A HANDBOOK
OF
SOME SOUTH INDIAN GRASSES

Price, 4 rupees 8 annas

[Pg iii]

PREFACE

This book is intended to serve as a guide to the study of
grasses of the plains of South India. For the past few
years I have been receiving grasses for identification, almost
every week, from the officers of the Agricultural and Forest
Departments and others interested in grasses. The requirements
of these men and the absence of a suitable book
induced me to write this book.

I have included in this book about one hundred grasses
of wide distribution in the plains of South India. Many of
them occur also in other parts of India. The rarer grasses
of the plains and those growing on the hills are omitted, with
a view to deal with them separately.

The value of grasses can be realized from the fact that
man can supply all his needs from them alone, and their
importance in agriculture is very great, as the welfare of the
cattle is dependent upon grasses. Farmers, as a rule, take
no interest in them, although profitable agriculture is impossible
without grasses. Very few of them can give the names
of at least half a dozen grasses growing on their land. They
neglect grasses, because they are common and are found
everywhere. They cannot discriminate between them. To
a farmer “grass is grass” and that is all he cares to trouble
himself about. About grasses Robinson writes “Grass is
King. It rules and governs the world. It is the very foundation
of all commerce: without it the earth would be a
barren waste, and cotton, gold, and commerce all dead.”

In the early days when the population was very much
limited and when land not brought under cultivation was
extensive plenty of green grasses was upon it and pastures
were numerous. So the farmer paid no attention to the
grasses, and it did not matter much. But now, population
has increased, unoccupied land has decreased very much and
the cattle have increased in number. Consequently he has
to pay more attention to grasses.

On account of the scarcity of fodder, people interested
in agriculture and cattle rearing have very often imported[Pg iv]
foreign grasses and fodder plants into this country, but so
far no one has succeeded in establishing any one of them on
any large scale. Usually a great amount of labour and much
money is spent in these attempts. If the same amount of
attention is bestowed on indigenous grasses, better results
can be obtained with less labour and money. There are
many indigenous grasses that will yield plenty of stuff, if
they are given a chance to grow. The present deterioration
of grasses is mainly due to overgrazing and trampling by
men and cattle.

To prove the beneficial effects which result from preventing
overgrazing and trampling, Mr. G. R. Hilson, Deputy
Director of Agriculture (now Cotton Expert), selected some
portion of the waste land in the neighbourhood of the Farm
at Hagari and closed it for men and cattle. As a result of
this measure, in two years, a number of grasses and other
plants were found growing on the enclosed area very well,
and all of them seeded well. Of course the unenclosed areas
were bare as usual.

In the preparation of this book I received considerable
help from M.R.Ry. C. Tadulinga Mudaliyar Avargal, F.L.S.,
Assistant Lecturing and Systematic Botanist, in the description
of species and I am indebted to M.R.Ry. P.S. Jivanna
Rao, M.A., Teaching Assistant, for assistance in proofreading.

I have to express my deep obligation to Mr. G. A. D.
Stuart, I.C.S., Director of Agriculture, for encouragement to
undertake this work and to the Madras Government for
ordering its publication.

For the excellence in the get up of the book I am
indebted to Mr. F. L. Gilbert, Superintendent, Government
Press.

K. RANGACHARI.

Agricultural College,
Lawley Road, Coimbatore,
2nd June 1921.

[Pg v]

CONTENTS

[Pg 1]

A HANDBOOK OF SOME COMMON SOUTH
INDIAN GRASSES.

CHAPTER I.

INTRODUCTION.

Grasses occupy wide tracts of land and they are evenly distributed
in all parts of the world. They occur in every soil, in all
kinds of situations and under all climatic conditions. In certain
places grasses form a leading feature of the flora. As grasses do
not like shade, they are not usually abundant within the forests
either as regards the number of individuals, or of species. But in
open places they do very well and sometimes whole tracts become
grass-lands. Then a very great portion of the actual vegetation
would consist of grasses.

On account of their almost universal distribution and their
great economic value grasses are of great importance to man.
And yet very few people appreciate the worth of grasses.
Although several families of plants supply the wants of man, the
grass family exceeds all the others in the amount and the value of
its products. The grasses growing in pasture land and the cereals
grown all over the world are of more value to man and his domestic
animals than all the other plants taken together.

To the popular mind grasses are only herbaceous plants with
narrow leaves such as the hariali, ginger grass and the kolakattai
grass. But in the grass family or Gramineæ the cereals, sugarcane
and bamboos are also included.

Grasses are rather interesting in that they are usually successful
in occupying large tracts of land to the exclusion of other plants.
If we take into consideration the number of individuals of any
species of grass, they will be found to out-number those of any
species of any other family. Even as regards the number of
species this family ranks fifth, the first four places being occupied
respectively by Compositæ, Leguminosæ, Orchideæ and Rubiaceæ.

As grasses form an exceedingly natural family it is very
difficult for beginners to readily distinguish them from one
another.

The leaves and branches of grasses are very much alike and the
flowers are so small that they are liable to be passed by unnoticed.
The recognition of even our common grasses is quite a task for a
botanist.

To understand the general structure of grasses and to become
familiar with them it is necessary to study closely some common
grasses. We shall begin our study by selecting as a type one of
the species of the genus Panicum.

Panicum javanicum is an annual herb with stems radiating in all
directions from a centre. The plant is fixed to the soil by a tuft of[Pg 2]
fibrous roots all springing from the bases of the stems. In addition
to this crown of fibrous roots, there may be roots at the nodes of
some of the prostrate branches. The stems and branches are short
at first, and leaves arise on them one after the other in rapid succession.
After the appearance of a fair number of leaves the stem
elongates gradually and it finally ends in an inflorescence.

Fig. 1.—Panicum javanicum. (Full plant.)

The stem consists of nodes and internodes. The internodes
are cylindrical and somewhat flattened on the side towards the
axillary bud. When young they are completely covered by the
leaves and the older ones have only their lower portions covered
by the leaf-sheaths. Usually they complete their growth in length
very soon, but the lower portion of the internode, just above the
node and enclosed by the sheath, retains its power of growth for
some time.

The leaf consists of the two parts, the leaf-sheath and the leaf-blade.
At the junction of these two parts there is a very thin[Pg 3]
narrow membrane with fine hairs on its free margin. This is called
the ligule. (See fig. 2.)

The leaf-sheath is attached at its base to the node and it is
slightly swollen just above the place of insertion.
It covers the internode, one margin
being inside and the other outside. The
surface of the sheath is sparsely covered with
long hairs springing from small tubercles.
The outer margin of the sheath bears fine hairs
all along its length. (See fig. 2.)

The leaf-blade is broadly lanceolate, with
a tip finely drawn out. Its base is rounded and
the margin wavy, especially so towards the
base. On the margin towards the base long
hairs are seen, and some of these arise from
small tubercles. The margin has a hyaline
border which is very minutely serrate. There
is a distinct midrib and, on holding the leaf
against the light, four or five small veins come
in to view. In the spaces between these veins
lie many fine veins. All the veins run parallel
from the base to the apex. At the base of the
blade the veins get into the leaf-sheath and
therefore the sheath becomes striated. Just
above the ligule and at the base of the leaf-blade
there is a colourless narrow zone. This
is called the collar.

Fig. 2.—Leaf of
Panicum javanicum.

A. Full leaf; B. a portion
of the leaf showing
1. the ligule and
2. the collar.

As already stated
the inflorescences appear
at the free ends
of branches. Every
branch sooner or later
terminates in an inflorescence
which is a
compound raceme.
There are usually five
or six racemes in the
inflorescence. Each
raceme has an axis,
called the rachis, which
bears unilaterally two
rows of bud-like bodies.
These bud-like bodies
are the units of the
inflorescence and they
are called spikelets.
(See fig. 3.)

Fig. 3.—The inflorescence of Panicum
javanicum.

1. Inflorescence; 2 and 3. the front and the back
view of a raceme.

[Pg 4]

The spikelets are softly hairy and are shortly stalked. The
pedicels of spikelets are hairy and sometimes one or two long
hairs are also found on them.
Each of these spikelets consists
of four green membranous structures
called glumes. The first
two glumes are unequal, the first
being very small. The second
and the third glumes are broadly
ovate-oblong with acute tips.
Both are of the same height and
texture, but the second is 7-nerved
and the third 5-nerved.
The fourth glume is membranous
when young, but later on it
becomes thick, coriaceous and
rugose at the surface. Just
opposite to the fourth glume there
is a flat structure with two nerves,
similar to the glume in texture.
This is called the palea. The
fourth glume and its palea adhere
together by their margins. Inside
the fourth glume and
between it and the palea there
are three stamens and an ovary
with two styles ending in feathery
stigmas. Just in front of the
ovary and outside the stamens
two very small scale-like bodies
are found. These are the lodicules. They are fleshy and well
developed in flowers that are about to open. In the spikelet there
is only one full flower. The third glume contains no flower in it,
but occasionally there may be in its axil three stamens. The first
two glumes are always empty and so they are called empty glumes.
(See fig. 4.) In mature spikelets the grain which is free is
enclosed by the fourth glume and its palea.

Fig. 4.—Parts of the spikelets of
Panicum javanicum.

A. A spikelet; 1, 2, 3 and 4. the first,
second, third and the fourth glume,
respectively; 3a. palea of the third
glume; 4a. palea of the fourth glume;
5. lodicules; 6. stamens; 7. ovary;
8. stigmas.

[Pg 5]

CHAPTER II.

THE VEGETATIVE ORGANS.

Grasses vary very much in their habit. Some grasses grow
erect forming tufts and others form cushions with the branches
creeping along the ground. (See figs. 5 and 6.) We usually find
all intermediate stages from the erect to the prostrate habit.
Underground stems such as stolons and rhizomes occur in some
grasses. Grasses
of one particular
species generally
retain the same
habit but this
does not always
hold good. For
example Tragus
racemosus grows
with all its
branches quite
prostrate in a
poor, dry, open
soil. If, on the
other hand, this
happens to grow
in rich soils, or
amidst other
plants or grasses,
it assumes an
erect, somewhat
tufted habit.
Andropogon contortus
and Andropogon pertusus are other grasses with a tendency
for variation in habit. Plants that are usually small often attain
large dimensions under favourable conditions of growth. Ordinarily
the grass Panicum javanicum grows only to 1 or 2 feet. (See
fig. 1.) The same plant in a good rich soil grew to about 6 feet in
four months. (See fig. 7.)

Fig. 5.—Eleusine ægyptiaca.

Some grasses are annual while others are perennial. It is often
difficult to determine whether a certain grass is annual or perennial.
But by examining the shoot-system this can be ascertained easily.
In an annual all the stems and branches usually end in inflorescences
and they will all be of the same year. If, on the other
hand, both young leafy branches and old branches ending in
inflorescences are found mixed, it must be a perennial grass. The
presence of the remains of old leaves, underground stolons and
rhizomes is also evidence showing the perennial character of the
plant.

Grasses are eminently adapted to occupy completely large
areas of land. They are also capable of very rapid extension over
large areas, on account of the production of stolons, rhizomes and
the formation of adventitious roots.

[Pg 6]

The root-system.—The root-system of grasses is very striking
in its character. In most grasses, especially in erect ones, several
roots all of about the same diameter arise in a dense tuft from
nearly the
same level
and from the
lower-most
nodes of the
stems. The
roots are all
thin and
fibrous in the
vast majority
of these
plants, and
they are
tough and
wiry only in
a few cases
such as in the
case of the
roots of Pennisetum
cenchroides, P.
Alopecuros,
Ischæmum
pilosum and
Andropogon
Schœnanthus.

On a close
examination
it will become
evident that
all the roots
of a grass
plant are
adventitious.
Inasmuch as the growth of the primary root is soon overtaken by
other roots growing from the stem, all the roots happen to be of the
same size. Roots arise from the nodes just above the insertion of
the leaf, and they grow piercing the leaf-sheath.

Fig. 6.—Panicum Crus-galli.

Grasses in which stolons and prostrate branches occur have, in
addition to the usual radiating crown of roots at the base, aerial
roots growing out of the upper nodes of the branches and fixing
them to the soil. Such roots become supporting or prop roots and
are particularly conspicuous in several stout tall grasses such as
Andropogon Sorghum, Zea Mays and Pennisetum typhoideum. (See
figs. 8 and 9.)

All the roots bear branch-roots which originate from the inner
portion of the mother roots in the usual manner. The character
and the extent of the development of the root-system is to a large
extent dependent upon the nature of the soil and its moisture
content. In light dry soils roots remain generally stunted and in
[Pg 7]well drained rich soils they attain their maximum development.
In clayey soils roots penetrate only to short distances. When
the soil is rich and sandy roots go deeper and extend in all directions.
The root-systems of most grasses are superficial and so are
best adapted for surface-feeding.

Fig. 7.—Panicum javanicum.

The shoot-system.—The shoot-system varies with the duration
of the life of the plant. In annual grasses stems are in most cases
[Pg 8]erect and even if they are not entirely so they become erect at the
time of flowering. They are attached to the soil by a tuft of
fibrous roots arising from the base of the stems. But in perennials
in addition to erect branches, creeping branches, stolons and
rhizomes may occur.

Fig. 8.—Prop roots of
Andropogon Sorghum.

Fig. 9.—Aerial roots of Ischæmum ciliare.

The stem is either cylindrical or compressed and consists of
nodes and internodes. In most grasses the internodes are usually
hollow, the cavity being lined by the remains of the original pith
cells. However, there are also grasses in which the stems remain
solid throughout. In many grasses the basal portions of stems are
more leafy and the internodes are short, but in the upper portions
the internodes become longer separating the leaves one from the
other.

In young shoots the leaves grow much faster than the internodes
and consequently internodes remain small, and leaves become very
conspicuous. The youngest portions of the shoots are by this
means always well protected by the surrounding leaf-sheaths.
As soon as leaves have grown fully, the internodes begin to
elongate rapidly separating the leaves. At first growth in length
takes place throughout its length in the internode and when it gets
older this elongation ceases. But, however, the lower portion of
the internode close to the node and which is enclosed by the leaf-sheath
retains its power of growth for a considerable time.

Branches arise from the axils of leaves and when a considerable
number of the axillary buds, especially from the lower nodes,
develop into branches the plant becomes tufted in habit. In most
grasses branches grow upwards through the sheath and emerge at
its mouth as aerial branches. Such branches are called intravaginal
branches or stems. But in some grasses axillary buds,
[Pg 9]instead of growing straight up through the sheath, pierce the leaf-sheath,
come out and then they grow out as branches. This may
be seen in the underground stolons of Panicum repens and in the
ordinary aerial branches of Arundo Donax. Branches that pierce
through the sheaths are called extravaginal branches. (See fig. 10.)

Fig. 10.—Extravaginal shoots of
1. Panicum repens and 2. Arundo Donax.

Fig. 11.—Nodes.

1. Glabrous node; 2. bearded node;
3. node cut longitudinally.

The nodes are in most cases very conspicuous and they are
often found swollen. However, it must be remembered that the
enlargement at the node is not due to the increase in size of the
actual node, but due to growth in thickness of the base of the leaf-sheath.
(See fig. 11-3.) Nodes may be pale or coloured, glabrous,
hairy or bearded with long hairs. When the stem is erect the
nodes are short and of uniform size all round. But, if the stem is
bent down or tipped over by accident, the nodes begin to grow
longer on the lower side until a curvature sufficient to bring the
stem to the erect position is formed and then it ceases to grow.

As already noted some perennial grasses have creeping stems
and stolons, while others may have rhizomes. The grass Cynodon
dactylon develops several underground stolons which are covered
with white scale leaves and whose terminal buds are hard and
sharp so that they may be able to make their way through the soil.
The rhizomes when continuous and elongated are usually sympodia
formed by the lower portions of the aerial shoots. The aerial
shoot comes into the air and its lower portion is continued by a
branch arising from a lower leaf axil beneath the soil.

The leaf.—Leaves are two-ranked and alternate, and very
often they become crowded at the lower portions of the shoots so
as to form basal tufts, though they are farther apart in the upper
[Pg 10]portions of these shoots. Three distinct kinds of leaves are
met with in grasses. First, we have the fully formed foliage leaves
so characteristic of grasses. These are most conspicuous and are
formed in large numbers.

The other two kinds of leaves
are neither so conspicuous nor
so numerous as the foliage
leaves. At the base of shoots
occur abortive leaves which are
really rudimentary sheaths.
These are called scales. The
third kind of leaf is a modified
structure called the prophyll or
prophyllum. (See fig. 12.) It is
the first leaf occurring in every
branch on the side next to the
main shoot and it is a two-keeled
membranous structure resembling
somewhat the palea found
in the spikelets of grasses. The
portion of the prophyll between
the keels is concave due to the
pressure of the main stem, while
the sides beyond the keels bend
forward clasping the stem.

Fig. 12.—Prophylla.

A. A branch with its prophyllum; B.
prophyllum; C. section of the
prophyllum.

The ordinary foliage leaves of grasses consist of the two
parts, the flat expanded upper
portion called the blade and the
lower part called the sheath that
encircles the stem above the node
from which it arises. The leaf-sheaths
usually fit close to the
stem, but they may also be loose
or even inflated. Though the leaf-sheath
surrounds the internode
like a tube, it is not a closed tube.
It is really a flat structure rolled
firmly round the stem with one
edge overlapping the other. In
most cases it is cylindrical and it
may be compressed in a few cases.
Occasionally it may have a prominent
ridge or keel down its
back. The sheath may be glabrous
or hairy, smooth or striate
externally, and the outer margin
is often ciliate. In a few grasses
the sheaths become coloured
especially below or on the side
exposed to the sun.

Fig. 13.—Ligules of 1. Oryza sativa;
2. Panicum javanicum; 3. Andropogon
Schœnanthus; 4. A. contortus.

[Pg 11]

Fig. 14.—Shapes of leaf-blades.

1, 7 and 8. Lanceolate; 3 and 6. lanceolate-linear;
2 and 5. linear; and 4. ovate.

The ligule is a structure peculiar to grasses and it varies very
much. In some grasses it is a distinct membrane narrow or broad,
with an even, truncate
or erose margin, or
finely ciliate. Very
often it is only a line or
fringe of hairs, whilst
in some it may be entirely
absent as in the
leaves of Panicum colonum.
When it is a membrane it may be
broad and oblong,
ovate and obtuse, or
lanceolate and acute.
(See fig. 13.) The function
of the ligule is
probably to facilitate
the shedding of water
which may run down
the leaf, and thus
lessen the danger of
rotting of the stem
which is sure to follow,
if the water were to find its way into the interior of the sheath.
Sometimes, in addition to the ligule, other appendages may be
present in grass leaves as in Oryza sativa. Such outgrowths are
called auricles or auricular outgrowths. (See fig. 13.)

The leaf-blade is well developed in the foliage leaves and in
most cases it follows directly on the sheath. But in bamboos and
some species of Ischæmum there occurs a short petiole or stalk
between the leaf-blade and the sheath. The sheath corresponds
morphologically to the leaf base of a leaf of other flowering plants.

Fig. 15.—Margins of leaves.

1 and 2. Finely serrate; 3. glandular; 4 and 5. very minutely
serrate; 6. very minutely serrate and ciliate.

In grasses the leaf-blades usually grow more in length than in
any other direction and there is no limit to the length they may
attain. Some
grasses have
very short leaves,
others very long
ones. The leaf-blade
in most
grasses is more
or less of some
elongated form,
such as linear,
linear-lanceolate,
lanceolate, etc.
(See fig. 14.)
In a few grasses
the leaf-blade is
ovate, but this is a rare condition. Therefore, in noting the general
shape of the leaf-blade the relation of the length to the breadth,
the amount of tapering towards the apex and base and the nature
of the apex should be considered.

[Pg 12]

The veins in the leaf-blade can usually be seen on holding the
leaf up to the light. All the veins run parallel. In most cases
the midrib is prominent and in some cases there may be also a
distinct keel. Amongst the veins running through the leaf-blade
some are large and prominent, while others are small and not conspicuous.
On account of this disparity, very often, ridges and
furrows become prominent on the upper or lower, or on both the
surfaces of the leaf-blades. Generally the two surfaces of the
leaf-blade are distinct, and they may be glabrous or hairy. In
most grasses the surfaces are rough or scabrid to the touch owing
to the presence of regular rows of exceedingly fine sharp pointed
minute hairs.

The apex of the blade is generally sharp and pointed, acute or
acuminate, or sometimes it may be drawn to a very fine point by
gradual tapering. Blunt or obtuse tips are not altogether absent,
but it is not a common feature. The leaf-blades in Panicum colonum
and in some species of Andropogon are rounded or obtuse at the
apex.

The margins of the leaf-blade are somewhat hyaline and they
may be perfectly even or cut into serrations of fine teeth in various
ways. (See fig. 15.) In addition to these minute teeth, there may
be long or short cilia. Sometimes the margins are glandular as in
Eragrostis Willdenoviana and Eragrostis major.

The base of the leaf may be narrower, broader than, or about
the same as the breadth of the leaf-sheath. It may be rounded,
amplexicaul or narrowed. At the base and just above the ligular
region there will always be a white distinct zone in the lamina of
all grasses called the collar. This collar varies in length and
breadth according to the species of grass.

Fig. 16.—Transverse section of
leaf-buds.

A. Conduplicate; 1, 2 and 3.
leaf-sheaths; 4 and 5. leaf-blades.
B. Convolute; 1 and 2, leaf-sheaths;
3 and 4. leaf-blades.

In young shoots all the leaf-blades are usually found folded at
the terminal portions. In most cases
the leaf-blade is rolled up inwards from
one end to the other so that one margin
is inside and the other outside. This
folding is termed convolute. This is
the kind of folding that is found in
most grasses. However, there are some
grasses such as Eleusine ægyptiaca and
Chloris barbata, in which the folding is
different. In these grasses the laminas
are folded flat on their midribs so that
each half of the blade is folded flat on
the other, the inner surfaces being in
contact. The leaves are said to be
conduplicate in this case. When the
leaves are conduplicate the shoots are
more or less compressed. (See fig. 16.)

[Pg 13]

CHAPTER III.

THE INFLORESCENCE AND FLOWER.

The flowers of grasses are reduced to their essential organs,
the stamens and the pistil. The flowers are aggregated together
on distinct shoots constituting the inflorescence of grasses.
Sooner or later all the branches of a grass-plant terminate in
inflorescences which usually stand far above the foliage leaves.
As in other flowering plants, in grasses also different forms of
inflorescence are met with. But in grasses the unit of the inflorescence
is the spikelet and not the flower.

The forms of inflorescence usually met with are the spike,
raceme and panicle. When the spikelets are sessile or borne
directly along an elongated axis as in Enteropogon melicoides the
inflorescence is a spike. If the spikelets borne by the axis are all
stalked, however short the pedicels may be, it is a raceme. It
must, however, be remembered that true spikes are very rare. An
inflorescence may appear to be a spike, but on a close examination
it will be seen to consist of spikelets more or less pedicelled.
Such an inflorescence, strictly speaking, is a spiciform raceme.
The branches of the inflorescence in Paspalum scrobiculatum or
Panicum javanicum are racemes and the whole inflorescence is a
compound raceme. The inflorescence is a panicle when the
spikelets are borne on secondary, tertiary or further subdivided
branches. Panicles differ very much in appearance according to
the relative length and stoutness of the branches. In Eragrostis
tremula the panicle is very diffuse, in Eragrostis Willdenoviana
less so. The panicle in Sporobolus coromandelianus is pyramidal
and the branches are all verticillate, the lower being longer than
the upper. The branches of a panicle are usually loose, spreading
or drooping in most grasses. But in some species of grasses such
as Pennisetum Alopecuros and Setaria glauca, the paniculate inflorescences
become so contracted that the pedicels and the short
branches are hidden and the inflorescence appears to be a spike.
Such inflorescences as these are called spiciform panicles. The
inflorescences in several species of Andropogon consist of racemes
so much modified as to appear exactly like a spike. What looks
like a spike in these cases consists of a jointed axis and each joint
bears a pair of spikelets, one sessile and the other pedicelled.

The name rachis is given to the axis of the spike, raceme and
panicle, whether the axis is the main one or of the branch. The
rachis of the inflorescence is usually cylindrical. In some grasses
it is zigzag as in Pennisetum cenchroides. It is very much
flattened in Paspalum scrobiculatum, but somewhat trigonous in
Digitaria sanguinalis. In very many grasses the rachis is continuous,
but in a few cases it consists of internodes or joints which
disarticulate at maturity. Many species of Andropogon have such
jointed rachises. Sometimes the joints become greatly thickened
[Pg 14]and the surface hollowed out, the spikelets fitting in the cavities
as in Rottboellia and Manisuris.

In panicles, especially when they are diffuse, the primary
branches may be disposed irregularly or in verticils on the main
axis. For example in the panicle of Eragrostis Willdenoviana,
the branches are irregularly disposed, whereas in Sporobolus
coromandelianus the branches are verticillate. In both these
grasses fleshy cushions are developed in the axils of the branches.
These swellings help to spread out the branches especially at the
time of anthesis. The branches at the top spread out earlier than
those below.

Sometimes at the base of the rachises, main or secondary,
glandular streaks are seen as in the rachises of Sporobolus coromandelianus.
These glands secrete a viscid juice at the time of
anthesis.

Fig. 17.—The Spikelet of Dinebra arabica.

1 and 2. Empty glumes; 3, 4, 5, and 6.
flowering glumes with flowers.

