems, 18,000; Christians, largely Roman Catholic Armenians, about
9400; Jews, 400).

(2) A Turkish vilayet in north-central Asia Minor, which includes most
of the ancient Galatia. It is an agricultural country, depending for
its prosperity on its grain, wool (average annual export, 4,400,000
ft), and the mohair obtained from the beautiful Angora goats (average
annual clip, 3,300,000 lb). The fineness of the hair may perhaps be
ascribed to some peculiarity in the atmosphere, for it is remarkable
that the cats, dogs and other animals of the country are to a certain
extent affected in the same way, and that they all lose much of their
distinctive beauty when taken from their native districts. The only
important industry is carpet-weaving at Kir-sheher and Kaisarieh.
There are mines of silver, copper, lignite and salt, and many hot
springs, including some of great repute medicinally. Average annual
exports 1896-1898, £920,762; imports, £411,836. Pop. about 900,000
(Moslems, 765,000 to 800,000, the rest being Christians, with a few
hundred Jews).

(J. G. C. A.)

See C. Ritter, Erdkunde van Asien (vol. xviii., 1837-1839); V.
Cuinet, La Turquie d’Asie, t, i. (1891); Murray’s Handbook
to Asia Minor (1895); and other works mentioned under ANCYRA.

ANGOULÊME, CHARLES DE VALOIS, DUKE OF (1573-1650), the natural son of
Charles IX. of France and Marie Touchet, was born on the 28th of April
1573, at the castle of Fayet in Dauphiné. His father dying in the
following year, commended him to the care and favour of his brother
and successor, Henry III., who faithfully fulfilled the charge. His
mother married François de Balzac, marquis d’Entragues, and one of her
daughters, Henriette, marchioness of Verneuil, afterwards became the
mistress of Henry IV. Charles of Valois, was carefully educated, and
was destined for the order of Malta. At the early age of sixteen he
attained one of the highest dignities of the order, being made grand
prior of France. Shortly after he came into possession of large
estates left by Catherine de’ Medici, from one of which he took his
title of count of Auvergne. In 1591 he obtained a dispensation from
the vows of the order of Malta, and married Charlotte, daughter of
Henry, Marshal d’Amville, afterwards duke of Montmorency. In 1589
Henry III. was assassinated, but on his deathbed he commended Charles
to the good-will of his successor Henry IV. By that monarch he was
made colonel of horse, and in that capacity served in the campaigns
during the early part of the reign. But the connexion between the king
and the marchioness of Verneuil appears to have been very displeasing
to Auvergne, and in 1601 he engaged in the conspiracy formed by the
dukes of Savoy, Biron and Bouillon, one of the objects of which was
to force Henry to repudiate his wife and marry the marchioness. The
conspiracy was discovered; Biron and Auvergne were arrested and Biron
was executed. Auvergne after a few months’ imprisonment was released,
chiefly through the influence of his half-sister, his aunt, the
duchess of Angouleme and his father-in-law. He then entered into
fresh intrigues with the court of Spain, acting in concert with
the marchioness of Verneuil and her father d’Entragues. In 1604
d’Entragues and he were arrested and condemned to death; at the same
time the marchioness was condemned to perpetual imprisonment in a
convent. She easily obtained pardon, and the sentence of death against
the other two was commuted into perpetual imprisonment. Auvergne
remained in the Bastille for eleven years, from 1605 to 1616. A decree
of the parlement (1606), obtained by Marguerite de Valois, deprived
him of nearly all his possessions, including Auvergne, though he still
retained the title. In 1616 he was released, was restored to his
rank of colonel-general of horse, and despatched against one of the
disaffected nobles, the duke of Longueville, who had taken Péronne.
Next year he commanded the forces collected in the Île de France, and
obtained some successes. In 1619 he received by bequest, ratified in
1620 by royal grant, the duchy of Angoulême. Soon after he was engaged
on an important embassy to Germany, the result of which was the
treaty of Ulm, signed July 1620. In 1627 he commanded the large forces
assembled at the siege of La Rochelle; and some years after in 1635,
during the Thirty Years’ War, he was general of the French army in
Lorraine. In 1636 he was made lieutenant-general of the army. He
appears to have retired from public life shortly after the death of
Richelieu in 1643. His first wife died in 1636, and in 1644 he married
Francoise de Narbonne, daughter of Charles, baron of Mareuil. She had
no children and survived her husband until 1713. Angouleme himself
died on the 24th of September 1650. By his first wife he had three
children: Henri, who became insane; Louis Emmanuel, who succeeded his
father as duke of Angoulême and was colonel-general of light cavalry
and governor of Provence; and Françoise, who died in 1622.

