The “How-to-do-it” Books

CARPENTRY FOR BOYS

Fig. 1. A Typical Work Bench.

THE “HOW-TO-DO-IT” BOOKS

CARPENTRY FOR BOYS

in simple language, including
chapters on drawing, laying out
work, designing and architecture

WITH 250 ORIGINAL ILLUSTRATIONS

By J. S. ZERBE, M.E.

AUTHOR OF

ELECTRICITY FOR BOYS
PRACTICAL MECHANICS FOR BOYS

THE NEW YORK BOOK COMPANY

New York

Copyright, 1914, by

THE NEW YORK BOOK COMPANY

[Pg i]

CONTENTS

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

[Pg 1]

CARPENTRY

A PRACTICAL COURSE, WHICH TELLS IN CONCISE AND
SIMPLE FORM “HOW TO DO IT”

INTRODUCTORY

Carpentry is the oldest of the arts, and it has
been said that the knowledge necessary to make a
good carpenter fits one for almost any trade or
occupation requiring the use of tools. The
hatchet, the saw, and the plane are the three
primal implements of the carpenter. The value
is in knowing how to use them.

The institution of Manual Training Schools
everywhere is but a tardy recognition of the value
of systematic training in the use of tools. There
is no branch of industry which needs such diversification,
in order to become efficient.

The skill of the blacksmith is centered in his
ability to forge, to weld, and to temper; that of the
machinist depends upon the callipered dimensions
of his product; the painter in his taste for harmony;
the mason on his ability to cut the stone
accurately; and the plasterer to produce a uniform
surface. But the carpenter must, in order
to be an expert, combine all these qualifications,
[Pg 2]
in a greater or less degree, and his vocation may
justly be called the King of Trades. Rightly,
therefore, it should be cultivated in order to learn
the essentials of manual training work.

But there is another feature of the utmost importance
and value, which is generally overlooked,
and on which there is placed too little stress, even
in many of the manual training schools. The
training of the mind has been systematized so as
to bring into operation the energies of all the
brain cells. Manual training to be efficient should,
at the same time, be directed into such channels
as will most widely stimulate the muscular development
of the child, while at the same time cultivating
his mind.

There is no trade which offers such a useful
field as carpentry. It may be said that the various
manual operations bring into play every
muscle of the body.

The saw, the plane, the hammer, the chisel, each
requires its special muscular energy. The carpenter,
unlike the blacksmith, does not put all
his brawn into his shoulders, nor develop his
torso at the expense of his other muscles, like
the mason. It may also be said that, unlike most
other occupations, the carpenter has both out-of-door
and indoor exercise, so that he is at all
times able to follow his occupation, summer or
[Pg 3]
winter, rain or shine; and this also further illustrates
the value of this branch of endeavor as a
healthful recreation.

It is the aim of this book to teach boys the
primary requirements—not to generalize—but to
show how to prepare and how to do the work;
what tools and materials to use; and in what manner
the tools used may be made most serviceable,
and used most advantageously.

It would be of no value to describe and illustrate
how a bracket is made; or how the framework
of a structure is provided with mortises and tenons
in order to hold it together. The boy must have
something as a base which will enable him to
design his own creations, and not be an imitator;
his mind must develop with his body. It is the
principal aim of this book to give the boy something
to think about while he is learning how to
bring each individual part to perfection.

If the boy understands that there is a principle
underlying each structural device; that there is a
reason for making certain things a definite way,
he is imbued with an incentive which will sooner
or later develop into an initiative of his own.

It is this phase in the artisan’s life which determines
whether he will be merely a machine or an
intelligent organism.

This work puts together in a simple, concise
[Pg 4]
form, not only the fundamentals which every
mechanic should learn to know, but it defines every
structural form used in this art, and illustrates all
terms it is necessary to use in the employment of
carpentry. A full chapter is devoted to drawings
practically applied. All terms are diagrammed
and defined, so that the mind may readily grasp
the ideas involved.

Finally, it will be observed that every illustration
has been specially drawn for this book. We
have not adopted the plan usually followed in
books of this class, of taking stock illustrations
of manufacturers’ tools and devices, nor have we
thought it advisable to take a picture of a tool
or a machine and then write a description around
it. We have illustrated the book to explain “how
to do the work“; also, to teach the boy what the
trade requires, and to give him the means whereby
he may readily find the form of every device, tool,
and structure used in the art.

[Pg 5]

CARPENTRY FOR BOYS

CHAPTER I

TOOLS AND THEIR USES

Knowledge of Tools.—A knowledge of tools and
their uses is the first and most important requirement.
The saw, the plane, the hatchet and the
hammer are well known to all boys; but how to
use them, and where to use the different varieties
of each kind of tool, must be learned, because
each tool grew out of some particular requirement
in the art. These uses will now be explained.

A Full Kit of Tools.—A kit of tools necessary
for doing any plain work should embrace the following:

1. A Hatchet.
2. A Claw Hammer—two sizes preferred.
3. Cross-cut Saw, 20 inches long.
4. Rip Saw, 24 inches long.
5. Wooden Mallet.
6. Jack Plane.
7. Smoothing Plane.
8. Compass Saw.
9. Brace.
10. Bits for Brace, ranging from ¼ inch to 1 inch diameter.
11. Several small Gimlets.
12. Square.
13. Compass.
14. Draw-knife.
15. Rule.
16. Two Gages.
17. Set of Firmer Chisels.
18. Two Mortising Chisels.
19. Small Back Saw.
20. Saw Clamps.
21. Miter Box.
22. Bevel Square.
23. Small Hand Square.
24. Pliers.
25. Pair of Awls.
26. Hand Clamps.
27. Set Files.
28. Glue Pot.
29. Oil Stone.
30. Grindstone.
31. Trusses.
32. Work Bench.
33. Plumb Bob.
34. Spirit Level.

[Pg 6]

The Hatchet.—The hatchet should be ground
with a bevel on each side, and not on one side
only, as is customary with a plasterer’s lathing
hatchet, because the blade of the hatchet is used
for trimming off the edges of boards. Unless
ground off with a bevel on both sides it cannot be
controlled to cut accurately. A light hatchet is
preferable to a heavy one. It should never be
used for nailing purposes, except in emergencies.
The pole of the hammer—that part which is generally
used to strike the nail with—is required in
order to properly balance the hatchet when used
for trimming material.

Fig. 2.

The Claw Hammer.—This is the proper tool
for driving nails and for drawing them out.
Habits should be formed with the beginner, which
will be of great service as the education proceeds.
[Pg 7]
One of these habits is to persist in using the
tool for the purpose for which it was made. The
expert workman (and he becomes expert because
of it) makes the hammer do its proper work; and
so with every other tool.

Fig. 3.

Fig. 4.

About Saws.—There are four well-defined
kinds. First, a long, flat saw, for cross-cutting.
Second, a slightly larger saw for ripping purposes.
Third, a back saw, with a rib on the rear
edge to hold the blade rigid, used for making
tenons; and, fourth, a compass or keyhole saw.

>[Pg 8]

Cross-cuts.—The difference between a cross-cut
and a rip saw is, that in the latter the teeth
have less pitch and are usually larger than in
the cross-cut saw. The illustrations (Figs. 13
and 14) will distinctly show the difference in the
teeth. When a cross-cut saw is used for ripping
along the grain of the wood, the teeth, if disposed
at an angle, will ride over the grain or fiber of the
wood, and refuse to take hold or bite into the
wood. On the other hand, if the rip saw is used
for cross-cutting purposes, the saw kerf will be
rough and jagged.

Fig. 5.

The back saw is used almost exclusively for
making tenons, and has uniformly fine teeth so
as to give a smooth finish to the wood.

Planes.—The plane may be called the æsthetic
tool in the carpenter’s kit. It is the most difficult
tool to handle and the most satisfactory when
thoroughly mastered. How to care for and
[Pg 9]
handle it will be referred to in a subsequent chapter.
We are now concerned with its uses only.
Each complete kit must have three distinct planes,
namely, the jack plane, which is for taking off the
rough saw print surface of the board. The short
smoothing plane, which is designed to even up the
inequalities made by the jack plane; and the
long finishing plane, or fore plane, which is intended
to straighten the edges of boards or of
finished surfaces.

Fig. 6. Jack plane bit

The Jack Plane.—This plane has the cutting
edge of its blade ground so it is slightly curved
(Fig. 6), because, as the bit must be driven out
so it will take a deep bite into the rough surface
of the wood, the curved cutting edge prevents the
corner edges of the bit from digging into the
planed surface.

On the other hand, the bits of the smoothing
and finishing planes are ground straight across
their cutting edges. In the foregoing we have not
enumerated the different special planes, designed
[Pg 10]
to make beads, rabbets, tongues and grooves, but
each type is fully illustrated, so that an idea may
be obtained of their characteristics. (Fig. 6a).

Gages.—One of the most valuable tools in the
whole set is the gage, but it is, in fact, the least
known. This is simply a straight bar, with a
sharpened point projecting out on one side near
its end, and having an adjustable sliding head or
cheekpiece. This tool is indispensable in making
mortises or tenons, because the sharpened steel
point which projects from the side of the bar,
serves to outline and define the edges of the mortises
or tenons, so that the cutting line may readily
be followed.

Fig. 6a. Fore-plane bit

This is the most difficult tool to hold when in
use, but that will be fully explained under its
proper head. Each kit should have two, as in
making mortises and tenons one gage is required
for each side of the mortise or tenon.

Chisels.—Two kinds are found in every kit—one
[Pg 11]
called the firmer (Fig. 7) and the mortising
chisel. The firmer has a flat body or blade, and
a full set ranges in width from three-eighths of
an inch to two inches. The sizes most desirable
and useful are the one-half inch, the inch and the
inch-and-a-half widths. These are used for trimming
out cross grains or rebates for setting door
locks and hinges and for numerous other uses
where sharp-end tools are required.

Fig. 7.

The Mortising Chisel.—The mortising chisel
(Fig. 7a), on the other hand, is very narrow and
thick, with a long taper down to the cutting edge.
They are usually in such widths as to make them
stock sizes for mortises. Never, under any circumstances,
use a hammer or hatchet for driving
chisels. The mallet should be used invariably.

Fig. 7a.

Fig. 8.

Trusses.—There should be at least two, each
three feet in length and twenty inches in height.

Saw Clamps.—These are necessary adjuncts,
and should be made of hard wood, perfectly
[Pg 12]
straight and just wide enough to take in the narrow
back saw. The illustration shows their shape
and form.

The Grindstones.—It is better to get a first-class
stone, which may be small and rigged up
with a foot treadle. A soft, fine-grained stone is
most serviceable, and it should have a water tray,
and never be used excepting with plenty of water.

An Oil Stone is as essential as a grindstone.
For giving a good edge to tools it is superior to
a water stone. It should be provided with a top,
and covered when not in use, to keep out dust
[Pg 13]
and grit. These are the little things that contribute
to success and should be carefully observed.

The Miter Box.—This should be 14 inches long
and 3″ by 3″ inside, made of hard wood ¾” thick.
The sides should be nailed to the bottom, as shown.

Fig. 9.

The Work Bench.—In its proper place we show
in detail the most approved form of work bench,
fitted with a tool rack to hold all the tools, conveniently
arranged. In this chapter we are more
particularly concerned with the uses of tools than
their construction; and we impress on boys the
necessity of having a place for everything, and
that every tool should be kept in its proper place.
A carpenter’s shop filled with chips, shavings and
other refuse is not a desirable place for the indiscriminate
placing of tools. If correct habits
are formed at the outset, by carefully putting each
tool in its place after using, it will save many
an hour of useless hunting and annoyance.

One of the most important things in laying off
[Pg 14]
work, for instance, on trusses, is the disposition of
the saw and square. Our illustration shows each
truss with side cleats, which will permit the user
temporarily to deposit the saw or the square so
that it will be handy, and at the same time be
out of the way of the work and prevent either of
the tools from being thrown to the floor.

In the same way, and for the same purpose, the
work bench has temporary holding cleats at the
end and a shelf in front, which are particularly
desirable, because either a saw or a square is
an encumbrance on a work bench while the work
is being assembled, and tools of this kind should
not be laid flat on a working surface, nor should
they be stood in a leaning position against a truss
or work bench.

Strictly observe these fundamentals—Never
place a tool with the cutting edge toward you.
Always have the racks or receptacles so made
that the handle may be seized. Don’t put a tool
with an exposed cutting edge above or below another
tool in such a manner that the hand or the
tool you are handling can come into contact with
the edge. Never keep the nail or screw boxes
above the work bench. They should always be
kept to one side, to prevent, as much as possible,
the bench from becoming a depository for nails.
Keep the top of the bench free from tools. Always
[Pg 15]
keep the planes on a narrow sub-shelf at the
rear of the bench.

If order was Heaven’s first law, it is a good
principle to apply it in a workman’s shop, and
its observance will form a habit that will soon become
a pleasure to follow.

[Pg 16]

CHAPTER II

HOW TO GRIND AND SHARPEN TOOLS

Care of Tools.—Dull tools indicate the character
of the workman. In an experience of over
forty years, I have never known a good workman
to keep poorly sharpened tools. While it is
true that the capacity to sharpen tools can be
acquired only by practice, correct habits at the
start will materially assist. In doing this part of
the artisan’s work, it should be understood that
there is a right as well as a wrong way.

There is a principle involved in the sharpening
of every tool, which should be observed. A skilled
artisan knows that there is a particular way to
grind the bits of each plane; that the manner of
setting a saw not only contributes to its usefulness,
but will materially add to the life of the saw;
that a chisel cannot be made to do good work unless
its cutting edge is square and at the right
working angle.

First Requisite.—A beginner should never attempt
a piece of work until he learns how the different
tools should be sharpened, or at least learn
the principle involved. Practice will make perfect.

[Pg 17]
Saws.—As the saw is such an important part
of the kit, I shall devote some space to the subject.
First, as to setting the saw. The object of
this is to make the teeth cut a wider kerf than the
thickness of the blade, and thereby cause the saw
to travel freely. A great many so-called “saw
sets” are found in the market, many of them built
on wrong principles, as will be shown, and these
are incapable of setting accurately.

Fig. 10. Fig.10a.

How to Set.—To set a saw accurately, that is,
to drive out each tooth the same distance, is the
first requirement, and the second is to bend out
the whole tooth, and not the point only.

In the illustration (Fig. 10), the point is merely
bent out. This is wrong. The right way is shown
[Pg 18]
in Fig. 10a. The whole tooth is bent, showing
the correct way of setting. The reasons for
avoiding one way and following the other are:
First, that if the point projects to one side, each
point or tooth will dig into the wood, and produce
tooth prints in the wood, which make a roughened
surface. Second, that if there are inequalities in
setting the teeth (as is sure to be the case when
only the points are bent out), the most exposed
points will first wear out, and thereby cause
saw deterioration. Third, a saw with the points
sticking out causes a heavy, dragging cut, and
means additional labor. Where the whole body
of the tooth is bent, the saw will run smoothly and
easily through the kerf and produce a smooth-cut
surface.

Fig. 11.

Fig. 12.

Our illustration (Fig. 11) shows a very simple
setting block, the principal merit of which is that
any boy can make it, and in the use of which he
cannot go wrong in setting a tooth.

Simple Saw Setter.—Take a block of wood, a
4 by 4 inch studding, four inches long. Get a
[Pg 19]
piece of metal one-half inch thick and two inches
square. Have a blacksmith or machinist bore a
quarter-inch hole through it in the center and
countersink the upper side so it may be securely
fastened in a mortise in the block, with its upper
side flush with the upper surface of the block.
Now, with a file, finish off one edge, going back
for a quarter of an inch, the angle at A to be about
12 degrees.

Fig. 13. Rip-Saw

Filing Angles.—In its proper place will be
shown how you may easily calculate and measure
degrees in work of this kind. Fig. 12 shows an
approximation to the right angle. B, B (Fig. 11)
should be a pair of wooden pegs, driven into the
wooden block on each side of the metal piece.
The teeth of the saw rest against the pegs
so that they serve as a guide or a gage, and the
teeth of the saw, therefore, project over the inclined
part (B) of the metal block. Now, with
[Pg 20]
an ordinary punch and a hammer, each alternate
tooth may be driven down until it rests
flat on the inclined face (A), so that it is impossible
to set the teeth wrongly. When you glance
down the end of a properly set saw, you will see
a V-shaped channel, and if you will place a needle
in the groove and hold the saw at an angle, the
needle will travel down without falling out.

Fig. 14. cross-cut

Filing.—The next step is the filing. Two
things must be observed: the pitch and the angle.
By pitch is meant the inclination of the teeth.
Note the illustration (Fig. 13), which shows the
teeth of a rip saw. You will see at A that the
pitch of the tooth is at right angles to the edge
of the saw. In Fig. 14, which shows the teeth of a
cross-cut saw, the pitch (B) is about 10 degrees
off. The teeth of the rip saw are also larger
than those of the cross-cut.

The Angle of Filing.—By angle is meant the
cutting position of the file. In Fig. 12, the lines
[Pg 21]
B represent the file disposed at an angle of 12
degrees, not more, for a rip saw. For a cross-cut
the angle of the file may be less.

Saw Clamps.—You may easily make a pair of
saw clamps as follows:

Take two pieces of hard wood, each three inches
wide, seven-eighths of an inch thick, and equal
in length to the longest saw. Bevel one edge of
each as shown in A (Fig. 15), so as to leave an
edge (B) about one-eighth of an inch thick. At
one end cut away the corner on the side opposite
the bevel, as shown at C, so the clamps will fit
on the saw around the saw handle.

Fig. 15.

When the saw is placed between these clamps
and held together by the jaws of the vise, you
are ready for the filing operation. Observe the
following filing suggestions: Always hold the file
horizontal or level. In filing, use the whole length
of the file. Do the work by a slow, firm sweep.

Do not file all of the teeth along the saw at one
operation, but only the alternate teeth, so as to
[Pg 22]
keep the file at the same angle, and thus insure
accuracy; then turn the saw and keep the file constantly
at one angle for the alternate set of teeth.

Give the same number of strokes, and exert the
same pressure on the file for each tooth, to insure
uniformity. Learn also to make a free, easy and
straight movement back and forth with the file.

The File.—In order to experiment with the filing
motion, take two blocks of wood, and try surfacing
them off with a file. When you place the
two filed surfaces together after the first trial
both will be convex, because the hands, in filing,
unless you exert the utmost vigilance, will assume
a crank-like movement. The filing test is so to file
the two blocks that they will fit tightly together
without rolling on each other. Before shaping
and planing machines were invented, machinists
were compelled to plane down and accurately finish
off surfaces with a file.

In using the files on saws, however small the
file may be, one hand should hold the handle and
the other hand the tip of the file.

A file brush should always be kept on hand, as
it pays to preserve files by cleaning them.

Fig. 16.

The Grindstone.—As most of the tools require
a grindstone for sharpening purposes, an illustration
is given as a guide, with a diagram to show
the proper grinding angle. In Fig. 16 the upright
[Pg 23]
(A) of the frame serves as a line for the
eye, so that if the point of the tool is brought
to the sight line, and the tool (C) held level,
you will always be able to maintain the correct
angle. There is no objection to providing a rest,
for instance, like the cross bars (D, D), but the
artisan disdains such contrivances, and he usually
avoids them for two reasons: First, because
habit enables him to hold the tool horizontally;
and, second, by holding the tool firmly in the hand
he has better control of it. There is only one
thing which can be said in favor of a rest, and
[Pg 24]
that is, the stone may be kept truer circumferentially,
as all stones have soft spots or sides.

In the Use of Grindstones.—There are certain
things to avoid and to observe in the use of stones.
Never use one spot on the stone, however narrow
the tool may be. Always move the tool from side
to side. Never grind a set of narrow tools successively.
If you have chisels to grind intersperse
their grinding with plane bits, hatchet or other
broad cutting tools, so as to prevent the stone
from having grooves therein. Never use a tool
on a stone unless you have water in the tray.

Fig. 17. Correct.	Fig. 18. Incorrect.

Correct Way to Hold Tool for Grinding.—There
is a correct way to hold each tool; see illustration
(Fig. 17). The left hand should grasp
the tool firmly, near the sharp edge, as shown, and
the right hand should loosely hold the tool behind
[Pg 25]
the left hand. There is a reason for this which
will be apparent after you grind a few tools. The
firm grasp of the left hand gives you absolute
control of the blade, so it cannot turn, and when
inequalities appear in the grindstone, the rigid
hold will prevent the blade from turning, and
thus enable you to correct the inequalities of the
stone. Bear in mind, the stone should be taken
care of just as much as the tools. An experienced
workman is known by the condition of his tools,
and the grindstone is the best friend he has among
his tools.