The spikelet may be considered as a specialised branch
consisting of a short axis, the
rachilla bearing a series of
modified bracts, the glumes, the
lower pair being empty but the
others bearing flowers in their
axils. The glumes are two-ranked
and imbricating. As a
type for the spikelet that of an
Eragrostis or Dinebra may be
chosen. (See fig. 17.) In this
spikelet the rachilla bears a
number of glumes alternating
and imbricating. The first two
glumes at the base of the
spikelet do not bear any flowers
and so these two glumes are
usually called empty glumes.
This is the case in almost all the
species of grasses. The third
and the subsequent glumes are
regularly arranged on the slender rachilla alternately in two rows.
In the axils of each of these glumes there is a flower, except
perhaps in the topmost glume. The flower is usually enclosed by
the glume and another structure found opposite the glume and
differing very much from the glume. This is the palea. It is
attached to the axis of the flower and its back is towards the
rachilla. Generally there are two nerves in a palea and its
margins are enclosed within those of the glume. The palea is
homologous with the prophyllum which it very much resembles.
The prophyllum is usually found in the branches of grasses, but it
is not confined to grasses alone. It occurs in the branches of some
species of Commelina.

The spikelets vary very much in their structure. The spikelets
in grasses of several genera consist of only four glumes. As usual
the first two glumes are empty and the remaining two are
flower-bearing glumes. Both these glumes may have perfect flowers as
in Isachne or the terminal one may contain a perfect flower, the
[Pg 15]lower having either a staminate flower or only a palea. Very
often the spikelets are unisexual and the male and female spikelets
may be on the same plant as in Coix Lachryma-Jobi and Polytoca
barbata, or they may be on different plants as in Spinifex squarrosus.

The glumes of a spikelet are really modified bracts and some
differentiate the flowering glumes from the empty ones, by giving
them different names. The first two empty glumes are called glumes
by all agrostologists. Some in Europe call the flowering glume
lower palea to distinguish it from the real palea which they call the
upper palea. Some American Authors have recently adopted for
the flowering glume the term lemma introduced by Piper.

Considerable variation is met with in the case of the empty
glumes. Generally they are unequal, the first being smaller. Very
often the first glume becomes very small and it may be altogether
absent. In some species of Panicum the first glume is very small,
in Digitaria it is very minute and in Paspalum and Eriochloa it is
entirely suppressed. The flowering glumes are generally uniform
when there are many. In the spikelet having only four glumes
the fourth glume differs from the others mainly in texture. Instead
of being thin and herbaceous it becomes rigid and hard, smooth
or rugose externally as in Panicum. Flowering glumes instead of
being like empty glumes, become very thin, shorter and hyaline in
Andropogon. Sometimes the flowering glumes are awned. All of
them may be awned as in Chloris or only the fourth glume as in
Andropogon.

The palea is fairly uniform in its structure in many grasses, but
it is also subject to variation. It becomes shorter in some and is
absent in others. Instead of having two nerves, it may have one
and rarely more than two. The palea can easily be distinguished
from the glume, because its insertion in the spikelet is different
from that of the glume.

Fig. 18.—Flower of
Chloris.

1. lodicules;
2. stamens; 3. ovary.

The lodicules are small organs and they are the vestiges of
the perianth. In most grasses there are only
two, but in Ochlandra and other bamboos we
meet with three lodicules. There are also
some species with many lodicules. In shape
they are mostly of some form referable to the
cuneate form. They are of somewhat
elongated form in Aristida and Chloris. The
function of the lodicules seems to be to separate
the glume and its palea so as to enable the
stamens to come out and hang freely at the
time of anthesis. So it is only at the time of
the opening of the flowers that the lodicules
are at their best. Then they are fairly large,
fleshy and thick and conspicuous. In the bud
stage they are usually small and after the
opening of the flower they shrivel up and are
inconspicuous. There are also species of
grasses in which the lodicules are not found.

The stamens are three in number in the majority of grasses and
six are met with in Leersia, Hygrorhiza and Bamboos. Each
stamen consists of a very delicate long filament and an anther
[Pg 16]basifixed to the filament. But as the anthers are long and the
connective is reduced to its minimum, they appear as if versatile
when the stamens are out. When there are three stamens one
stands in front of the flowering glumes and the other two in front
of the palea, one opposite each edge of the palea. The relative
positions of the parts of the floret are shown in the floral diagrams.
(See figs. 18 and 19.)

Fig. 19.—Floral diagrams.

The first is that of Chloris, second of Panicum and the third of Oryza.

The pistil consists of an ovary and two styles ending in plumose
stigmas. The ovary is 1-celled and 1-ovuled. It is one carpelled
according to the views of Hackel and his followers and there are
also some who consider it as 3-carpelled because of the occurrence
of three styles in the pistil of some bamboos.

The rachilla is usually well developed and elongated in many-flowered
spikelets, while in 1-flowered spikelets it remains very
small so that the flower appears to be terminal. It often extends
beyond the insertion of the terminal flower and its glume, and then
lies hidden appressed to the palea. This may be seen in the spikelets
of the species of Cynodon. This prolonged rachilla sometimes
bears a minute glume, which is of course rudimentary. Usually
the glumes are rather close together on the rachilla so that the
internodes are very short; but in some grasses, as in Dinebra
arabica, the glumes are rather distant and so the internodes are
somewhat longer and conspicuous. In some species of Panicum
the rachilla is jointed to the pedicel below the empty glumes,
whereas it is articulated just above these glumes in Chloris barbata.
Sometimes the rachilla is articulated between the flowers. This
is the case in the spikelet of Dinebra arabica.

Pollination in most grasses is brought about by wind, though
in a few cases self-pollination occurs. The terminal position of the
inflorescence, its protrusion far above the level of the foliage leaves,
the swinging and dangling anthers, the abundance of non-sticking
pollen and the plumose stigmas are all intended to facilitate pollination
by wind. Furthermore the stamens and the stigmas do
not mature at the same time. In some grasses the stamens mature
earlier, (protandry) while in others the stigmas protrude long before
the stamens (protogyny). As the result of the pollination
the ovary developes into a dry 1-seeded indehiscent fruit. The
seed fills the cavity fully and the pericarp fuses with the seed-coat
[Pg 17]and so they are inseparable. Such a fruit is termed a caryopsis or
grain. Though in the vast majority of grasses the pericarp is
inseparable, in a few cases it is free from the seed-coat as in
Sporobolus indicus and Eleusine indica.

Fig. 20.—Longitudinal section of a portion of the grain of Andropogon Sorghum. × 280

P. Pericarp; Sc. seed-coat; A. aleurone layer; E. endosperm; S. scutellum; Rs.
root-sheath; Rc. root-cap; R. radicle; Pl. plumule; G. growing point.

Fig. 21.—A portion of the section of the grain of Andropogon Sorghum. × 500

P. pericarp; I. seed-coat; A. aleurone layer; S. starch.

The caryopsis consists of an embryo on one side at the base
and the endosperm occupies the remaining portion. The embryo
can be made out on the side of the grain facing the glume, as it is
outlined as an oval area. On the other face of the grain which is
towards the palea, the hilum is seen at the base. The grain varies
in shape considerably. It may be rounded, oval, ellipsoidal, narrow
and cylindrical, oblong terete or furrowed. There is considerable
variation as regards the colour also.

[Pg 18]

The embryo consists of an axis and a scutellum. The axis,
which is differentiated into the plumule directed upward and
the radicle downward, is small and straight and it is covered
more or less by the edges of the scutellum. The scutellum is
attached to the axis at about its middle and its outer surface is in
contact with the endosperm. This is an important organ as its
function is to absorb nourishment from the endosperm during
germination. The scutellum is considered to represent the first
leaf or cotyledon. The endosperm consists mostly of starch. Just
outside the endosperm and within the epidermis lies a layer of
cells containing much proteid substance. This layer is called the
aleurone layer. (See fig. 21.) As an illustration of the caryopsis,
the grain of Andropogon Sorghum may be studied. All the structural
details are shown in fig. 20 which is a longitudinal section
of the grain.

The primary axis of the embryo is enclosed by a closed sheath
both above and below. The sheath which envelopes the radicle is
called coleorhiza and that of the plumule, pileole or germ-sheath.

[Pg 19]

CHAPTER IV.

HISTOLOGY OF THE VEGETATIVE ORGANS.

The shoots and roots of grasses conform in their internal
structure to the monocotyledonous type. In all grasses numerous
threads are found running longitudinally within the stem and some
of these pass into the leaves, at the nodes, and run as nerves in the
blades of the leaves. These threads are the vascular bundles.
The rest of the tissue of the stem and leaves consists of thin-walled
parenchymatous cells of different sorts.

The general structure of these bundles is more or less the same
in all grasses. A vascular
bundle consists of only
xylem and phloëm, without
the cambium, and so no
secondary thickening can
take place in the stems of
grasses. Such bundles as
these are called closed
vascular bundles to distinguish
them from the dicotyledonous
type of vascular
bundles which are called
open vascular bundles on
account of the existence of
the cambium.

Fig. 22.—Transverse section of a vascular
bundle. × 250

1. Annular vessel; 2. spiral vessel; 3.
pitted vessel; 4. phloëm or sieve tubes;
5. sclerenchyma.

The component parts and
elements of which the vascular
bundles in grasses are
composed may be learnt
by studying the transverse
and longitudinal
sections of these bundles
in any grass. The cross
and longitudinal sections
of a vascular bundle of the
stem of Pennisetum cenchroides,
are shown in figs.
22 and 23. In the figure of
the transverse section the
two large cavities indicated
by the number 3 and the two small circular cavities with thick
walls lying between the larger ones and indicated by the numbers
1 and 2 are the chief elements of the xylem.

By looking at the longitudinal section it is obvious that these
elements are really vessels, the larger being pitted and the smaller
annular and spiral vessels. These vessels together with the
[Pg 20]numerous small thick-walled cells lying between the pitted vessels
constitute the xylem. Just above the xylem there is a group of
large and small thin-walled cells. This is the phloëm and it
consists of sieve tubes and thin-walled cells. All round the xylem
and the phloëm there are many thick-walled cells. These are
really fibres forming the bundle-sheath. On account of this
bundle-sheath the bundles are called fibro-vascular bundles.

Fig. 23.—Longitudinal section of a vascular bundle. × 250

1. Annular vessel; 2. spiral vessel; 3. pitted vessel; 4. sieve tubes or phloëm; 5. sclerenchyma.

Fig. 24.—Transverse section of a portion of the stem of Rottboellia exaltata. × 70

1. Epidermis; 2. sclerenchyma; 3. vascular bundle.

Structure of the stem.—The stem of a grass consists of a mass
of parenchymatous cells with a number of fibro-vascular bundles
[Pg 21]imbedded in it, and it is covered externally by a protective layer
of cells, the epidermis. The stem is usually solid in all grasses in
the young stage, but as it matures the internodes become hollow
in many grasses and they remain solid in a few. In the internodes
the fibro-vascular bundles run longitudinally and are parallel, but
in the nodes they run in all directions and form a net work from
which emerge a few bundles to enter the leaves. So far as the
broad general features are concerned, the stems of many grasses are
more or less similar in structure. However, when we take into consideration
the arrangement of bundles, the development and arrangement
of sclerenchyma, every species of grass has its own special
characteristics. And these are so striking and constant that it
may be possible to identify the species from these characters alone.

We may take as a type the stem of Rottboellia exaltata. This
stem is somewhat semi-circular in transverse section and it is
almost straight and flat in the front (the side towards the axillary
bud). The peripheral portion of the stem becomes somewhat
rigid and thick due to the aggregation of vascular bundles, some
small and others large. The outermost series of bundles consisting
of small and larger bundles are in contact with the layers of the
cells lying just beneath the epidermis and these cells are also
thick-walled. A few are away from these being separated by three
or four layers of cells from the peripheral bundles. In all these
vascular bundles the bundle-sheath is very strongly developed all
round and is very much developed especially at the sides. It is
this great development of sclerenchyma that makes the outer
portion of the cortex hard. Within the ground tissue are found a
number of vascular bundles scattered more or less uniformly.
These bundles have no continuous bundle-sheaths but have instead
groups of fibres at the sides and in front of the phloëm. The
cavities near the annular vessels are somewhat larger and conspicuous
in these bundles.

Fig. 25.—Transverse section of the stem of Pennisetum cenchroides. × 20

The epidermal cells are all thickened very much and the outer
layer is cutinized and impregnated with silica. This is the case in
the epidermis of the stems and leaves of most grasses. (See fig. 24.)

[Pg 22]

In order to give a general idea of the variations in the structure
of the stem in grasses a few examples are chosen and the details
of the structure of the stems of these grasses are dealt with here.

Fig. 26.—Transverse section of a portion of the stem of Pennisetum cenchroides. × 70

1. Epidermis; 2. sclerenchyma; 3. vascular bundle.

The stem of Pennisetum cenchroides is somewhat round in outline
in the transverse section with a slight curvature in the front. The
vascular bundles are rather numerous and irregularly scattered all
over the ground tissue. The
peripheral bundles are not so
close to the periphery of the stem
as in Rottboellia exaltata. These
are separated from the epidermis
by several layers of parenchymatous
cells. Further, these peripheral
bundles are all imbedded
in a continuous sclerenchymatous
band which runs round the stem
in the form of a ring. The epidermal cells as well as the
layer of cells in immediate
contact with it are thick-walled.
In the vascular bundles of the
ground tissue the bundle-sheath
is rather prominent and the
phloëm portion is well developed.
(See figs. 25 and 26.)

Fig. 27.—Transverse section of the stem
of Eriochloa polystachya. × 25

In the stem of Eriochloa polystachya, all the vascular bundles
are more or less peripheral in position leaving a wide area of
parenchymatous cells in the centre. The outline of the stem in
cross section is rotund or ovate-rotund with the front side somewhat
flattened and straight. The epidermal cells alone are
[Pg 23]thickened. A well developed continuous ring of sclerenchyma is
present and this is connected with the epidermal layer at short
intervals by means of short sclerenchymatous bands. So the
parenchymatous cells of the cortex lying outside the sclerenchymatous
ring are divided into small isolated areas. There are three
series of vascular bundles.

Fig. 28.—Transverse section of a portion of the stem of Eriochloa polystachya. × 70

1. Epidermis; 2. sclerenchyma; 3. vascular bundle.

One series consists of small bundles lying inside the sclerenchyma
ring at the base of each of the connecting bands. The
second series is made up of large vascular bundles imbedded
in the ring so as to bulge out inside the ring. The vascular
bundles of the third series are found just away from the ring and
separated from it by a few layers of parenchymatous cells. (See
figs. 27 and 28.)

Fig. 29.—Transverse section of the stem of Setaria glauca. × 15

[Pg 24]

Fig. 30.—Transverse section of a portion of the stem of Setaria glauca. × 50

1. Epidermis; 2. sclerenchyma; 3. vascular bundle.

Another stem in which the vascular bundles are more or less
peripheral in position and enclosing a wide parenchyma is that of
Setaria glauca. In the transverse section of the stem the outline is
ovate, laterally compressed, obtusely keeled at the back and
somewhat concave in the front. The sclerenchymatous band is
narrow and continuous and very close to the epidermis, being
separated from it only by two or three layers of thin-walled cells.
The epidermal cells alone are thickened. As to the vascular
bundles there are three sets. One set of bundles lying just outside
the sclerenchymatous ring consists of small ones connecting the
ring with the epidermis. Just inside the sclerenchymatous ring
lies a series of bundles which are connected with it. Still inside, at
some distance from the sclerenchymatous band, are seen vascular
bundles forming a row and enclosing a large space of the ground
tissue consisting of only parenchyma. (See figs. 29 and 30.)

Fig. 31.—Transverse section of the stem of Panicum ramosum × 24

[Pg 25]

Fig. 32.—Transverse section of a portion of the stem of Panicum ramosum. × 75

1. Epidermis; 2. sclerenchyma; 3. vascular bundle.

Fig. 33.—Transverse section of the stem of Andropogon caricosus. × 25

The stem of Panicum ramosum is semi-circular and somewhat
flat on one side. The epidermal cells alone are thickened. There
[Pg 26]is a broad well developed continuous band of sclerenchyma, which
is connected at regular intervals with the epidermis by small vascular
bundles. Another row of vascular bundles lies just inside the
sclerenchymatous ring and each of these bundles is in contact with
the band. Away from the ring lie a number of bundles forming a
series disposed in two irregular rings around a broad portion of
the ground tissue. (See figs. 31 and 32.)

Fig. 34.—Transverse section of a portion of the stem of Andropogon caricosus. × 75

1. Epidermis; 2. sclerenchyma; 3. vascular bundle.

Fig. 35.—Transverse section of a portion of the
stem of Panicum Isachne. × 100

1. Epidermis; 2. sclerenchyma; 3. vascular bundle.

The stem of the grass Andropogon caricosus is oval in outline,
the front being
flat. The epidermal
cells and
those below and
in contact with
them are thick-walled.
The
sclerenchymatous
ring though present
is very narrow
and not very
conspicuous. It
consists of one or
two layers of cells
connecting a few
vascular bundles
forming the outermost
set. There
is a series of
vascular bundles
inside the ring
which surrounds
a large area of the ground tissue. Two isolated bundles, one in
front and another at the back of the ground tissue, are found. The
[Pg 27]cells of the ground tissue lying just inside the vascular bundles
are all very much thickened. (See figs. 33 and 34.)

Fig. 36.—Transverse section of the stem
of Eragrostis interrupta. × 25

Fig. 37.—Transverse section of the
stem of Panicum flavidum. × 15

Fig. 38.—Transverse section of a portion of the stem of Panicum flavidum. × 70

1. Epidermis; 2. sclerenchyma; 3. vascular bundle.

The stems of Panicum Isachne and Eragrostis interrupta are hollow.
The stem of the former is circular in outline in cross section,
though wavy. There is a sclerenchymatous ring close to the
epidermis but separated from it by a few layers of parenchyma.
One set of bundles is imbedded in the band, and another set
just touches the inner border of it. A third series is disposed
around a fairly large amount of ground tissue, which may or may
not have a cavity in the centre. The stem of Eragrostis[Pg 28]
interrupta has more or less the same structure, but the cortex has air
spaces here and there. Other minor differences may be seen on
referring to figs. 35 and 36.

Fig. 39.—Transverse section of a portion of the stem of Panicum colonum. × 70

1. Epidermis; 2. sclerenchyma; 3. vascular bundle.

The stems of grasses growing in wet or marshy situations differ
in structure from those detailed above. As examples the stems of
Panicum flavidum, Panicum colonum, Panicum Crus-galli and Panicum
fluitans may be considered. The stem of Panicum flavidum is
broadly ovate in cross section with a flat front and is more or less
solid, though occasionally the parenchymatous cells in the centre
get broken. Two rows of vascular bundles surround a fairly large
amount of parenchymatous cells of the ground tissue. There is a
continuous ring of sclerenchyma separated from the epidermis by
a fairly broad cortex. The cortex has a number of fairly large air-cavities
separated by bands of parenchymatous cells. Within the
sclerenchymatous band lie small vascular bundles at regular intervals
just towards the cortex. A few isolated bundles are in contact
with the inner border. (See figs. 37 and 38.)

The stems of Panicum colonum, Panicum stagninum and Panicum
Crus-galli have in their centre in the ground tissue stellate cells
with air-cavities. This part is surrounded by a fairly broad
portion of parenchymatous cells in which are imbedded two rows
[Pg 29]of bundles. Outside these bundles runs round the stem a narrow
sclerenchymatous band with a few bundles in it of which some
touch it inside and others outside. Two bundles are found by
themselves in the tissue of stellate cells. In Panicum Crus-galli
three or four bundles are met with amidst the stellate cells.

Fig. 40.—Transverse section of a portion of the stem of Panicum Crus-galli. × 70

1. Epidermis; 2. sclerenchyma; 3. vascular bundle.

Fig. 41.—Transverse section of the stem of Panicum stagninum. × 10

The cortex outside the band of sclerenchyma is full of air-cavities,
small and large. In Panicum colonum the outline of the
[Pg 30]stem is ellipsoidal with the front quite flat, and the cortex is narrow
at the sides and very broad in front and at the back. The
sclerenchymatous ring is circular in outline. The stem of Panicum
Crus-galli is broadly ovoid and the cortex is uniformly broad. The
epidermal cells as well as the lower cells are thickened in the stems
of Panicum fluitans and Panicum Crus-galli, but in the stems of
Panicum colonum and Panicum flavidum the epidermis alone is
thickened. In the cortical portion outside the sclerenchymatous
band, small vascular bundles occur in the stems of Panicum
colonum, Panicum Crus-galli and Panicum fluitans. (See figs. 39, 40,
42 and 43.)

Fig. 42.—Transverse section of the stem of Panicum fluitans. × 15

Fig. 43.—Transverse section of a portion of the stem of Panicum fluitans. × 60

1. Epidermis; 2. sclerenchyma; 3. vascular bundle; 4. air-cavity; 5. diaphragm.

[Pg 31]

The stem of Panicum fluitans is round in outline in the transverse
section and has a large cavity. Just close to the cavity and
separated from it by only one or two parenchymatous cells are
found vascular bundles forming a series. Outside this series of
bundles lies a sclerenchymatous band which is wavy, following
the lower edges of the large air-cavities. One series of bundles
is connected with this sclerenchymatous ring. The air-cavities
are large and uniform and are separated by bands of parenchymatous
cells. In each of these bands lies a vascular bundle on the
upper side near the periphery. Sometimes we find, especially in
young stages, diaphragms of stellulate cells stretched across the
air-cavities. Later as the stem matures these disappear and the
cavities become conspicuous. (See figs. 42 and 43.)

Structure of the root.—As already stated, the roots of grasses
conform to the monocotyledonous type, but the variations met with
in their structure are not so great as in the case of the stem. The
root-tips are protected by root-caps, and the actual tip of the root
is very distinct in the roots of all grasses and it can be seen very
clearly in a longitudinal section of the root. The actual tip of the
root is sharply distinct from the root-cap as there are two distinct
sets of cells, one giving rise to the root-tip and the other to the
root-cap.

The young root-tips are always free from root-hairs, and they
are confined to the portions behind the root-tips. The extent of
the root-hair region will vary according to the vigour and development
of the roots and the nature of the soil. The root-hairs are
mere protrusions of the cells of the outermost layer of the cortex
of the root and this layer is called the piliferous layer.

Fig. 44.—Transverse section of a part of the root of Pennisetum cenchroides. × 100

1. Root-hair; 2. piliferous layer; 3. cortex; 4. endodermis; 5. pericycle;
6. xylem; 7. phloëm.

[Pg 32]

To learn the structure of the roots of grasses we may select as
types the roots of Pennisetum cenchroides and Andropogon Sorghum
and consider their structural details. In the transverse sections of
these roots we find
a fairly broad
cortex consisting
of thin-walled
parenchymatous
cells more or less
regularly arranged.
(See figs. 44 and
45.) Just below the
piliferous layer two
or three layers of
thick-walled cells
are seen. In the
roots of Andropogon
Sorghum these
thick-walled cells
are very conspicuous
as they consist
of several
layers. These
layers of thick-walled
cells constitute
the exodermis.
(See fig. 46.)
The innermost
layer of cells of the cortex is called the endodermis and it becomes
conspicuous on account of the thickening in the lateral and inner
walls of the cells of this layer. (See figs. 44 and 47.)

Fig. 45.—Transverse section of the entire root of
Andropogon Sorghum. × 25

Fig. 46.—Transverse section of the cortical
portion of the root of Andropogon Sorghum.
× 150

r.h. Root-hair; p.l. piliferous layer;
ex. exodermis; co. cortex.

The rest of the root forming
the central core is the
stele and at its periphery
there is a single layer of
cells called the pericycle.
The arrangement of the
xylem and the phloëm is
different from that of the
stem. They lie side by side
on different radii, and not
one behind the other on the
same radius as in the stem.
The number of xylem
groups is fairly large and
the development of the
xylem is from the pericycle
towards the centre of the
stele. (See figs. 44 and 45.)
The parenchymatous cells
in the centre of the stele
become thick-walled in
older roots.

Structure of the leaf.—The structure of the leaf of grasses is
quite characteristic of the family. In every leaf a number of
[Pg 33]vascular bundles, some small and others large, pass from the
base to the apex. Externally the leaf is covered on both the
sides by the epidermis. The spaces existing between the vascular
bundles and the epidermis
are filled with
parenchymatous cells.
The larger vascular
bundles consist of
xylem and phloëm surrounded
by a bundle
sheath of a single layer
of cells. In the smaller
bundles the xylem is
very much reduced.
Around every vascular
bundle there is a
single row of somewhat
large cells densely
packed with large chloroplasts,
the chlorophyllous
layer. The
vascular bundles are
strengthened by fibres,
on both the sides in the
case of larger bundles
and on only one side in
small bundles.

Fig. 47.—Transverse section of the stele portion of
the root of Andropogon Sorghum. × 150

Co. Cortex; en. endodermis; pe. pericycle; ph.
phloëm; pr. protoxylem; xy. xylem vessel.

Fig. 48.—A portion of the transverse section of the leaf of Panicum javanicum. × 100

Ep. c. An ordinary epidermal cell; st. stomata; sc. sclerenchyma; ph. phloëm;
chl c. chlorenchyma; m. motor cells; xy. xylem.