The duke was the author of the following works:—(i)Mémoires,
from the assassination of Henri III. to the battle of Arques
(1589-1593) published at Paris by Boneau, and reprinted by Buchon
in his Choix de chroniques (1836) and by Petitot in his
Mémoires (1st series, vol. xliv.); (2) Les Harangues,
prononcés en assemblée de MM. les princes protestants d’Allemagne,
par Monseigneur le duc d’ Angoulême (1620); (3) a translation of a
Spanish work by Diego de Torres. To him has also been ascribed the
work, La générale et fidèle Rélation de tout ce qui s’est passé
en l’isle de Ré, envoyée par le roi à la royne sa mère (Paris,
1627).

ANGOULÊME, a city of south-western France, capital of the department
of Charente, 83 m. N.N.E. of Bordeaux on the railway between Bordeaux
and Poitiers. Pop. (1906) 30,040. The town proper occupies an elevated
promontory, washed on the north by the Charente and on the south
and west by the Anguienne, a small tributary of that river. The more
important of the suburbs lie towards the east, where the promontory
joins the main plateau, of which it forms the north-western extremity.

The main line of the Orleans railway passes through a tunnel beneath
the town. In place of its ancient fortifications Angoulême is
encircled by boulevards known as the Remparts, from which fine
views may be obtained in all directions. Within the town the streets
are often dark and narrow, and, apart from the cathedral and the hôtel
de ville, the architecture is of little interest. The cathedral of
St. Pierre (see CATHEDRAL), a church in the Byzantine-Romanesque style,
dates from the 11th and 12th centuries, but has undergone frequent
restoration, and was partly rebuilt in the latter half of the igth
century by the architect Paul Abadie. The façade, flanked by two
towers with cupolas, is decorated with arcades filled in with statuary
and sculpture, the whole representing the Last Judgment. The crossing
is surmounted by a dome, and the extremity of the north transept by
a fine square tower over 160 ft. high. The hôtel de ville, also by
Abadie, is a handsome modern structure, but preserves two towers of
the chateau of the counts of Angoulême, on the site of which it is
built. It contains museums of paintings and archaeology. Angoulême is
the seat of a bishop, a prefect, and a court of assizes. Its public
institutions include tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a
council of trade-arbitrators, a chamber of commerce and a branch of
the Bank of France. It also has a lycée, training-colleges, a school
of artillery, a library and several learned societies. It is a centre
of the paper-making industry, with which the town has been connected
since the 14th century. Most of the mills are situated on the banks
of the watercourses in the neighbourhood of the town. The subsidiary
industries, such as the manufacture of machinery and wire fabric,
are of considerable importance. Iron and copper founding, brewing,
tanning, and the manufacture of gunpowder, confectionery, heavy iron
goods, gloves, boots and shoes and cotton goods are also carried on.
Commerce is carried on in wine, brandy and building-stone.

Angoulême (Iculisma) was taken by Clovis from the Visigoths in
507, and plundered by the Normans in the 9th century. In 1360 it
was surrendered by the peace of Bretigny to the English; they were,
however, expelled in 1373 by the troops of Charles V., who granted
the town numerous privileges. It suffered much during the Wars of
Religion, especially in 1568 after its capture by the Protestants
under Coligny.

The countship of Angoulême dated from the 9th century, the most
important of the early counts being William Taillefer, whose
descendants held the title till the end of the 12th century. Withdrawn
from them on more than one occasion by Richard Coeur-de-Lion, it
passed to King John of England on his marriage with Isabel, daughter
of Count Adhémar, and by her subsequent marriage in 1220 to Hugh X.
passed to the Lusignan family, counts of Marche. On the death of Hugh
XIII. in 1302 without issue, his possessions passed to the crown. In
1394 the countship came to the house of Orleans, a member of which,
Francis I., became king of France in 1515 and raised it to the rank
of duchy in favour of his mother Louise of Savoy. The duchy afterwards
changed hands several times, one of its holders being Charles of
Valois, natural son of Charles IX. The last duke was Louis-Antoine,
eldest son of Charles X., who died in 1844.