Incorrect Way to Hold Tool for Grinding.—The
incorrect way of holding a tool is shown in
Fig. 18. This, I presume, is the universal way
in which the novice takes the tool. It is wrong for
the reason that the thumbs of both hands are on
top of the blade, and they serve as pivots on which
the tool may turn. The result is that the corners
of the tool will dig into the stone to a greater or
less degree, particularly if it has a narrow blade,
like a chisel.

Try the experiment of grinding a quarter-inch
chisel by holding it the incorrect way; and then
grasp it firmly with the left hand, and you will at
once see the difference.

The left hand serves both as a vise and as a
[Pg 26]
fulcrum, whereas the right hand controls the angle
of the tool.

Fig. 19.

These remarks apply to all chisels, plane bits
and tools of that character, but it is obvious that
a drawknife, which is always held by the handles
in grinding, and hatchets, axes and the like, cannot
be held in the same manner.

A too common error is to press the tool too hard
on the stone. This is wrong. Do not try to force
the grinding.

Then, again, it is the practice of some to turn
the stone away from the tool. The stone should
always move toward the tool, so as to prevent
forming a feather edge.

[Pg 27]
The Plane.—Indiscriminate use of planes
should be avoided. Never use the fore or smoothing
planes on rough surfaces. The jack plane is
the proper tool for this work. On the other hand,
the fore plane should invariably be used for
straightening the edges of boards, or for fine
surfacing purposes. As the jack plane has its
bit ground with a curved edge, it is admirably
adapted for taking off the rough saw print surface.

The Gage.—The illustration (Fig. 19) shows
one of the most useful tools in the kit. It is used
to scribe the thickness of the material which is
to be dressed down, or for imprinting the edges
of tenons and mortises. Two should be provided
in every kit, for convenience.

The scribing point should be sharpened with a
file, the point being filed to form a blade, which
is at right angles to the bar, or parallel with the
movable cheekpiece.

Chisels.—I have already pointed out, in general,
how to hold tools for grinding purposes, this
description applying particularly to chisels, but
several additional things may be added.

Always be careful to grind the chisel so its cutting
edge is square with the side edge. This will
be difficult at first, but you will see the value of
this as you use the tool. For instance, in making
[Pg 28]
rebates for hinges, or recesses and mortises
for locks, the tool will invariably run crooked,
unless it is ground square.

The chisel should never be struck with a hammer
or metal instrument, as the metal pole or
peon of the hammer will sliver the handle. The
wooden mallet should invariably be used.

General Observations.—If the workman will
carefully observe the foregoing requirements he
will have taken the most important steps in the
knowledge of the art. If he permits himself to
commence work without having his tools in first-class
condition, he is trying to do work under circumstances
where even a skilled workman is liable
to fail.

Avoid making for yourself a lot of unnecessary
work. The best artisans are those who try to
find out and know which is the best tool, or how
to make a tool for each requirement, but that tool,
to be serviceable, must be properly made, and that
means it must be rightly sharpened.

[Pg 29]

CHAPTER III

HOW TO HOLD AND HANDLE TOOLS

Observation may form part of each boy’s lesson,
but when it comes to the handling of tools, practice
becomes the only available means of making
a workman. Fifty years of observation would
never make an observer an archer or a marksman,
nor would it enable him to shoe a horse or to
build a table.

It sometimes happens that an apprentice will,
with little observation, seize a saw in the proper
way, or hold a plane in the correct manner, and,
in time, the watchful boy will acquire fairly correct
habits. But why put in useless time and
labor in order to gain that which a few well-directed
hints and examples will convey?

Tools are made and are used as short cuts toward
a desired end. Before the saw was invented
the knife was used laboriously to sever
and shape the materials. Before planes were invented
a broad, flat sharpened blade was used to
smooth off surfaces. Holes were dug out by
means of small chisels requiring infinite patience
and time. Each succeeding tool proclaimed a
shorter and an easier way to do a certain thing.
[Pg 30]
The man or boy who can make a new labor-saving
tool is worthy of as much praise as the man who
makes two blades of grass grow where one grew
before.

Let us now thoroughly understand how to hold
and use each tool. That is half the value of the
tool itself.

The Saw.—With such a commonplace article
as the saw, it might be assumed that the ordinary
apprentice would look upon instruction with a
smile of derision.

How to Start a Saw.—If the untried apprentice
has such an opinion set him to work at the task
of cutting off a board accurately on a line. He
will generally make a failure of the attempt to
start the saw true to the line, to say nothing of
following the line so the kerf is true and square
with the board.

How to Start on a Line.—The first mistake he
makes is to saw on the line. This should never be
done. The work should be so laid out that the
saw kerf is on the discarded side of the material.
The saw should cut alongside the line, and the line
should not be obliterated in the cutting. Material
must be left for trimming and finishing.

The First Stroke.—Now, to hold the saw in
starting is the difficult task to the beginner. Once
mastered it is simple and easy. The only time in
[Pg 31]
which the saw should be firmly held by the hand
is during the initial cut or two; afterwards always
hold the handle loosely. There is nothing so tiring
as a tightly grasped saw. The saw has but
one handle, hence it is designed to be used with
one hand. Sometimes, with long and tiresome
jobs, in ripping, two hands may be used, but one
hand can always control a saw better than two
hands.

Fig. 20.

The Starting Cut.—In order to make our understanding
of the starting cut more explicit, we
refer to Fig. 20, in which the thumb of the left
hand is shown in the position of a guide—the end
of the thumb being held up a sufficient distance to
[Pg 32]
clear the teeth. In this position you need not
fear that the teeth of the saw (A) will ride up
over the thumb if you have a firm grasp of the
saw handle.

The first stroke should be upwardly, not downwardly.
While in the act of drawing up the saw
you can judge whether the saw blade is held by the
thumb gage in the proper position to cut along the
mark, and when the saw moves downwardly for
the first cut, you may be assured that the cut is
accurate, or at the right place, and the thumb
should be kept in its position until two or three
cuts are made, and the work is then fairly started.

Fig. 21. Wrong sawing angle.

For Cross-cutting.—For ordinary cross-cutting
the angle of the saw should be at 45 degrees. For
ripping, the best results are found at less than
45 degrees, but you should avoid flattening down
the angle. An incorrect as well as a correct angle
are shown in Figs. 21 and 22.

Forcing a Saw.—Forcing a saw through the
wood means a crooked kerf. The more nearly the
saw is held at right angles to a board, the greater
[Pg 33]
is the force which must be applied to it by the
hand to cause it to bite into the wood; and, on the
other hand, if the saw is laid down too far, as
shown in the incorrect way, it is a very difficult
matter to follow the working line. Furthermore, it
is a hard matter to control the saw so that it will
cut squarely along the board, particularly when
ripping. The eye must be the only guide in the
disposition of the saw. Some boys make the saw
run in one direction, and others cause it to lean
the opposite way. After you have had some experience
and know which way you lean, correct
your habits by disposing the saw in the opposite
direction.

Fig. 22. Right sawing angle.

The Stroke.—Make a long stroke, using the
full blade of the saw. Don’t acquire the “jerky”
style of sawing. If the handle is held loosely,
and the saw is at the proper angle, the weight of
the saw, together with the placement of the handle
on the saw blade, will be found sufficient to make
the requisite cut at each stroke.

[Pg 34]
You will notice that the handle of every saw is
mounted nearest the back edge. (See Fig. 23.)
The reason for so mounting it is, that as the cutting
stroke is downward, the line of thrust is
above the tooth line, and as this line is at an
angle to the line of thrust, the tendency is to cause
the saw teeth to dig into the wood.

Fig. 23.

CHINESE SAW. Fig. 24.

The Chinese Saw.—This saw is designed to
saw with an upward cut, and the illustration (Fig.
24) shows the handle jutting out below the tooth
line, in order to cause the teeth to dig into the
material as the handle is drawn upwardly. Reference
is made to these features to impress upon
beginners the value of observation, and to demonstrate
the reason for making each tool a particular
way.

[Pg 35]
Things to Avoid.—Do not oscillate the saw as
you draw it back and forth. This is unnecessary
work, and shows impatience in the use of the tool.
There is such an infinite variety of use for the
different tools that there is no necessity for rendering
the work of any particular tool, or tools,
burdensome. Each in its proper place, handled
intelligently, will become a pleasure, as well as
a source of profit.

Fig. 25.

The Plane.—The jack plane and the fore plane
are handled with both hands, and the smoothing
plane with one hand, but only when used for
dressing the ends of boards. For other uses both
hands are required.

Angles for Holding Planes.—Before commencing
to plane a board, always observe the direction
in which the grain of the wood runs. This
precaution will save many a piece of material, because
if the jack plane is set deep it will run into
the wood and cause a rough surface, which can
[Pg 36]
be cured only by an extra amount of labor in
planing down.

Never move the jack plane or the smoothing
plane over the work so that the body of the tool
is in a direct line with the movement of the plane.
It should be held at an angle of about 12
or 15 degrees (see Fig. 25). The fore plane
should always be held straight with the movement
of the plane, because the length of the fore
plane body is used as a straightener for the surface
to be finished.

Fig. 26.

Errors to Be Avoided.—Never draw back the
plane with the bit resting on the board. This
[Pg 37]
simply wears out the tool, and if there should be
any grit on the board it will be sure to ruin the
bit. This applies particularly to the jack plane,
but is bad practice with the others as well.

A work bench is a receptacle for all kinds of
dirt. Provide a special ledge or shelf for the
planes, and be sure to put each plane there immediately
after using.

The Gage.—A man, who professed to be a carpenter,
once told me that he never used a gage
because he could not make it run straight. A
few moments’ practice convinced him that he never
knew how to hold it. The illustration shows how
properly to hold it, and the reason why it should
so be held follows.

You will observe (Fig. 26) that the hand grasps
the stem of the gage behind the cheekpiece, so
that the thumb is free to press against the side
of the stem to the front of the cheekpiece.

Holding the Gage.—The hand serves to keep the
cheekpiece against the board, while the thumb
pushes the gage forward. The hand must not, under
any circumstances, be used to move the gage
along. In fact, it is not necessary for the fingers
to be clasped around the gage stem, if the forefinger
presses tightly against the cheekpiece, since
the thumb performs all the operation of moving
it along. Naturally, the hand grasps the tool in
[Pg 38]
order to hold it down against the material, and to
bring it back for a new cut.

The Draw-knife.—It is difficult for the apprentice
to become accustomed to handle this useful
tool. It is much more serviceable than a hatchet
for trimming and paring work. In applying it
to the wood always have the tool at an angle with
the board, so as to make a slicing cut. This is
specially desirable in working close to a line, otherwise
there is a liability of cutting over it.

This knife requires a firm grasp—firmness of
hold is more important than strength in using.
The flat side is used wholly for straight edges, and
the beveled side for concave surfaces. It is the
intermediate tool between the hatchet and the
plane, as it has the characteristics of both those
tools. It is an ugly, dangerous tool, more to be
feared when lying around than when in use. Put
it religiously on a rack which protects the entire
cutting edge. Keep it off the bench.

[Pg 39]

CHAPTER IV

HOW TO DESIGN ARTICLES

Fundamentals of Designing.—A great deal
of the pleasure in making articles consists in
creative work. This means, not that you shall
design some entirely new article, but that its general
form, or arrangement of parts, shall have
some new or striking feature.

A new design in any art does not require a
change in all its parts. It is sufficient that there
shall be an improvement, either in some particular
point, as a matter of utility, or some change
in an artistic direction. A manufacturer in putting
out a new chair, or a plow, or an automobile,
adds some striking characteristic. This becomes
his talking point in selling the article.

The Commercial Instinct.—It is not enough
that the boy should learn to make things correctly,
and as a matter of pastime and pleasure. The
commercial instinct is, after all, the great incentive,
and should be given due consideration.

It would be impossible, in a book of this kind,
to do more than to give the fundamental principles
necessary in designing, and to direct the mind
[Pg 40]
solely to essentials, leaving the individual to build
tip for himself.

First Requirements for Designing.—First,
then, let us see what is necessary to do when you
intend to set about making an article. Suppose we
fix our minds upon a table as the article selected.
Three things are necessary to know: First, the
use to which it is to be put; second, the dimensions;
and, third, the material required.

Assuming it to be the ordinary table, and the
dimensions fixed, we may conclude to use soft
pine, birch or poplar, because of ease in working.
There are no regulation dimensions for tables, except
as to height, which is generally uniform, and
usually 30 inches. As to the length and width,
you will be governed by the place where it is to be
used.

If the table top is to have dimensions, say, of
36″ × 48″, you may lay out the framework six
inches less each way, thus giving you a top overhang
of three inches, which is the usual practice.

Conventional Styles.—Now, if you wish to depart
from the conventional style of making a table
you may make variations in the design. For instance,
the Chippendale style means slender legs
and thin top. It involves some fanciful designs
in the curved outlines of the top, and in the crook
[Pg 41]
of the legs. Or if, on the other hand, the Mission
type is preferred, the overhang of the top is very
narrow; the legs are straight and heavy, and of
even size from top to bottom; and the table top
is thick and nearly as broad as it is long. Such
furniture has the appearance of massiveness; it is
easily made and most serviceable.

Mission Style.—The Mission style of architecture
also lends itself to the making of chairs and
other articles of furniture. A chair is, probably,
the most difficult piece of household furniture to
make, because strength is required. In this type
soft wood may be used, as the large legs and back
pieces are easily provided with mortises and
tenons, affording great rigidity when completed.
In designing, therefore, you may see how the
material itself becomes an important factor.

Cabinets.—In the making of cabinets, sideboards,
dressers and like articles, the ingenious
boy will find a wonderful field for designing ability,
because in these articles fancy alone dictates
the sizes and the dimensions of the parts. Not
so with chairs and tables. The imagination plays
an important part even in the making of drawers,
to say nothing of placing them with an eye to
convenience and artistic effect.

Harmony of Parts.—But one thing should be
observed in the making of furniture, namely, harmony
[Pg 42]
between the parts. For instance, a table
with thin legs and a thick top gives the appearance
of a top-heavy structure; or the wrong use
of two different styles is bad from an artistic
standpoint; moreover, it is the height of refined
education if, in the use of contrasting woods, they
are properly blended to form a harmonious whole.

Harmonizing Wood.—Imagine a chiffonier with
the base of dark wood, like walnut, and the top of
pine or maple, or a like light-colored wood. On
the other hand, both walnut and maple, for instance,
may be used in the same article, if they are
interspersed throughout the entire article. The
body may be made of dark wood and trimmed
throughout with a light wood to produce a fine
effect.

[Pg 43]

CHAPTER V

HOW WORK IS LAID OUT

Concrete Examples of Work.—A concrete example
of doing any work is more valuable than an
abstract statement. For this purpose I shall direct
the building of a common table with a drawer
in it and show how the work is done in detail.

For convenience let us adopt the Mission style,
with a top 36″ × 42″ and the height 30″. The legs
should be 2″ × 2″ and the top 1″, dressed. The
material should be of hard wood with natural
finish, or, what is better still, a soft wood, like
birch, which may be stained a dark brown, as the
Mission style is more effective in dark than in
light woods.

Fig. 27.

Framework.—As we now know the sizes, the
first thing is to build the framework. The legs
should be dressed square and smoothed down with
the fore plane to make them perfectly straight.
Now, lay out two mortises at the upper end of each
[Pg 44]
leg. Follow the illustrations to see how this is
done.

Laying Out the Legs.—Fig. 27 shows a leg with
square cross marks (A) at each end. These marks
indicate the finished length of the leg. You will
also see crosses on two sides. These indicate what
is called the “work sides.” The work sides are
selected because they are the finest surfaces on
the leg.

Fig. 28.	Fig. 29.

The Length of the Mortises.—Then take a
small try square (Fig. 28) and add two cross lines
(B, C) on each of the inner surfaces, the second
line (B) one-half inch from the finish line (A),
and the other line (C) seven inches down from
the line (A). The side facing boards, hereafter
described, are seven inches wide.

When this has been done for all the legs, prepare
your gage (Fig. 29) to make the mortise
scribe, and, for convenience in illustrating, the leg
[Pg 45]
is reversed. If the facing boards are 1″ thick, and
the tenons are intended to be ½” thick, the first
scribe line (E) should be ½” from the work side,
because the shoulder on the facing board projects
out ¼”, and the outer surface of the facing
board should not be flush with the outer surface
of the leg. The second gage line (F) should be 1″
from the work side.

Fig. 30.

The Mortises.—When the mortises have been
made they will appear as shown in the enlarged
cross section of the leg (Fig. 30), the total depth
of each mortise being 1½”. The depth of this mortise
determines for us the length of the tenons on
the facing boards.

The Facing Boards.—These boards are each 1
inch thick and 7 inches wide. As the top of the
table is 42 inches long, and we must provide an
overhang, say of 2 inches, we will first take off
4 inches for the overhang and 4 inches for the
[Pg 46]
legs, so that the length of two of the facing boards,
from shoulder to shoulder, must be 34 inches; and
the other two facing boards 28 inches. Then, as
we must add 1½ inches for each tenon, two of the
boards will be 37 inches long and two of them 31
inches long.

Fig. 31.

Fig. 32.

The illustration (Fig. 31) shows a board marked
with the cross lines (B) at each end for the end
of the tenons, or the extreme ends of the boards.

The Tenons.—Do not neglect first to select the
work side and the working edge of the board.
The outer surface and the upper edges are the
sides to work from. The cheekpiece (A) of the
gage must always rest against the working side.

[Pg 47]
The cross marks (B, C) should be made with the
point of a sharp knife, and before the small back
saw is used on the cross-cuts the lines (B), which
indicate the shoulders, should be scored with a
sharp knife, as shown in Fig. 33. This furnishes
a guide for the saw, and makes a neat finish for
the shoulder.

Fig. 33.

Fig. 34.	Fig. 35.

Tools Used.—The back saw is used for cutting
the tenon, and the end of the board appears as
[Pg 48]
shown in the enlarged Fig. 34. Two things are
now necessary to complete the tenons. On the upper
or work edge of each board use the gage to
mark off a half-inch slice, and then cut away the
flat side of the tenon at the end, on its inner surface,
so it will appear as shown in Fig. 35.

Fig. 36.

Fig. 37.

Chamfered Tenons.—The object of these chamfered
or beveled tenons is to permit the ends to
approach each other closely within the mortise,
as shown in the assembled parts (Fig. 36).

The Frame Assembled.—The frame is now
ready to assemble, but before doing so a drawer
opening and supports should be made. The ends
[Pg 49]
of the supports may be mortised into the side
pieces or secured by means of gains.

Mortises and tenons are better.

The Drawer Supports.—Take one of the side-facing
boards (Fig. 37) and cut a rectangular
opening in it. This opening should be 4 inches
wide and 18 inches long, so placed that there is 1
inch of stock at the upper margin and 2 inches of
stock at the lower margin of the board. At each
lower corner make a mortise (A), so that one side
of the mortise is on a line with the margin of the
opening, and so that it extends a half inch past the
vertical margin of the opening.

Fig. 38.

You can easily cut a gain (B) in a strip, or, as
in Fig. 38, you may use two strips, one (C) an
inch wide and a half inch thick, and on this nail
a strip (D) along one margin. This forms the
guide and rest for the drawer.

At the upper margin of the opening is a rebate
or gain (E) at each corner, extending down to
the top line of the drawer opening, into which are
fitted the ends of the upper cross guides.

[Pg 50]
The Table Frame.—When the entire table
frame is assembled it will have the appearance
shown in Fig. 39, and it is now ready for the top.

The Top.—The top should be made of three
boards, either tongued and grooved, or doweled
and glued together. In order to give a massive
appearance, and also to prevent the end grain of
the boards from being exposed, beveled strips
may be used to encase the edges. These marginal
cleats are ¾ inch thick and 2 inches wide, and
joined by beveled ends at the corners, as shown in
Fig. 40.

Fig. 39.

The Drawer.—The drawer (Fig. 41) shown in
cross section, has its front (A) provided with an
overlapping flange (B).