For a detailed study of the structure of the leaves of grasses
the leaf of the grass Panicum javanicum may be chosen. In a
transverse section of this leaf, the vascular bundles are very
conspicuous. The larger bundles are normal in every way, while in
the smaller ones the xylem elements are considerably reduced.
Around every one of the vascular bundles there is a single row of
large cells containing large chlorophyll grains (the chlorophyllous
layer). In a well developed large vascular bundle the chlorophyllous
layer is open below just close to the sclerenchymatous band.
On both sides of the larger vascular bundle there are bands of
sclerenchyma. In the case of smaller bundles some are strengthened
by sclerenchyma on the lower side and others have none.
The spaces between the bundles are occupied by thin-walled
parenchymatous cells containing small chlorophyll grains.

[Pg 34]

Fig. 49.—Upper epidermis of the leaf of Panicum javanicum. × 300

Fig. 50.—Lower epidermis of the leaf of Panicum javanicum. × 300

The lower epidermis of the leaf in the transverse section is even
and consists of small and large round cells. The upper epidermis
is slightly wavy and it is made up of some small round cells
alternating with groups of larger cells. The epidermal cells lying
over sclerenchyma and the smaller vascular bundles are small
[Pg 35]and round, while those lying over the furrows between the vascular
bundles are large and are called motor or bulliform cells. The
presence of motor cells is a characteristic feature of the leaves of
many grasses.

The continuity of both the upper and the lower epidermis is
interrupted by the stomata. Air-cavities are seen below these
stomata. The arrangement of the stomata, the shape of the guard
cells and the characteristics of the epidermal cells become clear on
examining a piece of epidermis. (See figs. 49 and 50.)

The structure of the leaf of Panicum javanicum may be taken as
typical of the structure of the leaves of most grasses. The leaves
of Eriochloa polystachya, Cynodon and Paspalums are very much
like the leaves of Panicum javanicum in their internal structure.

Considerable amount of variation, however, occurs in the leaves
of grasses especially as regards the arrangement of fibres and motor
cells.

Fig. 51.—A portion of the transverse section of the leaf of Eriochloa polystachya
× 120

1. Motor cell; 2. stomata; 3. sclerenchyma; 4. chlorophyllous layer.

Every large primary vascular bundle in the leaves of many
grasses possesses sclerenchymatous bands both above and below.
The other vascular bundles may have bands of sclerenchyma on
both sides or on one side only or none. For example, in the leaves
of Panicum repens both the primary and secondary bundles are
provided with sclerenchyma on both the sides, while those of the
third order may have it on one side or not. The hyaline margin
of this leaf and of the leaves of other grasses consists entirely of
sclerenchyma. (See fig. 53.)

Fig. 52.—Transverse section of a portion of the leaf of Panicum repens. × 120

1. Motor cells; 2. stomata; 3. sclerenchyma; 4. chlorophyllous layer.

[Pg 36]

All the vascular bundles in the leaves of Aristida setacea have
broad sclerenchymatous bands on both the sides. Besides these
bands arranged like a girder above and below each bundle, there
are on the lower side bands of sclerenchyma. So the sclerenchyma
becomes almost continuous on the lower side.

Fig. 53.—Transverse section of the leaf margin of Panicum repens. × 180

1. Sclerenchyma; 2. stomata; 3. chlorophyllous layer.

Fig. 54.—Transverse section of a part of the leaf of Aristida setacea. × 30.

1. Vascular bundle; 2. sclerenchyma; 3. motor cells.

Fig. 55.—Transverse section of a portion of the leaf of Aristida setacea. × 120

1. Motor cells; 2. stomata; 3. sclerenchyma; 4. epidermis; 5. cutin layer.

The sclerenchyma lying on the lower side of the primary
bundles are contiguous with the bundle, while those above are
separated from the bundle by the chlorophyllous layer. (See fig. 55.)
In the case of secondary and tertiary bundles the sclerenchymatous
[Pg 37]bands lying on the lower side are in contact with the chlorophyllous
layer, whereas the upper bands are either in contact with this
layer or separated from it by a few parenchymatous cells.

All the vascular bundles in the leaves of Eragrostis Willdenoviana
are provided with sclerenchyma on both the sides. The
lower band of the primary vascular bundles is continuous with the
vascular bundle, the chlorophyllous layer being open below. The
upper bands of the primary and the lower bands of the secondary
vascular bundles just touch the chlorophyllous layer. In the
secondary bundles the sclerenchyma band above is separated from
the chlorophyllous layer by two layers of parenchyma. In the
case of the leaves of Panicum flavidum, P. colonum, P. fluitans and
Pennisetum cenchroides the sclerenchyma is separated from the
chlorophyllous layer by layers of parenchyma.

Fig. 56.—Transverse section of a part of the leaf of Eragrostis Willdenoviana. × 30

1. Vascular bundle; 2. sclerenchyma; 3. motor cells.

Fig. 57.—Transverse section of a portion of the leaf of Eragrostis Willdenoviana. × 150

1. Motor cells; 2. stomata; 3. sclerenchyma; 4. chlorophyllous layer; 5. vascular
strand cut through; 6. hair.

Fig. 58.—Transverse section of a part of the leaf of Panicum colonum. × 30

1. Vascular bundle; 2. sclerenchyma; 3. motor cells.

Even from the few examples dealt with above, it is obvious that
the range of variation of sclerenchyma in leaves is very great. In
the leaves of Aristida setacea there is a considerable amount of
sclerenchyma whilst in some leaves such as those of Panicum[Pg 38]
colonum, P. flavidum and Panicum fluitans the sclerenchyma is
reduced to its minimum.

Fig. 59.—Transverse section of a part of the leaf of Panicum fluitans. × 30

1. Vascular bundle; 2. sclerenchyma.

In the leaves of grasses growing in dry situations the development
of sclerenchyma is generally very considerable. The grass
Aristida setacea is a good example of a xerophytic grass. The sea-shore
grass Spinifex squarrosus is another example of the same
kind. But in the leaves of this grass, the development of sclerenchyma
is not very considerable, but there is a great development
of parenchymatous cells free from chlorophyll within the leaf, the
chlorophyll bearing cells being confined to the upper and the lower
surfaces of the leaves.

Fig. 60.—Transverse section of a leaf of Spinifex squarrosus. × 10

1. Vascular bundle; 2. sclerenchyma.

Fig. 61.—A portion of the transverse section of the leaf of Spinifex squarrosus. × 60

1. Sclerenchyma; 2. vascular bundle; 3. epidermis; 4. stomata.

[Pg 39]

The upper and the lower surfaces of the leaves of many grasses
are more or less even, but in the case of a few grasses the upper
surface consists of ridges and furrows, instead of being even. In
the leaves of Panicum repens and Eragrostis Willdenoviana the upper
surface is wavy and consists of shallow furrows and slightly raised
ridges. But in the leaves of Aristida setacea and Panicum fluitans
the furrows are deeper and the ridges are more prominent. In
Aristida setacea the ridges are flat-topped and they are rounded
with broad furrows in Panicum fluitans.

Fig. 62.—Upper epidermis of the leaf
Panicum Isachne. × 200

1. Cells overlying the veins; 2. cells
overlying the furrows; 3. stomata.

Fig. 63.—Lower epidermis of the leaf
Panicum Isachne. × 200

1. Cells overlying the veins; 2. cells
overlying the furrows; 3. stomata.

The epidermis covering the leaves consists of elongated cells
with plane or sinuous walls, various kinds of short cells intercalated
between the ends of long cells, motor-cells and stomata. Hairs of
different sorts occur as outgrowths of the epidermis. The roughness
of the surface of the leaves of grasses is due to the presence
of very minute short hairs borne by the epidermis. In most cases
these short hairs are found in regular rows. Although the epidermis
is more or less even in the leaves of several grasses such as
Panicum repens, P. flavidum and Eriochloa polystachya, it is wavy or
undulating in the leaves of a few grasses. For example, the upper
epidermis in the leaves of Panicum fluitans is undulating as it
follows the contour of the ridges and furrows.

The epidermal cells have even surfaces in the leaves of most
grasses but in some they bulge out. In the leaves of Panicum
flavidum the cells of the lower epidermis are quite even, whilst
those of the upper epidermis bulge out. The cells of both the
upper and the lower epidermis are distinctly bulging out in the
[Pg 40]leaves of Panicum colonum. In Panicum fluitans the cells of the
upper epidermis bulge out so much as to form distinct papillæ.

The free surface of the epidermis is more or less cutinised in
the leaves of all grasses. In some leaves the cuticle is very thick
and even papillate as in the leaves of Aristida setacea and Panicum
repens whilst in others it is very thin, as in the leaves of Panicum
colonum and P. fluitans. Cutinisation is rather prominent in the
leaves of grasses growing under dry conditions and it is less
pronounced in mesophytic grasses.

Fig. 64.—Transverse section of a portion of the
leaf of Panicum colonum. × 120

1. Motor cells; 2. stomata; 3. sclerenchyma; 4. chlorophyllous layer.

Fig. 65.—Transverse section of a portion of the
leaf of Panicum fluitans. × 120

1. Motor cells; 2. stomata; 3. sclerenchyma; 4. chlorophyllous layer.

As regards size, the epidermal cells overlying the sclerenchyma
are small and those lying over parenchyma are larger. Amongst
the larger cells some may be motor-cells. The stomata occur in
regular rows between the vascular bundles and they are quite
characteristic of grasses. They are more or less similar in structure
in all grasses. In the leaves of many grasses stomata are found in
both the upper and the lower epidermis and they are confined to
the lower epidermis in a few grasses only.

The motor-cells vary very much both as regards their shape and
position. In some leaves as in the leaves of the grass Panicum
flavidum the motor-cells are confined to the midrib on the upper
surface.

[Pg 41]

The epidermal cells of this leaf are large and uniformly round.
(See figs. 66 and 67.)

Fig. 66.—Transverse section of a leaf of Panicum flavidum. × 20

1. Vascular bundle; 2. sclerenchyma; 3. motor-cells.

Fig. 67.—Transverse section of the leaf of Panicum flavidum. × 150

1. Motor-cells; 2. stomata; 3. sclerenchyma; 4. chlorophyllous layer.

In the case of most grasses the motor-cells are found in groups
of three, four or five between the vascular bundles. The central
motor-cell is usually the largest and it is somewhat obovate in
shape in a transverse section of the leaf. In the leaves of Panicum
javanicum and Eriochloa polystachya there are three or four motor
cells in the group and the group consists of four, five or rarely six
motor cells in the leaves of Eragrostis Willdenoviana. When there
are distinct furrows between ridges these cells lie in the furrows
and they are many in number. In the leaves of Panicum repens
there are five to seven motor-cells in the furrows and the single
row of cells stretched between the motor-cells and the lower
epidermis in the furrow consists of more or less clear cells with
sparsely scattered small chlorophyll grains. (See fig. 52.) The
motor-cells occupying the furrows in the leaves of Aristida setacea
are more in number than in Panicum repens and are of a different
shape. All the cells lying in the furrow between the motor-cells
and the sclerenchyma are clear cells free from chlorophyll grains.

Although the motor-cells differ in shape from the ordinary
epidermal cells in most grasses, there are, however, a few grasses
in which the motor-cells do not differ very much from the epidermal
cells except in size. For example, in the leaves of Panicum
colonum the motor-cells are just like the ordinary epidermal cells in
shape but are larger. (See fig. 64.)

[Pg 42]

Motor-cells are usually confined to the upper epidermis, but they
may also be found in the lower epidermis. In the leaves of
Pennisetum cenchroides motor-cells are found in both the upper
and the lower epidermis, the group in the upper epidermis alternating
with that in the lower.

Fig. 68.—Transverse section of a portion of the leaf of
Pennisetum cenchroides. × 100

1. Motor-cells; 2. stomata; 3. sclerenchyma; 4. chlorophyllous layer.

[Pg 43]

CHAPTER V.

CLASSIFICATION.

The family Gramineæ is usually divided into two series taking
into consideration the presence or absence of a joint in the pedicel
or rachis, the number of flowers in the spikelet and the position
of the fertile flower. All the species in which there is a joint
just below the spikelet, in the pedicel, in the rachis, or at the base
of a cluster of spikelets come under one series Panicaceæ. The
spikelets of the grasses coming under this series, when mature, fall
away singly by themselves, or with their pedicels, or in groups
with portions of the rachis. The spikelets are all similar and
consist of usually four glumes. Each spikelet contains a single
perfect flower and sometimes in addition a staminate flower just
below the perfect flower. In this series the tendency for imperfection
is always confined to the lower flowers, the terminal flower
alone being perfect. For inclusion under this series the grass
plant should have both the characters, articulation and position of
the flower as mentioned above.

The second series Poaceæ includes those grasses in which the
spikelets are one to many-flowered and continuous with their
pedicels. But the rachilla of the spikelet may be jointed just
above the empty glumes or between the flowering glumes. The
complete flower is the lowest and the tendency for imperfection is
in the upper flowers.

Of the two series the Panicaceæ appears to be more highly
developed than the Poaceæ.

KEY TO TRIBES.

[Pg 45]

CHAPTER VI.

Series I—Panicaceæ.

TRIBE I—PANICEÆ.

This is a fairly large and important tribe flourishing mostly in
the warm regions and the tropics. It is very well represented in
South India and fifteen genera are met with.

The inflorescence varies very much within this tribe and
consists of spikes, racemes and panicles. The spikelets are usually
four-glumed and contain one terminal perfect flower and a staminate
or neutral flower below. But in the genus Isachne both the
flowers are perfect. In some grasses the spikelets contain only
staminate or pistillate flowers. In Coix and Polytoca the plant
bears both male and female spikelets in the same inflorescence,
but in Zea on the same plant they occur as distinct inflorescences.
The littoral grass Spinifex is diœcious.

The first glume of the spikelet is the smallest. In Panicum it is
nearly two-thirds or less than the third glume. It is very small in
Digitaria and entirely suppressed in Paspalum. In Eriochloa it is
reduced to a minute ridge lying just close to the swollen ring-like
joint of the rachilla. The second and the third glumes are more
or less equal and similar in texture. The fourth glume becomes
firm and rigid along with its palea and usually encloses the
grain.

The pedicel is jointed in some genera and in others it is continuous
with the spikelet and not jointed. When mature the
spikelets fall away either by themselves, singly with their pedicels
or in groups with portions of rachis, according to the position of
the joint. Bristles (branchlets) are often found on the pedicels.
In Setaria a few are borne by the pedicels. The bristles form a
regular involucre at the base of a group of spikelets in Pennisetum,
and in Cenchrus these become united at the base into a mass
forming a kind of burr around the spikelets.

KEY TO THE GENERA.

[Pg 47]

1. Paspalum, L.

These are annuals or perennials. The spikelets are plano-convex,
orbicular to oblong, obtuse, secund, 2-ranked on the
flattened or triquetrous rachis of the spike-like branches of a raceme,
one-flowered and falling off entire from the very short or obscure
pedicels. There are three glumes, all more or less equal and
similar. The first and the second glumes are membranous, alike
and as long as the third, the second glume is usually epaleate and
occasionally with a minute palea. The third glume is chartaceous
to sub-coriaceous and paleate. Lodicules are two and small.
Stamens are three. The styles are slender and distinct with
plumose stigmas exserted at the top of the spikelet. Grain is
tightly enclosed in the third glume and its palea.

[Pg 48]

Fig. 69.—Paspalum scrobiculatum.

[Pg 49]

Paspalum scrobiculatum, L.

This is an annual grass, with stems tufted on very short
rhizomes, erect or very shortly bent at base, glabrous, bifariously
leafy and varying in height from 1 to 3 feet or more.

Leaf-sheaths are compressed, glabrous, loose, keeled, mouth
hairy or not. The ligule is a short thin membrane. The nodes are
glabrous.

The leaf-blade is linear-lanceolate, finely acuminate, keeled with
a distinct midrib, and with very minutely serrulate margins, 6 to
18 inches by 1/12 to 1/3 inch.

The inflorescence consists of 2 to 5 sessile alternate spikes,
usually distant and spreading and varying in length from 1 to 8
inches; the rachis is flattened and winged.

The spikelets are either orbicular or ovate-oblong, as broad as
the rachis, glabrous, closely imbricating in two rows (rarely in three
or four rows), sessile or rarely geminate on a common pedicel.

There are three glumes. The first glume is concave, 3- to 5-nerved
(rarely 3- to 7-nerved). The second glume is flat, 5-nerved, with two
strong sub-marginal nerves, sometimes with shallow transverse pits
along the margins. The third glume is thickly coriaceous, brownish,
shining, minutely striolate, margins roundly incurved throughout its
length, paleate; the palea is similar to the glume in structure and
colour, margins strongly inflexed and with two broad membranous
auricles almost overlapping just below the middle. There are
three stamens. The stigmas are white both when young and
while fading. The style branches are diverging widely and then
straight. There are two oblong cuneate fleshy lodicules.

Fig. 70.—Paspalum scrobiculatum.

1 and 2. Front and back view of a portion of spike; 3, 4 and 5. spikelets; 6, 7 and
8. the first, second, and the third glume, respectively; 9. palea of the third glume; 10.
the ovary, stamens and the lodicules.

This grass flourishes all over the Presidency in moist places,
such as, bunds of wet lands, edges of ponds and lakes and in
marshy land. There are two forms of this grass, one with round
[Pg 50]and another with ovate oblong spikelets. They also vary in the
size of the spikelets—some forms have small spikelets and others
large. Sometimes the spikelets show variation in the number of
glumes.

This grass is also cultivated for its grain. In cultivated forms
the spikelets are larger and the whole plant grows bigger. It is
grown both in wet and dry land.

Distribution.—Throughout India (wild and also cultivated).

[Pg 51]

2. Digitaria, Rich.

Annuals or perennials. The spikelets are lanceolate, 2- to
3-nate, in digitate or racemose spikes, jointed on the pedicels
but not thickened at the base, 1-flowered. There are usually
four dissimilar glumes in the spikelet. The first glume is hyaline
very minute, sometimes absent in the same species. The second
glume is membranous, 1- to 5-nerved or nerveless. The third glume
is membranous, almost equal to the fourth, usually 7- to 9-nerved,
the nerves being straight, close, parallel and prominent, with a
minute palea or without a palea. The fourth glume is chartaceous
or sub-chartaceous, usually 3-nerved and paleate; palea is equal to
and similar to the fourth glume, 2-nerved. Lodicules are two,
small, broadly cuneate. Stamens are three. Styles are distinct
with plumose stigmas exserted laterally near the apex of the
spikelet. Grain is enclosed in the fourth glume and its palea.

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

[Pg 52]

Fig. 71.—Digitaria sanguinalis, Var. ciliaris.

[Pg 53]

Digitaria sanguinalis, Scop.

Var. ciliaris.

This is an annual grass either with erect tall stems or long
prostrate stems, varying in length from 1 to 3 feet or more.

The leaf-sheath is herbaceous, loose and glabrous. The ligule
is a distinct membrane. The nodes are glabrous.

The leaf-blade is linear-lanceolate or linear, flat, glabrous or
very sparsely hairy, varying in length from 2 to 5 or 6 inches and
in breadth from 1/6 to 1/3 inch.

The spikes are usually few, 2 to 6, 3 to 6 inches long, with a
triquetrous, narrowly winged rachis.

The spikelets are oblong, acute, binate, one pedicel being shorter
than the other, usually appressed to the rachis and not spreading.

Fig. 72.—Digitaria sanguinalis. Var. ciliaris.

1. A portion of the spike showing the binate spikelets; 2. a spikelet; 3. the minute
scale-like first glume; 4, 5 and 6. the second, third and the fourth glume, respectively;
7. the palea of the fourth glume.

There are four glumes including the minute glume. The first
glume is a very minute scale. The second glume is about half as
long as the third glume, membranous, usually 3-nerved and sometimes
3- to 5-nerved, distinctly ciliate. The third glume is
oblong-lanceolate, acute, membranous, 3- to 5-nerved, sparingly hairy in
the lower spikelet and densely bearded with soft spreading hairs
in the upper spikelet. The fourth glume is lanceolate, or oblong-lanceolate,
acute, somewhat chartaceous, paleate; palea is like the
glume in texture. Anthers are pale yellow. Stigmas are white.
There are two small cuneate lodicules.

This is an excellent fodder grass. It grows well in all kinds of
soils, rich or poor, and is very common in dry fields brought under
cultivation.

Distribution.—Throughout India.

[Pg 54]

Digitaria sanguinalis, Scop.

Var. Griffithii.

This is an annual with stems ascending from a prostrate or
geniculate base, glabrous and varying in length from 1 to 3 feet.

The leaf-sheath is glabrous, thinly herbaceous and loose. The
ligule is a distinct membrane and the nodes are glabrous.

The leaf-blade is linear or linear-lanceolate, flat, acuminate,
varying in length from 2 inches to 12 inches and in breadth 1/6 to
1/3 inch.

The inflorescence is of several slender spikes, usually drooping,
2 to 4 inches; the rachis is filiform and trigonous.

The spikelets are linear-lanceolate, solitary or in distant pairs,
glabrous or ciliate, pedicelled and when binate the upper pedicel
often longer than the spikelets, usually spreading and not appressed
to the rachis.

Fig. 73.—Digitaria sanguinalis, Var. Griffithii.

1. Inflorescence; 2. a portion of the spike; 3 and 4. sessile and pedicelled spikelets
front and back view, respectively; 5. the scale-like first glume; 6, 7 and 8. the second,
third and the fourth glume, respectively; 9. palea of the fourth glume; 10. the lodicules,
stamens and the ovary.

There are four glumes. The first glume is a minute scale. The
second glume is shorter than the third and narrower, 5-nerved,
ciliate, acute or sometimes with two fine teeth. The third glume is
oblong-lanceolate, acute, 5-nerved (rarely 3-nerved), ciliate on the
nerves. The fourth glume is lanceolate, acute, sub-chartaceous,
paleate; palea is like the glume in texture. Anthers are yellow
and stigmas are white. Lodicules are two and small.

This seems to be a good fodder grass. It grows in all kinds of
soils. It is not so common in the plains as on the hills, though it
occurs in the plains at the base of the hills.

Distribution.—Throughout India.

[Pg 55]

Fig. 74.—Digitaria sanguinalis, Var. extensum.

[Pg 56]

Digitaria sanguinalis, Scop.

Var. extensum.

This grass is an annual with stems ascending from a prostrate
or geniculate, rooting branched base, greenish or purplish, glabrous
and varying in length from 1 to 2-1/2 feet.

The leaf-sheath is thin, herbaceous, rather loose, keeled and
glabrous. The ligule is a distinct membrane, truncate, rarely
irregularly toothed. The nodes are glabrous.

The leaf-blade is linear-lanceolate, acuminate, flat when mature
and convolute when young, glabrous, 1 to 12 inches long and 1/6 to
1/3 inch broad, the margin is very closely and finely serrate, the
midrib is prominent with three or four main veins on each side.

The inflorescence consists of a few or many spikes, corymbosely
arranged on a short angular slightly rough axis, erect or spreading,
1-1/2 to 4 inches long, the lowest ones in whorls of two to four; the
rachis is nearly triquetrous, laterally winged, base thickened and
with a few long white hairs; the peduncle is cylindric, smooth, 6
to 12 inches long.

Fig. 75.—Digitaria sanguinalis, Var. extensum.

1. A portion of spike; 2, 3 and 3a. the back and front views of a spikelet; 4, 5 and 6
the first, second and the third glume, respectively; 7. palea of the third glume; 8.
anthers, lodicules and the ovary.

The spikelets are oblong-lanceolate, acute, about 1/10 inch long,
binate, one pedicelled and the other subsessile, the pedicel is
angular, about 1/2 to 2/3 the length of the spikelet.

There are three glumes in the spikelet corresponding to the
second, third and fourth glumes of a Panicum, the first glume being
obsolete. The first glume is membranous, ovate-lanceolate, acute,
about 1/3 the length of the spikelet or very much less, 3-nerved,
densely ciliate along the margins and silkily hairy between the
nerves. The second glume is greenish, oblong lanceolate, acute,
[Pg 57]ciliate along the margins and with fine appressed silky hairs
between the lateral nerves, 5-nerved, palea is very minute or
absent. The third glume is oblong, sub-acuminate, a little shorter
than the second glume, 3-nerved, sub-chartaceous, paleate; palea is
similar to the glume in texture. Anthers are pale yellow with a
tinge of purple. Stigmas are white. Lodicules are two, minute
and cuneate.

This is an excellent fodder grass and is very much liked by
cattle. It grows very rapidly and is found in cultivated fields and
in somewhat rich loamy soils.

Distribution.—Throughout the Presidency in the plains and low
hills.

[Pg 58]

Fig. 76.—Digitaria longiflora.

[Pg 59]

Digitaria longiflora, Pers.

This is a perennial grass with short underground branches
covered with scales. Stems are many, tufted, slender, creeping and
rooting, or ascending and suberect, simple or branched, 6 to 20
inches long and leafy and leaves bifarious and divaricate.

Leaf-sheaths are hairy or glabrous, compressed, keeled. The
ligule is a short membrane. Nodes are glabrous.

Leaf-blades are broadly lanceolate or linear-lanceolate, acute,
spreading, flat, or in short-leaved forms, stiff and pungent, 1 to 2
inches long (rarely also 5 inches long), glabrous above and below,
ciliate at the margins towards the base, and with a very minutely
serrate hyaline margin.