See A. F. Lièvre, Angoulême: histoire, institutions et monuments
(Angoulême, 1885).

ANGOUMOIS, an old province of France, nearly corresponding to-day to
the department of Charente. Its capital was Angoulême.

See Essai d’une bibliothèque historique de l’Angoumois, by E.
Castaigne (1845).

ANGRA, or ANGRA DO HEROISMO (“Bay of Heroism,” a name given it in
1829, to commemorate its successful defence against the Miguelist
party), the former capital of the Portuguese archipelago of the
Azores, and chief town of an administrative district, comprising the
islands of Terceira, St. George and Graciosa. Pop. (1900) 10,788. Angra
is built on the south coast of Terceira in 38° 38′ N. and in 27° 13′
W. It is the headquarters of a military command, and the residence of
a Roman Catholic bishop; its principal buildings are the cathedral,
military college, arsenal and observatory. The harbour, now of little
commercial or strategic importance, but formerly a celebrated naval
station, is sheltered on the west and south-west by the promontory
of Mt. Brazil; but it is inferior to the neighbouring ports of Ponta
Delgada and Horta. The foreign trade is not large, and consists
chiefly in the exportation of pineapples and other fruit. Angra served
as a refuge for Queen Maria II. of Portugal from 1830 to 1833.

ANGRA PEQUENA, a bay in German South-West Africa, in 26° 38′ S.,
15° E., discovered by Bartholomew Diaz in 1487. F. A. E. Lüderitz, of
Bremen, established a trading station here in 1883, and his agent
concluded treaties with the neighbouring chiefs, who ceded large
tracts of country to the newcomers. On the 24th of April 1884 Luderitz
transferred his rights to the German imperial government, and on the
following 7th of August a German protectorate over the district was
proclaimed. (See AFRICA, §5, and GERMAN SOUTH-WEST AFRICA.) Angra
Pequena has been renamed by the Germans Lüderitz Bay, and the adjacent
country is sometimes called Lüderitzland. The harbour is poor. At the
head of the bay is a small town, whence a railway, begun in 1906, runs
east in the direction of Bechuanaland. The surrounding country
for many miles is absolute desert, except after rare but terrible
thunderstorms, when the dry bed of the Little Fish river is suddenly
filled with a turbulent stream, the water finding its way into the
bay.

The islands off the coast of Angra Pequena, together with others north
and south, were annexed to Great Britain in 1867 and added to Cape
Colony in 1874. Seal Island and Penguin Island are in the bay;
Ichaboe, Mercury, and Hollam’s Bird islands are to the north; Halifax,
Long, Possession, Albatross, Pomona, Plumpudding, and Roastbeef
islands are to the south. On these islands are guano deposits; the
most valuable is on Ichaboe Island.

ANGSTRÖM, ANDERS JONAS (1814-1874), Swedish physicist, was born on
the 13th of August 1814 at Lögdö, Medelpad, Sweden. He was educated
at Upsala University, where in 1839 he became privat docent
in physics. In 1842 he went to Stockholm Observatory in order to gain
experience in practical astronomical work, and in the following year
ht became observer at Upsala Observatory. Becoming interested in
terrestrial magnetism he made many observations of magnetic intensity
and declination in various parts of Sweden, and was charged by the
Stockholm Academy of Sciences with the task, not completed till
shortly before his death, of working out the magnetic data obtained
by the Swedish frigate “Eugénie” on her voyage round the world in
1851-1853. In 1858 he succeeded Adolph Ferdinand Svanberg (1806-1857)
in the chair of physics at Upsala, and there he died on the 21st of
June 1874. His most important work was concerned with the conduction
of heat and with spectroscopy. In his optical researches, Optiska
Undersökningar, presented to the Stockholm Academy in 1853, he
not only pointed out that the electric spark yields two superposed
spectra, one from the metal of the electrode and the other from the
gas in which it passes, but deduced from Euler’s theory of
resonance that an incandescent gas emits luminous rays of the same
refrangibility as those which it can absorb. This statement, as Sir
E. Sabine remarked when awarding him the Rumford medal of the
Royal Society in 1872, contains a fundamental principle of spectrum
analysis, and though for a number of years it was overlooked it
entitles him to rank as one of the founders of spectroscopy. From 1861
onwards he paid special attention to the solar spectrum. He announced
the existence of hydrogen, among other elements, in the sun’s
atmosphere in 1862, and in 1868 published his great map of the normal
solar spectrum which long remained authoritative in questions of
wave-length, although his measurements were inexact to the extent
of one part in 7000 or 8000 owing to the metre which he used as his
standard having been slightly too short. He was the first, in 1867, to
examine the spectrum of the aurora borealis, and detected and measured
the characteristic bright line in its yellow green region; but he was
mistaken in supposing that this same line, which is often called by
his name, is also to be seen in the zodiacal light.