[Pg 51]
It is not our object in this chapter to show
how each particular article is made, but simply
to point out the underlying principles, and to illustrate
how the fastening elements, the tenons
and mortises, are formed, so that the boy will
know the proper steps in their natural order.

Fig. 40.

How Any Structure Is Built Up.—It should
be observed that each structure, however small, is
usually built from the base up. Just the same
as the more pretentious buildings are erected:
First, the sill, then the floor supports, then the
posts and top plates, with their connecting girders,
and, finally, the roof.

The chapter on House Building will give more
detailed illustrations of large structures, and how
they are framed and braced. At this point we are
more concerned in knowing how to proceed in order
to lay out the simple structural details, and if
one subject of this kind is fully mastered the complicated
character of the article will not be difficult
to master.
[Pg 52]

Observations About a Box.—As simple a little
article as a box frequently becomes a burden to a
beginner. Try it. Simply keep in mind one thing;
each box has six sides. Now, suppose you want a
box with six equal sides—that is, a cubical form—it
is necessary to make only three pairs of sides;
two for the ends, two for the sides and two for
the top and bottom. Each set has dimensions different
from the other sets. Both pieces of the
set, representing the ends, are square; the side
pieces are of the same width as the end pieces,
and slightly longer; and the top and bottom are
longer and wider than the end pieces.

Fig. 41.

A box equal in all its dimensions may be made
out of six boards, properly cut. Make an attempt
in order to see if you can get the right dimensions.

Joints.—For joining together boards at right
angles to each other, such as box corners, drawers
and like articles, tenons and mortises should never
be resorted to. In order to make fine work the
joints should be made by means of dovetails, rabbets
[Pg 53]
or rebates, or by beveling or mitering the ends.

Beveling and Mitering.—There is a difference
in the terms “beveling” and “mitering,” as used
in the art. In Fig. 42 the joint A is beveled,
and in Fig. 43 the joint B is mitered, the difference
being that a bevel is applied to an angle
joint like a box corner, while a miter has reference
to a joint such as is illustrated in Fig. 43,
such as the corner of a picture frame.

Fig. 42.	Fig. 43.

Proper Terms.—It is the application of the correct
terms to things that lays the foundation for
accurate thinking and proper expressions in describing
work. A wise man once said that the
basis of true science consists in correct definitions.

Picture Frames.—In picture frames the mitered
corners may have a saw kerf (C) cut across
the corners, as shown in Fig. 44, and a thin blade
[Pg 54]
of hard wood driven in, the whole being glued together.

Dovetail Joints.—It is in the laying out of the
more complicated dovetail joints that the highest
skill is required, because exactness is of more
importance in this work than in any other article
in joinery. In order to do this work accurately
follow out the examples given, and you will soon
be able to make a beautiful dovetail corner, and do
it quickly.

Fig. 44.

Preparing a Box Joint.—In order to match a
box joint for the inner end of a table drawer, the
first step is to select two work sides. One work
side will be the edge of the board, and the other
the side surface of the board, and on those surfaces
we will put crosses, as heretofore suggested.

Fig. 45.

Fig. 46.

Fig. 47.

First Steps.—Now lap together the inner surfaces
of these boards (Y, Z), so the ends are toward
you, as shown in Fig. 45. Then, after measuring
[Pg 55]
the thickness of the boards to be joined
(the thinnest, if they are of different thicknesses),
set your compasses, or dividers, for ¼ inch, providing
the boards are ½ inch thick, and, commencing
at the work edge of the board, step off and point,
as at A, the whole width of the board, and with
a square make the two cross marks (B), using
[Pg 56]
the two first compass points (A), then skipping
one, using the next two, and so on.

Fig. 48.

Fig. 49.

Fig. 50.

When this is done, turn up the board Z (Fig. 46),
so that it is at right angles to the board Y, and
so the outer surface of the board Z is flush with
the end of the board X, and with a sharp knife
point extend the lines B along with the grain
of the wood on board Z,up to the cross mark C.
This cross mark should have been previously made
[Pg 57]
and is located as far from the end of the board Z
as the thickness of the board Y.

We now have the marks for the outer surface
of the board Z, and the end marks of board Y.
For the purpose of getting the angles of the end
of the board Z and the outer side of board Y, a
cross line (D, Fig. 47) is drawn across the board
X near the end, this line being as far from the
end as the thickness of the board Z, and a vertical
line (E) is drawn midway between the two first
cross marks (A).

Now, with your compass, which, in the meantime,
has not been changed, make a mark (F), and draw
down the line (G), which will give you the working
angle at which you may set the bevel gage. Then
draw down an angle from each alternate cross line
(A), and turn the bevel and draw down the lines
(H). These lines should all be produced on the
opposite side of the board, so as to assure accuracy,
and to this end the edges of the board also
should be scribed.

Cutting Out the Spaces.—In cutting out the
intervening spaces, which should be done with a
sharp chisel, care should be observed not to cut
over the shoulder lines. To prevent mistakes you
should put some distinctive mark on each part to
be cut away. In this instance E, H show the parts
[Pg 58]
to be removed, and in Fig. 48 two of the cutaway
portions are indicated.

When the end of the board Z is turned up (Fig.
49), it has merely the longitudinal parallel lines
B. The bevel square may now be used in the
same manner as on the side of the board Y, and
the fitting angles will then be accurately true.

This is shown in Fig. 50, in which, also, two of
the cutaway parts are removed.

Tools Used in Laying Out Tenons and Mortises.—A
sharp-pointed knife must always be used
for making all marks. Never employ an awl for
this work, as the fiber of the wood will be torn up
by it. A small try square should always be used
(not the large iron square), and this with a sharp-pointed
compass and bevel square will enable you
to turn out a satisfactory piece of work.

The foregoing examples, carefully studied, will
enable you to gather the principles involved in laying
off any work. If you can once make a presentable
box joint, so that all the dovetails will
accurately fit together, you will have accomplished
one of the most difficult phases of the work, and it
is an exercise which will amply repay you, because
you will learn to appreciate what accuracy
means.

[Pg 59]

CHAPTER VI

THE USES OF THE COMPASS AND THE SQUARE

The Square.—The square is, probably, the oldest
of all tools, and that, together with the compass,
or dividers, with which the square is always
associated, has constituted the craftsman’s emblem
from the earliest historical times. So far as
we now know, the plain flat form, which has at
least one right angle and two or more straight
edges, was the only form of square used by the
workman. But modern uses, and the development
of joinery and cabinet making, as well as the more
advanced forms of machinery practice, necessitated
new structural forms in the square, so that
the bevel square, in which there is an adjustable
blade set in a handle, was found necessary.

The Try Square.—In the use of the ordinary
large metal square it is necessary to lay the short
limb of the square on the face of the work, and
the long limb must, therefore, rest against the
work side or edge of the timber, so that the scribing
edge of the short limb does not rest flat
against the work. As such a tool is defective in
work requiring accuracy, it brought into existence
[Pg 60]
what is called the try square, which has a rectangular
handle, usually of wood, into which is fitted
at one end a metal blade, which is at right angles
to the edge of the handle. The handle, therefore,
always serves as a guide for the blade in scribing
work, because it lies flat down on the work.

The T-Square is another modification of the
try square, its principal use being for draughting
purposes.

The Compass.—The compass is one of the original
carpenter’s tools. The difference between
compass and dividers is that compasses have adjustable
pen or pencil points, whereas dividers are
without adjustable points. Modern work has
brought refinements in the character of the compass
and dividers, so that we now have the bow-compass,
which is, usually, a small tool, one leg
of which carries a pen or pencil point, the two
legs being secured together, usually, by a spring
bow, or by a hinged joint with a spring attachment.

Proportional Dividers.—A useful tool is called
the proportional dividers, the legs of which are
hinged together intermediate the ends, so that the
pivotal joint is adjustable. By means of this tool
the scale of work may be changed, although its
widest field of usefulness is work laid off on a
[Pg 61]
scale which you intend to reduce or enlarge proportionally.

Determining Angles.—Now, in order to lay
out work the boy should know quickly and accurately
how to determine various angles used or
required in his work. The quickest way in which
to learn this is to become familiar with the degree
in its various relations.

Fig. 51.

Definition of Degree.—A degree is not a measure,
as we would designate a foot or a pound to
determine distance or quantity. It is used to
denote a division, space, interval or position. To
illustrate, look at the circle, Fig. 51. The four cardinal
points are formed by the cross lines (A, B),
and in each one of the quadrants thus formed the
circle is divided into 90 degrees. Look at the
radial lines (C, D), and you will find that the distance
between these lines is different along the
[Pg 62]
curved line (E) than along the curved line (F).
The degree is, therefore, to indicate only the space,
division or interval in the circle.

The Most Important Angle.—Most important
for one to know at a glance is that of 45 degrees,
because the one can the more readily calculate the
other degrees, approximately, by having 45 degrees
once fixed in the mind, and impressed on the
visual image. With a square and a compass it
is a comparatively easy matter accurately to step
off 45 degrees, as it is the line C, midway between
A and B, and the other degrees may be calculated
from the line C and the cardinal lines A or B.

Degrees Without a Compass.—But in the absence
of a compass and when you do not wish to
step off a circle, you will in such case lay down
the square, and mark off at the outer margin of
the limbs two equal dimensions. Suppose we
take 2 inches on each limb of the square. The
angle thus formed by the angle square blade is 45
degrees. To find 30 degrees allow the blade of the
angle square to run from 2 inches on one limb to
3½ inches on the other limb, and it will be found
that for 15 degrees the blade runs from 2 inches on
one limb to 7½ inches on the other limb. It would
be well to fix firmly these three points, at least, in
your mind, as they will be of the utmost value to
you. It is a comparatively easy matter now to
[Pg 63]
find 10 degrees or 25 degrees, or any intermediate
line.

What Degrees Are Calculated From.—The
question that now arises is what line one may use
from which to calculate degrees, or at what point
in the circle zero is placed. Degrees may be calculated
either from the horizontal or from the
vertical line. Examine Fig. 53. The working
margin indicated by the cross mark is your base
line, and in specifying an angle you calculate
it from the work edge. Thus, the line A indicates
an angle of 30 degrees. The dotted line is 45
degrees.

Fig. 52.

Fig. 53.	Fig. 54.

[Pg 64]
The Dividers.—The dividers are used not only
for scribing circles, but also for stepping and dividing
spaces equally. There is a knack in the
use of the dividers, where accuracy is wanted, and
where the surface is of wood. Unless the utmost
care is observed, the spaces will be unequal, for
the reason that the point of the dividers will sink
more deeply into the wood at some places than
at others, due to the uneven texture of the wood
grain. It will be better to make a line lengthwise,
and a cross line (A) for starting (see Fig. 54).
You may then insert one point of the dividers at
the initial mark (B), and describe a small arc (C).
Then move the dividers over to the intersection of
the arc (C) on the line, and make the next mark,
and so on.

Some useful hints along this same line will be
found under the chapter on Drawing, which should
be carefully studied.

[Pg 65]

CHAPTER VII

HOW THE DIFFERENT STRUCTURAL PARTS ARE DESIGNATED

The Right Name for Everything.—Always
make it a point to apply the right term to each
article or portion of a structure. Your explanation,
to those who do know the proper technical
terms, will render much easier a thorough understanding;
and to those who do not know, your language
will be in the nature of an education.

Proper Designations.—Every part in mechanism,
every point, curve and angle has its peculiar
designation. A knowledge of terms is an indication
of thoroughness in education, and, as heretofore
stated, becomes really the basis of art, as well
as of the sciences. When you wish to impart information
to another you must do it in terms understood
by both.

Furthermore, and for this very reason, you
should study to find out how to explain or to define
the terms. You may have a mental picture
of the structure in your mind, but when asked to
explain it you are lost.

Learning Mechanical Forms.—Suppose, for
example, we take the words segment and sector.
[Pg 66]
Without a thorough understanding in your own
mind you are likely to confuse these terms by
taking one for the other. But let us assume you
are to be called upon to explain a sector to some
one who has no idea of terms and their definitions.
How would you describe it? While it is true it is
wedge-shaped, you will see by examining the drawing
that it is not like a wedge. The sector has two
sides running from a point like a wedge, but the
large end of the sector is curved.

If you were called upon to define a segment you
might say it had one straight line and one curve,
but this would not define it very lucidly. Therefore,
in going over the designations given, not
only fix in your mind the particular form, but try
to remember some particular manner in which
you can clearly express the form, the shape or the
relation of the parts.

For your guidance, therefore, I have given, as
far as possible, simple figures to aid you in becoming
acquainted with structures and their designations,
without repeating the more simple forms
which I have used in the preceding chapters.

55. Arcade.—A series of arches with the columns
or piers which support them, the spandrels
above, and other parts.

[Pg 67]
56. Arch.—A curved member made up, usually,
of separate wedge-shaped solids, A. K, Keystone;
S, Springers; C, Chord, or span.

57. Buttress.—A projecting mass of masonry.
A, used for resisting the thrust of an arch, or
for ornamentation; B, a flying buttress.

58. Chamfer.—The surface A formed by cutting
away the arris or angle formed by two faces, B,
C, of material.

59. Cotter or Cotter Pin.—A pin, A, either flat,
square or round, driven through a projecting
tongue to hold it in position.

60. Crenelated.—A form of molding indented
or notched, either regularly or irregularly.

61. Crosses.—1. Latin cross, in the Church of
Rome carried before Bishops. 2. Double cross,
carried before Cardinals and Bishops. 3. Triple
or Papal cross. 4. St. Andrew’s and St. Peter’s
cross. 5. Maltese cross. 6. St. Anthony or
Egyptian cross. 7. Cross of Jerusalem. 8. A
cross patté or fermé (head or first). 9. A cross
patonce (that is, growing larger at the ends).
10. Greek cross.

62. Curb Roof.—A roof having a double slope,
or composed on each side of two parts which
have unequal inclinations; a gambrel roof.

63. Cupola.—So called on account of its resemblance
to a cup. A roof having a rounded
form. When on a large scale it is called a dome.

Crown Post.—See King Post.

64. Console.—A bracket with a projection not
more than half its height.

65. Corbels.—A mass of brackets to support a
shelf or structure. Largely employed in Gothic
architecture.

66. Dormer.—A window pierced in a roof and
so set as to be vertical, while the roof slopes
away from it. Also called a Gablet.

67. Dowel.—A pin or stud in one block, or
body, designed to engage with holes in another
body to hold them together in alignment.

68. Drip.—That part of a cornice or sill course
A, or other horizontal member which projects
beyond the rest, so as to divert water.

[Pg 68]
69. Detents.—Recesses to lock or to serve as
a stop or holding place.

70. Extrados.—The exterior curve of an arch,
especially the upper curved face A. B is the
Intrados or Soffit.

71. Engrailed.—Indented with small concave
curves, as the edge of a bordure, bend, or the like.

72. Facet.—The narrow plain surface, as A,
between the fluting of a column.

73. Fret, Fretwork.—Ornamental work consisting
of small fillets, or slats, intersecting each
other or bent at right angles. Openwork in relief,
when elaborated and minute in all its parts.
Hence any minute play of light and shade. A,
Japanese fretwork. B, Green fret.

74. Frontal, also called Pediment.—The triangular
space, A, above a door or window.

75. Frustums.—That part of a solid next the
base, formed by cutting off the top; or the part
of any solid, as of a cone, pyramid, etc., between
two planes, which may either be parallel or inclined
to each other.

76. Fylfat.—A rebated cross used as a secret
emblem and worn as an ornament. It is also
called Gammadium, and more commonly known
as Swastika.

77. Gambrel Roof.—A curb roof having the
same section in all its parts, with a lower, steeper
and longer part. See Curb Roof and distinguish
difference.

78. Gargoyle.—A spout projecting from the
roof gutter of a building, often carved grotesquely.

79. Gudgeon.—A wooden shaft, A, with a
socket, B, into which is fitted a casting, C. The
casting has a gudgeon, D.

80. Guilloche.—An ornament in the form of
two or more bands or strings twisted together or
over or through each other.

81. Half Timbered.—Constructed of a timber
frame, having the spaces filled in with masonry.

82. Hammer Beam.—A member of one description
of roof truss, called hammer-beam truss,
which is so framed as not to have a tie beam
[Pg 69]
at the top of the wall. A is the hammer beam,
and C the pendant post.

83. Haunches.—The parts A, A, on each side
of the crown of an arch. Each haunch is from
one-half to two-thirds of the half arch.

84. Header.—A piece of timber, A, fitted between
two trimmers, B, B, to hold the ends of
the tail beams, C, C.

85. Hip Roof.—The external angle formed by
the meeting of two sloping sides or skirts of
a roof which have their wall plates running in
different directions.

86. Hood Molding.—A projecting molding over
the head of an arch, as at A, forming the outer-most
member of the archivolt.

87. Inclave.—The border, or borders, having a
series of dovetails. One variation of molding or
ornamentation.

88. Interlacing Arch.—Arches, usually circular,
so constructed that their archivolts, A, intersect
and seem to be interlaced.

89. Invected.—Having a border or outline composed
of semicircles or arches, with the convexity
outward. The opposite of engrailed.

90. Inverted Arch.—An arch placed with the
crown downward; used in foundation work.

91. Keystone.—The central or topmost stone,
A, of an arch, sometimes decorated with a carving.

92. King Post.—A member, A, of a common
form of truss for roofs. It is strictly a tie intended
to prevent the sagging of the tie beam, B,
in the middle. If there are struts, C, supporting
the rafters, D, they extend down to the foot of
the King Post.

93. Label.—The name given to the projecting
molding, A, around the top of the door opening.
A form of mediæval architecture.

94. Louver.—The sloping boards, A, set to shed
rain water outward in an opening of a frame, as
in belfry windows.

[Pg 70]
95. Lintel.—A horizontal member. A spanning
or opening of a frame, and designed to carry the
wall above it.

96. Lug.—A. projecting piece, as A, to which
anything is attached, or against which another
part, like B, is held.

97. M-Roof.—A kind of roof formed by the
junction of two common roofs with a valley between
them, so the section resembles the letter
M.

98. Mansard Roof.—A hipped curb roof, that
is, a roof having on all sides two slopes, the
lower one, A, being steeper than the upper
portion or deck.

99. Newel Post.—The upright post at the foot
of a stairway, to which the railing is attached.

100. Parquetry.—A species of joinery or cabinet
work, consisting of an inlay of geometric or
other patterns, generally of different colored
woods, used particularly for floors.

101. Peen. also Pein.—The round, round-edged
or hemispherical end, as at A, of a hammer.

102. Pendant.—A hanging ornament on roofs,
ceilings, etc., and much used in the later styles
of Gothic architecture where it is of stone. Imitated
largely in wood and plaster work.

103. Pentastyle.—A pillar. A portico having
five pillars, A, is called the Pentastyle in temples
of classical construction.

104. Pedestal.—An upright architectural member,
A, right-angled in plan, constructionally a
pier, but resembling a column, having a capital,
shaft and base to agree with the columns in the
structure.

105. Pintle.—An upright pivot pin, or the pin
of a hinge; A represents the pintle of a rudder.

106. Portico.—A colonnade or covered structure,
especially in classical style, of architecture,
and usually at the entrance of a building.

107. Plate.—A horizontal timber, A, used as
a top or header for supporting timbers, roofs and
the like.

[Pg 71]
108. Queen Post.—One of two suspending posts
in a roof truss, or other framed truss of simple
form. Compare with King Post. A, B, tie beam;
C, C, queen posts; D, straining piece; E, principal
rafter; F, rafter.

109. Quirk Molding.—A small channel, deeply
recessed, in proportion to its width, used to insulate
and give relief to a convex rounded molding.
An excellent corner post for furniture.

110. Re-entering.—The figure shows an irregular
polygon (that is, many-sided figure) and is
a re-entering polygon. The recess A is a re-entering
angle.

111. Rafter.—Originally any rough and heavy
piece of timber, but in modern carpentry used
to designate the main roof support, as at A.
See Queen Post.

112. Scarfing.—Cutting timber at an angle
along its length, as the line A. Scarfing joints
are variously made. The overlapping joints may
be straight or recessed and provided with a key
block B. When fitted together they are securely
held by plates and bolts.

113. Scotia Molding.—A sunken molding in
the base of a pillar, so called from the dark
shadow which it casts.

114. Sill.—In carpentry the base piece, or
pieces, A, on which the posts of a structure are
set.

115. Skew-Back.—The course of masonry, such
as a stone, A, with an inclined face, which forms
the abutment for the voussoirs, B, or wedge-shaped
stones comprising the arch.