The inflorescence consists of two to four terminal spikes with a
slender, long, hairy or glabrous peduncle. The spikes are slender,
erect or spreading with fine winged glabrous rachis.

The spikelets are small, 1/20 to 1/14 inch, geminate, one short
and the other long
pedicelled, appressed
to the rachis, elliptic,
silky with slender
crisped hairs, pale
green or purplish.

Fig. 77.—Digitaria longiflora.

1. A portion of the spike; 2. the first glume; 3 and 4. the
second and third glumes; 5 and 6. the fourth glume
and its palea; 7. lodicules, ovary and stamens.

There are three
glumes with a rudimentary
first glume.
The first glume is very
minute and hyaline.
The second glume
is as long as the
third, membranous,
5-nerved (rarely 3- to
7-nerved), silkily
hairy. The third
glume is similar to
the second and
usually 7-nerved
(rarely 3- to 5-nerved).
The fourth glume
is sub-chartaceous,
ovate-oblong, paleate,
slightly shorter than
the third glume, pale
brown, smooth.
There are two small lodicules. Styles are long and purple.

This grass grows in cultivated dry fields. It seems to like a
sandy loamy soil.

Distribution.—Throughout India.

[Pg 60]

3. Eriochloa, H. B. & K.

These are annuals or perennials. Leaves are flat. The inflorescence
is a raceme or a panicle. Spikelets are one-flowered,
borne unilaterally on the branches, and the base is thickened and
jointed on the top of a short pedicel. The spikelet has three
glumes. The first and the second glumes are subequal, membranous.
The third glume is apiculate, hardened in fruit. The
lodicules are small and truncate. There are three stamens with
linear anthers. Styles are two free, with plumose stigmas. The
grain is oblong, free within the hardened glume and its palea.

[Pg 61]

Fig. 78.—Eriochloa polystachya.

[Pg 62]

Eriochloa polystachya, H. B. & K.

This grass is a densely tufted perennial, varying in height from
2 to 3 feet, with a short creeping root-stock. Stems are slender, or
stout, simple and branching, ascending from a short creeping and
rooting base, glabrous, slightly channelled on one side.

The leaf-sheath is glabrous, green or partly purplish, striate,
loose, mouth and margins above sometimes pubescent. The ligule
is a short villous ridge. Nodes are perfectly glabrous.

The leaf-blade is flat, linear or linear-lanceolate, acuminate,
glabrous on both sides, with a slender or prominent midrib, veins
more or less uniform, 2 to 10 inches long and 1/6 to 1/3 inch wide,
convolute when young. Sometimes the blade is purplish below.

The inflorescence is a panicle on a long or short glabrous stalk,
striate, 2 to 7 inches long, with four to fifteen erect or spreading,
lax branches, the main rachis is glabrous, angular and deeply
grooved. Spikes or branches are slender, alternate, 1 to 2-1/2 inches,
becoming shorter upwards, thickened and puberulous at the
base, and the secondary rachis is flexuous, grooved, angular, and
obscurely pubescent.

Fig. 79.—Eriochloa polystachya.

1. A portion of the branch; 2, 3 and 4. the first, second and the third glume, respectively;
4a. back view of the third glume; 5. palea of the third glume; 6. lodicules,
stamens and the ovary; 7. grain.

The spikelets are green or purplish, ovate, lanceolate, acuminate
1/8 to 1/6 inch long, softly hairy, stalked, solitary above and binate
below and then one with a long and the other with a short
pedicel rising from a common short branchlet, loosely imbricate,
distichous and shortly stipitate and the stipe with a purple thickening;
pedicel is short, 1/24 to 1/12 inch with sometimes long deciduous
hairs and the tip somewhat thickened.

There are three glumes in the spikelet. The first glume is
membranous, covered densely with silky hairs, ovate-lanceolate,
acuminate, tip very minutely 3-toothed with three to five fine nerves.
The second glume is similar to the first glume but with a more
pointed tip, faintly 3- to 5-nerved; palea is not present and if present
[Pg 63]it is very small, hyaline and empty. The third glume is shorter
than the first and the second glumes, thinly coriaceous, punctate,
oblong, obtuse, pale, faintly 3- to 5-nerved with a short scaberulous
awn, paleate; palea is oblong, similar to the glume in texture,
margin infolded. Anthers are three, linear, pale yellow. Stigmas
are feathery, white when young and purple later. Lodicules are
two and distinct.

This is a common succulent grass growing in large or small
tufts in moist situations such as sides of water channels, rivulets
and bunds of paddy fields. It is very much liked by cattle. This
grass is easily recognized by the silky lanceolate spikelets which
have a purple thickening at the base.

Distribution.—Plains of India and Ceylon and in all hot
countries.

[Pg 64]

4. Panicum, L.

The grasses of this genus are annual or perennial and of various
habits. Inflorescence is either a raceme of spikes or, a lax or contracted
panicle. Spikelets are small, solitary or two to four, rarely
more ranked, 1- to 2-flowered, ovoid or oblong, rounded, or dorsally
or laterally compressed, falling entire with the pedicels. There
are four glumes in a spikelet. The first two glumes are empty and
the first glume is small (sometimes minute) and fewest nerved.
The second glume is equal or very nearly equal to the third glume,
oblong-ovate or lanceolate, 5- to many-nerved. The third glume is
similar to the second, male or neuter, paleate or not, 3- to 9-nerved.
The fourth glume is chartaceous, sometimes shortly stalked, ovate-oblong
or lanceolate, hardened in the fruit, smooth or rough,
bisexual, paleate; the palea is as long and of the same texture as the
glume. Lodicules are cuneate or quadrate and two in number.
There are three stamens and an ovary with two style branches
ending in feathery stigmas. Grain is free and enclosed by the
hardened fourth glume and its palea.

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

[Pg 65]

Fig. 80.—Panicum Isachne.

[Pg 66]

Panicum Isachne, Roth.

This is an annual grass usually growing in tufts with fine
fibrous roots and many slender spreading branches, all of them
at first creeping and horizontal, rooting at the nodes and then
becoming erect and varying in length from 1 to 2 feet.

Stems are very slender, glabrous or covered with scattered
hairs, purplish or pale green, and branching freely towards the
base.

The leaf-sheath is shorter than the internodes, green or purplish,
striate, externally hairy with scattered bulbous-based hairs,
varying in length from 1/2 to 3 inches, the outer margin of the
sheath is ciliate with long hairs and at the mouths sometimes long
hairs are present, especially when the leaves are young. The
ligule is merely a dense fringe of long hairs. Nodes are tumid,
purplish, covered with long hairs.

The leaf-blade is flat but convolute when young, lanceolate or
linear-lanceolate, acuminate, base rounded and margin with
minute serrations. It is glabrous or occasionally hairy with
scattered, tubercle-based, deciduous hairs, and varying in length
from 1 to 3 inches generally (sometimes in well-grown plants it is
5 inches) and in breadth from 1/8 to 1/4 inch. The midrib is prominent
though slender at the base and four veins are present on each
side with five or six smaller ones between them.

Fig. 81.—Panicum Isachne.

1 and 1a. Front and back view of a spike; 2 and 2a. back and front views of a
spikelet; 3 and 4. the first and the second glume, respectively; 5 and 5a. the third
glume and its palea; 6 and 6a. the fourth glume and its palea; 7. lodicules, anthers
and ovary; 8. grain.

The inflorescence is an erect, narrow panicle consisting of spikes
varying in number from 5 to 12 and in length from 2 to 3 inches.
The spikes are erect, pressed to the very slender rachis, longer than
the internodes of the main rachis, stalked or sessile, mostly simple
but sometimes the lower dividing into two or three branches, 1/2 to[Pg 67]
1 inch long. The rachis of the spike is very slender, angular,
flexuous, narrower than the spikelets, scaberulous with a few long
cilia at the angles.

The spikelets are very small, 1/16 inch long, turned all to one side
and closely packed in two rows, oblong or oval-oblong, obtuse or
subacute, softly hairy, pale green or purplish, with very short
pedicels which are pubescent with a few long hairs towards the
thickened cupular tips.

There are four glumes in the spikelet. The first glume is very
small, membranous, glabrous, broader than long, cordate or
triangular, broadly but shallowly emarginate, nerveless or very
obscurely 1- to 2-nerved. The second glume is pale or purplish, 5-nerved,
hairy, as long as the third glume, membranous, oblong and
obtuse. The third glume is pale, nearly equal to the second glume
with a longitudinal depression at the back, less hairy than the
second glume, 3-nerved (rarely 5-nerved also); palea is present, and
it is hyaline, shorter than the glume, truncate or shallowly retuse,
usually barren but occasionally with three stamens. The fourth
glume is oblong, rounded, coriaceous, smooth, shining, dorsally
flattened, 3- or indistinctly 5-nerved; palea is similar to the glume
in texture and with folded margins. There are three stamens
with yellow anthers. Lodicules are two, very small and distinct.
Ovary has two styles with feathery stigmas white at first, but
turning deep purple while withering.

This delicate and small grass occurs here and there as mere
tufts especially in sheltered situations. It usually flourishes in
black cotton soils amidst cholam (Andropogon Sorghum), although
it thrives equally well in other rich soils. This is considered to
be a very good fodder grass.

Distribution.—It is fairly common all over the Madras Presidency,
and goes up to 3,000 or 4,000 feet. It occurs in Africa,
America and Italy.

[Pg 68]

Fig. 82.—Panicum flavidum.

[Pg 69]

Panicum flavidum, Retz.

This plant is a tufted annual. It branches freely from the base;
branches are tufted, decumbent at first but soon becoming erect,
slender, glabrous, compressed and leafy, varying in length from 1
to 3 feet.

Leaves are somewhat distichous. The leaf-sheath is compressed,
glabrous, sometimes with a tinge of purple, the lower ones swollen
at the base and the mouth is hairy. The ligule is a fringe of hairs.
Nodes are glabrous.

The leaf-blade is flat, thinly coriaceous, linear-lanceolate and
acuminate, or ligulate with a rounded tip, 3 to 5 inches in length,
3/16 to 5/16 inch wide, glabrous or very thinly scaberulous, base
rounded or slightly cordate with long white ciliate hairs on the
small basal lobes.

Fig. 83.—Panicum flavidum.

1 and 2. Front and back view of a portion of spike; 1a and 2a. the front and back view
of a spikelet; 3 and 4. the first and the second glume, respectively; 5 and 5a. the third
glume and its palea; 6 and 6a. the fourth glume and its palea; 7. anthers and ovary;
8. grain.

The inflorescence is a raceme of spikes, 5 to 10 inches long, erect
or inclined on a short or long, glabrous, strongly channelled peduncle;
the main rachis is grooved, angled and scaberulous. Spikes are
few or many, 1/4 to 1 inch long, erect, pressing on the rachis of the
inflorescence along the groove, distant and sessile; the lower spikes
are very much shorter than the internodes, but the upper equal to
or longer than the internodes; the rachis of the spike is angular,
flattened below, erect or slightly recurved.

The spikelets are white, in two rows on a flattened rachis,
obliquely ovoid or gibbously globose, glabrous, sessile, 1/8 inch in
length.

There are four glumes. The first glume is suborbicular, about
half the length of the third glume, usually 3-nerved. The second
glume is broadly ovate, obtuse, concave, larger than the first glume
and nearly equal to or shorter than the fourth glume, 7-nerved,
rarely 7- to 9-nerved, nerves are anastomosing, tip rounded. The
third glume is broadly ovate or oblong, equal to or longer than the
[Pg 70]fourth glume, obtuse, 3- to 5-nerved, paleate, mostly with and rarely
without stamens. The anthers are yellow and they do not open
until the stigmas and anthers of the fourth glume are thrown out.
Lodicules are two and conspicuous. Palea is hyaline with infolded
margins. The fourth glume is coriaceous, broadly ovate, tip acutely
pointed and almost cuspidate or acute, mucronate, white or brownish,
reticulately minutely pitted. Anthers are three and yellow.
Stigmas are purplish. Lodicules are small but conspicuous.

This grass is very common throughout the plains and grows
in the bunds of paddy fields and in wet situations, and goes up
to moderate elevations on the hills. Cattle eat this grass greedily
and seem to like it. It is considered to be an excellent fodder.

Distribution.—In wet situations all over India ascending to
6,000 feet. Occurs also in Ceylon, Africa, Tropical Asia and
Australia.

[Pg 71]

Fig. 84.—Panicum fluitans.

[Pg 72]

Panicum fluitans, Retz.

This is a perennial grass with prostrate branches which afterwards
become erect towards the free ends. The young branches
are covered with scale-leaves. Stems are stout, glabrous, smooth
and hollow, rooting at the lower nodes.

The leaf-sheath is loose, glabrous, striate, margins not ciliate.
The ligule is a ridge with a row of erect long hairs. Nodes are
glabrous.

The leaf-blade is firm, linear, finely acuminate, base rounded,
rather narrower than the sheath at the white band, very thinly
scaberulous above and glabrous below, veins prominent above, 3 to
9 inches long, 1/4 to 7/16 inch broad; margins are slightly incurved
and the midrib is conspicuous only at the lower portion of the
blade. The scale-leaves persist at the base of the stems.

Fig. 85.—Panicum fluitans.

1 and 2. Front and back view of a spike; 1a. and 2a. front and back view of a
spikelet; 3, 4 and 5. first, second and third glume respectively; 5a. palea of the third
glume and stamens in it; 6 and 6a. fourth glume and its palea; 7. stamens and ovary.

The inflorescence is a compound spike varying in length from 4
to 10 inches, erect; the main rachis is triquetrous, dorsally rounded,
glabrous and very thinly scaberulous at the edges. Spikes are
many (fifteen and more), sessile, secund, generally longer than the
internodes, and appressed to the rachis, 1/4 to 1-1/2 inches long; the
rachis of the spike is angular, edges scaberulous and with very
fine short hairs.

The spikelets are pale, ovoid, acute, biseriate, imbricate, very
shortly pedicellate, glabrous, 1/16 to 1/8 inch, pedicels are hairy with
a few long hairs towards the base.

There are four glumes. The first glume is white, thin, membranous,
truncate and wavy at the apex, nerveless or sometimes with
one to three short nerves, less than one-third of the third glume,
broader than long and clasping at the base. The second glume is
ovate, obtuse or subacute, concave, submembranous, slightly shorter
[Pg 73]than the fourth glume, 5-nerved but occasionally 6- or 7-nerved. The
third glume is a little longer than the second and the fourth, usually
5-nerved, broadly ovate, acute, paleate, always with three stamens
which come out only after the fading of the stigmas and enlargement
of the ovary in the fourth glume. Lodicules are distinct and
conspicuous; palea is broad with incurved broad margins and
hyaline. The fourth glume is thinly coriaceous, shining, striolate,
broadly ovate, mucronate, compressed, faintly and thinly 5-nerved
and palea with infolded margins. Anthers are yellow. Stigmas
are white when young. Lodicules are distinct.

It is a common grass of the wet lands met with in many parts of
the Presidency and often confused and united with Panicum punctatum,
Burm.

Distribution.—Throughout India and Ceylon. It is also found in
Arabia, Afghanistan, Africa and Tropical America.

[Pg 74]

Fig. 86.—Panicum Crus-galli.

[Pg 75]

Panicum Crus-galli, L.

It is a tufted annual with many erect branches growing to a
height varying from 2 to 3 or 4 feet and the whole plant is glabrous.
Stem is stout or slender, simple or branched.

The leaf-sheath is smooth, glabrous and loose, varying in length
from 2 to 6 inches, keeled. The ligule is only a smooth semilunar
line without hairs. Nodes are glabrous and the lower nodes bear
adventitious roots.

The leaf-blade is narrowly linear-lanceolate, flat, finely acuminate,
glabrous or very minutely scabrid with a stout midrib; margin
is minutely serrate and with tubercle-based hairs near the base.
The blades of the lower leaves are longer than those in the upper
and at the junction with the sheath the blade is narrow, just as
broad or less than the sheath, and becomes broader about the
middle; the length varies from 6 to 10 inches generally, also to 14
inches, and breadth at base 1/4 inch and at the middle 5/16 inch;
the upper leaf-blade is generally shorter, varying from 5 to 10
inches and very broad at the base near the sheath, about 7/16 inch
and gets gradually narrow upwards. It is convolute when young.

The inflorescence is a compound spike varying in length from 4
to 8 inches, contracted and pyramidal and always erect; the main
rachis is stout, angled with very minute hairs on the ridges and
with a tuft of bristly hairs and also tubercle-based hairs at the
place of insertion of the spikes. Spikes are many (up to 16 or
rarely more), simple or branched, the lower ones longer, but
getting gradually shorter upwards, and varying in length from
1/2 to 2 inches. The rachis of the spike is angular, with scattered
tubercle-based bristly hairs.

Fig. 87.—Panicum Crus-galli.

1 and 2. Front and back views of spike; 3. spikelet; 4 and 5. first and second
glumes; 6 and 7. third glume and its palea; 8. fourth glume, front and back view;
9. ovary, anthers and lodicules.

The spikelets are turgid, densely packed on one side of the rachis
in three to five rows, sessile or subsessile, sub-globose or ovoid,
[Pg 76]with unequal tubercle-based bristly hairs on the nerves of the
glumes and with short minute hairs on the outer surface of the
glumes, 1/12 to 1/8 inch; awn 1/4 inch to 5/16 inch.

There are four glumes. The first glume is 1/3 to 1/2 of the third
glume, suborbicular, abruptly acuminate or rarely mucronate and 5-nerved
(very rarely 5- to 7-nerved), clasping at base and margins
thinly ciliolate. The second glume is ovate oblong, short, awned and
5-nerved; sometimes with partial nerves at the apex between the
central and the lateral nerves, and then 5- to 7- or 5- to 9-nerved, hispidly
hairy on the nerves, margins ciliolate. The third glume is as
long as the second, ovate-oblong and the apex abruptly ending in a
stout scabrid nerved awn, varying in length from 1/4 to 3/8 inch, rarely
1 inch; 5- to 7-nerved (two partial at tip), paleate and sometimes with
three stamens; palea is hyaline, ovate-oblong with infolded margins.
The fourth glume is smooth, shining, broadly oblong, faintly 5-nerved,
apex rounded or cuspidate with a few cilia; paleate with
a single bisexual flower; palea is similar to the glume in structure.
Anthers are orange yellow, and lodicules are very small. Stigmas
are white. Grain is smooth and ovoid.

This grass grows in paddy fields and wet places generally. It
is considered to be a very good fodder grass in Australia and
America. This is the “Barn-yard” grass of the Americans,
highly valued as a fodder grass.

Distribution.—Throughout India in wet places and in paddy
fields.

[Pg 77]

Panicum stagninum, Retz.

It is an annual. The stems are glabrous, creeping and somewhat
prostrate at the base, and the upper portion is erect, 3 to 4
feet long, and rooting at the nodes in the geniculate portion of the
stem.

The leaf-sheath is smooth, striate, glabrous, sometimes pubescent
about the lower nodes, varying in length from 1-1/2 to 4-1/2 inches.
The ligule is distinct, consisting of a fringe of stiff hairs.

The leaf-blade is linear-lanceolate, acuminate or acute, base
rounded, glabrous, smooth below, especially in the lower part, and
scabrid above and in the upper part, 6 to 12 inches long, by 1/4 to
3/8 inch; the lower leaves have their blades somewhat narrower at
the base than in the middle, but the blades in the upper part of the
stem and in the middle are of the same breadth; margins are very
minutely serrate.

Fig. 88.—Panicum stagninum.

1. Front view of a portion of spike; 2. back view of the same; 3 and 4. front and
back views of a spikelet; 5, 6 and 7. the first, second and the third glume, respectively;
8. palea of the third glume with its anthers; 9. front and back view of fourth glume;
10. the ovary, stamens and lodicules.

The inflorescence is 4 to 8 inches long; the main rachis is
angular, grooved, scabrid on the ridges. The spikes are 7 to 10
inches, alternate, pale green or purplish, rather distant, spreading
or suberect (never erect) 1/2 to 1-1/2 inches long, sessile and with a
tuft of bristly hairs at the base; the rachis of the spike is angular,
grooved with scattered bulbous-based bristles on the ridges.

The spikelets are four ranked, ovoid-lanceolate, 1/8 to 1/6 inch
long without the awn, somewhat flattened on one side and gibbous
on the other, pale green or purplish, with equal bulbous-based
bristly hairs on the nerves.

There are four glumes. The first glume is half of the third glume,
thin, membranous, hairy, broadly ovate, abruptly cuspidate at the
apex, and acuminate, 5-nerved (rarely 3-nerved). The second glume
is broadly ovate-lanceolate, concave, acuminate, short awned, 5-nerved
with two partial nerves one on each side of the central
[Pg 78]nerve (7- to 9-nerved at the tip), hairs on nerves, a few tubercled.
The third glume is similar to the second, broadly ovate-lanceolate,
awned, awn 1/8 to 1/4 inch, paleate with usually three stamens,
occasionally neuter. Lodicules are present. The fourth glume is
chartaceous, shining, smooth ovate-oblong, apex cuspidate, with a
few hairs on the edges at the apex, faintly 5-nerved. The anthers
within this glume come out before those of the third glume.
Anthers are three, yellowish and lodicules are conspicuous though
small.

In this grass very often, purple streaks or bands occur across
the leaf blades and the sheath and the spikelets become purple on
one side as is met with in P. colonum. This grass is occasionally
found in the paddy fields either alone, or along with Panicum
Crus-galli.

Distribution.—Throughout the Madras and the Bombay Presidencies
and in Ceylon in wet places especially in cultivated
ground and in ditches. Occurs more or less throughout India.

[Pg 79]

Fig. 89.—Panicum colonum.

[Pg 80]

Panicum colonum, L.

This is a slender annual growing to a height of 2 feet. The
stems are creeping below, erect above, and with roots in the lower
internodes of the decumbent part of the stem, smooth, dull green
or partly purplish.

The leaf-sheath is glabrous and sharply keeled. The nodes are
glabrous or obscurely pubescent. There is no ligule.

The leaf-blade is narrow, lanceolate, acuminate, glabrous but
sometimes tubercle-based hairs occur just on the margin at the base
of the leaf-blade close to the white band, varying in length from 1
to 6 inches and in breadth 3/16 to 5/16 inch; the margin is minutely
and distantly serrate, midrib is quite distinct and there are three
main veins on each side and three or four smaller between main
ones. The blades of the lower leaves are narrow at the base and
broader at about the middle but those of the upper are equally
broad at the base, as well as at the middle.

Fig. 90.—Panicum colonum.

1 and 2. The front and back view of the spikes; 1a and 2a. the back and the
front view of the spikelet; 3, 4 and 5. the first, second and the third glume, respectively;
6. palea of the third glume; 7 and 8. the fourth glume and its palea; 9. ovary anther
and lodicules.

The inflorescence is a contracted panicle, 3 to 5 inches long.
Spikes are from 8 to 20, suberect, usually distant, 1/4 to 1 inch long
and getting shorter upwards; the rachis of the spike is stout,
angular, scaberulous on the angles with a few long hairs towards
the base.

The spikelets are small green or partly purplish 1/12 to 1/10 inch
long, globosely ovoid, acute, pubescent with minute hairs on the
outer surface of the glumes and bristly hairs on the nerves, all on
one side, sessile or very shortly pedicelled, two or three from a
node, one or two barren, 3- to 5-seriate.

There are four glumes in the spikelet. The first glume is about
half of the third glume, broadly ovate or suborbicular, acute,
generally 3-nerved, rarely 5-nerved, pubescent between and hispidly
hairy on the nerves. The second glume is as long as the third,
broadly ovate, cuspidate, 5-nerved sometimes with two partial
[Pg 81]nerves added one on each side of the central vein, pubescent
between the veins and hispid on the veins. The third glume is
similar to the second, 5-nerved, tip with a few cilia, paleate; palea
is empty oblong-orbicular, subacute. The fourth glume is coriaceous,
shining, turgid, broadly ovate, acute, paleate. Sometimes
the tip possesses a few cilia. Anthers are three, pale yellow and
stigmas dark purple. Lodicules are small but conspicuous.

This grass is common in water-logged situations, in paddy
fields and in irrigated dry lands. Sometimes on the blades of this
grass purple bands are present and the internodes and the spikes
also become purplish.

It is really a weed of cultivation met with generally on rich
soils. This grass is considered to be one of the best fodder
grasses in India. All kinds of cattle eat it greedily.

Distribution.—It is found throughout India up to 6,000 feet and
also in all warm countries.

[Pg 82]

Fig. 91.—Panicum prostratum.

[Pg 83]

Panicum prostratum, Lamk.

The plant is a slender annual and it consists of several branches,
prostrate and creeping, with adventitious roots at the nodes below,
branching or ascending above, all green or sometimes purple above
and green below, 4 to 18 inches long.

The leaf-sheath is striate, 1 to 2 inches long, glabrous or very
sparsely hairy, purplish above and green below or all green, keeled,
margins ciliate on one side only throughout its length. The ligule
is a fringe of white hairs. The nodes are glabrous or pubescent.

The leaf-blade is short or long, varying from 1/2 to 2-1/2 inches in
length and 3/16 to 5/16 inch in breadth, convolute when young,
lanceolate to broadly ovate-lanceolate, acute or acuminate, upper
surface glabrous, and the lower glabrous or with a few scattered
tubercle-based hairs; margins are very minutely serrate; base is
cordate, amplexicaul with a few long slender hairs (sometimes
tubercle-based), just close to the white patch on both sides on the
margin of the blade about the ligule. The midrib is distinct.