His son, KNUT JOHAN ÅNGSTRÖM, was born at Upsala on the 12th of
January 1857, and studied at the university of that town from 1877
to 1884. After spending a short time in Strassburg he was appointed
lecturer in physics at Stockholm University in 1885, but in 1891
returned to Upsala, where in 1896 he became professor of physics. He
especially devoted himself to investigations of the radiation of heat
from the sun and its absorption by the earth’s atmosphere, and to that
end devised various delicate methods and instruments, including his
electric compensation pyrheliometer, invented in 1893, and apparatus
for obtaining a photographic representation of the infra-red spectrum
(1895).

ANGUIER, FRANÇOIS (c. 1604-1669), and MICHEL (1612-1686), French
sculptors, were two brothers, natives of Eu in Normandy. Their
apprenticeship was served in the studio of Simon Guillain. The chief
works of François are the monument to Cardinal de Bérulle, founder of
the Carmelite order, in the chapel of the oratory at Paris, of which
all but the bust has been destroyed, and the mausoleum of Henri II.,
last duc de Montmorency, at Moulins. To Michel are due the sculptures
of the triumphal arch at the Porte St. Denis, begun in 1674, to serve
as a memorial for the conquests of Louis XIV. A marble group of the
Nativity in the church of Val de Grâce was reckoned his masterpiece.
From 1662 to 1667 he directed the progress of the sculpture and
decoration in this church, and it was he who superintended the
decoration of the apartments of Anne of Austria in the old Louvre. F.
Fouquet also employed him for his chateau in Vaux.

See Henri Stein, Les frères Anguier (1889), with catalogue of
works, and many references to original sources; Armand Sanson, Deux
sculpteurs Normands: les frères Anguier (1889).

ANGUILLA, or SNAKE, a small island in the British Indies, part of the
presidency of St. Kitts-Nevis, in the colony of the Leeward Islands.
Pop. (1901) 3890, mostly negroes. It is situated in 18° 12′ N. and 63°
5′ W., about 60 m. N.W. of St Kitts, is 16 m. long and has an area of
35 sq. m. The destruction of trees by charcoal-burners has resulted in
the almost complete deforestation of the island. Nearly all the land
is in the hands of peasant proprietors, who cultivate sweet potatoes,
peas, beans, corn, &c., and rear sheep and goats. Cattle, phosphate
of lime and salt, manufactured from a lake in the interior, are the
principal [v.02 p.0043]
exports, the market for these being the neighbouring
island of St. Thomas.

ANGULATE (Lat. angulus, an angle), shaped with corners or
angles; an adjective used in botany and zoology for the shape of
stems, leaves and wings.

ANGUS, EARLS OF. Angus was one of the seven original earldoms of
the Pictish kingdom of Scotland, said to have been occupied by seven
brothers of whom Angus was the eldest. The Celtic line ended with
Matilda (fl. 1240), countess of Angus in her own right, who
married in 1243 Gilbert de Umfravill and founded the Norman line of
three earls, which ended in 1381, the then holder of the title being
summoned to the English parliament. Meanwhile John Stewart of Bonkyl,
co. Berwick, had been created earl of Angus in a new line. This third
creation ended with Margaret Stewart, countess of Angus in her
own right, and widow of Thomas, 13th earl of Mar. By an irregular
connexion with William, 1st earl of Douglas, who had married Mar’s
sister, she became the mother of George Douglas, 1st earl of Angus
(c. 1380-1403), and secured a charter of her estates for her
son, to whom in 1389 the title was granted by King Robert II. He was
taken prisoner at Homildon Hill and died in England. The 5th earl was
his great-grandson.