116. Spandrel.—The irregular, triangular
space, A, between the curve of an arch and the
enclosing right angle.

117. Strut.—In general, any piece of a frame,
such as a timber A, or a brace B, which resists
pressure or thrust in the direction of its length.

118. Stud, Studding.—The vertical timber or
scantling, A, which is one of the small uprights
of a building to which the boarding or plastering
lath are nailed.

[Pg 72]
119. Stile.—The main uprights of a door, as
A, A; B, B, B, rails; C, C, mullions; D, D, panels.

Tie Beam.—See Queen Post.

120. Trammel.—A very useful tool for drawing
ellipses. It comprises a cross, A, with grooves
and a bar, B, with pins, C, attached to sliding
blocks in the grooves, and a pen or stylus, D,
at the projecting end of the bar to scribe the
ellipse.

121. Turret.—A little tower, frequently only
an ornamental structure at one of the angles of
a larger structure.

122. Transom.—A horizontal cross-bar, A,
above a door or window or between a door and
a window above it. Transom is the horizontal
member, and if there is a vertical, like the dotted
line B, it is called a Mullion. See Stile.

123. Valley Roof.—A place of meeting of two
slopes of a roof which have their sides running
in different directions and formed on the plan
of a re-entrant angle.

[Pg 73]

CHAPTER VIII

DRAWING AND ITS UTILITY

A knowledge of drawing, at least so far as the
fundamentals are concerned, is of great service
to the beginner. All work, after being conceived
in the brain, should be transferred to paper. A
habit of this kind becomes a pleasure, and, if carried
out persistently, will prove a source of profit.
The boy with a bow pen can easily draw circles,
and with a drawing or ruling pen he can make
straight lines.

Representing Objects.—But let him try to represent
some object, and the pens become useless.
There is a vast difference in the use of drawing
tools and free-hand drawing. While the boy who
is able to execute free-hand sketches may become
the better artist, still that art would not be of much
service to him as a carpenter. First, because the
use of tools gives precision, and this is necessary
to the builder; and, second, because the artist
deals wholly with perspectives, whereas the builder
must execute from plane surfaces or elevations.

Forming Lines and Shadows.—It is not my intention
to furnish a complete treatise on this subject,
[Pg 74]
but to do two things, one of which will be to
show, among other features, how simple lines form
objects; how shading becomes an effective aid;
how proportions are formed; and, second, how to
make irregular forms, and how they may readily
be executed so that the boy may be able to grasp
the ideas for all shapes and structural devices.

Fig. 125.

Fig. 126.	Fig. 127.

Analysis of Line Shading.—In the demonstration
of this work I shall give an analysis of the
simple lines formed, showing the terms used to
designate the lines, curves, and formations, so that
when any work is laid out the beginner will be
able, with this glossary before him, to describe
architecturally, as well as mathematically, the angles
and curves with which he is working.

How to Characterize Surface.—Suppose we
commence simply with straight lines. How shall
[Pg 75]
we determine the character of the surface of the
material between the two straight lines shown in
Fig. 125? Is it flat, rounded, or concaved? Let us
see how we may treat the surface by simple lines
so as to indicate the configuration.

Fig. 128.	Fig. 129.
Fig. 130.	Fig. 131.

Concave Surfaces.—In Fig. 126 the shading
lines commence at the upper margin, and are
heaviest there, the lines gradually growing thinner
and farther apart.

Convex Surfaces.—In Fig. 127 the shading is
very light along the upper margin, and heavy at
the lower margin. The first shaded figure, therefore,
represents a concaved surface, and the second
[Pg 76]
figure a convex surface. But why? Simply
for the reason that in drawings, as well as in nature,
light is projected downwardly, hence when a
beam of light moves past the margin of an object,
the contrast at the upper part, where the light is
most intense, is strongest.

The shading of the S-shaped surface (Fig. 128)
is a compound of Figs. 126 and 127.

Fig. 132.

Shadows From a Solid Body.—We can understand
this better by examining Fig. 129, which
shows a vertical board, and a beam of light (A)
passing downwardly beyond the upper margin of
the board. Under these conditions the upper margin
of the board appears darker to the vision, by
contrast, than the lower part. It should also be
understood that, in general, the nearer the object
the lighter it is, so that as the upper edge of the
board is farthest from the eye the heavy shading
there will at least give the appearance of distance
to that edge.

[Pg 77]
But suppose that instead of having the surface
of the board flat, it should be concaved, as in Fig.
130, it is obvious that the hollow, or the concaved,
portion of the board must intensify the shadows
or the darkness at the upper edge. This explains
why the heavy shading in Fig. 126 is at that upper
margin.

Flat Effects.—If the board is flat it may be
shaded, as shown in Fig. 131, in which the lines
are all of the same thickness, and are spaced farther
and farther apart at regularly increasing intervals.

Fig. 133.	Fig. 134.

The Direction of Light.—Now, in drawing, we
must observe another thing. Not only does the
light always come from above, but it comes also
from the left side. I show in Fig. 132 two squares,
one within the other. All the lines are of the same
thickness. Can you determine by means of such a
drawing what the inner square represents? Is it
a block, or raised surface, or is it a depression?

[Pg 78]
Raised Surfaces.—Fig. 133 shows it in the form
of a block, simply by thickening the lower and the
right-hand lines.

Depressed Surfaces.—If, by chance, you should
make the upper and the left-hand lines heavy, as
in Fig. 134, it would, undoubtedly, appear depressed,
and would need no further explanation.

Full Shading,—But, in order to furnish an additional
example of the effect of shading, suppose
we shade the surface of the large square, as shown
in Fig. 135, and you will at once see that not only
is the effect emphasized, but it all the more clearly
expresses what you want to show. In like manner,
in Fig. 136, we shade only the space within the
inner square, and it is only too obvious how shadows
give us surface conformation.

Fig. 135.	Fig. 136.

Illustrating Cube Shading.—In Fig. 137 I show
merely nine lines joined together, all lines being
of equal thickness.

As thus drawn it may represent, for instance,
[Pg 79]
a cube, or it may show simply a square base (A)
with two sides (B, B) of equal dimensions.

Shading Effects.—Now, to examine it properly
so as to observe what the draughtsman wishes to
express, look at Fig. 138, in which the three diverging
lines (A, B, C) are increased in thickness,
and the cube appears plainly. On the other hand,
in Fig. 139, the thickening of the lines (D, E, F)
shows an entirely different structure.

Fig. 137.

Fig. 138.	Fig. 139.

It must be remembered, therefore, that to show
raised surfaces the general direction is to shade
heavily the lower horizontal and the right vertical
lines. (See Fig. 133.)

Heavy Lines.—But there is an exception to this
rule. See two examples (Fig. 140). Here two parallel
[Pg 80]
lines appear close together to form the edge
nearest the eye. In such cases the second, or upper,
line is heaviest. On vertical lines, as in Fig. 141,
the second line from the right is heaviest. These
examples show plain geometrical lines, and those
from Figs. 138 to 141, inclusive, are in perspective.

Fig. 140.	Fig. 141.

Perspective.—A perspective is a most deceptive
figure, and a cube, for instance, may be drawn so
that the various lines will differ in length, and
also be equidistant from each other. Or all the
lines may be of the same length and have the distances
between them vary. Supposing we have
two cubes, one located above the other, separated,
say, two feet or more from each other. It is obvious
that the lines of the two cubes will not be the
same to a camera, because, if they were photographed,
they would appear exactly as they are,
so far as their positions are concerned, and not as
they appear. But the cubes do appear to the eye
[Pg 81]
as having six equal sides. The camera shows
that they do not have six equal sides so far as
measurement is concerned. You will see, therefore,
that the position of the eye, relative to the
cube, is what determines the angle, or the relative
angles of all the lines.

Fig. 142.

Fig. 143.

A True Perspective of a Cube.—Fig. 142 shows
a true perspective—that is, it is true from the measurement
standpoint. It is what is called an isometrical
view, or a figure in which all the lines not
only are of equal length, but the parallel lines are
[Pg 82]
all spaced apart the same distances from each
other.

Isometric Cube.—I enclose this cube within a
circle, as in Fig. 143. To form this cube the circle
(A) is drawn and bisected with a vertical line (B).
This forms the starting point for stepping off the
six points (C) in the circle, using the dividers without
resetting, after you have made the circle.
Then connect each of the points (C) by straight
lines (D). These lines are called chords. From
the center draw two lines (E) at an angle and one
line (F) vertically. These are the radial lines.
You will see from the foregoing that the chords
(D) form the outline of the cube—or the lines farthest
from the eye, and the radial lines (E, F)
are the nearest to the eye. In this position we are
looking at the block at a true diagonal—that is,
from a corner at one side to the extreme corner
on the opposite side.

Fig. 144.

Let us contrast this, and particularly Fig. 142,
[Pg 83]
with the cube which is placed higher up, viewed
from the same standpoint.

Flattened Perspective.—Fig. 144 shows the
new perspective, in which the three vertical lines
(A, A, A) are of equal length, and the six angularly
disposed lines (B, C) are of equal length, but
shorter than the lines A. The only change which
has been made is to shorten the distance across
the corner from D to D, but the vertical lines (A)
are the same in length as the corresponding lines
in Fig. 143. Notwithstanding this change the
cubes in both figures appear to be of the same size,
as, in fact, they really are.

Fig. 145.

In forming a perspective, therefore, it would
be a good idea for the boy to have a cube of wood
always at hand, which, if laid down on a horizontal
support, alongside, or within range of the object to
[Pg 84]
be drawn, will serve as a guide to the perspective.

Technical Designations.—As all geometrical
lines have designations, I have incorporated such
figures as will be most serviceable to the boy, each
figure being accompanied by its proper definition.

Fig. 146.	Fig. 147.

Before passing to that subject I can better show
some of the simple forms by means of suitable diagrams.

Referring to Fig. 145, let us direct our attention
to the body (G), formed by the line (D) across
the circle. This body is called a segment. A chord
(D) and a curve comprise a segment.

Sector and Segment.—Now examine the shape
of the body formed by two of the radial lines (E,
E) and that part of the circle which extends from
one radial line to the other. The body thus formed
is a sector, and it is made by two radiating lines
and a curved line. Learn to distinguish readily, in
your mind, the difference between the two figures.

[Pg 85]
Terms of Angles.—The relation of the lines to
each other, the manner in which they are joined
together, and their comparative angles, all have
special terms and meanings. Thus, referring to
the isometric cube, in Fig. 145, the angle formed
at the center by the lines (B, E) is different from
the angle formed at the margin by the lines (E, F).
The angle formed by B, E is called an exterior
angle; and that formed by E, F is an interior angle.
If you will draw a line (G) from the center to the
circle line, so it intersects it at C, the lines B, D, G
form an equilateral or isosceles triangle; if you
draw a chord (A) from C to C, the lines H, E, F
will form an obtuse triangle, and B, F, H a right-angled
triangle.

Circles and Curves.—Circles, and, in fact, all
forms of curved work, are the most difficult for
beginners. The simplest figure is the circle, which,
if it represents a raised surface, is provided with
a heavy line on the lower right-hand side, as in
Fig. 146; but the proper artistic expression is
shown in Fig. 147, in which the lower right-hand
side is shaded in rings running only a part of the
way around, gradually diminishing in length, and
spaced farther and farther apart as you approach
the center, thus giving the appearance of a sphere.

Fig. 148.

Irregular Curves.—But the irregular curves require
the most care to form properly. Let us try
[Pg 86]
first the elliptical curve (Fig. 148). The proper
thing is, first, to draw a line (A), which is called
the “major axis.” On this axis we mark for our
guidance two points (B, B). With the dividers
find a point (C) exactly midway, and draw a cross
line (D). This is called the “minor axis.” If we
choose to do so we may indicate two points (E, E)
on the minor axis, which, in this case, for convenience,
are so spaced that the distance along
the major axis, between B, B, is twice the length
across the minor axis (D), along E, E. Now find
one-quarter of the distance from B to C, as at F,
and with a compass pencil make a half circle (G).
If, now, you will set the compass point on the center
mark (C), and the pencil point of the compass on
B, and measure along the minor axis (D) on both
[Pg 87]
sides of the major axis, you will make two points,
as at H. These points are your centers for scribing
the long sides of the ellipse. Before proceeding
to strike the curved lines (J), draw a diagonal
line (K) from H to each marking point (F).
Do this on both sides of the major axis, and produce
these lines so they cross the curved lines (G).
When you ink in your ellipse do not allow the circle
pen to cross the lines (K), and you will have a
mechanical ellipse.

Ellipses and Ovals.—It is not necessary to
measure the centering points (F) at certain specified
distances from the intersection of the horizontal
and vertical lines. We may take any point
along the major axis, as shown, for instance, in
Fig. 149. Let B be this point, taken at random.
Then describe the half circle (C). We may, also,
arbitrarily, take any point, as, for instance, D on
the minor axis E, and by drawing the diagonal
lines (F) we find marks on the circle (C), which
are the meeting lines for the large curve (H), with
the small curve (C). In this case we have formed
an ovate or an oval form. Experience will soon
make perfect in following out these directions.

Focal Points.—The focal point of a circle is its
center, and is called the focus. But an ellipse has
two focal points, called foci, represented by F, F in
Fig. 148, and by B, B in Fig. 149.

[Pg 88]
A produced line is one which extends out beyond
the marking point. Thus in Fig. 148 that
part of the line K between F and G represents
the produced portion of line K.

Fig. 149.

Spirals.—There is no more difficult figure to
make with a bow or a circle pen than a spiral. In
Fig. 150 a horizontal and a vertical line (A, B),
respectively, are drawn, and at their intersection
a small circle (C) is formed. This now provides
for four centering points for the circle pen, on
the two lines (A, B). Intermediate these points
indicate a second set of marks halfway between
the marks on the lines. If you will now set the
point of the compass at, say, the mark 3, and the
pencil point of the compass at D, and make a
curved mark one-eighth of the way around, say,
to the radial line (E), then put the point of the
[Pg 89]
compass to 4, and extend the pencil point of the
compass so it coincides with the curved line just
drawn, and then again make another curve, one-eighth
of a complete circle, and so on around the
entire circle of marking points, successively, you
will produce a spiral, which, although not absolutely
accurate, is the nearest approach with a circle
pen. To make this neatly requires care and
patience.

Fig. 150.

Perpendicular and Vertical.—A few words
now as to terms. The boy is often confused in determining
the difference between perpendicular
and vertical. There is a pronounced difference.
Vertical means up and down. It is on a line in
the direction a ball takes when it falls straight
toward the center of the earth. The word perpendicular,
as usually employed in astronomy, means
the same thing, but in geometry, or in drafting, or
in its use in the arts it means that a perpendicular
[Pg 90]
line is at right angles to some other line. Suppose
you put a square upon a roof so that one leg of the
square extends up and down on the roof, and the
other leg projects outwardly from the roof. In
this case the projecting leg is perpendicular to the
roof. Never use the word vertical in this connection.

Signs to Indicate Measurements.—The small
circle (°) is always used to designate degree.
Thus 10° means ten degrees.

Feet are indicated by the single mark ‘; and two
closely allied marks ” are for inches. Thus five
feet ten inches should be written 5′ 10″. A large
cross (×) indicates the word “by,” and in expressing
the term six feet by three feet two inches, it
should be written 6’ × 3’2″.

The foregoing figures give some of the fundamentals
necessary to be acquired, and it may be
said that if the boy will learn the principles involved
in the drawings he will have no difficulty
in producing intelligible work; but as this is not
a treatise on drawing we cannot go into the more
refined phases of the subject.

Definitions.—The following figures show the
various geometrical forms and their definitions:

151. Abscissa.—The point in a curve, A, which
is referred to by certain lines, such as B, which
extend out from an axis, X, or the ordinate line Z.

[Pg 91]
152. Angle.—The inclosed space near the point
where two lines meet.

153. Apothegm.—The perpendicular line A from
the center to one side of a regular polygon. It
represents the radial line of a polygon the same
as the radius represents half the diameter of a
circle.

154. Apsides or Apsis.—One of two points, A,
A, of an orbit, oval or ellipse farthest from the
axis, or the two small dots.

155. Chord.—A right line, as A, uniting the
extremities of the arc of a circle or a curve.

156. Convolute (see also Involute).—Usually
employed to designate a wave or folds in opposite
directions. A double involute.

157. Conic Section.—Having the form of or resembling
a cone. Formed by cutting off a cone
at any angle. See line A.

158. Conoid.—Anything that has a form resembling
that of a cone.

159. Cycloid.—A curve, A, generated by a point,
B, in the plane of a circle or wheel, C, when
the wheel is rolled along a straight line.

160. Ellipsoid.—A solid, all plane sections of
which are ellipses or circles.

161. Epicycloid.—A curve, A, traced by a point,
B, in the circumference of a wheel, C, which rolls
on the convex side of a fixed circle, D.

162. Evolute.—A curve, A, from which another
curve, like B, on each of the inner ends of the
lines C is made. D is a spool, and the lines C
represent a thread at different positions. The
thread has a marker, E, so that when the thread
is wound on the spool the marker E makes the
evolute line A.

163. Focus.—The center, A, of a circle; also
one of the two centering points, B, of an ellipse
or an oval.

164. Gnome.—The space included between the
boundary lines of two similar parallelograms, the
one within the other, with an angle in common.

165. Hyperbola.—A curve, A, formed by the section
of a cone. If the cone is cut off vertically
on the dotted line, A, the curve is a hyperbola.
See Parabola.

167. Hypothenuse.—The side, A, of a right-angled
triangle which is opposite to the right
angle B, C. A, regular triangle; C, irregular triangle.

[Pg 92]
168. Incidence.—The angle, A, which is the
same angle as, for instance, a ray of light, B,
which falls on a mirror, C. The line D is the
perpendicular.

169. Isosceles Triangle.—Having two sides or
legs, A, A, that are equal.

170. Parabola.—One of the conic sections formed
by cutting of a cone so that the cut line, A, is
not vertical. See Hyperbola where the cut line
is vertical.

171. Parallelogram.—A right-lined quadrilateral
figure, whose opposite sides, A, A, or B, B, are
parallel and consequently equal.

172. Pelecoid.—A figure, somewhat hatchet-shaped,
bounded by a semicircle, A, and two inverted
quadrants, and equal to a square, C.

173. Polygons.—Many-sided and many with
angles.

174. Pyramid.—A solid structure generally with
a square base and having its sides meeting in an
apex or peak. The peak is the vertex.

175. Quadrant.—The quarter of a circle or of
the circumference of a circle. A horizontal line,
A, and a vertical line, B, make the four quadrants,
like C.

176. Quadrilateral.—A plane figure having four
sides, and consequently four angles. Any figure
formed by four lines.

177. Rhomb.—An equilateral parallelogram or a
quadrilateral figure whose sides are equal and the
opposite sides, B, B, parallel.

178. Sector.—A part, A, of a circle formed by
two radial lines, B, B, and bounded at the end
by a curve.

179. Segment.—A part, A, cut from a circle by
a straight line, B. The straight line, B, is the
chord or the segmental line.

180. Sinusoid.—A wave-like form. It may be
regular or irregular.

181. Tangent.—A line, A, running out from the
curve at right angles from a radial line.

182. Tetrahedron.—A solid figure enclosed or
bounded by four triangles, like A or B. A plain
pyramid is bounded by five triangles.

183. Vertex.—The meeting point, A, of two or
more lines.

184. Volute.—A spiral scroll, used largely in
architecture, which forms one of the chief features
of the Ionic capital.

[Pg 93]

CHAPTER IX

MOLDINGS, WITH PRACTICAL ILLUSTRATIONS IN EMBELLISHING
WORK

Moldings.—The use of moldings was early resorted
to by the nations of antiquity, and we marvel
to-day at many of the beautiful designs which
the Phœnecians, the Greeks and the Romans produced.
If you analyze the lines used you will be
surprised to learn how few are the designs which
go to make up the wonderful columns, spires, minarets
and domes which are represented in the various
types of architecture.

The Basis of Moldings.—Suppose we take the
base type of moldings, and see how simple they
are and then, by using these forms, try to build
up or ornament some article of furniture, as an
example of their utility.