The inflorescence consists of five to fifteen or twenty spikes
spreading in all directions, distant or crowded; peduncle varies
from 1 to 4 inches. Spikes are 1/2 to 1-3/8 inches, sessile or shortly
stalked; the rachis of the spike is slender, trigonous and scaberulous.

Fig. 92.—Panicum prostratum.

A. Front and back view of spike; B. front and back view of a spikelet; 1, 2, 3 and
4, the first, second, third and the fourth glume, respectively; 3a and 4a. the palea of
the third and the fourth glumes; 5. anthers, ovary and lodicules.

The spikelets are crowded all on one side, 2- to 3-seriate, ellipsoidal,
1/20 to 1/16 inch long, glabrous or pubescent, pale green or
purple on one side, in pairs on pedicels, one with a slightly longer
pedicel than the other; fine long hairs, varying in number from
one to eight and longer than the spikelets, are found on the pedicels
at their tips in some plants and not in others.

There are four glumes in the spikelet. The first glume is very
short about 1/4 of the third or less, semilunar, membranous, hyaline,
subtruncate, obtuse or acute, generally nerveless, but rarely,
obscurely 1- to 3-nerved. The second glume is membranous, ovate,
acute, glabrous or pubescent and 7-nerved. The third glume is of
about the same length as the second, 5-nerved, always paleate, with
[Pg 84]or without stamens; palea is broad, margins infolded, 2-nerved,
obtuse and hyaline; when stamens are present the lodicules are
very conspicuous. The fourth glume is slightly shorter than the
third, oblong or elliptic, apiculate, minutely rugulose, thinly coriaceous,
with bisexual flower; palea is similar to the glume in texture
and markings. Stamens are three with yellowish anthers. Lodicules
are small and fleshy.

This plant occurs widely as a weed of cultivation in black cotton
as well as other kinds of soil and shows variation in its leaves and
spikelets. In some plants growing in somewhat dry places the
leaves are shorter and broader, and those in favourable situations
have longer narrower leaves. The spikelets are either perfectly
glabrous or pubescent and long hairs may or may not be present
on the pedicels. As regards colour the whole plant is green or the
exposed portions of stems and spikelets are purplish. This grass
is liked by cattle and is one of the most nutritious of Indian
fodder grasses.

Distribution.—Throughout India and Ceylon in the plains.
Common in the Tropics.

[Pg 85]

Fig. 93.—Panicum javanicum

[Pg 86]

Panicum javanicum, Poir.

This is an annual and it branches freely and the branches are
decumbent and rooting at the nodes at the base, and erect to some
extent at the free end, 1 to 2 feet long; the internodes are glabrous,
thinly striate, shallowly channelled on one side.

The leaf-sheath is somewhat compressed and loose, covered with
scattered long hairs, some of them being tubercle-based; the
margin is ciliate on one side only. The nodes are pubescent with
long hairs. The ligule is a distinct fringe of hairs.

The leaf-blade is broadly lanceolate, cordate at base, amplexicaul,
acuminate or acute, with scattered long hairs both above and
below, and some of the hairs of the under surface are tubercle-based,
convolute when young; margin of the leaf is wavy, minutely
serrate, and ciliated with distant hairs towards the lower half of
the leaf when young; the midrib is prominent below.

Fig. 94.—Panicum javanicum.

1 and 2. Front and back view of a spike; 3, 4, 5 and 6. the first, second, third and
the fourth glume, respectively; 5a and 6a. the palea of third and fourth glumes; 7. the
ovary and the stamens.

The inflorescence is a panicle of spikes on a short or long erect
slender peduncle. Spikes vary from two to ten in number and in
length from 1/2 to 2 inches, distant and spreading; the rachis of the
spike is zigzag, somewhat flattened with a wavy ridge, scaberulous
or glabrous, swollen towards the base and the swollen part is
pubescent.

The spikelets are biseriate, loosely imbricate, ovate, acute,
pubescent or villous (sometimes quite glabrous), sessile or shortly
pedicelled; the pedicels have one or two (rarely more) long hairs.

There are four glumes. The first glume is small, membranous,
less than 1/2 of the third glume, ovate, acute or obtuse, 3- to 5-nerved.
The second glume is nearly equal to the third, ovate acute, generally
7-nerved and sometimes 7- to 13-nerved. The third glume is similar
to the second in shape, generally 5-nerved and occasionally[Pg 87]
7-nerved, paleate with three stamens or empty; palea 2-nerved, ovate
or oblong, margins infolded. The fourth glume is ovate or oblong,
rugulose, chartaceous, apex with a distinct mucro concealed in the
second and third glumes; palea same as the glume in texture, etc.
Anthers are yellowish; stigmas are feathery and purple in colour;
lodicules are small and fleshy.

This is an excellent fodder grass. Though it is an annual it
grows rapidly under favourable conditions. A single plant found
growing in the compound of the Agricultural College, Coimbatore,
weighed 15 lb. and occupied 15 square feet of the ground. It flourishes
in cultivated dry fields and in rich loamy soils. (See fig. 7.)

Distribution.—Plains of India and Ceylon and in Tropical
countries generally.

[Pg 88]

Fig. 95.—Panicum ramosum.

[Pg 89]

Panicum ramosum, L.

This is an annual with stems erect or ascending from a creeping
base, rooting at the lower nodes, 1 to 2 feet long. The stem is
slender or stout, usually glabrous though occasionally glabrescent
or pubescent, channelled on one side, branched from base upwards,
and leafy.

The leaf-sheath is finely striate, keeled, thinly pubescent with
the margins ciliate near the ligule. The ligule is only a fringe
of short hairs. Nodes are softly hairy.

The leaf-blade is flat, linear-lanceolate, acuminate, softly pubescent
or glabrescent on both the surfaces, with rounded or subcordate
base and margins minutely serrate and ciliate, 2 to 6 inches long
1/6 to 1/2 inch broad; the midrib is distinct though slender with
four to six main veins on each side.

The inflorescence is a pyramidal panicle 2 to 6 inches long, consisting
of usually five to ten (rarely also up to twenty) erect or
spreading spikes. Spikes are distant, alternate and in some the
lower ones are opposite, 1/2 to 2-1/2 inches long or shorter. The
rachis of the spike is thin, angular and scaberulous.

The spikelets are usually pubescent, ovoid or obovoid, acute,
turgid, 1/8 inch, pale green and some occasionally purplish on one
side, alternate close or distant, in pairs lower down and then one
with a somewhat longer pedicel, solitary in the upper portions,
pedicels with hairs, some of them especially those near the apex
being longer.

Fig. 96.—Panicum ramosum.

1 and 2. Back and front view of spike; 3 and 4. front and back view of a spikelet;
5 and 6. first and second glumes; 7 and 8. third glume and its palea; 9 and 10. fourth
glume and its palea; 11. ovary, anthers and lodicules.

There are four glumes. The first glume is nearly half the length
of the third glume, broadly ovate, subacute, margin overlapping at
the base, and usually 5-nerved. The second glume is broadly ovate
acute, rather cuspidate, usually 5-nerved (rarely 7-nerved). The
third glume is similar to the second glume, 5-nerved, paleate, empty;
palea is hyaline oblong, acute. The fourth glume is ovoid-oblong,
[Pg 90]acute, coriaceous, rugulose, with short broadened stipes, and three
faint nerves; palea similar to the glume in texture and markings.
Anthers are orange-yellow; style branches are purple. Lodicules
are small and fleshy.

This grass is a common weed found in dry cultivated fields and
open waste places and is one of the best fodder grasses available.

Distribution.—Plains throughout India and in Afghanistan.

[Pg 91]

Fig. 97.—Panicum distachyum.

[Pg 92]

Panicum distachyum, L.

This grass is an annual. Stems are slender, rarely stout, creeping
and rooting at the nodes, pale green or purplish, with erect or
ascending slender branches, varying in length from 10 to 15 inches,
glabrous or pubescent, channelled near the nodes.

The leaf-sheath is glabrous or glabrescent and sometimes hirsute;
margin is ciliate. The ligule is a fringe of short hairs. Nodes are
glabrous or pubescent.

The leaf-blade is lanceolate or narrowly lanceolate, base cordate
and subamplexicaul, glabrous or rarely sparsely hairy on both
sides; margins are wavy here and there, finely serrate with
tubercle-based hairs towards the base, the midrib is slender, not
prominent and veins not distinct. There is considerable variation
in leaves especially in the length. In the ordinary form it varies
from 1/2 to 3 inches and even up to 6 or 7 inches sometimes in length
and the breadth from 1/8 to 1/4 inch. In one form which is separated
as a variety (var. brevifolium, Wight and Arnott,) the leaves are
always short and broad, ovate-lanceolate never exceeding 1 inch
in length.

The inflorescence consists of two or three, very rarely four erect
or spreading distant spikes on a somewhat slender very hairy
peduncle. Spikes are from 1/2 to 2 inches; rachis is slender,
flexuous, flattened, scaberulous, with a few long hairs scattered
singly along the margins or without these hairs.

Fig. 98.—Panicum distachyum.

1 and 2. Front and back view of a portion of a spike; 3, 4, 5, and 6. the first,
second, third and the fourth glume, respectively; 5a and 6a. palea of the third and the
fourth glume, respectively; 7. anthers and ovary.

The spikelets are glabrous, ovate-oblong, acute, 1/8 inch, 1- or 2-seriate,
subsessile, pale green, occasionally purplish on one side.

There are four glumes. The first glume is membranous, broadly
ovate, obtuse with margins overlapping at the base, hardly half
the length of the third glume, usually 5-nerved but occasionally
7-nerved. The attachment of the first glume is not close to that of
[Pg 93]the second glume but is far lower. The second glume is ovate-acute,
7-nerved. The third glume is equal to the second, 5-nerved, paleate,
empty; the palea is narrow, hyaline, acute. The fourth glume is
ellipsoidal, obtuse, chartaceous, minutely and obscurely rugulose,
faintly 3-nerved, with the base somewhat thickened. Palea is
similar to the glume in texture. Anthers are orange-yellow.
Lodicules are minute and fleshy. Style branches are purple.

This grass is fairly common in open and loamy and sandy
soils. The form (var. brevifolium, Wight & Arnott) is fairly
common in Coimbatore District.

Distribution.—Plains of India and Ceylon. Not recorded from
the Bombay Presidency. It occurs in China, Malaya and Australia.

[Pg 94]

Fig. 99.—Panicum interruptum.

[Pg 95]

Panicum interruptum, Willd.

This is a large perennial grass with stems reaching 5 to 6 feet in
length, flourishing in marshes and in the edges of ponds and
tanks.

The stems are long, stout and spongy below, ascending from a
creeping and rooting or floating root-stock; the lower internodes
are often 1/2 inch or more in thickness, with nodes bearing in
fascicles long stout roots clothed with fine lateral roots; and the
upper internodes are long and slender.

The leaf-sheath is glabrous, striate. The ligule is a short broad
membrane.

The leaf-blade is soft, flat, many-nerved, linear, finely acuminate,
margins smooth, base rounded or subcordate, glabrous, 6 to
12 inches long, 1/4 to 1/2 inch broad.

The inflorescence is a strict spike-like panicle, 6 to 12 inches
long by 1/4 to 1/3 inch broad, cylindric, interrupted below; the rachis
terete, stout, channelled.

The spikelets are glabrous, green, herbaceous, densely packed in
small fascicles, ovoid lanceolate, 1/6 to 1/5 inch long; many
spikelets are imperfect.

Fig. 100.—Panicum interruptum.

1 and 2. Front and back view of a spikelet; 3. first glume;
4. second glume; 5. third glume; 6. palea of third glume; 7
and 8. the fourth glume and its palea; 9. ovary, lodicules and
stamens.

There are four glumes. The first glume is hyaline, membranous,
about 1/3 the
length of the third
glume, broadly
ovate or orbicular,
obtuse, 5-nerved.
The second glume
is membranous,
ovate-oblong, obtuse,
prominently
9-nerved. The
third glume is as
long as the second
but broader, ovate-oblong,
9-nerved,
paleate; palea is
small with three
stamens or without
them. The
fourth glume is
shorter than the
third glume, lanceolate,
subacute,
thinly coriaceous
white, polished,
dorsally convex;
the palea is as long as the glume and thinly coriaceous. There are
two small lodicules.

This is a rank marsh grass growing abundantly in permanent
marshes and edges of tanks and ponds. Cattle eat this along with
other grasses, when young and not covered with algæ.

Distribution.—In swampy situations throughout India and Ceylon.

[Pg 96]

Panicum trypheron, Schult.

The plant is a tufted annual leafy at the base, with branches
spreading a little at the base and then erect, varying in length
from 1/2 to 3 feet. Stems are stout or slender, cylindric or slightly
compressed towards the base.

The leaf-sheath is striated, green or purple tinged, shorter than
the internodes, the upper portion hairy (sometimes tubercle-based)
and the lower glabrous, with sometimes ciliate margin. The ligule
is a short membrane with a fringe of slender hair-like processes.
Nodes are glabrous.

The leaf-blade is flat, convolute when young, linear-lanceolate,
acute or narrow linear-lanceolate, acuminate, hairy on both sides
(hairs indistinctly bulbous-based); margin is very minutely serrate
and often ciliate with tubercle-based hairs; base is narrowed,
slightly rounded or cordate; midrib is conspicuous though narrow
and keeled; length 1 to 7 inches and breadth 1/8 to 3/8 inch.

The inflorescence is a diffuse panicle 4 to 14 inches long with
filiform, divaricate, scaberulous, angled branches; the main rachis
is angular, smooth below and scaberulous above; peduncle is
cylindric, striate, 2 to 12 inches long. Branches are irregularly
distantly alternate, solitary or rarely two, swollen at base, dividing
into slender filiform spreading branchlets; the lower branches
from 3 to 7 inches in length and getting shorter upwards.
Branchlets are 1/2 to 3 inches, capillary, angular and further
dividing.

Fig. 101.—Panicum trypheron.

1 and 2. Front and back view of the spikelet; 3, 4 and 5. the first, second and the
third glume, respectively; 6. palea of the third glume; 7 and 8. the fourth glume and
its palea; 9. stamens, ovary and lodicules.

The spikelets are ovate, acuminate, binate (sometimes solitary or
three) on a common finely filiform stalk, one long and the other
short pedicelled, pale or yellowish green, or purple; pedicels are
angular, scabrid or scaberulous, slightly swollen at the top and
sometimes with setose hairs also.

There are four glumes. The first glume is green or purple,
broadly ovate, acuminate, clasping at the base, about two-thirds of
the third glume, membranous, nerves five, the lateral two stout and
[Pg 97]anastomosing halfway, finely scaberulous especially on the nerves
and more so on the central one. The second glume is slightly longer
than the third, green or purple, ovate, acuminate, generally
7-nerved and sometimes also with two more indistinct marginal
nerves, i.e., 9-nerved, scaberulous on the nerves. The third glume
is pale green or yellow, ovate-oblong, acute or subacute, obscurely
scaberulous, 9-nerved (two of the nerves in the middle sometimes
not running to the base), paleate, empty. Palea is hyaline, smaller
than the glume, oblong, obtuse, minutely two-lobed or two-toothed
at the apex; margins broadly infolded. The fourth glume
is elliptic obtuse, shorter than the third, smooth, shining, coriaceous,
dorsally convex, with a prominent short, broad stipe at the base
which is persistent with the glume, 5-nerved, sometimes with
seven nerves especially when young (two marginal ones being
indistinct). Palea is similar to the glume in texture. Anthers are
three, linear, orange yellow. Lodicules are two and prominent
though small. Stigmas feathery and white.

P. tenellum, Roxb. Fl. Indica I. 306 is probably not this plant
though quoted as a synonym, for it is described as having culms
prostrate and rooting at the nodes.

This grass is of wide distribution in the Presidency, but it is
nowhere abundant. It is fairly common in cultivated dry fields.
Cattle like this grass.

[Pg 98]

Fig. 102.—Panicum repens.

1. Full plant; 2. a portion of the leaf and ligule.

[Pg 99]

Panicum repens, L.

This is a perennial glaucous grass with stoloniferous and
rhizomiferous stems bearing ordinary erect leafy branches, and
the branches come out piercing through the leaf-sheath (extravaginal).

Stems are numerous, stiff and erect, 1/2 to 3 feet in length,
glabrous, covered below by brownish or whitish scale-leaves, and
above with densely distichous leaves.

The leaf-sheath is firm, distinctly striate, glabrous, margins
ciliate on both sides up to the point of overlapping and then the
outer margin alone ciliate. The ligule is a short thin membrane
with very short cilia on the free margin. The nodes are glabrous.

The leaf-blade is glaucous, narrow, lanceolate, thinly coriaceous,
acuminate with a hardened tip, 1 to 7 or 9 inches long, 1/2 to 1/4 inch
broad, flat or involute when slightly faded, with a few distantly
scattered hairs above, especially towards the lower portion of the
blade when young, and becoming glabrous later, glabrous on the
lower surface, margin is finely serrate and with a few cilia towards
the base, some hairs being tubercle-based; base of the blade is
rounded or cordate, midrib is prominent and keeled.

Fig. 103.—Panicum repens.

1. Spike; 2 and 3. front and back view of a spikelet; 4, 5 and 6. first, second and
third glumes; 7. palea of the third glume; 8 and 9. fourth glume and its palea; 10.
lodicules, stamens and ovary; 11. leaf showing ligule.

The inflorescence is a panicle, contracted and not much exserted
from the topmost leaf-sheath, 3 to 8 inches long, branches are
usually many, erect, the lower being 2 to 5 inches long, slender,
angular and scaberulous.

The spikelets are glabrous, erect, pale or pale green, sometimes
purplish also on one side, ovate-oblong or oblong-lanceolate, acute,
1/8 inch, pedicels are long with cupular tips.

There are four glumes in the spikelet. The first glume is hyaline,
broadly ovate, rounded and shortly acute or subacute, indistinctly 3-
to 5-nerved or nerveless, less than one-third of the height of the
third glume. The second glume is membranous, ovate-lanceolate
[Pg 100]acute, 7- to 9-nerved. The third glume is equal to and broader than
the second, always paleate and with three stamens and 9-nerved;
palea is hyaline, oblong, obtuse or subacute, margins folded. The
fourth glume is white, coriaceous, smooth and shining, oblong,
acute, shortly and broadly stipitate, with the margins folded
inwards exposing only a third of the palea; palea is similar to the
glume in texture and marking. Anthers are deep orange in colour.
Lodicules are distinct though small. Stigmas are deep purple when
mature, and pale when young.

This grass flourishes in moist situations such as the bunds of
paddy fields, tank beds and edges of marshes and is an excellent
binder of the soil. When once established it is very difficult to get
rid of it, on account of its rhizomes. Owing to the resemblance of
the rhizomes to ginger, some call this grass Ginger-rooted grass.
Cattle are fond of this grass.

Distribution.—Throughout India, but not so common on the
West and not recorded from Bombay. It is said to occur in South
Europe, Australia, North Africa and Brazil.

[Pg 101]

5. Chamæraphis, Br.

These are glabrous marsh or aquatic grasses. Leaves are linear
or lanceolate. The inflorescence is a panicle. The spikelets are
one-to two-flowered, subsessile and subsecund on the branches
which are produced as awn-like bristles beyond the ultimate
spikelet, obscurely jointed and persistent on their obconic short
pedicels, narrowly lanceolate and terete. The spikelet consists of
four glumes. The first glume is very small, hyaline, suborbicular,
nerveless and truncate. The second glume is the longest, green,
membranous, narrowly lanceolate, acuminate or narrowed into a
rigid awn, 7- to 11-nerved. The third glume is lanceolate, acute, or
aristately acuminate, 7-nerved, paleate, male or neuter, the palea
is smaller than the glume and hyaline. The fourth glume is much
smaller than the third, stipitate, bisexual or female, oblong or
ovate-oblong, acute, flat, thinly coriaceous, nerveless and paleate;
the palea is hyaline, as broad as the glume, acute and nerveless.
The lodicules are cuneate. Stamens are three. Stigmas are
laterally exserted. Grain is oblong, compressed.

[Pg 102]

Chamæraphis spinescens, Poir.

A glabrous aquatic or marsh grass, with much branched floating
stems. Stems are leafy, elongate, ascending, varying in length
from 1 to 3 feet.

The leaf-sheaths are long, smooth, loose, with naked margins.
The ligule is a ridge of hairs. The nodes are glabrous.

The leaf-blade is flat, narrowly linear-lanceolate, smooth or
scabrid, acuminate, base narrowed, 1 to 3-1/2 inches long and
1/16 to 1/8 inch wide.

The inflorescence is a pyramidal panicle, contracted or diffuse,
with a leaf very near its base; peduncle is short; branches of the
panicle, filiform, angular, flexuous, bearing one or more spikelets
and produced as a bristle beyond the last spikelet.

The spikelets are 1/6 to 1/4 rarely 1/3 inch long including the awn,
subsessile and somewhat on one side on the branches, obscurely
articulate but persistent on the pedicels, pale or green, lanceolate.

There are four glumes in the spikelet. The first glume is hyaline,
suborbicular, rounded
at the tip and nerveless,
1/30 inch or less.
The second glume is
membranous, lanceolate,
smooth or setosely
scabrid on the sides,
9- to 11-nerved, with a
long scabrid awn
which is sometimes as
long as the body of the
glume. The third
glume is shorter than
the second, finely
acuminate, or awned,
7-nerved, membranous,
paleate and with three
stamens and two
lodicules; the palea is
shorter than the
glume, linear-oblong,
subacute. The fourth
glume is ovate-lanceolate,
nerveless, acute,
paleate with three
stamens, ovary and two
lodicules; palea is
hyaline, narrow, quarter the length of the third glume. Grain is
obovate oblong.

Fig. 104.—Chamæraphis spinescens.

1. Terminal portion of a spike showing the bristle;
2, 3, 4 and 6. the first, second, third and the fourth
glume, respectively; 5. palea of third glume with its
anthers and lodicules; 7. palea of the fourth glume;
8. ovary; 9. lodicules.

Distribution.—This plant is found at the edges in ponds, tanks
and marshes all over the Presidency.

[Pg 103]

6. Spinifex, L.

This is a stout, rigid, much branched, gregarious and dioecious
grass, flourishing in sand on the sea coast. Leaves are long, narrow
rigid, involute, spreading and recurved and thickly coriaceous.
Male spikelets are 1- to 2-flowered, subsessile, distichous, jointed
on rigid peduncled spikes, which are collected in umbels and
surrounded by spathaceous leafy bracts. The spikelets have four
glumes. The first two glumes are empty. The third and the
fourth paleate and triandrous and sometimes the former is empty.
Female spikelets are collected in large globose heads of stellately
spreading very long rigid rod-like processes surrounded by shorter
subulate bracts. Each spikelet is solitary, and articulate at the
very base of a rachis, lanceolate, 1-flowered. There are four
glumes. The first three glumes are as in the male spikelets, but
larger. The third is paleate, empty. The fourth glume has a
female flower. The lodicules are large and nerved. Styles are
long, free, with short, feathery stigmas. Grain free within the
hardened glumes.

[Pg 104]

Spinifex squarrosus, L.

A perennial littoral dioecious grass forming bushes. Stems
are glaucous, smooth, solid, woody, thick below, freely branching,
5 to 10 feet long or more.

The leaf-sheath is smooth, imbricating, 1/2 to 1-1/2 inches long.
The ligule is a row of stiff long hairs.

The leaf-blade is narrow, rigid, thickly coriaceous, concavo-convex
tapering from the base to the tip, spreading and recurved,
4 to 6 inches long.

The male inflorescence consists of several spikes, 1 to 3 inches
long, forming umbels, with membranous leafy spathaceous bracts
which are shorter than the spikes.

The spikelets are usually 2-flowered, smooth, articulate on short
peduncles, distichous, 1/3 to 1/2 inch long.

There are four glumes. The first glume is shorter than the
second, ovate, obtuse, 7- to 9-nerved. The second glume is similar
to the first, but longer. The third and the fourth glumes are longer
than the second glume, 5- to 7-nerved, paleate and triandrous;
palea of both are lanceolate with ciliate keels.

Fig. 105.—Spinifex squarrosus.

Male plant—1. A branch with the male inflorescence; 2. a spike; 3. a spikelet; 4,
5, 6 and 7. the first, second, third and the fourth glume, respectively; 6a. palea of
the third glume; 6b. extra palea like structure found occasionally in the palea of the
third glume; 7a. palea and lodicules of the fourth glume.

The female inflorescence is a large globose head consisting of
short spikelets articulate at the very base of the rachis, short
bracts and very long, spreading, rigid rod-like rachises. The
spikelets are solitary with four glumes and 2-flowered. The first
glume is oblong-lanceolate, many-nerved, longer than the other
glumes. The second glume is shorter, 7-nerved. The third glume is
empty, 5-nerved. The fourth glume is ovate-lanceolate and abruptly
narrowed above the middle, 5-nerved and paleate, palea is shorter
than the glume but broader, 2-nerved and acute. Lodicules are two,
large, cuneate at base and strongly nerved. Stigmas are oblong.
Grain is clavate and tipped by the style base.

[Pg 105]

This grass grows luxuriantly in the sands near the sea on both
the coasts of the Madras Presidency.

Fig. 106.—Spinifex squarrosus.