ARCHIBALD DOUGLAS, 5th earl of Angus (c. 1450-c. 1514),
the famous “Bell the Cat,” was born about 1450 and succeeded his
father, George the 4th earl, in 1462 or 1463. In 1481 he was made
warden of the east marches, but the next year he joined the league
against James III. and his favourite Robert Cochrane at Lauder, where
he earned his nickname by offering to bell the cat, i.e. to
deal with the latter, beginning the attack upon him by pulling his
gold chain off his neck and causing him with others of the king’s
favourites to be hanged. Subsequently he joined Alexander Stewart,
duke of Albany, in league with Edward IV. of England on the 11th
of February 1483, signing the convention at Westminster which
acknowledged the overlordship of the English king. In March however
they returned, outwardly at least, to their allegiance, and received
pardons for their treason. Later Angus was one of the leaders in the
rebellion against James in 1487 and 1488, which ended in the latter’s
death. He was made one of the guardians of the young king James IV.
but soon lost influence, being superseded by the Homes and Hepburns,
and the wardenship of the marches was given to Alexander Home. Though
outwardly on good terms with James, he treacherously made a treaty
with Henry VII. about 1489 or 1491, by which he undertook to govern
his relations with James according to instructions from England, and
to hand over Hermitage Castle, commanding the pass through Liddesdale
into Scotland, on the condition of receiving English estates in
compensation. In October 1491 he fortified his castle of Tantallon
against James, but was obliged to submit and exchange his Liddesdale
estate and Hermitage Castle for the lordship of Bothwell. In 1493 he
was again in favour, received various grants of lands, and was made
chancellor, which office he retained till 1498. In 1501 he was once
more in disgrace and confined to Dumbarton Castle. After the disaster
at Flodden in 1513, at which he was not present, but at which he lost
his two eldest sons, Angus was appointed one of the counsellors of the
queen regent. He died at the close of this year, or in 1514. He was
married three times, and by his first wife had four sons and several
daughters. His third son, Gavin Douglas, bishop of Dunkeld, is
separately noticed.