The Simplest Molding.—In Fig. 185 we show
a molding of the most elementary character
known, being simply in the form of a band (A)
placed below the cap. Such a molding gives to
the article on which it is placed three distinct
lines, C, D and E, If you stop to consider you
will note that the molding, while it may add to
the strength of the article, is primarily of service
[Pg 94]
because the lines and surfaces produce shadows,
and therefore become valuable in an artistic sense.

The Astragal.—Fig. 186 shows the ankle-bone
molding, technically called the Astragal. This
form is round, and properly placed produces a
good effect, as it throws the darkest shadow of
any form of molding.

Fig. 185.	Fig. 186.

Fig. 187.	Fig. 188.

The Cavetto.—Fig. 187 is the cavetto, or round
type. Its proper use gives a delicate outline, but
it is principally applied with some other form
of molding.

The Ovolo.—Fig. 188, called the ovolo, is a
quarter round molding with the lobe (A) projecting
downwardly. It is distinguished from
[Pg 95]
the astragal because it casts less of a shadow
above and below.

The Torus.—Fig. 189, known as the torus, is
a modified form of the ovolo, but the lobe (A) projects
out horizontally instead of downwardly.

The Apophyges (Pronounced apof-i-ges).—Fig.
190 is also called the scape, and is a concaved type
of molding, being a hollowed curvature used on
columns where its form causes a merging of the
shaft with the fillet.

Fig. 189. Torus.	Fig. 190. Apophyge.
Fig. 191. Cymatium.	Fig. 192. Ogee-Recta.

The Cymatium.—Fig. 191 is the cymatium (derived
from the word cyme), meaning wave-like.
This form must be in two curves, one inwardly
and one outwardly.

The Ogee.—Fig. 192, called the ogee, is the most
useful of all moldings, for two reasons: First,
it may have the concaved surface uppermost, in
which form it is called ogee recta—that is, right
[Pg 96]
side up; or it may be inverted, as in Fig. 193, with
the concaved surface below, and is then called
ogee reversa. Contrast these two views and you
will note what a difference the mere inversion of
the strip makes in the appearance. Second, because
the ogee has in it, in a combined form, the
outlines of nearly all the other types. The only
advantage there is in using the other types is
because you may thereby build up and space your
work better than by using only one simple form.

Fig. 193. Ogee-Reversa.

Fig. 194. Bead or Reedy.

You will notice that the ogee is somewhat like
the cymatium, the difference being that the concaved
part is not so pronounced as in the ogee,
and the convexed portion bulges much further than
in the ogee. It is capable of use with other moldings,
and may be reversed with just as good effect
as the ogee.

[Pg 97]
The Reedy.—Fig. 194 represents the reedy, or
the bead—that is, it is made up of reeds. It is a
type of molding which should not be used with any
other pronounced type of molding.

The Casement (Fig. 195).—In this we have a
form of molding used almost exclusively at the
base of structures, such as columns, porticoes and
like work.

Fig. 195. Casement.

Now, before proceeding to use these moldings,
let us examine a Roman-Doric column, one of the
most famous types of architecture produced. We
shall see how the ancients combined moldings to
produce grace, lights and shadows and artistic
effects.

The Roman-Doric Column.—In Fig. 196 is
shown a Roman-Doric column, in which the cymatium,
the ovolo, cavetto, astragal and the ogee are
used, together with the fillets, bases and caps,
and it is interesting to study this because of its
beautiful proportions.

[Pg 98]

Fig. 196.

The pedestal and base are equal in vertical
dimensions to the entablature and capital. The entablature
is but slightly narrower than the pedestal;
[Pg 99]
and the length of the column is, approximately,
four times the height of the pedestal.
The base of the shaft, while larger diametrically
than the capital, is really shorter measured vertically.
There is a reason for this. The eye must
travel a greater distance to reach the upper end
of the shaft, and is also at a greater angle to that
part of the shaft, hence it appears shorter, while
it is in reality longer. For this reason a capital
must be longer or taller than the base of a shaft,
and it is also smaller in diameter.

It will be well to study the column not only on
account of the wonderful blending of the various
forms of moldings, but because it will impress you
with a sense of proportions, and give you an idea
of how simple lines may be employed to great advantage
in all your work.

Lessons from the Doric Column.—As an example,
suppose we take a plain cabinet, and endeavor
to embellish it with the types of molding
described, and you will see to what elaboration
the operation may be carried.

Applying Molding.—Let Fig. 197 represent the
front, top and bottom of our cabinet; and the first
thing we shall do is to add a base (A) and a cap
(B). Now, commencing at the top, suppose we
utilize the simplest form of molding, the band.

This we may make of any desired width, as
[Pg 100]
shown in Fig. 198. On this band we can apply the
ogee type (Fig. 199) right side up.

But for variation we may decide to use the
ogee reversed, as in Fig. 200. This will afford
us something else to think about and will call upon
our powers of initiative in order to finish off the
lower margin or edge of the ogee reversa.

Fig. 197.

Fig. 198.	Fig. 199.

If we take the ogee recta, as shown in Fig. 201,
we may use the cavetto, or the ovolo (Fig. 202);
but if we use the ogee reversa we must use a convex
molding like the cavetto at one base, and
[Pg 101]
a convex molding, like the torus or the ovolo,
at the other base.

In the latter (Fig. 202) four different moldings
are used with the ogee as the principal
structure.

Base Embellishments.—In like manner (Fig.
204) the base may have the casement type first attached
in the corner, and then the ovolo, or the
astragal added, as in Fig. 203.

Fig. 200.	Fig. 201.	Fig. 202.

Straight-faced Moldings.—Now let us carry
the principle still further, and, instead of using
various type of moldings, we will employ nothing
but straight strips of wood. This treatment will
soon indicate to you that the true mechanic or
artisan is he who can take advantage of whatever
he finds at hand.

Let us take the same cabinet front (Fig. 205),
and below the cap (A) place a narrow strip (B),
the lower corner of which has been chamfered off,
as at C. Below the strip B is a thinner strip (D),
vertically disposed, and about two-thirds its width.
The lower corner of this is also chamfered, as at
[Pg 102]
F. To finish, apply a small strip (G) in the corner,
and you have an embellished top that has
the appearance, from a short distance, of being
made up of molding.

Plain Molded Base.—The base may be treated
in the same manner. The main strip (4) has its
upper corner chamfered off, as at I, and on this
is nailed a thin, narrow finishing strip (J). The
upper part or molded top, in this case, has eleven
distinct lines, and the base has six lines. By experimenting
you may soon put together the most
available kinds of molding strips.

Fig. 203.	Fig. 204.

Diversified Uses.—For a great overhang you
may use the cavetto, or the apophyges, and below
that the astragal or the torus; and for the base
the casement is the most serviceable molding, and
it may be finished off with the ovolo or the cymatium.

Pages of examples might be cited to show the
variety and the diversification available with different
types.

[Pg 103]
Shadows Cast by Moldings.—Always bear in
mind that a curved surface makes a blended
shadow. A straight, flat or plain surface does
not, and it is for that reason the concaved and
the convexed surfaces, brought out by moldings,
become so important.

Fig. 205.

A little study and experimenting will soon
teach you how a convex, a concave or a flat surface,
and a corner or corners should be arranged relatively
to each other; how much one should project
beyond the other; and what the proportional
widths of the different molding bands should be.
An entire volume would scarcely exhaust this subject.

[Pg 104]

CHAPTER X

AN ANALYSIS OF TENONING, MORTISING, RABBETING
AND BEADING

In the chapter on How Work is Laid Out, an
example was given of the particular manner pursued
in laying out mortises and tenons, and also
dovetailed work. I deem it advisable to add some
details to the subject, as well as to direct attention
to some features which do not properly belong
to the laying out of work.

Where Mortises Should Be Used.—Most important
of all is a general idea of places and conditions
under which mortises should be resorted
to. There are four ways in which different members
may be secured to each other. First, by
mortises and tenons; second, by a lap-and-butt;
third, by scarfing; and, fourth, by tonguing and
grooving.

Depth of Mortises.—When a certain article is
to be made, the first consideration is, how the
joint or joints shall be made. The general rule
for using the tenon and mortise is where two
parts are joined wherein the grains of the two
[Pg 105]
members run at right angles to each other, as in
the following figure.

Rule for Mortises.—Fig. 206 shows such an
example. You will notice this in doors particularly,
as an example of work.

Fig. 206.

Fig. 207.

The next consideration is, shall the mortises be
cut entirely through the piece? This is answered
by the query as to whether or not the end of the
tenon will be exposed; and usually, if a smooth
finish is required, the mortise should not go
through the member. In a door, however, the
tenons are exposed at the edges of the door, and
are, therefore, seen, so that we must apply some
other rule. The one universally adopted is, that
where, as in a door stile, it is broad and comparatively
thin, or where the member having the mortise
[Pg 106]
in its edge is much thinner than its width, the
mortise should go through from edge to edge.

The reason for this lies in the inability to sink
the mortises through the stile (A, Fig. 207) perfectly
true, and usually the job is turned out
something like the illustration shows. The side
of the rail (B) must be straight with the side of
the stile. If the work is done by machinery it
results in accuracy unattainable in hand work.

Fig. 208.

True Mortise Work.—The essense of good joining
work is the ability to sink the chisel true with
the side of the member. More uneven work is
produced by haste than by inability. The tendency
[Pg 107]
of all beginners is to strike the chisel too
hard, in order the more quickly to get down to
the bottom of the mortise. Hence, bad work
follows.

Steps in Cutting Mortises.—Examine Fig. 208,
which, for convenience, gives six successive steps
in making the mortise. The marks a, b designate
the limits, or the length, of the mortise. The
chisel (C) is not started at the marking line (A),
but at least an eighth of an inch from it. The
first cut, as at B, gives a starting point for the
next cut or placement of the chisel. When the second
cut (B) has thus been made, the chisel should
be turned around, as in dotted line d, position
C, thereby making a finish cut down to the bottom
of the mortise, line e, so that when the fourth cut
has been made along line f, we are ready for the
fifth cut, position C; then the sixth cut, position
D, which leaves the mortise as shown at E. Then
turn the chisel to the position shown at F, and
cut down the last end of the mortise square, as
shown in G, and clean out the mortise well before
making the finishing cuts on the marking lines
(a, b). The particular reason for cleaning out
the mortise before making the finish cuts is, that
the corners of the mortise are used as fulcrums
for the chisels, and the eighth of an inch stock
still remaining protects the corners.

[Pg 108]
Things to Avoid in Mortising.—You must be
careful to refrain from undercutting as your chisel
goes down at the lines a, b, because if you commit
this error you will make a bad joint.

As much care should be exercised in producing
the tenon, although the most common error is apt
to occur in making the shoulder. This should be
a trifle undercut.

Fig. 209.

See the lines (A, Fig. 209), which illustrate this.

Lap-and-Butt Joint.—The lap-and-butt is the
form of uniting members which is most generally
used to splice together timbers, where they join
each other end to end.

Fig. 210.

Bolts are used to secure the laps.

But the lap-and-butt form is also used in doors
and in other cabinet work. It is of great service
in paneling.

[Pg 109]
A rabbet is formed to receive the edge of the
panel, and a molding is then secured to the other
side on the panel, to hold the latter in place.

Scarfing.—This method of securing members
together is the most rigid, and when properly performed
makes the joint the strongest part of the
timber. Each member (A, Fig. 212) has a step
diagonally cut (B), the two steps being on different
planes, so they form a hook joint, as at C,
and as each point or terminal has a blunt end,
the members are so constructed as to withstand
a longitudinal strain in either direction. The
overlapping plates (D) and the bolts (E) hold
the joint rigidly.

Fig. 211.

Fig. 212.

The Tongue and Groove.—This form of uniting
members has only a limited application. It is
[Pg 110]
serviceable for floors, table tops, paneling, etc. In
Fig. 213, a door panel is shown, and the door
mullions (B) are also so secured to the rail (C).
The tongue-and-groove method is never used by
itself. It must always have some support or reinforcing
means.

Fig. 213.

Fig. 214.	Fig. 215.

Beading.—This part of the work pertains to
surface finishings, and may or may not be used in
connection with rabbeting.

Figs. 214 and 215 show the simplest and most
generally adopted forms in which it is made and
used in connection with rabbeting, or with the
tongue and groove. The bead is placed on one
or both sides of that margin of the board (Fig.
214) which has the tongue, and the adjoining
board has the usual flooring groove to butt against
and receive the tongue. It is frequently the case
that a blind bead, as in Fig. 215, runs through
[Pg 111]
the middle of the board, so as to give the appearance
of narrow strips when used for wainscoting,
or for ceilings. The beads also serve to hide the
joints of the boards.

Fig. 216.	Fig. 217.	Fig. 218.

Ornamental Bead Finish.—These figures show
how the bead may be used for finishing corners,
edges and projections. Fig. 216 has a bead at
each corner of a stile (A), and a finishing strip
of half-round material (B) is nailed to the flat
edge. Fig. 217 has simply the corners themselves
beaded, and it makes a most serviceable finish for
the edges of projecting members.

Fig. 218, used for wider members, has the corners
beaded and a fancy molding (C); or the reduced
edge of the stile itself is rounded off.

Fig. 219.	Fig. 220.

The Bead and Rabbet.—A more amplified form
of work is available where the rabbet plane is
used with the beader. These two planes together
[Pg 112]
will, if properly used, offer a strong substitute for
molding and molding effects.

Fig. 219 has both sides first rabbeted, as at A,
and the corners then beaded, as at B, with the
reduced part of the member rounded off, as at C.
Or, as in Fig. 220, the reduced edge of the member
may have the corners beaded, as at D, and the
rabbeted corners filled in with a round or concaved
moulding (E).

Shading with Beads and Rabbets.—You will
see from the foregoing, that these embellishments
are serviceable because they provide the article
with a large number of angles and surfaces to
cast lights and shadows; and for this reason the
boy should strive to produce the effects which this
class of work requires.

[Pg 113]

CHAPTER XI

HOUSE BUILDING

House building is the carpenter’s craft; cabinet-making
the joiner’s trade, yet both are so intimately
associated, that it is difficult to draw a
line. The same tools, the same methods and the
same materials are employed.

There is no trade more ennobling than home
building. It is a vocation which touches every
man and woman, and to make it really an art is,
or should be, the true aspiration of every craftsman.

The House and Embellishments.—The refined
arts, such as sculpture and painting, merely embellish
the home or the castle, so that when we
build the structure it should be made with an eye
not only to comfort and convenience, but fitting in
an artistic and æsthetic sense. It is just as easy
to build a beautiful home as an ugly, ungainly, illy
proportioned structure.

Beauty Not Ornamentation.—The boy, in his
early training, should learn this fundamental
truth, that beauty, architecturally, does not depend
upon ornamentation. Some of the most
beautiful structures in the world are very plain.
[Pg 114]
Beauty consists in proportions, in proper correlation
of parts, and in adaptation for the uses to
which the structure is to be put.

Plain Structures.—A house with a plain
façade, having a roof properly pitched and with
a simple cornice, if joined to a wing which is not
ungainly or out of proper proportions, is infinitely
more beautiful than a rambling structure, in which
one part suggests one order of architecture and
the other part some other type or no type at all,
and in which the embellishments are out of keeping
with the size or pretensions of the house.

Colonial Type.—For real beauty, on a larger
scale, there is nothing to-day which equals the
old Colonial type with the Corinthian columns and
entablature. The Lee mansion, now the National
Cemetery, at Washington, is a fine example.
Such houses are usually square or rectangular in
plan, severely plain, with the whole ornamentation
consisting of the columns and the portico. This
type presents an appearance of massiveness and
grandeur and is an excellent illustration of a
form wherein the main characteristic of the structure
is concentrated or massed at one point.

The Church of the Madelaine, Paris, is another
striking example of this period of architecture.

Of course, it would be out of place with cottages
and small houses, but it is well to study and to
[Pg 115]
know what forms are most available and desirable
to adopt, and particularly to know something of
the art in which you are interested.

The Roof the Keynote.—Now, there is one
thing which should, and does, distinguish the residence
from other types of buildings, excepting
churches. It is the roof. A house is dominated
by its covering. I refer to the modern home. It
is not true with the Colonial or the Grecian types.
In those the façade or the columns and cornices
predominate over everything else.

Bungalow Types.—If you will take up any book
on bungalow work and note the outlines of the
views you will see that the roof forms the main
element or theme. In fact, in most buildings of
this kind everything is submerged but the roof
and roof details. They are made exceedingly flat,
with different pitches with dormers and gables intermingled
and indiscriminately placed, with cornices
illy assorted and of different kinds, so that
the multiplicity of diversified details gives an appearance
of great elaboration. Many of those
designs are monstrosities and should, if possible,
be legally prohibited.

I cannot attempt to give even so much as an
outline of what constitutes art in its relation to
building, but my object is to call attention to
this phase of the question, and as you proceed in
[Pg 116]
your studies and your work you will realize the
value and truthfulness of the foregoing observations.

General House Building.—We are to treat,
generally, on the subject of house building, how
the work is laid out, and how built, and in doing
so I shall take a concrete example of the work.
This can be made more effectual for the purpose
if it is on simple lines.

Building Plans.—We must first have a plan;
and the real carpenter must have the ability to
plan as well as to do the work. We want a five-room
house, comprising a parlor, dining room, two
bedrooms, a kitchen and a bathroom. Just a modest
little home, to which we can devote our spare
hours, and which will be neat and comfortable
when finished. It must be a one-story house, and
that fact at once settles the roof question. We
can make the house perfectly square in plan, or
rectangular, and divide up the space into the
proper divisions.

The Plain Square Floor Plan will first be
taken up, as it is such an easy roof to build. Of
course, it is severely plain.

Fig. 221 shows our proposed plan, drawn in the
rough, without any attempts to measure the different
apartments, and with the floor plan exactly
square. Supposing we run a hall (A) through
the middle. On one side of this let us plan for
a dining room and a kitchen, a portion of the
kitchen space to be given over to a closet and a
bathroom.

[Pg 117]

Fig. 221.

The chimney (B) must be made accessible from
both rooms. On the other side of the hallway the
space is divided into a parlor and two bedrooms.

[Pg 118]
The Rectangular Plan.—In the rectangular
floor plan (Fig. 222) a portion of the floor space is
cut out for a porch (A), so that we may use the
end or the side for the entrance. Supposing we
use the end of the house for this purpose. The
entrance room (B) may be a bedroom, or a reception
and living room, and to the rear of this
room is the dining room, connected with the reception
room by a hall (C). This hall also leads to
the kitchen and to the bathroom, as well as to the
other bedroom. The parlor is connected with the
entrance room (B), and also with the bedroom.
All of this is optional, of course.

Fig. 222.

There are also two chimneys, one chimney (D)
having two flues and the other chimney (E) having
three flues, so that every room is accommodated.

[Pg 119]

Fig. 223.

Room Measurements.—We must now determine
the dimensions of each room, and then how we
shall build the roof.

In Figs. 223 and 224, we have now drawn out
[Pg 120]
in detail the sizes, the locations of the door and
windows, the chimneys and the closets, as well
as the bathroom. All this work may be changed
or modified to suit conditions and the taste of the
designer.

Fig. 224.

Front and Side Lines.—From the floor diagram,
and the door and window spaces, as marked out,
we may now proceed to lay out rough front and
side outlines of the building. The ceilings are to
be 9 feet, and if we put a rather low-pitched
roof on the square structure (Fig. 223) the front
may look something like Fig. 225, and a greater
pitch given to the rectangular plan (Fig. 224) will
present a view as shown in Fig. 226.

[Pg 121]

Fig. 225.

Fig. 226.

The Roof.—The pitch of the roof (Fig. 225) is
what is called “third pitch,” and the roof (Fig.
226) has a half pitch. A “third” pitch is determined
as follows:

[Pg 122]
Roof Pitch.—In Fig. 227 draw a vertical line
(A) and join it by a horizontal line (B). Then
strike a circle (C) and step it off into three parts.
The line (D), which intersects the first mark (E)
and the angle of the lines (A, B), is the pitch.

In Fig. 228 the line A is struck at 15 degrees,
which is halfway between lines B and C, and it is,
therefore, termed “half-pitch.”

Fig. 227.	Fig. 228.

Thus, we have made the ground plans, the elevations
and the roofs as simple as possible. Let
us proceed next with the details of the building.

The Foundation.—This may be of brick, stone
or concrete, and its dimensions should be at least
1½ inches further out than the sill.