Female plant—1. A branch with female inflorescence; 2, 3, 4 and 5. the first, second,
third and the fourth glume, respectively; 6. palea of the fourth glume; 7. ovary and the
lodicules.

Distribution.—Throughout the sandy coasts of India and Ceylon.

[Pg 106]

7. Axonopus, Beauv.

These are annual or perennial grasses. Inflorescence is a
panicle consisting of digitate or whorled, slender or stout spike-like
racemes. Spikelets are solitary, binate or fasciculate, 2-flowered,
jointed on the pedicel and awned. There are four glumes. The
first glume is the shortest, ovate, acuminate, aristate or cuspidate,
hyaline, glabrous and 3-nerved. The second glume is ovate or
ovate-lanceolate, acuminate or awned, 5-nerved, lateral nerves
being marginal and hairy. The third glume is oblong or oblong
ovate, acute, 5-nerved, paleate, male; palea is very short and small,
bipartite. The fourth glume is as long as the third and the
second, oblong or ovate, coriaceous, narrowed into a straight
terminal awn, paleate and bisexual; palea is oblong, coriaceous and
2-nerved. Lodicules are cuneate. Stamens are three with linear
anthers. Stigmas are linear, laterally exserted. Grain is oblong,
free within the hardened glume and its palea.

[Pg 107]

Fig. 107.—Axonopus cimicinus.

[Pg 108]

Axonopus cimicinus, Beauv.

It is a perennial grass. Stems are tufted, erect or slightly
decumbent at the base, 1 to 2 feet long.

The leaf-sheath is distinctly striate, covered with scattered long
tubercle-based hairs, very rarely glabrous, keeled. The ligule
consists of a row of hairs. The nodes are hairy.

The leaf-blade is flat, ovate-lanceolate, broad and cordate at
base, subacute or obtuse, with a distinct midrib and three main
veins on each side of it, glabrous on both sides, but usually with
tubercle-based hairs on the two sides of the midrib, on the lower
side, the margins are distinctly ciliate with tubercle-based long
stiff hairs and very finely serrate; the blade varies in length from
3/4 to 3 inches and in breadth from 3/4 to 1/2 inch.

The inflorescence consists of three to ten spikes springing from the
top of a slender glabrous peduncle 2 to 6 inches long. The spikes
are whorled, about 3 inches or so in length, naked towards the
base to about one-fourth of its length, the rachis is fine, filiform,
scabrid.

The spikelets are solitary or binate, dorsally compressed, pale
green or reddish, very shortly pedicelled, 1/4 to 5/16 inch long
inclusive of the short awn, pedicel is cupular at the tip.

There are four glumes in the spikelet. The first glume is somewhat
narrow ovate-lanceolate, hyaline, acuminate and 3-nerved.
The second glume is
membranous, ovate-lanceolate,
twice as
long as the first
glume, cuspidately
acuminate, 5-nerved;
the two marginal
nerves are provided
with long reddish
bristly hairs. The
third glume is oblong
lanceolate, obtuse,
5-nerved, a little
shorter than the
second glume,
paleate and with
stamens; palea is
short. The fourth
glume is coriaceous,
ovate-lanceolate,
nearly as long as
the second glume,
awned at the apex, paleate, with three stamens and an ovary;
the palea is as long as the glume, elliptic oblong, obtuse. Lodicules
are small, cuneate.

Fig. 108.—Axonopus cimicinus.

1. A portion of the spike showing spikelets; 2, 3, 4
and 5. the first, second, third and the fourth glume, respectively;
4a and 5a. the palea of the third and the fourth
glume, respectively; 6. lodicules, stamens and the ovary.

This is a common grass growing in the plains and lower hills
in waste places.

Distribution.—Occurs all over India.

[Pg 109]

8. Setaria, Beauv.

These are usually annuals. Inflorescence is usually a spike-like
panicle. Spikelets are 1- to 2-flowered, jointed on very short
pedicels which bear persistent scabrid or barbed bristles (modified
branchlets). There are four glumes. The first glume is the
shortest, equal to about half the length of the third, membranous,
3- to 5-nerved. The second glume is equal to or shorter than the
fourth, 5- to 7-nerved. The third glume more or less exceeding and
resembling the second glume, neuter, rarely paleate and male.
The fourth glume is coriaceous or crustaceous, plano-convex, bisexual,
5-nerved and paleate; palea is as long as the glume. Lodicules
are broadly cuneate. Stamens are three. Stigmas are
laterally exserted. Grain is tightly enclosed by the hardened
glume and its palea and is oblong or ellipsoid.

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

[Pg 110]

Setaria glauca, Beauv.

This is a tufted annual grass. Stems are slender, simple or
branched, erect or ascending.

The leaf-sheaths are glabrous. Nodes are glabrous and sometimes
the lower are rooting. The ligule is a fringe of long hairs.

The leaf-blades are lanceolate-linear, flat, finely acuminate, with
a rounded base and very finely and minutely serrate margin, glabrous
on both the surfaces or occasionally sparsely hairy on the
upper surface and varying in length from 4 to 12 inches or more,
and in breadth from 1/4 to 1/3 inch.

The inflorescence is a cylindric, densely flowered, spike-like
raceme, 1 to 4 inches long, usually yellow, rarely purplish or pale
green, the bristles of involucels vary from six to twelve and are pale
or reddish brown, 1/6 to 1/3 inch long with fine erect or spreading
barbs.

The spikelets are numerous and are very closely set along the
rachis of the inflorescence, 1/8 inch long, glabrous and ellipsoidal.

There are four glumes in the spikelet. The first glume is less than
half the length of the third glume, broadly ovate, hyaline, 3-nerved.
The second glume is a little longer than the first but shorter than the
third, broadly ovate or suborbicular, hyaline, 5-nerved. The third
glume is longer than the second, as long as the fourth, membranous
and 5-nerved, paleate, empty or with stamens. The fourth glume is
coriaceous, broadly elliptic, obtuse, dorsally convex, transversely
rugose, pale. The anthers are orange and the styles purple.

Fig. 109.—Setaria glauca.

A and B. spikelets; C. a bristle; 1, 2 and 3. The first, second and the third glume, respectively;
4. palea of the third glume; 5. the fourth glume; 6. palea of the fourth
glume; 7. ovary, anthers and lodicules.

This is a fairly common grass especially in cultivated ground
all over the Presidency, but not very widely distributed. Cattle
are fond of this grass.

Distribution.—Throughout India.

[Pg 111]

Setaria intermedia, R. & S.

This is an annual with straggling, slender, erect or ascending
stems, 2 to 3 feet long.

The leaf-sheath is glabrous, keeled, with the margins ciliate with
long hairs. The ligule is a fringe of close set long hairs. The
nodes are glabrous and the lower rooting.

The leaf-blade is linear-lanceolate, narrowed towards the base,
finely acuminate, with fine hairs scattered on both the surfaces
and with numerous long hairs at the mouth and with very finely
serrate margins, varying in length from 2 to 8 inches or more, 1/8 to
3/4 inch in breadth.

The inflorescence is a narrowly pyramidal spike-like panicle, 4 to
6 inches long, the main rachis is glabrous and grooved, branches
are short, crowded above, scattered and distant below, with close
and densely set spikelets; the bristles of involucels are 1/4 inch long,
slender, flexuous with erect barbs varying in number from three
to six.

The spikelets are ovoid.

There are four glumes in the spikelet. The first glume is orbicular,
oblong or ovate, about one-third the length of the third glume,
hyaline, 3-nerved. The second glume is half as long as the third,
broadly ovate, hyaline, 5-nerved. The third glume is as long as the
fourth, broadly ovate, thinly membranous, 5-nerved, paleate, empty.
The fourth glume is broadly ovate, or suborbicular, very concave,
coriaceous, transversely rugulose, yellowish brown. Anthers are
orange or yellow and styles purplish. Lodicules are very small.

Fig. 110.—Setaria intermedia.

1. A branch with spikelets; 2 and 2a. spikelets; 3, 4 and 5. the first, second and the
third glume, respectively; 5a. the palea of the third glume; 6. the fourth glume; 6a.
the fourth glume and its palea; 6b. palea of the fourth glume; 7. ovary, anthers and
lodicules.

Fairly common in rich soils in sheltered places. Cattle are
very fond of this grass as the leaves are flaccid and tender.

Distribution.—Probably all over India.

[Pg 112]

Fig. 111.—Setaria verticillata.

[Pg 113]

Setaria verticillata, Beauv.

This is an annual grass, with erect, ascending, stout or slender,
leafy stems, more or less branched and varying in length from 1 to
5 feet.

The leaf-sheaths are smooth, glabrous. The ligule is a fringe of
hairs. Nodes are glabrous.

The leaf-blades are thin, flat, glabrous, sparsely hairy and scaberulous,
linear or linear-lanceolate, tapering to a fine point, base
usually narrowed, 4 to 10 inches long and 1/4 to 3/4 inch broad.

The inflorescence is a spike-like or subpyramidal panicle, cylindric
or oblong, coarsely bristly, 2 to 7 inches long, bristles one or
few, studded with conspicuously reversed barbs or teeth, 1/6 to 1/3
inch long.

The spikelets are ellipsoidal, obtuse, glabrous, 1/12 inch long.

There are four glumes. The first glume is very small, broadly
ovate, acute, hyaline, faintly 3-nerved. The second glume is as
long as the spikelet or a little shorter, ovate, subacute, thinly membranous
and 5-nerved. The third glume is equal to the second or
a little longer, membranous and 5-nerved, paleate or empty,
palea when present, is small and hyaline. The fourth glume is
elliptic-oblong, plano-convex, subobtuse, smooth or shining,
though faintly striate, coriaceous with incurved margins; palea is
coriaceous, as long as the glume, elliptic, faintly striate. Stamens
are three. Lodicules are small.

Fig. 112.—Setaria verticillata.

1 and 2. Spikelets with bristles; 3, 4 and 5. the first, second and the third glume,
respectively; 6. palea of the third glume; 7 and 8. the fourth glume and its palea; 9.
ovary, stamens and lodicules; 10. a bit of the bristle showing the reversed barbs.

This grass grows in shady places in very rich soils generally
and is abundant in shady nooks and corners where there are
rubbish heaps.

Distribution.—Throughout India and Ceylon.

[Pg 114]

9. Pennisetum, Pers.

These are annual or perennial grasses. Leaves are usually
narrow. The inflorescence is a spike-like raceme consisting of
involucellate clusters of shortly pedicellate spikelets, involucels
consist of unequal, simple or branched bristles. Spikelets are
obovoid or lanceolate, 1- to 2-flowered, persistent on their stalks,
one to three in an involucel. There are usually four glumes in a
spikelet. The first glume is minute or absent. The second glume
is shorter than the third, membranous, 3- to 5-nerved, rarely
wanting. The third glume is as long as the fourth, lanceolate,
paleate or not, male or empty. The fourth glume is coriaceous,
lanceolate, bisexual or female. There are three stamens with
linear anthers. Styles long. Lodicules are small if present.
Grain is oblong, free within the hardened fourth glume and its
palea.

KEY TO THE SPECIES

[Pg 115]

Fig. 113.—Pennisetum Alopecuros

[Pg 116]

Pennisetum Alopecuros, Steud.

This is a perennial grass, densely tufted and growing to a
height of 2 to 3-1/2 feet. Stems are stout, erect and much branched
above.

The leaf-sheaths are distichous, compressed, glabrous or rarely
hairy.

The leaf-blades are convolute, narrow, linear, coriaceous, strongly
keeled, glabrous but with tufts of soft hairs at the base, 12 to 18
inches long, 1/10 to 1/6 inch broad. The ligule is a ring of hairs.

The inflorescence is a spike-like raceme, varying in length from
5 to 7 inches. The involucels are shortly stalked, with a few
unequal bristles which are free down to the base and two to three
times as long as the spikelet.

Spikelets are lanceolate, acute, solitary, 3/8 inch long.

Fig. 114.—Pennisetum Alopecuros.

A and B. Spikelets front and back view; 1, 2, 3 and 4. the first, second, third and
the fourth glume, respectively; 5. palea of the fourth glume; 6. the ovary, stamens and
lodicules.

The first glume is very small, almost orbicular, hyaline and
nerveless. The second glume is about 1/3 the length of the third
glume, lanceolate, acuminate, 3-nerved. The third glume is about
1/3 inch long, lanceolate, acuminate, 7- to 11-nerved, epaleate and
with infolded margins. The fourth glume is a little longer than
the third, lanceolate, acuminate, with infolded margins 5- or 6-nerved,
paleate and enclosing a complete flower. The palea is
lanceolate, acuminate, as long as the glume. There are three
stamens with long, narrow, yellow anthers. Stigmas are feathery.
Lodicules are either absent or very minute.

This is a very coarse grass usually growing in stiff soils
especially near wet places.

Distribution.—Occurs all over Southern India both on the plains
and on low hills.

[Pg 117]

Fig. 115.—Pennisetum cenchroides.

[Pg 118]

Pennisetum cenchroides, Rich.

This grass is a perennial. It consists of aerial branches and
underground rhizomiferous stems, bearing thick fibrous roots and
numerous buds covered by scarious sheaths. The aerial branches
are tufted, erect or decumbent and geniculately ascending when in
flower, much branched from the base, 6 to 24 inches long (under
favourable conditions may reach even 3 to 4 feet in length).

The leaf-sheath is slightly compressed, keeled, with scattered
long hairs outside, shorter than the internodes. The ligule is a
short thin membrane fringed with hairs.

The leaf-blade is linear, tapering to a very fine point 1-1/2 to 6
inches (sometimes 18 to 20 inches) by 1/8 to 1/4 inch scaberulous
with fine long tubercle-based deciduous hairs scattered above, and
the lower surface glabrous or with a few distantly scattered fine
long hairs, broad at the base and constricted at the point of junction
with the sheath.

The inflorescence is a raceme of spikes, varying from 1-1/2 to 3-1/2
inches, with the spikes mostly densely arranged, though occasionally
distant and not close-set, on a long; slender, puberulous or
scaberulous peduncle; rachis is flexuous, flattened, grooved and
scaberulous. The spikes have involucels, consisting of two series
of bristles, the outer bristles are horizontal or reflexed, numerous,
fine, filiform, scabrid and purple above, shorter or longer than the
spikelets; the inner bristles are two to three times longer than
the spikelets, flattened and thickened at the base with a strong
green nerve, ciliated with long tubercle-based hairs; one of the
bristles is longer than the others and the bases of the bristles are
connate at the very base into a ring; the upper portion of the
bristles are filiform, scabrid and purple, the lower flattened portion
being pale.

Fig. 116.—Pennisetum cenchroides.

1. A portion of a spike; 2 and 3. spikelets with their involucels; 4. a bristle; 5, 6, 7
and 8. the first, second, third and the fourth glume, respectively; 7a and 8a. palea of
the third and the fourth glume, respectively; 9. ovary and stamens.

[Pg 119]

Spikelets are about 1/5 inch long oblong-lanceolate, one to three
in a spike and sessile.

There are four glumes in a spikelet. The first glume is small,
hyaline, ovate-lanceolate, acute, nerveless or sometimes 1-nerved.
The second glume is a little longer than the first, ovate, acute, about
half of the third glume, hyaline, 1 to 3-nerved. The third glume is
ovate-lanceolate, acuminate, generally 5- to 7-nerved, paleate,
usually male; palea is lanceolate, equal to or slightly shorter than
the glume. The fourth glume is as long as the third with a broad
hyaline margin, 5-nerved paleate; palea as long as the glume.
Anthers are three, yellow, stigmas white, feathery and the styles
shortly united at the base. Lodicules are not present.

This is the famous Kolakattai grass (Tamil) of the Coimbatore
District and it grows in all kinds of soil and is capable of growing
even when the soil is dry. It is readily eaten by cattle, sheep,
goat and when once established is not easily killed out even by
prolonged droughts. It is in flower in June, November and
December.

Distribution.—Fairly common in South India and Western India.
Said to occur in Tropical Africa also.

There is a variety of this grass named echinoides. This differs
from the type in the following respects—the inner bristles are
united very much above the base and much thickened and stiffer
than in the type. (See fig. 116-3)

[Pg 120]

10. Cenchrus, L.

The inflorescences are spike-like racemes, consisting of involucellate
clusters of shortly pedicelled spikelets jointed on a simple
rachis. The involucel consists of hardened spike-like bristles
connate at the base into a short coriaceous cup, which is surrounded
by erect or squarrose bristles. Spikelets one to three in
each involucel, persistent, 1- to 2-flowered, with three or four
glumes. The first glume is very small or absent. The second and
the third glumes are subequal 5- to 7-nerved. The third glume is
longer than the second with male flower or not, paleate. The
fourth glume is coriaceous, with a bisexual or female flower.
Lodicules are two. Stamens are three. Styles are long, free or
connate below. Grain is broad, oblong and compressed.

KEY TO THE SPECIES

[Pg 121]

Cenchrus biflorus, Roxb.

This is an annual with erect simple stems, 6 to 24 inches long.

The leaf-sheath is glabrous or nearly so, with hairs at the mouth.

The leaf-blade is linear-lanceolate, finely acuminate, glabrous or
hairy, 3 to 10 inches long and 1/8 to 3/8 inch broad.

The inflorescence is a solitary cylindric raceme of involucels, 2
to 4 inches long, enclosed in the uppermost leaf-sheath; the rachis
is flexuous, angular and smooth. Involucels usually with two, rarely
three spikelets, loosely imbricate, rounded at the base; the inner
bristles are erect, dorsally flat, subulate-lanceolate, puberulous and
with thickened margins, about 1/8 inch long. The outer are shorter
than the inner, glabrous, erect or subsquarrose and as long as the
sessile spikelets.

The spikelets are about 1/6 inch long, sub-globose, with four
glumes. The first glume is about 1/10 inch long, ovate-acuminate,
very thin, hyaline, nerveless or rarely 1-nerved. The second glume
is broadly ovate, 1/6 inch long, hyaline, acute, 1-nerved. The
third glume is slightly longer than the second, oblong-ovate,
apiculate, 5-nerved and paleate; palea 1/8 inch obtuse. The fourth
glume is as long as the third, ovate, obtuse, paleate. Anthers are
three. Styles free almost to the base. The grain is 1/12 by 1/16
inch orbicular oblong, compressed, smooth and pale brown.

Fig. 117.—Cenchrus biflorus.

1. A portion of the raceme; 2. an involucel; 3, 4, 5 and 7. the first, second, third
and the fourth glume respectively; 6 and 8. palea of the third and the fourth glumes; 9.
the ovary and stamens; 10 grain.

This grass is not so widely distributed as Cenchrus catharticus.
It is confined to some East Coast districts.

Distribution.—The Punjab, Gangetic plain, Concan, Sind and
Coromandel. Also said to occur in Africa and Arabia.

[Pg 122]

Cenchrus catharticus, Delile.

A tufted annual grass with geniculately ascending stems,
branching at the base.

The leaf-sheath is glabrous and somewhat inflated. The ligule
is a fringe of hairs. Nodes are glabrous.

The leaf-blade is linear-lanceolate, finely acuminate, 1 to 4 inches
long and 1/8 to 1/4 inch broad.

The inflorescence is usually enclosed in the leaf-sheath, 1 to 6
inches long; the rachis is flexuous, angular and glabrous. The
involucels are 1/4 to 1/2 inch across, turbinate or truncate at base
with an outer, shorter and inner longer series of hard, sharp, pungent
spines; the inner subulate, dorsally deeply grooved, very
much longer than the spikelets; margins ciliate to about half the
distance from the base, and the upper half covered with very short,
sharp and stiff, reflexed hairs; the outer are shorter than the
spikelets, spreading or erect, glabrous or nearly so and covered
with reflexed hairs.

The spikelets are usually one to two and rarely three in an
involucel and
each one has
four glumes. The
first glume is
lanceolate and
nerveless or
ovate-lanceolate
and 1-nerved,
half as long as
the third glume,
hyaline and
acute. The
second glume is
about 1/6 inch
long, ovate, acute,
membranous,
5-nerved. The
third glume is
similar to the
second, paleate;
palea is lanceolate
and short. The
fourth glume is as
long as the third, cuspidately acuminate, membranous, 5-nerved
and paleate; palea is ovate, as long as the glume. Stamens are
three. Styles are free and long with plumose stigmas. The grain
is ovoid-oblong, brown and compressed.

Fig. 118.—Cenchrus catharticus.

1. A portion of the spike; 2. an involucel with two spikelets;
3, 4, 5 and 7. the first, second, third and the fourth glume
respectively; 6 and 8. palea of the third and the fourth glume
respectively; 9. the ovary and stamens; 10. grain.

This grass is more common than C. biflorus and is found on the
East Coast districts in open sandy places.

Distribution.—Nellore, Bellary, the Punjab and the Gangetic
Plains.

[Pg 123]

CHAPTER VII.

TRIBES II AND III—ORYZEÆ AND ZOYSIEÆ.

Oryzeæ is a very small tribe with a few genera, which usually
flourish in marshes. The spikelets are in panicles, 1-flowered
and the flower is usually perfect. In Oryza there are three glumes,
the first two being very minute, and there is only a single glume in
Leersia and Hygrorhiza. There are usually six stamens. The
palea becomes firm in texture like the glume instead of remaining
hyaline, and so it is often mistaken for a glume. The spikelets
are jointed on their pedicels and fall away from them.

Zoysieæ is another small tribe with half a dozen genera. The
inflorescence is either a spike-like raceme or a spiciform panicle.
The spikelets are solitary in Perotis, binate in Tragus and grouped
in Trachys. There is usually a complete flower in a spikelet and
the glumes are membranous. Mature spikelets are deciduous with
their pedicels singly in Perotis and in clusters in others.

[Pg 124]

11. Leersia, Sw.

These are tall perennial marsh grasses. The inflorescence is
usually a more or less contracted panicle with very slender
branches. The spikelets are compressed and consist of only one
glume bearing a perfect flower. The solitary flowering glume is
chartaceous, awnless, 3- to 5-nerved, the lateral nerves forming
the thickened margin of the glume. The palea is narrow, linear-lanceolate,
as long as the glume, 3-nerved, rigid, dorsally ciliate,
and with hyaline margins. Lodicules are two. Stamens are
usually six in number. Styles are short, with plumose stigmas and
laterally exserted. Grain is ovoid or oblong, compressed, free
within the glume and its palea.

[Pg 125]

Leersia hexandra, Sw.

This is a slender perennial marsh-grass with stems rooting in
the mud and with flexuous floating branches, sending up erect or
ascending, weak and slender leafy branches, 2 to 4 feet high.

Fig. 119.—Leersia hexandra.

1. Erect branch; 2 and 3. bits of leaves with ligules;
4 and 5. spikelets; 6. ovary and lodicules.

The leaf-sheath is smooth, glabrous, with eciliate margins.
The ligule is a short
obliquely truncate or
two-lobed membrane.
Nodes are hairy with
deflexed hairs.

The leaf-blade is
flat, narrow, linear,
tapering to a fine
point, suberect and
rather rigid, glabrous
and with a narrow
base, varying in
length from 3 to 10
inches and 1/8 to 1/3
inch in breadth.

The inflorescence is
an oblong laxly branched,
narrow pedunculate
panicle, 2 to 4
inches long.

The spikelets are
all 1-flowered and
1-glumed, articulate
on the pedicels above
the rudimentary
glumes, strongly laterally
compressed.
The glume is about
1/6 inch long, ovate-oblong,
somewhat
boat-shaped, acute
and shortly mucronate,
strongly keeled, ciliate
on the keel and margins,
5-nerved, the
lateral nerves forming
a thickened margin;
palea is as long as the
glume, linear-lanceolate,
subacute, rigid with membranous margins. Stamens are six
and there are two small lodicules. The first two glumes are
reduced to an obscure hyaline rim.

This marsh-grass is found in marshy places such as ditches and
channels in paddy fields, ponds and tanks.

Distribution.—It is found all over India and Ceylon; also in
Africa, America and Australia.

[Pg 126]

12. Hygrorhiza, Nees.

These are floating glabrous grasses with stems diffusely
branching and profusely rooting at the nodes. The inflorescence
is a panicle. The spikelets are 1-flowered, with a solitary flowering
glume only. The flowering glume is awned, strongly 5-nerved,
nerves scabrid and ciliate, the lateral nerves being marginal.
Palea is 3-nerved, narrow acuminate with a ciliate keel. Lodicules
are suborbicular. There are six stamens with long slender anthers.
Styles are free with plumose stigmas, laterally exserted. Grain is
oblong, narrowed at the base, obtuse, free within the glume and
its palea.

[Pg 127]

Hygrorhiza aristata, Nees.

This is a floating aquatic grass. Stems are spongy, branching
diffusely, 1 foot long, with feathery whorled roots in dense masses
at the nodes; branches are short, erect and leafy.

The leaf-sheath is smooth, inflated, compressed, with ciliate
margins. The ligule is a narrow membrane. Nodes have whorls of
roots.

The leaf-blade is linear or ovate-lanceolate, obtuse, glabrous,
glaucous beneath, base rounded or subcordate, 1 to 3 inches long
and 1/2 to 3/4 inch broad.

The inflorescence is a panicle, 2 inches long and broad, somewhat
triangular in outline; the rachis and the branches are stiff,
slender and smooth, the lower branches are a little deflexed.

Fig. 120.—Hygrorhiza aristata.