ARCHIBALD DOUGLAS, the 6th earl (c. 1489-1557), son of George,
master of Douglas, who was killed at Flodden, succeeded on his
grandfather’s death. In 1509 he had married Margaret (d. 1513),
daughter of Patrick Hepburn, 1st earl of Bothwell; and in 1514 he
married the queen dowager Margaret of Scotland, widow of James IV.,
and eldest sister of Henry VIII. By this latter act he stirred up the
jealousy of the nobles and the opposition of the French party, and
civil war broke out. He was superseded in the government on the
arrival of John Stewart, duke of Albany, who was made regent. Angus
withdrew to his estates in Forfarshire, while Albany besieged the
queen at Stirling and got possession of the royal children; then he
joined Margaret after her flight at Morpeth, and on her departure for
London returned and made his peace with Albany in 1516. He met her
once more at Berwick in June 1517, when Margaret returned to Scotland
on Albany’s departure in vain hopes of regaining the regency.
Meanwhile, during Margaret’s absence, Angus had formed a connexion
with a daughter of the laird of Traquair. Margaret avenged his neglect
of her by refusing to support his claims for power and by secretly
trying through Albany to get a divorce. In Edinburgh Angus held his
own against the attempts of James Hamilton, 1st earl of Arran, to
dislodge him. But the return of Albany in 1521, with whom Margaret now
sided against her husband, deprived him of power. The regent took the
government into his own hands; Angus was charged with high treason in
December, and in March 1522 was sent practically a prisoner to France,
whence he succeeded in escaping to London in 1524. He returned to
Scotland in November with promises of support from Henry VIII., with
whom he made a close alliance. Margaret, however, refused to have
anything to do with her husband. On the 23rd, therefore, Angus forced
his way into Edinburgh, but was fired upon by Margaret and retreated
to Tantallon. He now organized a large party of nobles against
Margaret with the support of Henry VIII., and in February 1525 they
entered Edinburgh and called a parliament. Angus was made a lord of
the articles, was included in the council of regency, bore the king’s
crown on the opening of the session, and with Archbishop Beaton held
the chief power. In March he was appointed lieutenant of the marches,
and suppressed the disorder and anarchy on the border. In July the
guardianship of the king was entrusted to him for a fixed period
till the 1st of November, but he refused at its close to retire, and
advancing to Linlithgow put to flight Margaret and his opponents. He
now with his followers engrossed all the power, succeeded in gaining
over some of his antagonists, including Arran and the Hamiltons,
and filled the public offices with Douglases, he himself becoming
chancellor. “None that time durst strive against a Douglas nor
Douglas’s man.”^[1] The young king James, now fourteen, was far from
content under the tutelage of Angus, but he was closely guarded,
and several attempts to effect his liberation were prevented, Angus
completely defeating Lennox, who had advanced towards Edinburgh with
10,000 men in August, and subsequently taking Stirling. His successes
were consummated by a pacification with Beaton, and in 1527 and 1528
he was busy in restoring order through the country. In the latter
year, on the 11th of March, Margaret succeeded in obtaining her
divorce from Angus, and about the end of the month she and her lover,
Henry Stewart, were besieged at Stirling. A few weeks later, however,
James succeeded in escaping from Angus’s custody, took refuge with
Margaret and Arran at Stirling, and immediately proscribed Angus and
all the Douglases, forbidding them to come within seven miles of his
person. Angus, having fortified himself in Tantallon, was attainted
and his lands confiscated. Repeated attempts of James to subdue
the fortress failed, and on one occasion Angus captured the royal
artillery, but at length it was given up as a condition of the truce
between England and Scotland, and in May 1529 Angus took refuge
with Henry, obtained a pension and took an oath of allegiance, Henry
engaging to make his restoration a condition of peace. Angus had
been chiefly guided in his intrigues with England by his brother, Sir
George Douglas of Pittendriech (d. 1552), master of Angus, a
far cleverer diplomatist than himself. His life and lands were also
declared forfeit, as were those of his uncle, Archibald Douglas of
Kilspindie (d. 1535), who had been a friend of James and was
known by the nickname of “Greysteel.” These took refuge in exile.
James avenged himself on such Douglases as lay within his power.
Angus’s third sister Janet, Lady Glamis, was summoned to answer the
charge of communicating with her brothers, and on her failure
to appear her estates were forfeited. In 1537 she was tried for
conspiring against the king’s life. She was found guilty and burnt on
the Castle Hill, Edinburgh, on the 17th of July 1537. Her innocence
[v.02 p.0044]
has been generally assumed, but Tytler (Hist, of
Scotland, iv. pp. 433, 434) considered her guilty. Angus remained
in England till 1542, joining in the attacks upon his countrymen on
the border, while James refused all demands from Henry VIII. for
his restoration, and kept firm to his policy of suppressing and
extirpating the Douglas faction. On James V.’s death in 1542 Angus
returned to Scotland, with instructions from Henry to accomplish the
marriage between Mary and Edward. His forfeiture was rescinded,
his estates restored, and he was made a privy councillor and
lieutenant-general. In 1543 he negotiated the treaty of peace and
marriage, and the same year he himself married Margaret, daughter of
Robert, Lord Maxwell. Shortly afterwards strife between Angus and the
regent Arran broke out, and in April 1544 Angus was taken prisoner.
The same year Lord Hertford’s marauding expedition, which did not
spare the lands of Angus, made him join the anti-English party. He
entered into a bond with Arran and others to maintain their allegiance
to Mary, and gave his support to the mission sent to France to offer
the latter’s hand. In July 1544 he was appointed lieutenant of the
south of Scotland, and distinguished himself on the 27th of February
1545 in the victory over the English at Ancrum Moor. He still
corresponded with Henry VIII., but nevertheless signed in 1546 the act
cancelling the marriage and peace treaty, and on the 10th of September
commanded the van in the great defeat of Pinkie, when he again won
fame. In 1548 the attempt by Lennox and Wharton to capture him and
punish him for his duplicity failed, Angus escaping after his defeat
to Edinburgh by sea, and Wharton being driven back to Carlisle. Under
the regency of Mary of Lorraine his restless and ambitious character
and the number of his retainers gave cause for frequent alarms to
the government. On the 31st of August 1547 he resigned his earldom,
obtaining a regrant sibi et suis haeredibus masculis et suis
assignatis quibuscumque. His career was a long struggle for power
and for the interests of his family, to which national considerations
were completely subordinate. He died in January 1557. By Margaret
Tudor he had Margaret, his only surviving legitimate child, who
married Matthew, 4th earl of Lennox, and was mother of Lord Darnley.
He was succeeded by his nephew David, son of Sir George Douglas of
Pittendriech.