The Sills.—We are going to build what is called
a “balloon frame”; and, first, we put down the
sills, which will be a course of 2″ × 6″, or 2″ × 8″
joists, as in Fig. 229.

The Flooring Joist.—The flooring joists (A)
are then put down (Fig. 230). These should extend
[Pg 123]
clear across the house from side to side, if
possible, or, if the plan is too wide, they should
be lapped at the middle wall and spiked together.
The ends should extend out flush with the outer
margins of the sills, as shown, but in putting down
the first and last sill, space must be left along
the sides of the joist of sufficient width to place
the studding.

Fig. 229.

Fig. 230.

The Studding.—The next step is to put the
studding into position. 4″ × 4″ must be used for
corners and at the sides of door and window openings.
[Pg 124]
4″ × 6″ may be used at corners, if preferred.
Consult your plan and see where the
openings are for doors and windows. Measure
the widths of the door and window frames, and
make a measuring stick for this purpose. You
must leave at least one-half inch clearance for
the window or door frame, so as to give sufficient
room to plumb and set the frame.

Setting Up.—First set up the corner posts,
plumbing and bracing them. Cut a top plate for
each side you are working on.

Fig. 231.

The Plate.—As it will be necessary in our job
to use two or more lengths of 2″ × 4″ scantling for
the plate, it will be necessary to join them together.
Do this with a lap-and-butt joint (Fig.
231).

Then set up the 4″ × 4″ posts for the sides of the
doors and windows, and for the partition walls.

The plate should be laid down on the sill, and
marked with a pencil for every scantling to correspond
with the sill markings. The plate is then
put on and spiked to the 4″ × 4″ posts.

Intermediate Studding.—It will then be an
[Pg 125]
easy matter to put in the intermediate 2″ × 4″
studding, placing them as nearly as possible 16
inches apart to accommodate the 48-inch plastering
lath.

Fig. 232.

Wall Headers.—When all the studding are in
you will need headers above and rails below the
windows and headers above all the doors, so that
you will have timbers to nail the siding to, as
well as for the lathing.

Ceiling Joists.—We are now ready for the ceiling
joists, which are, usually, 2″ × 6″, unless there
is an upper floor. These are laid 16 inches apart
from center to center, preferably parallel with
the floor joist.

It should be borne in mind that the ceiling
[Pg 126]
joist must always be put on with reference
to the roof.

Thus, in Fig. 232, the ceiling joists (A) have
their ends resting on the plate (B), so that the
rafters are in line with the joists.

Braces.—It would also be well, in putting up the
studding, to use plenty of braces, although for a
one-story building this is not so essential as in
two-story structures, because the weather boarding
serves as a system of bracing.

Fig. 233.

The Rafters.—These may be made to provide
for the gutter or not, as may be desired. They
should be of 2″ × 4″ scantling.

The Gutter.—In Fig. 233 I show a most serviceable
way to provide for the gutter. A V-shaped
notch is cut out of the upper side of the rafter,
in which is placed the floor and a side. This
[Pg 127]
floor piece is raised at one end to provide an incline
for the water.

A face-board is then applied and nailed to
the ends of the rafters. This face-board is surmounted
by a cap, which has an overhang, beneath
which is a molding of any convenient pattern.
The face-board projects down at least two
inches below the angled cut of the rafter, so that
when the base-board is applied, the lower margin
of the face-board will project one inch below the
base.

Fig. 234.

This base-board is horizontal, as you will see.
The facia-board may be of any desired width,
and a corner molding should be added. It is
optional to use the brackets, but if added they
should be spaced apart a distance not greater
than twice the height of the bracket.

A much simpler form of gutter is shown in Fig.
234, in which a V-shaped notch is also cut in the
[Pg 128]
rafter, and the channel is made by the pieces.
The end of the rafter is cut at right angles,
so the face-board is at an angle. This is also surmounted
by an overhanging cap and a molding.
The base is nailed to the lower edges of the rafters,
and the facia is then applied.

Fig. 234a.

In Fig. 234a the roof has no gutter, so that the
end of the rafter is cut off at an angle and a molding
applied on the face-board. The base is nailed
to the rafters. This is the cheapest and simplest
form of structure for the roof.

Setting Door and Window Frames.—The next
step in order is to set the door and window frames
preparatory to applying the weather boarding.
It is then ready for the roof, which should be put
on before the floor is laid.

Plastering and Inside Finish.—Next in order
is the plastering, then the base-boards and the
[Pg 129]
casing; and, finally, the door and windows should
be fitted into position.

Enough has been said here merely to give a
general outline, with some details, how to proceed
with the work.

[Pg 130]

CHAPTER XII

BRIDGES, TRUSSED WORK AND LIKE STRUCTURES

Bridges.—Bridge building is not, strictly, a part
of the carpenter’s education at the present day,
because most structures of this kind are now built
of steel; but there are certain principles involved
in bridge construction which the carpenter should
master.

Self-supporting Roofs.—In putting up, for instance,
self-supporting roofs, or ceilings with wide
spans, and steeples or towers, the bridge principle
of trussed members should be understood.

The most simple bridge or trussed form is the
well-known A-shaped arch.

Fig. 235.

Common Trusses.—One form is shown in Fig.
235, with a vertical king post. In Fig. 236 there
are two vertical supporting members, called queen
posts, used in longer structures. Both of these
[Pg 131]
forms are equally well adapted for small bridges
or for roof supports.

The Vertical Upright Truss.—This form of
truss naturally develops into a type of wooden
bridge known all over the country, as its framing
is simple, and calculations as to its capacity to
sustain loads may readily be made. Figs. 237,
238 and 239 illustrate these forms.

Fig. 236.

Fig. 237.

The Warren Girder.—Out of this simple truss
grew the Warren girder, a type of bridge particularly
adapted for iron and steel construction.

This is the simplest form for metal bridge
truss, or girder. It is now also largely used in
steel buildings and for other work requiring
strength with small weight.

[Pg 132]

Fig. 238.

Fig. 239.

Fig. 240.

The Bowstring Girder.—Only one other form of
[Pg 133]
bridge truss need be mentioned here, and that is
the bowstring shown in Fig. 240.

In this type the bow receives the entire compression
thrust, and the chords act merely as suspending
members.

Fundamental Truss Form.—In every form of
truss, whether for building or for bridge work, the
principles of the famous A-truss must be employed
in some form or other; and the boy who is
experimentally inclined will readily evolve means
to determine what degree of strength the upper
and the lower members must have for a given
length of truss to sustain a specified weight.

There are rules for all these problems, some of
them very intricate, but all of them intensely interesting.
It will be a valuable addition to your
knowledge to give this subject earnest study.

[Pg 134]

CHAPTER XIII

THE BEST WOODS FOR THE BEGINNER

In this place consideration will be given to some
of the features relating to the materials to be employed,
particularly with reference to the manner
in which they can be worked to the best advantage,
rather than to their uses.

The Best Woods.—The prime wood, and the
one with which most boys are familiar, is white
pine. It has an even texture throughout, is generally
straight grained, and is soft and easily
worked. White pine is a wood requiring a very
sharp tool. It is, therefore, the best material for
the beginner, as it will at the outset teach him the
important lesson of keeping the tools in a good,
sharp condition.

Soft Woods.—It is also well for the novice to do
his initial work with a soft wood, because in joining
the parts together inaccuracies may be easily
corrected. If, for instance, in mortising and tenoning,
the edge of the mortised member is not true,
or, rather, is not “square,” the shoulder of the
tenon on one side will abut before the other side
does, and thus leave a crack, if the wood is hard.
If the wood is soft there is always enough yield to
[Pg 135]
enable the workman to spring it together. Therefore,
until you have learned how to make a true
joint, use soft wood.

Poplar is another good wood for the beginner, as
well as redwood, a western product.

Hard Woods.—Of the hard woods, cherry is the
most desirable for the carpenter’s tool. For working
purposes it has all the advantages of a soft
wood, and none of its disadvantages. It is not apt
to warp, like poplar or birch, and its shrinking
unit is less than that of any other wood, excepting
redwood. There is practically no shrinkage in redwood.

The Most Difficult Woods.—Ash is by far the
most difficult wood to work. While not as hard as
oak, it has the disadvantage that the entire board
is seamed with growth ribs which are extremely
hard, while the intervening layers between these
ribs are soft, and have open pores, so that, for
instance, in making a mortise, the chisel is liable
to follow the hard ribs, if the grain runs at an
angle to the course of the mortise.

The Hard-ribbed Grain in Wood.—This peculiarity
of the grain in ash makes it a beautiful wood
when finished. Of the light-colored woods, oak
only excels it, because in this latter wood each
year’s growth shows a wider band, and the interstices
between the ribs have stronger contrasting
[Pg 136]
colors than ash; so that in filling the surface, before
finishing it, the grain of the wood is brought
out with most effective clearness and with a beautifully
blended contrast.

The Easiest Working Woods.—The same thing
may be said, relatively, concerning cherry and
walnut. While cherry has a beautiful finishing
surface, the blending contrasts of colors are not so
effective as in walnut.

Oregon pine is extremely hard to work, owing to
the same difficulties experienced in handling ash;
but the finished Oregon pine surface makes it a
most desirable material for certain articles of furniture.

Do not attempt to employ this nor ash until you
have mastered the trade. Confine yourself to pine,
poplar, cherry and walnut. These woods are all
easily obtainable everywhere, and from them you
can make a most creditable variety of useful articles.

Sugar and maple are two hard woods which may
be added to the list. Sugar, particularly, is a
good-working wood, but maple is more difficult.
Spruce, on the other hand, is the strongest and
toughest wood, considering its weight, which is
but a little more than that of pine.

Differences in the Working of Woods.—Different
woods are not worked with equal facility by
[Pg 137]
all the tools. Oak is an easy wood to handle with
a saw, but is, probably, aside from ash, the most
difficult wood known to plane.

Ash is hard for the saw or the plane. On the
other hand, there is no wood so easy to manipulate
with the saw or plane as cherry. Pine is easily
worked with a plane, but difficult to saw; not on
account of hardness, but because it is so soft that
the saw is liable to tear it.

Forcing Saws in Wood.—One of the reasons
why the forcing of saws is such a bad practice will
be observed in cutting white or yellow pine. For
cross-cutting, the saw should have fine teeth, not
heavily set, and evenly filed. To do a good job
of cross-cutting, the saw must be held at a greater
angle, or should lay down flatter than in ripping,
as by so doing the lower side of the board will not
break away as much as if the saw should be held
more nearly vertical.

These general observations are made in the hope
that they will serve as a guide to enable you to
select your lumber with some degree of intelligence
before you commence work.

[Pg 138]

CHAPTER XIV

WOOD TURNING

Advantages of Wood Turning.—This is not,
strictly, in the carpenter’s domain; but a knowledge
of its use will be of great service in the
trade, and particularly in cabinet making. I urge
the ingenious youth to rig up a wood-turning lathe,
for the reason that it is a tool easily made and
one which may be readily turned by foot, if other
power is not available.

Simple Turning Lathe.—A very simple turning
lathe may be made by following these instructions:

The Rails.—Procure two straight 2″ × 4″ scantling
(A), four feet long, and planed on all sides.
Bore four ⅜-inch holes at each end, as shown, and
10 inches from one end four more holes. A plan
of these holes is shown in B, where the exact spacing
is indicated. Then prepare two pieces 2″ × 4″
scantling (C), planed, 42 inches long, one end of
each being chamfered off, as at 2, and provided
with four bolt holes. Ten inches down, and on the
same side, with the chamfer (2) is a cross gain (3),
the same angle as the chamfer. Midway between
the cross gain (3) and the lower end of the leg is
[Pg 139]
a gain (4) in the edge, at right angles to the cross
gain (3).

The Legs.—Now prepare two legs (D) for the
tail end of the frame, each 32 inches long, with a
chamfer (5) at one end, and provided with four
bolt holes. At the lower end bore a bolt hole for
the cross base piece. This piece (E) is 4″ × 4″, 21
inches long, and has a bolt hole at each end and
one near the middle. The next piece (F) is 2″ × 4″,
14½ inches long, provided with a rebate (6) at
each end, to fit the cross gains (4) of the legs (C).
Near the middle is a journal block (7).

Fig. 241. Frame details.

Centering Blocks.—Next provide a 4″ × 4″
piece (G), 40 inches long, through which bore a
¾-inch hole (8), 2 inches from the upper end, and
[Pg 140]
four bolt holes at right angles to the shaft hole (8).
Then, with a saw split down this bearing, as shown
at 9, to a point 4 inches from the end. Ten inches
below the upper end prepare two cross gains (10),
each an inch deep and four inches wide. In these
gains are placed the top rails (A), so the bolt
holes in the gains (10) will coincide with the bolt
holes (11) in the piece A. Below the gains (10)
this post has a journal block (12), intended to be
in line with the journal block (7) of the piece F.

Fig. 242. Tail Stock.

Then make a block (H) 2″ × 4″, and 6 inches
long. This also must have a shaft hole (B), and a
saw kerf (14), similar to the arrangement on the
upper end of the post (G); also bore four bolt
holes, as shown. This block rests between the
upper ends of the lugs (C).

Another block (I), 2″ × 4″, and 6 feet long,
with four bolt holes, will be required for the tail
end of the frame, to keep the rails (A) two inches
apart at that end.

The Tail Stock.—This part of the structure is
made of the following described material:

[Pg 141]
Procure a scantling (J), planed, 4″ × 4″, 24
inches long, the upper end of which is to be provided
with four bolt holes, and a centering hole
(15). At the lower end of the piece is a slot (16)
8 inches long and 1½ inches wide, and there are
also two bolt holes bored transversely through the
piece to receive bolts for reinforcing the end.

A pair of cheekpieces (K), 2″ × 4″, and each
12 inches long, are mitered at the ends, and each
has four bolt holes by means of which the ends
may be bolted to the upright (J).

Then a step wedge (L) is made of 1⅜” × 2″ material,
10 inches long. This has at least four steps
(17), each step being 2 inches long. A wedge 1⅜
inches thick, 10 inches long, and tapering from 2
inches to 1⅜ inches, completes the tail-stock.

The Tool Rest.—This is the most difficult part
of the whole lathe, as it must be rigid, and so constructed
that it has a revolvable motion as well as
being capable of a movement to and from the material
in the lathe.

Select a good 4″ × 4″ scantling (M), 14 inches
long, as shown in Fig. 243. Two inches from one
end cut a cross gain (I), 1½ inches deep and 1 inch
wide, and round off the upper edge, as at 2.

Then prepare a piece (N), 1 inch thick, 8 inches
wide, and 10 inches long. Round off the upper
edge to form a nose, and midway between its ends
[Pg 142]
cut a cross gain 4 inches wide and 1½ inches deep.
The lower margin may be cut away, at an angle
on each side of the gain. All that is necessary
now is to make a block (O), 8 inches long, rounded
on one edge, and a wedge (P).

Fig 243. Tool Rest.

A leather belt or strap (Q), 1½ inches wide,
formed into a loop, as shown in the perspective
view (R), serves as a means for holding the rest
rigidly when the wedge is driven in.

The Tool Rest.—This is the most difficult part
of the whole lathe, as it must be rigid, and so constructed
that it has a revolvable motion as well as
being capable of a movement to and from the material
in the lathe.

Materials.—Then procure the following
bolts:

The Mandrel.—A piece of steel tubing (S), No.
10 gage, ¾ inch in diameter, 11½ inches long, will
be required for the mandrel. Get a blacksmith, if
a machine shop is not convenient, to put a fixed
center (1) in one end, and a removable centering
member (2) in the other end.

[Pg 143]
On this mandrel place a collar (3), held by a set
screw, and alongside of it a pair of pulleys, each
1½ inches wide, one of them, being, say, 2 inches in
diameter, and the other 3 inches. This mandrel is
held in position by means of the posts of the frame
which carry the split journal bearings. This form
of bearing will make a durable lathe, free from
chattering, as the bolts can be used for tightening
the mandrel whenever they wear.

Fig. 244. Mandrel.

The center point (1) is designed to rest against
a metal plate (4) bolted to the wooden post, as
shown in the large drawing.

Fly-wheel.—It now remains only to provide a
fly-wheel and treadle with the communicating belt.
The fly-wheel may be of any convenient size, or it
may be some discarded pulley or wheel. Suppose
it is two feet in diameter; then, as your small pulley
is 2 inches in diameter, each revolution of the
large wheel makes twelve revolutions in the mandrel,
and you can readily turn the wheel eighty
[Pg 144]
times a minute. In that case your mandrel will
revolve 960 revolutions per minute, which is ample
speed for your purposes.

The wheel should be mounted on a piece of ¾-inch
steel tubing, one end having a crank 3 inches
long. This crank is connected up by a pitman rod,
with the triangularly shaped treadle frame.

Such a lathe is easily made, as it requires but
little metal or machine work, and it is here described
because it will be a pleasure for a boy to
make such a useful tool. What he needs is the
proper plan and the right dimensions to carry out
the work, and his own ingenuity will make the
modifications suitable to his purpose.

The illustration (Fig. 245) shows such a lathe
assembled ready for work.

The Tools Required.—A few simple tools will
complete an outfit capable of doing a great variety
of work. The illustration (Fig. 246) shows five
chisels, of which all other chisels are modifications.

A and B are both oblique firmer chisels, A being
ground with a bevel on one side only, and B
with a bevel on each side.

C is a broad gage, with a hollow blade, and a
curved cutting edge, ground with a taper on the
rounded side only.

D is a narrow gage similarly ground, and E is a
V-shaped gage.

[Pg 145]

Fig. 245.

[Pg 146]

Fig. 246.

It may be observed that in wood-turning sharp
tools are absolutely necessary, hence a good oil
stone, or several small, round and V-shaped stones
should be used.

[Pg 147]

CHAPTER XV

ON THE USE OF STAINS

As this subject properly belongs to the painter
and decorator, it is not necessary to go into details
concerning the methods used to finish off your
work. As you may not be able to afford the luxury
of having your productions painted or stained,
enough information will be given to enable you, if
the character of the wood justifies it, to do the
work yourself to a limited extent.

Soft Wood.—As, presumably, most of your first
work will be done with pine, poplar, or other light-colored
material, and, as many people prefer the
furniture to be dark in color, you should be prepared
to accommodate them.

Use of Stains.—Our subject has nothing to do
with the technique of staining, but has reference,
solely, to the use of stains. I recommend, therefore,
that, since all kinds of stains are now kept in stock,
and for sale everywhere, you would better rely
upon the manufactured goods rather than to endeavor
to mix up the paints yourself.

Stains as Imitations.—It will be well to remember
one thing as to stains. Never attempt
to stain anything unless that stain is intended to
[Pg 148]
produce an imitation of some real wood. There
are stains made up which, when applied, do not
imitate any known wood. This is bad taste and
should be avoided. Again you should know that
the same stain tint will not produce like effects
on the different light-colored woods. Try the
cherry stain on pieces of pine, poplar, and birch,
and you will readily see that while pine gives a
brilliant red, comparatively speaking, pine or birch
will be much darker, and the effect on poplar will
be that of a muddy color. In fact, poplar does
not stain cherry to good advantage; and for birch
the ordinary stain should have a small addition
of vermilion.

By making trials of your stains before applying
them to the furniture, you will readily see the
value of this suggestion.

Good Taste in Staining.—Oak, mahogany,
cherry, black walnut, and like imitations are always
good in an artistic sense, but imitations of
unfamiliar woods mean nothing to the average
person. The too common mistake is to try to imitate
oak by staining pine or poplar or birch. It
may, with good effect, be stained to imitate cherry.

Oregon pine, or some light-colored wood, with
a strong contrasting grain may be used for staining
in imitation of oak.

Great Contrasts Bad.—Violent contrasts in furniture
[Pg 149]
staining have the effect of cheapness, unless
the contrasting outlines are artistically distributed
throughout the article, from base to top finish.

Staining Contrasting Woods.—Then, again, do
not stain a piece of furniture so that one part represents
a cheap, soft wood, and the other part
a dark or costly wood. Imagine, for instance, a
cabinet with the stiles, rails and mullions of mahogany,
and the panels of pine or poplar, or the
reverse, and you can understand how incongruous
would be the result produced.

On the other hand, it would not be a very artistic
job to make the panels of cherry and the mullions
and stiles of mahogany, because the two
woods do not harmonize, although frequently
wrongly combined.