1. Branch; 2. part of a leaf with ligule; 3. spikelet; 4 and 5. glume and its palea;
6. lodicules and ovary.

The spikelets are very narrow, sessile or pedicellate, articulated
on the pedicel, 1-flowered and 1-glumed. The glume is about
3/8 inch long (excluding the awn) and the awn is as long as the
glume or slightly longer, lanceolate, with five strong nerves and
the lateral ones forming thickened margins; the palea is as long as
the glume. Stamens are six and lodicules two.

Found in ponds and tanks.

Distribution.—All over India and Ceylon.

[Pg 128]

13. Trachys, Pers.

These are softly, villous, diffuse annual grasses. The inflorescence
consists of usually two (rarely three) divaricating spikes on a
long peduncle. The rachis is herbaceous, broad flexuous, jointed
and bearing at each joint a solitary globose cluster of two or three
perfect 1-flowered glabrous spikelets surrounded by many short
spinescent glumes of imperfect ones. The perfect spikelets are
4-glumed and the glumes are very unequal. The first glume is
minute, tooth-like, nerveless. The second glume is long, linear-lanceolate,
membranous, very acute, strongly 3- to 5-nerved. The
third glume is the largest, obliquely ovate, or obovate-oblong,
cuspidately acuminate, rigidly coriaceous, 9- to many-nerved,
paleate or not, empty. The fourth glume is shorter and narrower
than the lower one, linear-oblong, acuminate, chartaceous, smooth,
dorsally convex, with incurved margins, bearing a bisexual flower,
paleate, palea is hyaline as long as the glume, and the margins are
inflexed below the middle. Lodicules are very minute or wanting.
There are three stamens. The styles are very long with slender
stigmas, exserted at the top of the glume. The grain is oblong,
compressed, free within the glume and its palea.

[Pg 129]

Trachys mucronata, Pers.

This is a diffusely branching, softly villous annual grass. The
stems are many from the root, 16 to 18 inches long, ascending or
decumbent and prostrate, leafy, glabrous, rooting freely at the
lower nodes, especially when procumbent.

The leaf-sheaths are loose, inflated, hairy or rarely glabrous.
The ligule is a thin membrane, or a ridge of fine closely set hairs.
Nodes are villous.

The leaf-blade is linear-lanceolate to ovate-lanceolate acuminate,
flaccid, softly villous on both the surfaces, margins often crisped,
base rounded, 2 to 6 inches by 1/4 to 1/2 inch.

The inflorescence consists of a long or short, slender, shining
peduncle bearing two or three rigid, flattened, flexuous, jointed
spikes, the rachis is broad, herbaceous, with a flat, broad, closely
nerved wing on both the sides and with a distinct flat midrib and
jointed, each joint bears on the under surface at the articulation, a
solitary, globose cluster of two to three perfect 1-flowered glabrous
spikelets surrounded by many short spinescent glumes of imperfect
ones. The spikes vary in length from 1 to 2 inches and in
breadth from 1/10 to 1/6 inch and are glabrous.

The clusters of spikelets are about 1/4 inch in diameter, often
partially sunk, in a concavity of the rachis; the perfect spikelets
are 1/5 to 1/4 inch long and the imperfect are shorter.

Fig. 121.—Trachys mucronata.

A and B. The spikelets; 1, 2 and 3. the first, second and the third glume, respectively;
4. palea of the third glume; 5 and 6. the fourth glume and its palea; 7. lodicules,
ovary and stamens.

In the perfect spikelet there are four very unequal glumes. The
first glume is minute, tooth-like, triangular or lanceolate, acute,
nerveless, 1/16 to 1/12 inch long. The second glume is elongate,
linear-lanceolate, acute, sometimes ciliate below the middle,
membranous, narrower than the third glume, hyaline, strongly 3-nerved,
1/16 by 1/6 inch. The third glume is 1/5 by 1/8 inch the
largest in the spikelet, broadly and obliquely ovate or obovate,
[Pg 130]cuspidately acute, with nine to many green nerves, paleate; the
palea is very small, about 1/20 inch long, oblong, hyaline and rigidly
coriaceous. The fourth glume is much narrower and shorter than the
third glume, linear oblong, acuminate, chartaceous, smooth, dorsally
convex, with incurved margins, bisexual and paleate; the palea is as
long as the glume, acuminate, hyaline, the margins inflexed below
the middle, ovate, acute. Lodicules are minute or absent. Stamens
are three with linear anthers. Styles are very long with slender
stigmas. The grain is oblong, compressed.

This grass grows abundantly in cultivated dry fields and in the
sand near the sea-shore and it is easily recognized by the clusters
of spikelets in the spike.

Distribution.—The Deccan Peninsula—both in the interior and
on the sea coast.

[Pg 131]

14. Tragus, Haller.

These are annual or perennial grasses, with erect or prostrate
stems. Inflorescence is a spiciform raceme, bearing the spikelets
in clusters of 2 to 4. The spikelets are 1-flowered and usually
with two glumes. Sometimes a very minute hyaline lower glume
is present. The first glume is thickly coriaceous, 5-ribbed,
oblong-lanceolate, and ribs with long recurved spines. The
second glume is oblong or oblong-lanceolate, apiculate, chartaceous,
3-nerved and with a perfect flower; palea is as long as the
glume, 2-nerved. Lodicules are broad, cuneate and fleshy. There
are three stamens. Styles are slender and distinct, with narrow
stigmas exserted from the top of the glume. Grain is oblong
to ellipsoidal free within the glume and its palea.

[Pg 132]

Fig. 122.—Tragus racemosus.

[Pg 133]

Tragus Racemosus, Scop.

This plant is a perennial with tufted prostrate or erect stems,
rooting at the nodes freely and densely leafy. The flowering
branches are erect or geniculately ascending and varies from a
few inches to about a foot.

The leaf-sheath is short, pale, glabrous, somewhat compressed,
striate, equitant below and upper are longer, terete and green.
The ligule is only a ridge of short, fine hairs. Nodes are glabrous.

The leaf-blade is convolute when young, ovate or ovate-lanceolate,
variable from 1/4 to 2 inches long and 1/10 to 1/6 inch wide,
acuminate, flat or somewhat wavy, glabrous on both the surfaces,
rigidly pungent, densely crowded and distichously imbricate in
the lower part of the stem, base is amplexicaul, and the margin is
distantly serrate and rigidly ciliate.

The inflorescence is a spike-like terminal panicle varying in
length from 3/4 to 2 inches; the rachis is wavy, slender, angular or
grooved, pubescent, the peduncle is striate, pubescent and enclosed
by the leaf-sheath.

The spikelets are arranged in groups of two, facing each other and
appearing like a single spikelet with two equal echinate glumes,
sessile, or obscurely pedicelled on very short, tumid, pubescent
branches.

Fig. 123.—Tragus racemosus.

1. A pair of spikelets; 2, 3 and 4. the first, second and the third glume, respectively;
5. palea of the third glume; 6. ovary, anthers and lodicules.

There are two (rarely three) glumes in the spikelet. The first
glume is very minute, hyaline, obtuse and it is very often not
present. The second glume is about 1/8 inch, ovate-lanceolate,
acuminate, strongly 3-ribbed with rows of stout, spreading hooked
spines along the ribs and encloses a single floret. The margins
of this glume are membranous and somewhat scaberulous. The
third glume is about 1/12 inch, oblong lanceolate, membranous
minutely hairy, 3-nerved and finely pointed at the apex; the palea
is as long as the glume, hyaline, 2-nerved, lanceolate, subacute and
irregularly toothed at the apex. Stamens are three, with slender
[Pg 134]filaments, anthers are short, broad and pale yellow. The style
branches are pale and feathery. Lodicules are two, fleshy and
cuneate or subquadrate. The grain is free inside the glume and
the palea, linear oblong, slightly compressed and pale brown, the
embryo occupies about 1/3 the length of the grain.

This is one of the commonest grasses growing everywhere in
tufts with usually prostrate branches. In some situations the
branches are erect.

Distribution.—Plains of India throughout and Ceylon. It is
found in all the warm regions of the world.

[Pg 135]

15. Perotis, Ait.

These are slender annual or perennial grasses with short broad
leaves. Inflorescence is a spike or spiciform raceme. The spikelets
are 1-flowered, sessile or shortly pedicelled and jointed. There
are three glumes in the spikelet. The first and the second glumes
are empty, subequal, narrowly linear with a strong midrib which
is produced into a long capillary awn. The third glume is very
small, hyaline, lanceolate, acute, 1-nerved and with a perfect
flower; palea is small, narrow, hyaline and nerveless. Stamens
are three with short anthers. Styles are short and united at the
base with very short stigmas. The grain is long and narrow,
longer than the flowering glume.

[Pg 136]

Fig. 124.—Perotis latifolia.

[Pg 137]

Perotis latifolia, Ait.

This grass is an annual with slender leafy stems, branching at
the base, prostrate at first and then geniculately ascending, terminating
in inflorescences and varying in length from 3 to 15
inches.

The leaf-sheaths are glabrous, usually all short except the one
next to the inflorescence which is two or three times as long as
the lower sheaths. The nodes are purple and glabrous.

The leaf-blade is short, 1 to 1-1/4 inches long, ovate or lanceolate,
cordate at base, acute and glabrous on both the surfaces; the
margin is minutely serrate, rigidly ciliate and with a very narrow
hyaline border.

The inflorescence is a slender, crinite, spike-like raceme, 1 to 8
inches long, with a finely scabrid main rachis.

The spikelets are narrow linear 1/12 to 1/8 inch or longer, purple,
shortly pedicelled and 1-flowered, pedicels are short with a
hyaline swelling on the upper side at the base.

Fig. 125.—Perotis latifolia.

1 and 2. Spikelets; 3, 4 and 5, the first, second and the third glume, respectively;
6. ovary, stamens and lodicules.

There are three glumes. The first and the second glumes are
empty, narrow-linear, purple, scabrid, 1-nerved and awned; awns
are capillary, varying in length from 1/3 to 1/2 inch. The third
glume is very minute with very small palea. There are three
stamens and two small lodicules. Styles are somewhat shorter.
The grain is long and cylindric.

This grass grows in open waste places and in dry fields all over
the Presidency.

Distribution.—Throughout India.

[Pg 138]

CHAPTER VIII.

TRIBE IV—ANDROPOGONEÆ.

Andropogoneæ is a very large tribe with about thirty genera.
It is very well represented in South India and some genera are of
very wide distribution.

The spikelets are usually arranged in pairs at each joint, one
sessile and the other stalked. The spikelets may all be similar as
in Imperata or they may be different as in Ischæmum and
Andropogon. There may be only one flower in the spikelet as in
Eremochloa and Saccharum or two as in Ischæmum and Apocopis.
In the genera Polytoca and Coix the spikelets are unisexual and
the male and female spikelets are found in the same inflorescence,
the female being below and the male being continuous with it.
The spikelet nearly always consists of four glumes, the first or the
first and the second being firmer and coriaceous or chartaceous.
The flowering glumes are always shorter than the empty glumes,
and are hyaline. The fourth glume is often awned or reduced to
an awn.

The main rachis of the inflorescence is usually jointed at the
base. In addition to this the rachis may be jointed all along its
length, so as to become separated into distinct joints when mature
as in Rottboellia, Saccharum and Andropogon, or it may be
continuous as in Imperata. The pedicels of spikelets and the
lower portions of the rachilla of the spikelets may have long hairs.

Sub. Tribe 1. Maydeæ.

Sub. Tribe 2. Sacchareæ.

Sub. Tribe 3. Ischemeæ.

Sub. Tribe 4. Apludeæ.

Sub. Tribe 5. Rottboellieæ.

Sub. Tribe 6. Eu-Andropogoneæ.

[Pg 140]

16. Coix, L.

These are tall monoecious annual or perennial grasses. The
inflorescences are terminal or axillary spiciform racemes. The
lowest-spikelet in the raceme is female and this is enclosed in
a bract which at length becomes hardened, polished and nut-like
and the other spikelets above it are male. The male spikelets
are 2- to 3-nate at each node of the rachis, 1 sessile and 1 or 2
pedicelled, lanceolate and 4-glumed. The first and the second
glumes are subequal and empty, and the first glume is winged
along the inflated margins. The third and the fourth glumes are
hyaline, with three stamens or empty. The female spikelet is ovoid
acuminate and has four glumes. The first glume is chartaceous
and the others are thin and gradually smaller. The grain is
orbicular, ventrally furrowed and enclosed by the polished hard
bract.

[Pg 141]

Coix lachryma-jobi, L.

This is a tall monoecious leafy annual (rarely perennial) grass
with stout, smooth, polished, freely branching stems rooting at the
lower nodes and varying in length from 3 to 5 feet or more.

The leaf-sheath is long, usually smooth but occasionally with
scattered tubercle-based hairs. The ligule is a narrow membrane.
The nodes are glabrous.

The leaf-blade is long, flat, narrow or broad, acuminate, cordate
at base, with a stout midrib and many slender veins on both sides,
usually glabrous on both sides though occasionally with scattered
hairs, and with spinulosely serrate margins, varying from 4 to 18
inches in length and 1/3 to 2 inches in breadth.

The inflorescence consists of nodding or drooping spiciform
racemes, 1 to 1-1/2 inches long, terminating the branches. The
racemes consist of many male spikelets with one (rarely two) female
spikelets at the base; the rachis is stout above, and the part within
the bract enclosing the female spikelet is slender.

The male spikelets are imbricating, 2 or 3 at a node of the rachis,
one sessile and one or two pedicelled, dorsally compressed, articulate
at the base and persistent, very variable in size, 3/8 to 3/4 inch.
There are four glumes in the spikelet. The first glume is oblong-lanceolate,
chartaceous, 3/5 inch long, acute, many-nerved, concave
with inflexed margins bearing narrow green many-veined wings.
The second glume is similar to the first, but thinner and without the
wings, 5- to 9- or rarely 11-nerved. The third glume is oblong-lanceolate,
hyaline, faintly 3- to 5-nerved, paleate and with three stamens.
The fourth glume is similar to the third, paleate with or without
stamens.

Fig. 126.—Coix Lachryma-Jobi.

1. Inflorescence; 2. the female spikelet; 3. male spikelets; 4, 5, 6 and 8. the first,
second, third and the fourth glume, respectively, of a male spikelet; 7 and 9. palea of the
third and the fourth glumes, respectively.]

The female spikelet is enclosed by a closed bract which finally
becomes hardened, and there are four glumes in the spikelet. The[Pg 142]
first and the second glumes are chartaceous. The third and the fourth
are hyaline, the former being empty and the latter with an ovary.
Lodicules are not present. The ovary is ovoid with very long
capillary styles. The grain is orbicular, compressed, channelled
at the back and enclosed within the stony, hardened and polished
bract.

This grass usually grows in paddy fields. There are two distinct
varieties—one a fairly tall one annual and the other a very
tall (5 to 10 feet) perennial one. The racemes of the latter are
longer and drooping, the male spikelets are in threes and the wings
of the first glume are usually broader than in the other form. This
species is easily recognized by the polished bract enclosing the
female spikelet.

Distribution.—Throughout India.

[Pg 143]

17. Polytoca, Br.

These are tall monoecious annual or perennial grasses. Inflorescences
consist of spiciform racemes with spathaceous bracts;
rachis is jointed. Racemes may all be male or with one or two
female spikelets at the base. Male spikelets are geminate, one
sessile and one pedicelled, 2-flowered or imperfect, and with four
glumes, which are subequal. The first glume is membranous,
many-nerved, shallowly concave and with a narrow membranous
margin. The second glume is narrower, ovate, acute, 5- to 9-nerved.
The third glume is membranous, oblong, acute, 3- to 5-nerved,
paleate and with three stamens. The fourth glume is very slender,
hyaline, linear, paleate with three stamens or empty. Female
spikelets are broadly oblong, 1-flowered and with four glumes.
The first glume is thick, coriaceous and closely embraces the
rachis of the spike by its involute margin and the other glumes are
within. The second glume is oblong, many-nerved. The third is
narrowly oblong, 3- to 5-nerved, empty. The fourth glume is very
narrow, truncate, 3-nerved, paleate. Styles are very long with
slender stigmas. Grain is small, fusiform, terete and enclosed in
the nut-like polished and hardened first glume.

[Pg 144]

Polytoca barbata, Stapf.

This is an erect, tall, stout, freely branching, leafy, monoecious
perennial grass. The stems are terete, 3 to 6 feet high.

The leaf-sheaths are long, glabrous, or with scattered tubercle-based
bristly hairs. The ligule is a narrow membrane. The
nodes have a ring of soft long hairs.

The leaf-blades are long, flat, linear, acuminate, with a stout
midrib and thickened serrate margins, scabrid above and sometimes
with a few tubercle-based hairs, 10 inches to 2 feet long and
1/4 to 3/4 inch broad.

The inflorescence consists of paniculate spike-like racemes terminating
the branches and at first enclosed in spathiform bracts,
the lower and outer spathiform bracts are one inch or more in length
with a long awn at the tip, and the inner proper sheaths are oblong,
awned and about 1/2 inch long. The raceme consists of one or
more female spikelets at the base and a number of male spikelets
above, appearing as if sessile on the top of the female spikelet,
but really articulate with the internode below it which is enclosed
by the first glume of the female spikelet.

Fig. 127.—Polytoca barbata.

1. Inflorescence; 2, 3, 4 and 5. the first, second, third and the fourth glume, respectively,
of the male spikelet; 4a and 5a. palea of the third and the fourth glume,
respectively; 6. the first glume of the sessile spikelet; 7. female spikelet; 8, 9 and 10.
the second, third and the fourth glume, respectively; 11. palea of the fourth glume;
12. ovary.

The male spikelets are solitary, or binate and then one sessile
and one pedicelled, 2-flowered, reaching 3/8 inch in length and
consist of four glumes each. The first glume is concave, ovate, acute,
[Pg 145]pubescent, herbaceous, many-nerved and with a narrow membranous
margin on one side only in the pedicelled and solitary
spikelets and on both sides in the sessile spikelets. The second
glume is narrower, dorsally compressed, ovate, acuminate, 5- to 9-nerved,
laterally compressed and with a narrow wing to the keel
near the apex in sessile spikelets and dorsally compressed without
the keel in the pedicelled and solitary spikelets. The third glume is
membranous, oblong, acuminate, 3- to 5-nerved, with three stamens
and paleate; the palea is hyaline, broadly linear. The fourth
glume is very slender, linear, hyaline, with or without stamens,
paleate; palea is flat, narrowly linear. Lodicules are present and
they are small. The anthers in the third glume are larger than
those in the fourth glume.

The female spikelet is oblong, 1/6 inch long, 1-flowered and
with four glumes. The first glume is thickly coriaceous, white,
shining, closely embracing the rachis and the other glumes entire
at the tip. The second glume is quadrately oblong, many-nerved. The
third glume is oblong, narrower than the second, 3- to 5-nerved paleate,
empty. The palea of the third glume is narrow, truncate. The
fourth glume is narrow, truncate, 3-nerved, paleate; the palea is
truncate and wrapped round the ovary. Styles are long and
stigmas slender. Lodicules are not present. The grain is fusiform,
terete and within the nut-like polished hardened glume.

Distribution.—In damp situations all over India.

[Pg 146]

18. Imperata, Cyril.

These are erect perennial grasses. The inflorescence is a spike-like
panicle, with very short filiform inarticulate branches and
rachises. Spikelets are binate, 1-flowered, all alike, both pedicelled,
articulate at the base and hidden by the very long silky
hairs arising from a small callus and from the glumes. There are
four glumes. The first two glumes are membranous, lanceolate,
and subequal. The third glume is shorter and smaller, hyaline.
The fourth glume is still smaller and hyaline. Stamens are two,
rarely one. Lodicules are not found. Styles connate below, with
stigmas very long, narrow and exserted at the top of the spikelets.
Grain is small and oblong.

[Pg 147]

Imperata arundinacea, Cyril.

This is an erect perennial grass with creeping, stoloniferous
root-stocks, with aerial stems varying from 6 inches to 3 feet.

The leaf-sheath is loose and glabrous. The ligule consists of
long soft hairs. The nodes are naked or bearded.

The leaf-blade is linear, flat, tapering from about the middle
towards the top, finely acuminate, and also narrowing towards the
base into the stout midrib, margins with fine long hairs at the base,
6 to 18 inches by 1/10 to 1/3 inch, scabrous above and smooth
beneath.

The panicle is narrow, spike-like, silvery, 3 to 8 inches; branches
are short and appressed and the internodes of spikes are short
with the tips dilated.

The spikelets are 1/8 to 1/6 inch concealed by long silvery hairs
of the callus and the glumes, articulate at the base; callus hairs are
about twice as long as the spikelet or longer.

There are four glumes in the spikelet. The first glume is ovate-lanceolate,
obtuse, with ciliate tips and long hairs at the back
below the middle, rather thickened towards the base, dorsally hairy,
3- to 7-nerved, nerves not reaching the tip. The second glume is
as long as the first, with membranous margins and with long hairs
at the back, 3- to 7-nerved. The third glume is hyaline, less than
half as long as the first and second glumes, oblong, obtuse or
irregularly toothed, nerveless or 1-nerved. The fourth glume is
slightly shorter and narrower than the third, ovate, acute, obtuse
or toothed, ciliate, nerveless or faintly 1-nerved, paleate; palea is
about half as long as the glume, quadrate, toothed or retuse,
nerveless, glabrous. There are only two stamens with orange
anthers. Styles are slender, long, with purple stigmas. Lodicules
are absent. Grain is small and oblong.

Fig. 128.—Imperata arundinacea.

1. A spikelet; 2, 3, 4, and 5. the first, second, third and the fourth
glume, respectively; 6. palea of the fourth glume; 7. two stamens and the ovary.

This is fairly abundant in moist stiff soils. On account of the
underground stolons this grass cannot be eradicated easily.

Distribution.—Throughout India.

[Pg 148]

19. Saccharum, L.

These are tall perennial grasses. Inflorescence is a much
branched open panicle, branches spreading or erect, capillary
and fragile. Spikelets are small, 1-flowered, binate, one sessile
and the other pedicelled, the sessile spikelet is bisexual and the
pedicelled is female and rarely bisexual; sessile spikelets are
deciduous with the contiguous joint of the rachis and the pedicel.
There are four glumes. The first glume is chartaceous, equal in
length to the second, oblong or lanceolate. The second glume is
concave. The third glume is hyaline, empty. The fourth glume
is very small or absent. Lodicules are present. There are three
stamens. Stigmas are laterally exserted. Grain is oblong or
sub-globose.

[Pg 149]

Saccharum spontaneum, L.

This is a tall perennial grass with a creeping root-stock bearing
erect stems and occasionally decumbent or prostrate stolons.
Stems vary in length from 5 to 20 feet. Branches and axillary
buds grow out piercing the sheaths near the nodes.

The leaf-sheath is glabrous, but woolly at the mouth. The ligule
is a distinct ovate membrane. The nodes are glabrous.

The leaf-blade is very long, narrow linear, acuminate and
narrowing downwards into the stout midrib, coriaceous, glabrous
and 1-1/2 to 2 feet by 1/8 to 1/4 inch.

The panicle is lanceolate, 8 to 24 inches, silky and the peduncle
just below the panicle is softly silky, branches are whorled, three
to five at a level, 2 to 4 inches long, rachis of the branches almost
capillary, jointed and fragile, joints with long cilia at the back.

The spikelets are binate, one sessile and another pedicelled,
both bisexual and alike, lanceolate, 1/8 to 1/6 inch long, callus is
minute and bearded with spreading silky hairs 1/2 inch long.

Fig. 129.—Saccharum spontaneum.

1. Two spikelets; 2, 3, 4 and 5. the first, second, third and
the fourth glume, respectively; 6. ovary, stamens and lodicules.

There are four glumes. The first glume is lanceolate, subulate,
acuminate, 2-nerved, flattened dorsally, coriaceous at the base and
hyaline above it, and with smooth incurved margins. The second
glume is about equal to or slightly shorter than the first, lanceolate,
acuminate, 1-nerved, keeled with an opaque base; margins and
keel are ciliate with fine long hairs. The third glume is hyaline,
ovate-lanceolate, nerveless, acute, ciliate. The fourth glume is
very slender, ciliate, acuminate, paleate; palea is minute, very
variable. Stamens are three. Lodicules are cuneate or quadrate.
The grain is very small, oblong.

Distribution.—This occurs all over India along the sides of the
river.

[Pg 150]

20. Ischæmum, L.

The grasses of this genus are either annuals or perennials.
The inflorescence consists of spikes, solitary, digitate or fascicled,
articulate and fragile; the joints of the floral axis and the pedicels
of the pedicelled spikelets are trigonous and hollowed ventrally.
Spikelets are binate, one sessile and one pedicelled; the pedicelled
spikelets are dissimilar from the sessile and both usually 2-flowered.
The sessile spikelets have four glumes. The first
glume is coriaceous, oblong or lanceolate, convex more or less,
marginally winged above the middle, truncate or two-cuspidate
at the apex and awnless. The second glume is as long as the first,
coriaceous, concave, acute or obtuse, awned or not. The third
glume is hyaline, deeply cleft into two lobes with an awn in the
cleft, and 3-nerved, paleate; palea is linear-lanceolate enclosing
either stamens and ovary or ovary alone. Lodicules are cuneate
or quadrate.

KEY TO SPECIES.

[Pg 151]

Ischæmum aristatum, L.

This is a perennial grass, with fairly stout, erect or somewhat
decumbent, simple or branched, glabrous, leafy stems, 1 to 4 feet
high.