ARCHIBALD DOUGLAS, 8th earl, and earl of Morton (1555-1588), was the
son of David, 7th earl. He succeeded to the title and estates in 1558,
being brought up by his uncle, the 4th earl of Morton, a Presbyterian.
In 1573 he was made a privy councillor and sheriff of Berwick, in 1574
lieutenant-general of Scotland, in 1577 warden of the west marches and
steward of Fife, and in 1578 lieutenant-general of the realm. He gave
a strong support to Morton during the attack upon the latter, made a
vain attempt to rescue him, and was declared guilty of high treason
on the 2nd of June 1581. He now entered into correspondence with the
English government for an invasion of Scotland to rescue Morton,
and on the latter’s execution in June went to London, where he
was welcomed by Elizabeth. After the raid of Ruthven in 1582 Angus
returned to Scotland and was reconciled to James, but soon afterwards
the king shook off the control of the earls of Mar and Gowrie,
and Angus was again banished from the court. In 1584 he joined
the rebellion of Mar and Glamis, but the movement failed, and the
insurgents fled to Berwick. Later they took up their residence at
Newcastle, which became a centre of Presbyterianism and of projects
against the Scottish government, encouraged by Elizabeth, who regarded
the banished lords as friends of the English and antagonists of the
French interest. In February 1585 they came to London, and cleared
themselves of the accusation of plotting against James’s life; a plan
was prepared for their restoration and for the overthrow of James
Stewart, earl of Arran. In October they invaded Scotland and gained
an easy victory over Arran, captured Stirling Castle with the king in
November, and secured from James the restoration of their estates and
the control of the government. In 1586 Angus was appointed warden of
the marches and lieutenant-general on the border, and performed good
services in restoring order; but he was unable to overcome the king’s
hostility to the establishment of Presbyterian government. In January
1586 he was granted the earldom of Morton with the lands entailed upon
him by his uncle. He died on the 4th of August 1588. He was succeeded
in the earldom by his cousin William, a descendant of the 5th earl.
(For the Morton title, see MORTON, JAMES DOUGLAS, 4th EARL OF.)

WILLIAM DOUGLAS, 10th earl (c. 1554-1611), was the son of William, the
9th earl (1533-1591). He studied at St. Andrews University and joined
the household of the earl of Morton. Subsequently, while visiting the
French court, he became a Roman Catholic, and was in consequence, on
his return, disinherited and placed under restraint. Nevertheless he
succeeded to his father’s titles and estates in 1591, and though in
1592 he was disgraced for his complicity in Lord Bothwell’s plot,
he was soon liberated and performed useful services as the king’s
lieutenant in the north of Scotland. In July 1592, however, he was
asking for help from Elizabeth in a plot with Erroll and other lords
against Sir John Maitland, the chancellor, and protesting his absolute
rejection of Spanish offers, while in October he signed the Spanish
Blanks (see ERROLL, FRANCIS HAY, 9th EARL OF) and was imprisoned (on
the discovery of the treason) in Edinburgh Castle on his return in
January 1593. He succeeded on the 13th in escaping by the help of his
countess, joining the earls of Huntly and Erroll in the north.
They were offered an act of “oblivion” or “abolition” provided
they renounced their religion or quitted Scotland. Declining these
conditions they were declared traitors and “forfeited.” They remained
in rebellion, and in July 1594 an attack made by them on Aberdeen
roused James’s anger. Huntly and Erroll were subdued by James himself
in the north, and Angus failed in an attempt upon Edinburgh in concert
with the earl of Bothwell. Subsequently in 1597 they all renounced
their religion, declared themselves Presbyterians, and were restored
to their estates and honours. Angus was again included in the privy
council, and in June 1598 was appointed the king’s lieutenant
in southern Scotland, in which capacity he showed great zeal and
conducted the “Raid of Dumfries,” as the campaign against the
Johnstones was called. Not long afterwards, Angus, offended at the
advancement of Huntly to a marquisate, recanted, resisted all the
arguments of the ministers to bring him to a “better mind,” and was
again excommunicated in 1608. In 1609 he withdrew to France, and
died in Paris on the 3rd of March 1611. He was succeeded by his son
William, as 11th earl of Angus, afterwards 1st marquis of Douglas
(1580-1660). The title is now held by the dukes of Hamilton.

AUTHORITIES.—The Douglas Book, by Sir W. Fraser (1885);
History of the House of Douglas and Angus, by D. Hume of
Godscroft (1748, legendary in some respects); History of the House
of Douglas, by Sir H. Maxwell (1902).