Hard Wood Imitations.—It would be better to
use, for instance, ash or oak for one portion of the
work, and a dark wood, like cherry or walnut, for
the other part; but usually a cherry cabinet should
be made of cherry throughout; while a curly maple
chiffonier could not be improved by having the legs
of some other material.

These considerations should determine for you
whether or not you can safely use stains to represent
different woods in the same article.

Natural Effects.—If effects are wanted, the
skilled workman will properly rely upon the natural
[Pg 150]
grain of the wood; hence, in staining, you
should try to imitate nature, because in staining
you will depend for contrast on the natural grain
of the wood to help you out in producing pleasing
effects.

Natural Wood Stains.—It should be said, in
general, however, that a stain is, at best, a poor
makeshift. There is nothing so pleasing as the
natural wood. It always has an appearance of
cleanliness and openness. To stain the wood
shows an attempt to cover up cheapness by a cheap
contrivance. The exception to this rule is mahogany,
which is generally enriched by the application
of a ruby tint which serves principally to
emphasize the beautiful markings of the wood.

Polishing Stained Surfaces.—If, on the other
hand, you wish to go to the labor of polishing the
furniture to a high degree, staining becomes an
art, and will add to the beauty and durability of
any soft or cheap wood, excepting poplar.

When the article is highly polished, so a good,
smooth surface is provided, staining does not
cheapen, but, on the other hand, serves to embellish
the article.

As a rule, therefore, it is well to inculcate this
lesson: Do not stain unless you polish; otherwise,
it is far better to preserve the natural color of the
wood. One of the most beautiful sideboards I ever
[Pg 151]
saw was made of Oregon pine, and the natural
wood, well filled and highly polished. That finish
gave it an effect which enhanced its value to a
price which equaled any cherry or mahogany product.

[Pg 152]

CHAPTER XVI

THE CARPENTER AND THE ARCHITECT

A carpenter has a trade; the architect a profession.
It is not to be assumed that one vocation is
more honorable than the other. A profession is
defined as a calling, or occupation, “if not mechanical,
agricultural, or the like,” to which one devotes
himself and his energies. A trade is defined as
an occupation “which a person has learned and engages
in, especially mechanical employment, as
distinguished from the liberal arts,” or the learned
professions.

Opportunity is the great boon in life. To the
ambitious young man the carpenter’s trade offers
a field for venturing into the learned professions
by a route which cannot be equaled in any other
pursuit. In his work he daily enters into contact
with problems which require mathematics of the
highest order, geometry, the methods of calculating
strains and stresses, as well as laying out
angles and curves.

This is a trade wherein he must keep in mind
many calculations as to materials, number, size,
and methods of joining; he must remember all the
[Pg 153]
small details which go to make up the entire
structure. This exercise necessitates a mental picture
of the finished product. His imagination is
thus directed to concrete objects. As the mind
develops, it becomes creative in its character, and
the foundation is laid for a higher sphere of usefulness
in what is called the professional field.

A good carpenter naturally develops into an
architect, and the best architect is he who knows
the trade. It is a profession which requires not
only the artistic taste, but a technical knowledge of
details, of how practically to carry out the work,
how to superintend construction, and what the
different methods are for doing things.

The architect must have a scientific education,
which gives him a knowledge of the strength of
materials, and of structural forms; of the durability
of materials; of the price, quality, and use of
everything which goes into a structure; of labor
conditions; and of the laws pertaining to buildings.

Many of these questions will naturally present
themselves to the carpenter. They are in the
sphere of his employment, but it depends upon
himself to make the proper use of the material
thus daily brought to him.

It is with a view to instil that desire and ambition
in every young man, to make the brain do
[Pg 154]
what the hand has heretofore done, that I suggest
this course. The learned profession is yours if
you deserve it, and you can deserve it only through
study, application, and perseverance.

Do well that which you attempt to do. Don’t do
it in that manner because some one has done it in
that way before you. If, in the trade, the experience
of ages has taught the craftsman that some
particular way of doing things is correct, there
is no law to prevent you from combating that
method. Your way may be better. But you must
remember that in every plan for doing a thing
there is some particular reason, or reasons, why it
is carried out in that way. Study and learn to
apply those reasons.

So in your leisure or in your active moments, if
you wish to advance, you must be alert. Know for
yourself the reasons for things, and you will thereby
form the stepping stones that will lead you upward
and contribute to your success.

[Pg 155]

CHAPTER XVII

USEFUL ARTICLES TO MAKE

As stated in the Introductory, the purpose of
this book is to show how to do the things, and not
to draw a picture in order to write a description
of it. Merely in the line of suggestion, we give
in this chapter views and brief descriptions of
useful household articles, all of which may be
made by the boy who has carefully studied the preceding
pages.

Fig. 247.

This figure shows a common bench wholly made
of material 1 inch thick, the top being 12 inches
wide and 4 feet long. The legs are 14 inches high
and 13 inches wide; and the side supporting rails
[Pg 156]
are 3 inches wide. These proportions may, of
course, be varied. You will note that the sides of
the top or seat have an overhang of ½ inch on
each margin.

Fig. 248.

Fig. 249.

This is a common, square-top stool, the seat being
12″ × 12″, and the legs 14 inches high. Two of
the pieces forming the legs are 10 inches wide
and the other two 8 inches wide, so that when the
[Pg 157]
wide pieces are nailed to the edges of the narrow
pieces the leg body will be 10″ × 10″ and thus give
the seat an overhang of 1 inch around the margins.

Fig. 250.

A most useful article is shown in Fig. 249. It
is a blacking-box with a lid, a folding shoe rest
and three compartments. The detached figure
shows a vertical cross-section of the body of the
box, and illustrates how the shoe rest is hinged
to the sides of the box. The box itself is 14″ × 16″
in dimensions; the sides are 6 inches wide and the
legs 5 inches in height. In order to give strength
to the legs, the bottom has its corners cut out, to
[Pg 158]
permit the upper ends of the legs to rest in the
recesses thus formed.

Fig. 251.

This is a convenient form of easel, made of
four uprights. The main front uprights are of
strips 5/8″ × 1¼”, and the rear uprights are of ½” × 1″
material. A thin broomstick will serve as the
pivot bar for the upper end. The rest is made
of two strips, each ½” × 1″, nailed together to form
an L, and nails or wooden pins will serve to hold
the rest in any desired position. The front uprights
should be at least 5 feet long.

A simple hanging book-rack is illustrated in
[Pg 159]
Fig. 251. The two vertical strips are each 4 inches
wide, 1 inch thick and 4 feet long. Four shelves
are provided, each ¾ inch thick, 9 inches wide and
4 feet long. Each shelf is secured to the uprights
by hinges on the upper side, so as to permit it
to be swung upwardly, or folded; and below each
hinge is a triangular block or bracket, fixed to
the shelf, to support it in a horizontal position.

Fig. 252.

A sad-iron holder, or bookcase, shown in Fig.
252, is another simple form of structure. It may
be sufficiently large to serve as a standing case
by having the uprights at the ends serve as legs,
or the uprights may have holes at their upper
[Pg 160]
ends, by means of which it can be suspended on a
wall. As shown, it is 30 inches long from bottom
to top, and 20 inches wide. The shelves are 8
inches wide. All the material is, preferably, ¾-inch
stock.

Fig. 253.

Fig. 253 shows a wood-box, or it may readily be
adapted for coal. For wood it should be 2 feet
long, 1 foot 8 inches wide and 1 foot 10 inches high.
It will, of course, be made of such dimensions as to
suit the wood to be stored in it, and both the flat-top
as well as the sloping portion of the top
should be hinged, so that the entire top can be
opened for filling purposes.

Fig. 254.

Fig. 255.

A pair of parallel bars is shown in Fig. 254.
The dimensions of this will vary, and be dependent
on the size of the boy intending to use it; but a
size best adapted is to make the posts 3 feet high,
[Pg 161]
and the distance between the bars 16 inches. This
gives ample room for the exercises required. The
length between the posts along the bars should be
at least 5 feet. The entire structure can be made
of soft wood, except the bars, which should be
of hard, rigid wood. The posts can be made of
2″ × 2″ material, and the braces 2″ × 1″. The base
[Pg 162]
pieces, both longitudinal and transverse, should
also be of 2″ × 2″ material.

Fig. 256.

Fig. 257.

Fig. 255 represents a mission type of writing
desk for a boy’s use. All the posts, braces and
horizontal bars are of 2″ × 2″ material, secured
to each other by mortises and tenons. The legs
[Pg 163]
are 27 inches high up to the table top, and the
narrow shelf is 12 inches above the top. The
most convenient size for the top is 26″ × 48″. The
top boards may be 1 inch thick and the shelf the
same thickness, or even ¾ inch. It is well braced
and light, and its beauty will depend largely on
the material of which it is made.

Fig. 258.

The screen (Fig. 256) represents simply the
[Pg 164]
framework, showing how simple the structure is.
The bars are all of 1½” × 1½” material, secured
together by mortises and tenons.

Fig. 257 represents a mission chair to match
the desk (Fig. 255), and should be made of the
same material. The posts are all of 2″ × 2″ material.
The seat of the chair should be 16 inches,
and the rear posts should extend up above the
seat at least 18 inches.

Fig. 259.

[Pg 165]

Fig. 260.

Fig. 261.

Fig. 258 is a good example of a grandfather’s
clock in mission style. The framework only is
shown. The frame is 12″ × 12″, and 5 feet high,
and made up of 2″ × 2″ material. When neatly
framed together, it is a most attractive article of
[Pg 166]
furniture. The top may be covered in any suitable
way, showing a roof effect. The opening
for the dial face of the clock should be at one of
the gable ends.

A more pretentious bookcase is shown in Fig.
259, in which the frame is made up wholly of
2″ × 2″ material. The cross-end bars serve as
ledges to support the shelves. This may be lined
interiorly and backed with suitable casing material,
such as Lincrusta Walton, or fiber-board, and
the front provided with doors. Our only object
is to show the framework for your guidance, and
merely to make suggestions as to structural forms.

Fig. 262.

Another most serviceable article is a case for
a coal scuttle (Fig. 260). This should be made of
1-inch boards, and the size of the door, which
carries the scuttle shelf, should be 12″ × 16″ in
size. From this you can readily measure the dimensions
[Pg 167]
of the case itself, the exterior dimensions
of which are 15″ × 20″, so that when the 1-inch
top is placed on, it will be 21 inches high. The
case from front to rear is 12 inches, and the
shelf above the top is 11 inches wide, and elevated
10 inches above the top of the case. This is a
most useful box for culinary articles, if not needed
for coal, because the ledge, used for the coal scuttle,
can be used to place utensils on, and when
the door is opened all the utensils are exposed to
view, and are, therefore, much more accessible
than if stored away in the case itself.

Fig. 263.

A mission armchair. Fig. 261 is more elaborate
than the chair shown in Fig. 257, but it is the
same in general character, and is also made of
2″ × 2″ stock. The seat is elevated 16 inches from
the floor, and the rear posts are 28 inches high.
[Pg 168]
The arms are 8 inches above the seat. A chair
of this character should have ample seat space, so
the seat is 18″ × 18″.

The dog house (Fig. 262), made in imitation of a
dwelling, is 24 inches square, and 18 inches high
to the eaves of the roof. The opening in front
is 8″ × 10″, exclusive of the shaped portion of the
opening.

Fig. 264.

Fig. 265.

Fig. 263 shows a simple and easily constructed
settee with an under shelf. The seat is 16 inches
from the floor and 24 inches wide. The back extends
up 24 inches from the seat. The lower
shelf is midway between the floor and seat, and
[Pg 169]
is 19 inches wide. This may or may not be upholstered,
dependent on the character of the material
of which it is made. If upholstered, the
boards may be of second-class material, preferably
of pine or other light, soft wood.

A towel rack (Fig. 264) is always a needed article
in the kitchen. The roller may be an old curtain
roller cut down to 18 inches in length. The
top piece is 2½ inches wide and 21 inches long.
The vertical bars are each 1½ inches wide and 9
inches long. The brackets are 1½ inches wide
and made of ¾-inch material.

Fig. 265 represents the framework of a sofa,
the seat of which is 16 inches high, the front
posts up to the arm-rests 24 inches, and the rear
posts 38 inches. From front to rear the seat is
18 inches. The posts are of 3″ × 3″ material. This
makes a very rigid article of furniture, if mortised
and tenoned and properly glued. The seat
is 6 feet long, but it may be lengthened or shortened
to suit the position in which it is to be placed.
It is a companion piece to the chair (Fig. 261).

[Pg 170]

CHAPTER XVIII

SPECIAL TOOLS AND THEIR USES

In the foregoing chapters we have referred the
reader to the simple tools, but it is thought desirable
to add to the information thus given, an outline
of numerous special tools which have been
devised and are now on the market.

Bit and Level Adjuster.—It is frequently necessary
to bore holes at certain angles. This can
be done by using a bevel square, and holding it
so one limb will show the boring angle. But this
is difficult to do in many cases.

Fig. 266. Bit and Square level.

This tool has three pairs of V slots on its back
edges. The shank of the bit will lie in these slots,
as shown in Fig. 266, either vertically, or at an
angle of 45 degrees, and boring can be done with
the utmost accuracy. It may be attached to a
Carpenter’s square, thus making it an accurate
plumb or level.

[Pg 171]
Miter Boxes.—The advantages of metal miter
boxes is apparent, when accurate work is required.

The illustration, Fig. 267, shows a metal tool
of this kind, in which the entire frame is in one
solid casting. The saw guide uprights are
clamped in tapered sockets in the swivel arm and
can be adjusted to hold the saw without play, and
this will also counteract a saw that runs out of
true, due to improper setting or filing.

Fig. 267. Metal Miter Box.

A second socket in the swivel arm permits the
use of a short saw or allows a much longer stroke
with a standard or regular saw.

The swivel arm is provided with a tapering index
pin which engages in holes placed on the under
[Pg 172]
side of the base. The edge of the base is graduated
in degrees, as plainly shown, and the swivel
arm can be set and automatically fastened at any
degree desired.

Fig. 268. Parts of Metal Miter Box.

The uprights, front and back are graduated in
sixteenths of inches, and movable stops can be set,
by means of thumb-screw to the depth of the cut
desired.

Figure 268 shows the parts of the miter box,
in which the numbers designate the various parts:
101 is the frame; 102 the frame board; 104 frame
[Pg 173]
leg; 106 guide stock; 107 stock guide clamp; 109
stock guide plate; 110 swivel arm; 111 swivel arm
bushing; 112 swivel bushing screw; 113 index
clamping lever; 115 index clamping lever catch;
116 index clamping lever spring; 122 swivel complete;
123 T-base; 124½ uprights; 126 saw guide
cap; 127 saw guide cap plate; 132 saw guide tie
bar; 133 left saw guide stop and screw; 134 right
side guide stop and screw; 135 saw guide stop
spring; 136 saw guide cylinder; 137 saw guide cylinder
plate; 138 trip lever (back); 139 trip lever
(front); 141 leveling screw; 142 trip clamp and
screw; 146 T-base clamp screw.

Fig. 269. Angle Dividers.

Angle Dividers.—This is another tool, which
does not cost much and is of great service to the
[Pg 174]
carpenter in fitting moldings where they are applied
at odd angles.

To lay out the cut with an ordinary bevel necessitates
the use of dividers and a second handling
of the bevel, making three operations.

The “Odd Job” Tool.—A most useful special
tool, which combines in its make-up a level, plumb
try-square, miter-square, bevel, scratch awl, depth
gage, marking gage, miter gage, beam compass,
and a one-foot rule. To the boy who wishes to
economize in the purchase of tools this is an article
which should be obtained.

Fig. 270. “Odd Job” Tool.

Figure 270 shows the simplicity of the tool, and
how it is applied in use.

Bit Braces.—These tools are now made with so
[Pg 175]
many improved features that there is really no
excuse for getting poor tools.

The illustrations show merely the heads and
the lower operating parts of the tools. Fig. 271
shows a metal-clad ball-bearing head, so called,
as its under side is completely encased in metal
securely screwed to the wood and revolving
against the ball thrust bearing.

D represents a concealed ratchet in which the
cam ring governs the ratchet, and, being in line
with the bit, makes it more convenient in handling
than when it is at right angles. The ratchet parts
are entirely enclosed, thus keeping out moisture
and dirt, retaining lubrication and protecting the
users’ hands.

The ratchet mechanism is interchangeable, and
may be taken apart by removing one screw. The
two-piece clutch, which is drop forged, is backed
by a very strong spring, insuring a secure lock.
When locked, ten teeth are in engagement, while
five are employed while working at a ratchet. It
has universal jaws (G) for both wood and metal
workers.

In Fig. 272, B represents a regular ball bearing
head, with the wood screw on the large spindle and
three small screws to prevent its working loose.
This also has a ball thrust. E is the ratchet box,
and this shows the gear teeth cut on the extra
[Pg 176]
heavy spindle, and encased, so that the user’s
hands are protected from the teeth.

The interlocking jaws (H), which are best for
taper shanks, hold up to No. 2 Clark’s expansion,
and are therefore particularly adapted for carpenter’s
use.

Fig. 271. Fig. 272. Fig. 273.
Types of Bit Braces.

In Fig. 273 the plain bearing head (C) has no
ball thrust. The head is screwed on the spindle and
[Pg 177]
held from turning off by two small screws. The
open ratchet (F) shows the gear pinned to the
spindle and exposed. This has alligator jaws (J),
and will hold all ordinary size taper shank bits,
also small and medium round shank bits or drills.

Fig. 274. Fig. 275. Fig. 276.
Steel Frame Breast Drills.

Steel Frame Breast Drill.—These drills are
made with both single and double speed, each speed
having three varieties of jaws. The single speed
is very high, the ratio being 4½ to 1, which makes
[Pg 178]
it desirable to use for small drills, or for use in
wood.

A level is firmly set in the frames of these tools
to assist the user to maintain a horizontal position
in boring. Each of the forms shown has a ball
thrust bearing between the pinion and frame. The
breast plate may be adjusted to suit and is locked
by a set screw. The spindle is kept from turning
while changing drills, by means of the latch
mounted on the frame, and readily engaging with
the pinion. The crank is pierced in three places
so that the handle can be set for three different
sweeps, depending on the character of the work.

Figure 274 has a three jaw chuck, and has only
single speed. Figure 275 has an interlocking jaw,
and is provided with double speed gearing. Figure
276 has a universal jaw, and double speed.

Planes.—The most serviceable planes are made
in iron, and it might be well to show a few of the
most important, to bring out the manner employed
to make the adjustments of the bits.

In order to familiarize the boy with the different
terms used in a plane, examine Figure 277.
The parts are designated as follows: 1A is the
double plane iron; 1 single plane iron; 2 plane iron
cap; 3 cap screw; 4 lever cap; 5 lever cap screw;
6 frog complete; 7 Y adjusting lever; 8 adjusting
nut; 9 lateral adjusting lever; 11 plane handle;
[Pg 179]
12 plane knob; 13 handle bolt and nut; 14 knob
bolt and nut; 15 plane handle screw; 16 plane bottom;
44 frog pin; 45 frog clamping screw; 46 frog
adjusting screw.

Fig. 277. Details of Metal Plane.

Rabbeting, Matching and Dado Planes.—Figure
278 shows a useful form of plane for the reason
that it is designed to receive a variety of irons,
adapted to cut rabbets.

The detached sections of Fig. 278 show the
various parts, as well as the bits which belong to it.
1, 1 represent the single plane irons; 4 the lever
cap; 16 the plane bottom, 50 the fence; 51 the
fence thumb screw; 61 the short arm; 70 the adjustable
[Pg 180]
depth gage; 71 the depth gage which goes
through the screw; and 85 the spurs with screws.

Molding and Beading Plane.—A plane of the
character shown in Fig. 279 will do an immense
variety of work in molding, beading and dado
work, and is equally well adapted for rabbeting,
for filletsters and for match planing. The regular
equipment with this tool comprises fifty-two
cutters.

Fig. 278. Rabbet, Matching and Dado Plane.

As shown in Fig. 279, the plane has a main stock
(A), which carries the cutter adjustment, a handle,
a depth gage, a slitting gage, and a steel bottom
forming a bearing for the other end of the cutter,
and slides on arms secured to the main stock.

This bottom can be raised or lowered, so that,
in addition to allowing the use of cutters of different
[Pg 181]
widths, cutters can be used having one edge
higher or lower than the edge supported in the
main stock.