ANGUSSOLA or ANGUSSCIOLA, SOPHONISBA, Italian portrait painter of the
latter half of the 16th century, was born at Cremona about 1535, and
died at Palermo in 1626. In 1560, at the invitation of Philip II.,
she visited the court of Madrid, where her portraits elicited great
commendation. Vandyck is said to have declared that he had derived
more knowledge of the true principles of his art from her conversation
than from any other source. She painted several fine portraits of
herself, one of which is at Althorp. A few specimens of her painting
are to be seen at Florence and Madrid. She had three sisters, who were
also celebrated artists.

ANHALT, a duchy of Germany, and a constituent state of the German
empire, formed, in 1863, by the amalgamation of the two duchies
Anhalt-Dessau-Cöthen and Anhalt-Bernburg, and comprising all the
various Anhalt territories which were sundered apart in 1603. The
country now known as Anhalt consists of two larger portions—Eastern
and Western Anhalt, separated by the interposition of a part
of Prussian Saxony—and of five enclaves surrounded by Prussian
territory, viz. Alsleben, Mühlingen, Dornburg, Gödnitz and
Tilkerode-Abberode. The eastern and larger portion of the duchy
is enclosed by the Prussian government district of Potsdam (in
the Prussian province of Brandenburg), and Magdeburg and Merseburg
(belonging to the Prussian province of Saxony). The western
[v.02 p.0045]
or smaller portion (the so-called Upper Duchy or
Ballenstedt) is also enclosed by the two latter districts and, for a
distance of 5 m. on the west, by the duchy of Brunswick. The western
portion of the territory is undulating and in the extreme south-west,
where it forms part of the Harz range, mountainous, the Ramberg
peak attaining a height of 1900 ft. From the Harz the country gently
shelves down to the Saale; and between this river and the Elbe there
lies a fine tract of fertile country. The portion of the duchy lying
east of the Elbe is mostly a flat sandy plain, with extensive pine
forests, though interspersed, at intervals, by bog-land and rich
pastures. The Elbe is the chief river, and intersecting the eastern
portion of the duchy, from east to west, receives at Rosslau the
waters of the Mulde. The navigable Saale takes a northerly direction
through the western portion of the eastern part of the territory and
receives, on the right, the Fuhne and, on the left, the Wipper and the
Bode. The climate is on the whole mild, though somewhat inclement in
the higher regions to the south-west. The area of the duchy is 906 sq.
m., and the population in 1905 amounted to 328,007, a ratio of about
351 to the square mile. The country is divided into the districts of
Dessau, Cöthen, Zerbst, Bernburg and Ballenstedt, of which that of
Bernburg is the most, and that of Ballenstedt the least, populated.
Of the towns, four, viz. Dessau, Bernburg, Cöthen and Zerbst, have
populations exceeding 20,000. The inhabitants of the duchy, who mainly
belong to the upper Saxon race, are, with the exception of about
12,000 Roman Catholics and 1700 Jews, members of the Evangelical
(Union) Church. The supreme ecclesiastical authority is the consistory
in Dessau; while a synod of 39 members, elected for six years,
assembles at periods to deliberate on internal matters touching the
organization of the church. The Roman Catholics are under the
bishop of Paderborn. There are within the duchy four grammar schools
(gymnasia), five semi-classical and modern schools, a teachers’
seminary and four high-grade girls’ schools. Of the whole surface,
land under tillage amounts to about 60, meadowland to 7 and forest to
25%. The chief crops are corn (especially wheat), fruit, vegetables,
potatoes, beet, tobacco, flax, linseed and hops. The land is well
cultivated, and the husbandry on the royal domains and the large
estates especially so. The pastures on the banks of the Elbe yield
cattle of excellent quality. The forests are well stocked with game,
such as deer and wild boar, and the open country is well supplied
with partridges. The rivers yield abundant fish, salmon (in the Elbe),
sturgeon and lampreys. The country is rich in lignite, and salt works
are abundant. Of the manufactures of Anhalt, the chief are its sugar
factories, distilleries, breweries and chemical works. Commerce is
brisk, especially in raw products—corn, cattle, timber or wool. Coal
(lignite), guano, oil and bricks are also articles of export.
The trade of the country is furthered by its excellent roads, its
navigable rivers and its railways (165 m.), which are worked in
connexion with the Prussian system. There is a chamber of commerce in
Dessau.