Fig. 279. Molding and Beading Plane.

The auxiliary center bottom (C), which can be
adjusted for width or depth, fulfils the requirement
of preventing the plane from tilting and
gouging the work. The fence D has a lateral adjustment
by means of a screw, for extra fine work.
[Pg 182]
The four small cuts in the corners show how the
bottoms should be set for different forms of cutters,
and the great importance of having the
fences adjusted so that the cutters will not run.

The samples of work illustrated show some of
the moldings which can be turned out with the
plane.

Fig. 280. Dovetail Tongue and Groove Plane.

Dovetail Tongue and Groove Plane.—This is
a very novel tool, and has many features to recommend
it. Figure 280 shows its form, and how it
is used. It is designed to make the dovetailed
tongue as well as the groove.

It will cut any size groove and tongues to fit
with sides of twenty degrees flare, where the width
[Pg 183]
of the neck is more than one-quarter of an inch
thick, and the depth of the groove not more than
three-quarters of an inch. The tongue and groove
are cut separately, and can be made with parallel
or tapering sides. The operation of the plane is
very simple.

Fig. 281.	Fig. 282.

Router Planes.

Router Planes.—This is a type of plane used
for surfacing the bottom of grooves or other depressions
parallel with the general surface of the
work.

The planes are made in two types, one, like Fig.
281, which has a closed throat, and the other, Fig.
282, with an open throat. Both are serviceable,
but the latter is preferable. These planes will
[Pg 184]
level off bottoms of depression, very accurately,
and the tool is not an expensive one.

Door Trim Plane.—This is a tool for making
mortises for butts, face plates, strike plates,
escutcheons, and the like, up to a depth of 5/16,
and a width of 3 inches. The principal feature in
the plane is the method of mounting the cutter,
which can be instantly set to work from either end
of the plane or across it.

Fig. 283. Door Trim Plane.

The cutter, as shown in Fig. 283, is cushioned
by a spring which prevents taking a heavier chip
than can be easily carried. A fence regulates the
position of the cut and insures the sides of the cut
being parallel. The depth of the cut is governed
by a positive stop. By removing the fence and
locking the cutter post with the thumb screw, instead
of using the spring, a very superior router
plane is obtained.

[Pg 185]

CHAPTER XIX

ROOFING TRUSSES

The chapter on Bridge Building gives some
suggestions as to form of trusses, the particular
types there shown being principally for wide
spans. Such trusses were made for one purpose
only, namely, to take great weight, and they were,
as a consequence, so constructed as to provide
strength.

But a roofing truss, while designed to hold the
accumulated materials, such as snow and ice, likely
to be deposited there, is of such a design, principally,
so as to afford means of ornamentation.
This remark has reference to such types as dispense
with the cross, or tie beam, which is the distinguishing
feature in bridge building.

The tie beam is also an important element in
many types of trusses, where ornamentation is not
required, or in such structures as have the roofed
portion of the buildings enclosed by ceiling walls,
or where the space between the roofs is used
for storage purposes.

In England, and on the Continent of Europe,
are thousands of trusses structured to support the
roofs, which are marvels of beauty. Some of them
[Pg 186]
are bewildering in their formation. The moldings,
beaded surfaces, and the carved outlines of the
soffits, of the arches, and of the purlins, are wonderful
in detail.

The wooden roof of Westminster Hall, while
very simple in structure, as compared with many
others, looks like an intricate maze of beams,
struts and braces, but it is, nevertheless, so harmonized
that the effect is most pleasing to the
eye, and its very appearance gives the impression
of grandeur and strength.

Nearly all of the forms shown herein have come
down to us from mediæval times, when more
stress was laid on wooden structures than at the
present time, but most of the stone and metal buildings
grew out of the wooden prototypes.

Now the prime object of nearly all the double-roofed
trusses was to utilize the space between the
rafters so as to give height and majesty to the
interior.

A large dome is grand, owing to its great simplicity,
but the same plain outlines, or lack of ornamentation,
in the ceiling of a square or rectangular
building would be painful to view, hence, the
braces, beams, plates, and various supports of the
roofed truss served as ornamental parts, and it
is in this particular that the art of the designer
finds his inspiration.

[Pg 187]
Before proceeding to apply the matter of ornamentation,
it might be well to develop these roof
forms, starting with the old type Barn Roof, where
the space between the rafters must be utilized for
the storage of hay.

Fig. 284. Gambrel Roof.

The Gambrel Roof, Fig. 284, requires a tie beam,
(A), as shown, but the space above the beam is
free of all obstructions, and gives a large storage
space. The roof has two sets of rafters (B, C),
and of different pitch, the lower rafters (B) having
a pitch of about 30 degrees, and the upper ones
(C), about 45 degrees.

[Pg 188]
A tie bar (D) joins the middle portion of each
of the rafters (B, C) and another tie bar (E) joins
the middle part of the rafter (B), and the supporting
post (F). The cross tie beam (G) completes
the span, and a little study will show the complete
interdependence of one piece upon the other.

Fig. 285. Purlin Roof.

The Purlin Roof is a type of structure used very
largely throughout the United States, for wide
barns. (A) is the cross beam; (B, B) the purlin
posts; (C, C) the purlin plates; (D, D) the rafters;
and (E, E) the supporting braces.

The rafters (D) are in two sections, the distance
from the eaves to the comb being too great for
single length rafters, and the purlin plates are not
designed to make what is called a “self-supporting”
roof, but merely to serve as supports for the
regular rafters.

[Pg 189]
The Princess Truss, on the other hand, is designed
to act as a support for the different lengths
of rafters (A, B, C), and as a means for holding
the roof. It is adapted for low pitch and wide
spans.

Fig. 286. Princess Truss.

The main truss is made up of the cross beam
(D), rafters (E, E) and thrust beam (F). Purlin
posts (G, G) are placed at an angle intermediate
the ends of the rafters, and the purlin plates
(H, H) support the roof rafters (A, B, C); I, I
are the vertical tie rods.

This type is probably the oldest form of truss
for building purposes, and it has been modified in
many ways, the most usual modification being the
substitution of posts for the tie rods (I, I).

Following out the foregoing forms, we may
[Pg 190]
call attention to one more type which permitted
ornamentation to a considerable degree, although
it still required the tie beam. In fact the tie beam
itself was the feature on which the architect depended
to make the greatest effect by elaborating
it.

This is shown in Fig. 287, and is called the
Arched, or Cambered, Tie Beam Truss. It is a
very old type, samples of which have been found
which take it back to a very remote age.

Fig. 287. Arched, or Cambered, Tie Beam.

The tie beam A, in wide spans, was made in
two sections, properly tied together, and sometimes
the outer ends were very wide, and to add to the
effect of the arch, it might also be raised in the
middle, something in the form shown by the dotted
line (B).

The Mansard is what may be called a double-mounted
roof, and it will be seen how it was
[Pg 191]
evolved from the preceding types. It will be
noted that the simple truss formed by the members
(A, B, C) is merely superposed on the leaning
posts, the tie beam also being necessary in this
construction.

Fig. 288. The Mansard.

But the most elaborate formations are those
which were intended to provide trusses for buildings
wherein the tie beams were dispensed with.

The simplest form known is called the Scissors
Beam, illustrated in Fig. 289. This has been utilized
for small spaces, and steep pitches. Each
rafter (A) has an angled beam or brace (B),
springing from its base, to the opposite rafter (A),
[Pg 192]
to which it is joined, midway between its ends, as
at C.

Where the two braces (B) cross each other they
are secured together, as at D. As a result,
three trusses are formed, namely, 1, 2, 3, and it
possesses remarkable strength.

Fig. 289. Scissors Beam.

Braced Collar Beam.—This is a modification
of the last type, but is adapted for thick walls
only. The tie rod braces (A, A) have to be brought
down low to give a good bracing action, and this
[Pg 193]
arrangement is capable of considerable ornamentation.

The steeper the pitch the higher up would be the
inner and lower brace posts (B, B) which were
supported by the top of the wall. This form is
not available for wide spans, and is shown to illustrate
how the development was made into the
succeeding types.

Fig. 290. Braced Collar Beam.

The Rib and Collar Truss, Fig. 291, is the first
[Pg 194]
important structural arrangement which permitted
the architect to give full sway to embellishment.
The inwardly-projecting members (A, A) are
called Hammer Beams. They were devised as a
substitute for the thick walls used in the Braced
Collar Beam Truss, and small brackets (B, B)
were placed beneath as supports.

Fig. 291. Rib and Collar Truss.

The short tie beam (C), near the apex, serves as
the member to receive the thrust and stress of the
curved ribs (D, D). It forms a most graceful type
of roof, and is capable of the most exquisite ornamentation,
but it is used for the high pitched roofs
only.

[Pg 195]

Fig. 291½. Hammer Beam Truss.

The acme of all constructions, in which strength,
beauty, and capacity for ornamentation are
blended, is the Hammer Beam Truss. Here the
hammer beam projects inwardly farther than in
the preceding figure, and has a deeper bracket (B),
and this also extends down the pendant post (C) a
greater distance.

[Pg 196]
The curved supporting arch (D), on each side,
is not ribbed, as in the Rib and Collar Truss, but
instead, is provided with openwork (not shown
herein), together with beadings and moldings, and
other ornamental characteristics, and some of the
most beautiful architectural forms in existence
are in this type of roof.

What are called Flying Buttresses (E) are sometimes
used in connection with the Hammer Beam
Truss, which, with heavy roofs and wide spans,
is found to be absolutely necessary.

[Pg 197]

CHAPTER XX

ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF JOINTS

In uniting two or more elements, some particular
type of joint is necessary. In framing timbers,
in making braces, in roof construction and
supports, in floor beams, and in numerous other
places, where strength is required, the workman
should have at his command a knowledge of the
most serviceable methods.

Illustrations can most forcibly convey the different
types; but the sizes must be determined by
the character of the material you are working with.
Our aim is to give the idea involved, and the
name by which each is known.

Fig. 292. Bridle Joints.

Reference has been made in Chapter X, to certain
forms of scarfing and lapping pieces. This
chapter has to do with a variety of other structural
[Pg 198]
forms, but principally with such as are used in
heavy building work, and in cases where neither
fish plates nor scarfing will answer the purpose.

Fig. 293. Spur Tenon.

Fig. 294. Saddle Joints.

Bridle Joints.—This is a form of joint where
permanency is not desired, and where it is necessary
to readily seat or unseat the vertical timber.
It is also obvious that the socket for the upright is
of such a character that it will not weaken it to
any great extent.

Spur Tenon.—This tenon can be used in many
places where the regular one is not available.
This, like the preceding, is used where the parts
[Pg 199]
are desired to be detachable, and the second form
is one which is used in many structures.

Saddle Joint.—This is still another manner in
which a quickly detachable joint can be constructed.
The saddle may be mounted on the main
base, or cut into the base piece. An infinite variety
of forms of saddles are made, most of them
being used in dock work, and for framing of that
character where large timbers are used, as in the
building of coal chutes, and the like.

Fig. 295. Joggle Joints.

Fig. 296. Framing Joints.

Joggle Joint.—This joint is used almost exclusively
for brace work where great weight must
be supported. The brace has a tenon, and the end
[Pg 200]
must also be so arranged that it will have a direct
bearing against the upright, which it braces and
supports, or it may have two faces, as in the second
figure, which is an exceedingly strong construction.

Fig. 297. Heel Joints.

Fig. 298. Stub Tenon.

Framing Joints.—These are the simplest form
in which two members are secured together. They
are used almost wholly in rafter work, and have
very few modifications. The depth of the cut, for
the toe of the rafter, depends on the load to be
carried, and also on the distance the end of the
rafter is from the end of the horizontal member on
which the rafter rests.

[Pg 201]
Heel Joints.—This is by far the most secure of
the framing type of joints. This, if properly
made, is much better than the construction shown
in the previous illustration, but the difficulty is
to make the rafter fit into the recesses properly.
This is no excuse for failure to use, but it is on
account of inability to make close fits that is
accountable for lack of use. It will be seen that
in case one of the heels rests against the recess,
and the others do not, and the pressure is great,
there is a liability to tear out the entire joint.

Fig. 299. Tusk Tenon.

Stub Tenon.—This is another form of tenon
which is made and designed to be used where it is
in close proximity to another tenon, or where the
mortises, if made full size, will weaken the member.
The long tusk can be shortened, to suit the place
where it projects, and the stub tenon on each side
of the tusk may be made very short, and one side
longer than the other if necessary.

[Pg 202]
Tusk Tenon.—Two forms of tusk construction
are given. Any number of forms have been devised,
all for special purposes, and designed for
different kinds of woods. These shown are particularly
adapted for soft woods, and the principal
feature that is valuable lies in the fact that
they have a number of shoulders within the mortise,
each of which, necessarily adds to the
strength. It should be observed that in the construction
of the tusk tenon, the greatest care must
be taken to have it fit the mortise tightly, and this
has reference to the bottom and shoulder ends as
well.

Fig. 300. Double Tusk Tenon.

Double Tusk Tenons.—The distinguishing difference
between this and the preceding is in the
tusk, which in this form of construction goes
through the upright member, and is held by a cross
key. The double tusk is intended for hard woods,
[Pg 203]
and it is regarded as the finest, as well as the
strongest, joint known.

Cogged Joints.—This differs from the regular
tenoning and mortising methods, principally because
the groove or recess is in the form of an
open gain. It is used where the member is to be
inserted after the main structure is put together.

Fig. 301. Cogged Joints.

Fig. 302. Anchor Joint.

Anchor Joint.—This form of connection is designed
for very large timbers, and where great
care must be taken in making the parts fit together
nicely, as everything depends on this. This style
[Pg 204]
is never used where the angles are less than 45
degrees, and the depth of the gain in the timber
receiving the brace is dependent on the thrust of
the brace.

Fig. 303. Deep Anchor Joint.

The Deep Anchor Joint is an extension of the
tongue of the Anchor tenon, so that it affords a
greater support for the end thrust. To clearly distinguish
between this and the preceding form, it
might be said that the Anchor Joint is one designed
to protect the member containing the gains,
while the Deep Anchor Joint favors the brace, by
giving it a greater power.

[Pg 205]

CHAPTER XXI

SOME MISTAKES, AND A LITTLE ADVICE IN CARPENTRY

In the mechanical arts, workers are as likely
to learn from the mistakes committed as through
correct information imparted. Advice, therefore,
might be considered superfluous. But there are
certain things which are easily remembered and
may be borne in mind while engaged in turning out
any work.

This chapter is not given for the purpose of calling
attention to all the errors which are so common,
but merely to point out a few which the boy
will commit as he tries to carry out his work for
the first time.

One of the difficult things for any one to learn,
in working with wood, is to plane the edge of a
board straight and square at the same time. This
is made doubly difficult if it is desired to plane
it strictly to dimensions.

Usually before the edge is straight it is down to
the proper width desired, and it is then too late
to correct any error, because further work will
make it too narrow.

The whole difficulty is in the holding of the
plane. It matters not how rigidly it is held, and
[Pg 206]
how carefully it is guarded to veer it toward one
side or the other, it will be found a most difficult
task.

If the fore, or finishing, plane is used, and
which is the proper tool for the purpose, the impression
seems to be, that to square up the edge
and make it cut off a thicker shaving on one side
than on the other, requires that the plane should
be pressed down with force, so as to make it dig
in and cut a thicker shaving.

When this is resorted to the board is liable to
get out of true from end to end. A much better
plan is to put the plane on the edge of the board
true and straight. If it is too high on the edge
nearest you, bring the plane over so the inside
edge is flush with the inside edge of the board.

Then use the fingers of the left hand as a gage
to keep the plane from running over.

Now, the weight of the plane in such a condition
is sufficient to take off a thicker shaving at the
high edge, and this will be done without any effort,
and will enable you to concentrate your thoughts
on keeping the plane straight with the board.

The weight of the plane will make a thicker
shaving on one side than on the other, and correct
inequalities, provided you do not attempt to force
the plane.

It requires an exceedingly steady hand to hold
[Pg 207]
a plane firmly for squaring up a half-inch board.
Singular as it may seem, it is almost as difficult a
job with a two-inch plank. In the case of the thin
board the plane will move laterally, unless the utmost
care is exercised; in the truing up the thick
plank the constant tendency is to move the plane
along the surface at a slight diagonal, and this is
sure to cause trouble.

It only emphasizes the fact most clearly, that to
do a good job the plane must be firmly held, that
it must move along the board with the utmost precision,
and that it should not be forced into the
wood.

In smoothing down a board with the short
smoothing plane, preparatory to sandpapering it,
the better plan is to move the plane slightly across
the grain. This will enable the bit to take hold
better, and when the sandpaper is applied the
course of the movement should be across the grain
opposite the direction taken by the smoothing
plane.

It is never satisfactory to draw the sandpaper
directly along in the course of the grain. Such a
habit will cause the sandpaper to fill up very
rapidly, particularly with certain woods.

When gluing together joints or tenons, always
wipe off the surplus glue with warm water taken
from the glue pot. If you do not follow this advice
[Pg 208]
the glue will gum up the tools and the sandpaper
used to finish the work.

Never try to work from opposite sides of a piece
of material. Have a work side and a work edge,
and make all measurements therefrom. Mark
each piece as you go along. Take a note mentally
just how each piece is to be placed, and what must
be done with it.

The carpenter, above all others, must be able to
carry a mental picture of his product.

Never saw out the scribing or marking line,
either in cutting or in ripping. The lines should
be obliterated by the plane, when it is being finished,
and not before.

Make it a habit to finish off the surfaces and
edges true and smooth before the ends are cut, or
the mortises or tenons are made. This is one of
the most frequent mistakes. No job can be a perfect
one unless your material has been worked
down to proper dimensions.

Learn to saw across a board squarely. This
may be a hard thing for the novice to do. A long,
easy stroke of the saw will prevent it from running,
unless too badly set or filed, and will also
enable you to hold it more nearly square with the
board.

If you find that you invariably saw “out of
true,” then take some sawing lessons for your own
[Pg 209]
benefit, until you can judge whether the saw is
held true or not.

It is better to saw up a half dozen boards in
making the test than commit the error while working
on a job.

[Pg 211]

GLOSSARY OF WORDS

USED IN TEXT OF THIS VOLUME

Acute. Sharp, to the point.

Adjuster. A tool which measures distances and relative
spaces.

Æsthetic. The theory of taste; science of the beautiful in
nature and art.

Abstract. That which exists in the mind only; separate from
matter; to think of separately as a quality.

Alligator jaws. A term used to designate a pair of serrated bars
which are held together in a headpiece, and capable
of clamping bits between them.

Analyzed. Separated into its primitive or original parts.

Anchor. Any device for holding an object in a fixed position.

Angle dividers. A sort of double bevel tool so arranged that an
angle can be made at the same time on both side
of a base line.

Angularly disposed. Forming an angle with reference to some part or
position.

Archivolt. The architectural member surrounding the curved
opening of an arch. More commonly the molding
or other ornaments with which the wall face of
an arch is changed.

Artisan. One trained in some mechanic’s art or trade.

Beaded. A piece of wood or iron having rounded creases
on its surface.

[Pg 212]
Beam compass. A drawing compass in which the points are arranged
to slide on a rod, instead of being fixed on dividers.

Belfry. A bell-tower, usually attached to a church.

Bevel square. A handle to which is pivotally attached a blade,
which may be swung and held at any desired
angle.

Bisected. To divide, mark, or cut into two portions.

Bit. A small tool, either for drilling, or for cutting, as a
plane iron.

Braced collar. A form of roofing truss, in which the upper cross
member is supported by a pair of angled braces.

Breast drill. A tool for holding boring tools, and designed to have
the head held against the breast for forcing in the
boring tool.

Bridle joint. A form for securing elements together which provides
a shallow depression in one member, and a
chamfered member at its end to fit therein.

Bungalow. A Bengalese term; originally a thatched or tiled
house or cottage, single story, usually surrounded
by a veranda.

Bushing. A substance of any kind interposed, as, for instance,
a wearing surface between a mandrel and
its bearing.

Butts. A term applied to certain hinges, usually of the
large type.

Callipered. A measured portion which has its side or thickness
fixed by a finely graduated instrument.

Cambered. Slightly rising in the middle portion. An upward
bend, or projection.

Capital. A small head or top of a column; the head or uppermost
member of a pilaster.