The leaf-sheath is loose, glabrous and auricled. The ligule is a
distinct membrane, broad or narrow. Nodes are glabrous.

The leaf-blade is linear-lanceolate, flat, acuminate, narrowed
towards the base which may be acute, subcordate or rarely even
petiolate, glabrous or sparsely hairy above and glaucous beneath,
4 to 10 inches long and 1/4 to 1 inch broad.

The inflorescence consists of one or two, erect, stout or slender,
fragile racemes, 1 to 5 inches long.

Fig. 130.—Ischæmum aristatum.

1. A portion of the raceme showing the joints, sessile and pedicelled spikelets; 2,
3, 4 and 6. the first, second, third and the fourth glume, respectively, of the sessile
spikelet; 5 and 7. palea of the third and the fourth glumes, respectively; 8. ovary,
stamens and lodicules; 9. first glume of the pedicelled spikelet.

The spikelets are 1/6 to 1/3 inch long, the sessile and the pedicelled
closely pressed together, glabrous or hairy; the callus of the sessile
spikelet broad and thick, with or without hairs. The sessile spikelet
is awned and consists of four glumes. The first glume is 1/5 inch
long or less, oblong or linear-oblong, cartilaginous below the
middle, with two to four (or rarely up to six) marginal nodules on
each edge, sometimes these are connected by shallow ridges,
thinner above the middle, with green anastomosing veins, tip
obtuse or 2-toothed, and margins narrowly incurved. The second
glume is chartaceous, lanceolate, acuminate, 1-nerved and with a
smooth rounded keel. The third glume is ovate-lanceolate, membranous,
1-nerved, acuminate, male or bisexual with an oblong palea.
The fourth glume is cleft to or below the middle into lanceolate acute
lobes, with a brownish red awn 1/2 inch or more long at the sinus
twisted at the lower portion and straight above, paleate, usually
female; palea is linear oblong. The pedicelled spikelet is as long as
the sessile, inarticulate on the very thick, short pedicel which is
[Pg 152]densely or sparsely hairy at the base. The first glume is scimitar-shaped,
coriaceous, acute, with a somewhat semi-circular wing. The
other glumes are as in sessile spikelets, but the fourth glume has no
awn and may have a mucro.

This grass is a variable one. There is much variation in the
breadth of the leaves and in the markings and hairiness of the
spikelets. The spikelets may be glabrous or hairy and the marking
in the first glume of the sessile spikelets varies in the matter of
marginal nodules—it may have mere shallow notches or deep well-formed
nodules and there may be transverse ridges or they may be
absent. This grass is abundant on the West Coast and rare in the
East Coast.

Distribution.—Throughout the plains and lower hills of India
and Ceylon.

Fig. 131.—Ischæmum aristatum.

A. A portion of the raceme showing the joints; B. a sessile and a pedicelled
spikelet. 1, 2, 3 and 6. the first, second, third and the fourth glume, respectively; 4 and
5. palea of the third and the fourth glume; 7. ovary and lodicules; 8. first glume
of the pedicelled spikelets.

[Pg 153]

Ischæmum rugosum, Salisb.

This is an erect annual grass with tufted, leafy, compressed
stems varying in length from 10 inches to 2 feet.

The leaf-sheath is glabrous, loose and compressed, with a membranous
auricle confluent with the truncate ligule. Nodes usually
glabrous but sometimes also puberulous.

The leaf-blade is narrow, linear-lanceolate, flat, base contracted,
flaccid, acuminate, rounded at the base, glabrous or sparsely hairy
on both the surfaces; the topmost leaf is often reduced to an
inflated sheath enclosing the inflorescence partially.

Fig. 132.—Ischæmum rugosum.

1. A part of the raceme showing sessile spikelets with reduced pedicelled spikelets; 2.
a sessile spikelet and a well developed pedicelled spikelet; 3. a reduced pedicelled
spikelet; 4, 5, 6 and 8. the first, second, third and the fourth glume of the sessile
spikelet; 7 and 9. palea of the third and fourth glumes of the sessile spikelet; 10. ovary.

The racemes are usually two, erect, fragile, 1 to 3 inches long
with a slight thickening of the peduncle below the inflorescence;
the joints are 1/3 to 2/3 as long as the sessile spikelets; trigonous
and subclavate, and with long hairs on one side. The spikelets
are linear-oblong, glabrous or villous, 1/8 to 1/4 inch long, sessile
and stalked spikelets close together; the pedicel of the stalked
spikelet is thick about 1/3 or less than the length of the sessile spikelet,
ciliate on one side, confluent with the thick callus of the sessile
spikelet, which is sparsely bristly. The sessile spikelet consists of
four glumes and is awned. The first glume is concave, pale yellow,
shining and cartilaginous to about 2/3 its length from the base, and
the upper third is membranous, dimidiately ovate; at the back in the
cartilaginous portion, there are three to six deep convex smooth
ridges running across the glume; the membranous tip is thin and
with anastomosing green veins; the margins of this glume are
thick, narrowly incurved, ciliolate, and with a narrow wing on the
outer margin. The second glume is oblong-lanceolate or lanceolate,
coriaceous, acuminate, scaberulous, keeled and laterally compressed
and on the keel just below the tip there is a narrow ciliate wing.[Pg 154]
The third glume is ovate-lanceolate, hyaline, acuminate 1- to 3-veined,
male or empty, with a narrow hyaline palea. The fourth
glume is shorter than the third, deeply cleft into two lanceolate
acute lobes, 3-veined at the base; awn up to about 2/3 inch long;
palea is linear lanceolate. Stamens are three and lodicules are
small and cuneate.

The pedicelled spikelet is very variable. It is shorter than the
sessile, with obscure transverse ridges and may consist of four
glumes, but without an awn to the fourth glume; sometimes this
spikelet is reduced to a single glume.

The grain is broadly oblong, brownish and compressed.

Distribution.—Throughout India and Ceylon.

[Pg 155]

Fig. 133.—Ischæmum pilosum.

A and B. Ligules.

[Pg 156]

Ischæmum pilosum, Hack.

It is a tall, robust, perennial grass with rhizomes producing
numerous creeping stolons densely covered with scaly-sheaths.
The aerial stems are erect, freely branching at the base, slender,
2 to 3 feet long, glabrous.

The leaf-sheath is glabrous. The ligule is a distinct glabrous
membrane, 1/8 inch long, rounded. Nodes are glabrous.

The leaf-blade is linear, finely acuminate, glabrous but bearded
at the base, 6 to 12 inches long and 1/8 to 1/3 inch broad.

The inflorescence consists of two to six softly hairy spikes which
are yellow or brown 1 to 4 inches long. Joints and pedicels are
slender, sparsely ciliate.

Fig. 134.—Ischæmum pilosum.

1. A sessile and a pedicelled spikelet; 2, 3, 4 and 6. the first, second, third and the
fourth glume, respectively, of the sessile spikelets; 5. palea of the third glume, 7. palea
of the fourth glume; 8. ovary; 9, 10, 11 and 12. first, second, third and the fourth
glume, respectively, of the pedicelled spikelets; 13. palea of the fourth glume.

The sessile spikelets are narrowly lanceolate, 3/4 inch long, with
long hairs at the base. The first glume is dorsally hairy, or
glabrous, narrowed from the middle upwards, chartaceous, with
incurved margins and six or seven anastomosing nerves. The second
glume is longer than the first, laterally compressed, ovate-lanceolate,
acuminate, chartaceous, glabrous but often with long hairs on
the keel towards the upper half, 5-nerved, the lateral nerves
anastomosing. The third glume is a little shorter than the second,
linear-oblong or lanceolate, paleate; palea is membranous, nerveless,
and encloses three stamens. The fourth glume is equal to the
third glume in length, membranous, hyaline and divided almost to
the middle into two acute lobes with an awn 1/4 to 3/8 inch long,
paleate; palea is lanceolate, nerveless and encloses three stamens
and the ovary and sometimes only the ovary. The pedicelled[Pg 157]
spikelets are shorter than the sessile but with a shorter awn. The
glumes are similar to those of the sessile spikelet; sometimes these
spikelets are imperfect or even reduced to a single glume.

This grass grows well in black cotton soils and sometimes it
gets very well established and then it is very difficult to eradicate
it. Cattle seem to like this grass.

Distribution.—In black cotton soils all over the presidency, but
most abundant in the Ceded districts.

[Pg 158]

Fig. 135.—Ischæmum ciliare.

[Pg 159]

Ischæmum ciliare, Retz.

It is a tufted perennial grass, erect or creeping. Stems are erect
or ascending, sometimes decumbent at base, and rooting at the
nodes, stout or slender, 6 inches to 2 feet long.

The leaf-sheath is compressed, loose, glabrous or hairy. The
ligule is a short, ciliate membrane. Nodes are glabrous or hairy.

The leaf-blade is flat, linear-lanceolate, acuminate, narrowed
towards the acute or rounded base, glabrous or hairy, 2 to 6 inches
long and 1/6 to 1/2 inch wide.

The inflorescence consists of two spikes, 1-1/2 to 2 inches long;
joints and pedicels of the pedicelled spikelets equal, hairy at the
back and at the angles.

The sessile spikelets are 1/8 to 1/5 inch long, oblong, bearded at the
base. The first glume is coriaceous, convex, polished, smooth or
pitted, hairy below,
flat and veined
above the middle,
with broad or
narrow ciliate equal
wings and with
margins narrowly
inflexed above and
broadly so below.
The second glume is
coriaceous, equal to
or longer than the
first, lanceolate,
acuminate, or
shortly awned,
3- to 5-nerved,
keel narrowly
winged towards the
apex, dorsally ciliate
or not. The
third glume is ovate-lanceolate,
acuminate,
ciliate towards
the apex, 1- to 3-nerved, paleate; the palea has a coriaceous
lanceolate centre, with broad hyaline ciliate wings and encloses
three stamens. The fourth glume is hyaline, deeply lobed into two
oblong obtuse glabrous or ciliate lobes, with an awn twice as long
as the spikelet in the cleft, and paleate; palea is lanceolate,
acuminate, 2-nerved. Styles and stigmas are short.

Fig. 136.—Ischæmum ciliare.

1. Spikelets; 2, 3, 4 and 6. the first, second, third and
the fourth glume, respectively, of the sessile spikelet; 5 and
7. palea of the third and the fourth glumes, respectively; 8.
lodicules, stamens and the ovary; 9 and 10. the first and the
second glumes of the pedicelled spikelet.

The pedicelled spikelets resemble the sessile ones in the structure
of their glumes and palea.

This grass is very variable in its habit and in the structure of its
spikelets. It grows mostly in wet situations, such as the bunds of
paddy fields and tanks. Cattle eat the grass eagerly.

Distribution.—All over India and Ceylon.

[Pg 160]Ischæmum laxum, L.

This is a perennial grass with numerous stiff, thick and wiry
roots.

Stems are erect, slender, rising in tufts from a short root-stock,
glabrous, leafy towards the base, varying in length from 2 to 3
feet.

The leaf-sheaths are shorter than the internodes usually
glabrous, but occasionally with scattered hairs. At the mouth
tufts of hairs are present or not. The ligule is a ridge of silky
hairs. The nodes are glabrous.

The leaf-blades are erect, flat, slightly glaucous, linear, narrowed
to long capillary tips, 5 to 12 inches long and 1/10 to 1/6 inch
broad, with prominent nerves and scabrid margins.

The inflorescence is a solitary spike, 2 to 5 inches long, erect and
fragile; the joints and pedicels are compressed, somewhat 2-angled,
ciliate with long hairs, and about half as long as the
spikelets.

Fig. 137.—Ischæmum laxum.

1. A sessile and a pedicelled spikelet; 2. first glume of a sessile spikelet; 3. second
glume of a sessile spikelet; 4 and 5. third and fourth glumes of sessile spikelets; 4a
and 5a. are palea of third and fourth glumes; 6. ovary; 7, 8, 9 and 10. glumes of pedicelled
spikelets; 9a and 10a. palea of third and fourth glumes.

The spikelets are in pairs, one-sessile and one-pedicelled. The
sessile spikelets are pale-green, linear-oblong, acuminate with
a shortly bearded callus, 1/4 to 3/8 of an inch long. There are four
glumes in a spikelet. The first glume is chartaceous, oblong-lanceolate,
acuminate, 2-toothed with the teeth ending in two short
awns, densely ciliated at the apex on one side, conspicuously 6-
(rarely) 7-nerved, the two lateral being very strong and running
into the apical teeth and the intermediate four nerves being shorter
and not running up to the apex, and on the dorsal surface there is a
depression, where it is membranous and the nerves on its sides
sometimes anastomosing at the upper third of the glume. The second[Pg 161]
glume is shorter than the first, chartaceous to a certain extent, ovate-lanceolate,
acuminate, concave, terminating in a fine scabrid awn,
1/2 inch long, with margins ciliate from above the middle to the
apex, and with a narrow ciliated wing on the keel at the apex
running up to the base of the awn, 3-nerved. The third glume is
lanceolate, acuminate, hyaline, nerveless, ciliate, with a linear
obtuse palea enclosing three stamens and two lodicules. The fourth
glume is hyaline, membranous, deeply split at the apex into two
prominent lobes and with an awn in the depression 1/2 inch
long, the palea is linear oblong and contains either the ovary alone
or both the stamens and the ovary.

The pedicelled spikelets are also as long as the sessile, more
conspicuous than the sessile and consist of four glumes, but are
not awned. The first glume is lanceolate or oblong-lanceolate,
chartaceous, with seven strong nerves, very prominent at the back
and the mid nerve being most conspicuous, with scabrid keels and
closely finely ciliated and folded margins, finely biaristate at the
apex. The second glume is lanceolate, finely acuminate, sub-chartaceous,
with the margins ciliate from about two-third its length from
the apex, 3-nerved, the mid nerve alone being prominent. The third
glume is hyaline, nerveless, lanceolate, ciliate in the margin,
paleate with 3 stamens or empty. The fourth glume is shorter than
the third, hyaline, narrow lanceolate, not awned, ciliate or not at
the margin, paleate and with three stamens and two lodicules.

This grass produces a large amount of leaves in good soils and
it is liked very much by cattle. It is capable of standing a long
spell of dry weather, and is valuable in this respect because it can
be depended upon when other grasses fail. It is worth conserving
with other grasses. It grows both in rich and poor soils, in open
places and also in thickets.

Distribution.—Throughout India and Ceylon.

[Pg 162]

21. Eremochloa, Buse.

These are tufted perennial grasses with rigid equitant leaves at
the base. The inflorescence consists of a solitary, glabrous, and
compressed spike, with a somewhat fragile rachis; the joints are
compressed, hollow and clavate. The spikelets are solitary, usually
2-flowered (rarely 1-flowered), secund, closely imbricating,
sessile with a short, pedicelled, reduced upper spikelet, and deciduous
with the joint. There are four glumes. The first glume is
oblong or ovate, flat, smooth, coriaceous, pectinately margined with
upcurved spines. The second glume is oblong-lanceolate, acute
and 3-nerved. The third glume is hyaline, obtuse, paleate and
male. The fourth glume is smaller, hyaline, oblong, obtuse, 1-nerved,
paleate, bisexual or female. Lodicules are truncate and
slightly oblique. Stamens are three with long anthers. Styles
are two with feathery stigmas. The grain is oval, plano-convex.

[Pg 163]

Eremochloa muricata, Hack.

This is a perennial tufted grass with a woody creeping root-stock.
Stems are erect or ascending, slender, strongly compressed,
lower parts completely covered by rigid equitant leaves, 6 to 18
inches long or more.

The leaf-sheath is broad, flat, much compressed, glabrous and
keeled. The ligule is a short membrane. Nodes are glabrous.

The leaf-blade is linear, glabrous on both sides, 2 to 6 inches
long and 3/16 to 1/4 inch broad, with a rounded tip and two unequal
lobes.

The spike is solitary, up to 6 inches (or more) in length, joints
of the rachis 1/3 to 1/2 the length of the spikelets. Spikelets are
solitary, sessile, compressed, secund. The sessile spikelets are
3/16 to 1/6 inch, and consist of four spikelets. The first glume is
oblong-lanceolate, dorsally slightly convex, smooth, coriaceous, 7-
to 9-nerved, and with pectinate margins consisting of long, spreading,
upcurved spines and at the top with subquadrate wings on
each side reaching beyond the acute tip. The second glume is
chartaceous, oblong-lanceolate, acuminate, usually 5-nerved (and
occasionally 3-nerved), the mid-nerve keeled with a narrow wing from
below the middle to the base and with hyaline margins. The third
glume is oblong-obovate,
hyaline,
thin, paleate with
three yellow anthers
and two oblong-cuneate
lodicules;
palea is narrow,
oblong, obtuse. The
fourth glume is thin,
hyaline, oblong-lanceolate,
obtuse,
paleate, and bisexual;
palea lanceolate,
narrow, two-toothed
at the apex,
with deep purple
anthers and stigmas
of the same colour.
The lodicules are
obliquely truncate.
Ovary has a reddish
spot between the
style branches and
just at the apex in the fresh state in the bud and in the open flower.

Fig. 138.—Eremochloa muricata.

A. Sessile spikelet; B. sessile and a pedicelled spikelet;
1, 2, 3 and 4. the first, second, third and the fourth glume
of the sessile spikelet; 3a and 4a. palea of the third and
fourth glumes of the sessile spikelet; 5. ovary, anthers and
lodicules.

The pedicelled spikelet is reduced to an inflated body, as long
as the sessile spikelet. It is pointed towards both ends, green with
anastomosing veins on the outside and membranous, white and
nerveless on the other side. The part of the pedicelled spikelet
corresponding to the spikelet looks as if the margins of the first
and second glumes are confluent all round.

Distribution.—South India and Ceylon.

[Pg 164]

22. Apocopis, Nees.

These are annual or perennial grasses with slender stems. The
spikes are compressed, 2- to 3-nate, or solitary at the ends of slender
branches, with a rachis not jointed; joints are short, slender and
villous. Spikelets are closely imbricating in two series, sessile,
solitary, the upper reduced to a small pedicel 1- to 2-flowered,
the lowest few on the spike, imperfect, male or neuter. There are
four glumes. The first glume is large, broadly obovate or obcordate,
cuneate, villous with brown hairs, 7- to 9-nerved. The second
glume is as long as the first, but narrower, thinner, oblong to ovate,
spikelet truncate and 3-nerved. The third glume is hyaline,
narrow, paleate, male or empty. The fourth glume is hyaline,
linear, entire or 2-fid, awned, bisexual with a very short palea.
Lodicules are absent. Stamens are two or three with linear
anthers. Styles are short and stigmas slender and exserted. The
grain is small, oblong and narrow.

[Pg 165]

Fig. 139.—Apocopis Wightii.

[Pg 166]

Apocopis Wightii, Nees ex Steud.

This is a low and densely tufted or tall erect annual grass.
Stems are leafy, branching freely, 3 to 8 inches long.

The leaf-sheath is loose, usually hairy, rarely also glabrous and
hairy at the mouth. The ligule is a small lacerate membrane.

The leaf-blade is linear-lanceolate, acuminate, hairy on both
sides and with tubercle-based hairs, rarely glabrous, 3/4 to 3 inches
by 1/12 to 1/8 inch.

The inflorescence consists of two racemes, closely appressed
together on a very slender peduncle; the joints are shorter than
the spikelets and with long brown hairs.

The spikelets are oblong, 1/8 to 1/5 inch long, the callus is short,
hairy with long brown hairs. The first glume is cuneately obovate
or obcordate, yellowish with red brown tips or dark brown with
yellow tips, chartaceous below, membranous, hyaline and ciliate at
the truncate, emarginate or retuse apex, 7- to 9-nerved, the nerves
abruptly ceasing towards the apex. The second glume is as long as
the first, broadly oblong, sides sharply folded inwards, 3-nerved,
rarely nerveless, with long hairs at the back towards the base and
with short cilia at the apex. The third glume is as long as the
first, hyaline, thin,
linear-oblong,
nerveless, ciliate at
the apex, paleate,
usually with two
stamens or empty;
palea as long as the
glume, hyaline and
nerveless. The
fourth glume is
slightly longer
than the other
glumes or equal,
very narrowly
oblong or linear,
membranous,
awned and paleate;
awn is 2 to 6
times the length of
the glume, 7/8 to
1-1/4 inch long;
palea is hyaline,
thin, nerveless,
convolute, broadly oblong to almost quadrate oblong, apex with very
short cilia. Grain is minute and oblong.

Fig. 140.—Apocopis Wightii.

1. Spike; 2. a spikelet; 3, 4, 5 and 7. the first, second, third
and the fourth glume, respectively; 6 and 8. palea of the
third and the fourth glume; 9. ovary.

This grass varies very much in its spikelets. In one form they
are smaller and hairy and in the other they are larger and glabrous
except for a few stray hairs here and there. The former one is
more widely distributed and the latter seems to be confined to
certain localities in the south of the Presidency.

Distribution.—Throughout the Deccan Peninsula, Behar, Central
India, Burma and Ceylon.

[Pg 167]

23. Lophopogon, Hack.

These are small densely tufted perennial grasses, with very
narrow leaves. The spikes are very short at the ends of very fine
branches, solitary, binate or fascicled, with very fragile rachis;
joints are very short, slender with cupular tips. The spikelets are
binate one sessile and the other shortly pedicelled, with the callus
villous. There are four glumes. The first glume (of both the
sessile and the pedicelled spikelets) is oblong, truncate, irregularly
3- to 4-toothed, 5- to 7-nerved and dorsally convex. The second
glume is narrow lanceolate, longer than the first, 3- to 5-nerved,
hispidly villous dorsally below the middle and on the sides, aristate
or awned. The third glume is oblong lanceolate, hyaline, acute or
aristate, 1-nerved, male or neuter, with a linear palea. The fourth
glume is hyaline, as long as the third, entire or 2-fid and awned in
the pedicelled and not awned in sessile spikelets, paleate with
female or bisexual flowers. Lodicules are not present. Stamens
are two. Stigmas are long.

[Pg 168]

Lophopogon tridentatus, Hack.

This is a small annual grass with slender, tufted, erect stems
varying in height from 4 to 12 inches.

Leaf-sheaths are glabrous or with scattered hairs. The ligule is
a fringe of close-set long hairs. Nodes are covered with long hairs
below, but nodes nearer the inflorescence are glabrous.

Leaf-blades are very finely linear, acuminate, rigid, erect, glabrous
below, with long hairs on the upper surface to about quarter
the length of the blade and densely hairy near the mouth, and
varying in length from 2 to 6 inches.

The inflorescence consists of usually two closely appressed
spikes, though appearing as one, 1/2 to 3/4 inch long, pilose with
ferrugineous hairs; the peduncle is capillary and enclosed by the
upper leaf-sheath.

Fig. 141.—Lophopogon tridentatus.

1. Awnless lower spikelet; 2. a lower sessile and an upper pedicelled spikelet;
3. the first glume of an awnless lower spikelet; 4. the first glume of a lower spikelet
that is awned; 5. the first, glume of the upper or pedicelled spikelets; 6, 7 and 9. the
second, third and the fourth glume, respectively, of the upper pedicelled spikelets; 8
and 10. palea of the third and the fourth glumes; 11. ovary and anthers.

The spikelets are densely imbricate, binate at each joint, the
upper being shortly pedicelled and the lower sessile or subsessile.
The lower spikelets are 1/5 inch long with a tuft of brownish hairs
at the tip of the callus. The lower spikelets at the very base of
the inflorescence are awnless and contain only two male flowers,
whereas those above in the inflorescence are awned and contain
one male flower and one hermaphrodite or female flower.

There are four glumes in the spikelet. The first glume in the
awnless spikelets is coriaceous, oblong, cuneate, very sparsely
hairy or glabrous, shorter than the second glume, 7-nerved,
5-toothed at the apex, two teeth being broader and shorter and
three sharper and longer. The second glume is longer than the
first, 1/5 inch long, sub-chartaceous, lanceolate, 3-nerved, 2-fid at
the tip and awned or aristate, margin hyaline and with long
[Pg 169]brownish hairs on the marginal nerves. The third glume is hyaline,
a little shorter than the second, lanceolate-linear, tip bifid or
irregularly toothed, paleate with two stamens or rarely empty;
the palea is linear, about as long as the glume, tip irregularly
toothed. The fourth glume is hyaline, as long as the third glume,
2-fid at the tip, awnless with a very minute arista in the cleft or
not, paleate with two stamens; palea narrow and hyaline. The
first glume of the lower spikelets above is somewhat narrower, 5- or
3-toothed with long hairs at the margins and with tufts of hairs
at the back about the middle. The pedicelled or upper spikelets
also have four glumes and bear one male flower and one bisexual
flower. The first glume is shorter than the second glume, narrow,
oblong, cuneate, 3-toothed with marginal hairs and tufts of hairs at
about the middle at the back, 7-nerved all nerves running straight.
The second glume is longer than the first, 1/5 inch long, sub-chartaceous,
lanceolate, 2-fid at the tip, awned with hyaline margins,
3- to 7-nerved, marginal nerves with long brown hairs, and also
with two tufts of hairs at about the middle or without it. The
third glume is hyaline, nerveless, linear-lanceolate, shorter than the
second glume, tip irregularly toothed or unequally bifid, paleate
with two stamens; palea is linear about as long as the glume. The
fourth glume is hyaline, about 1/6 inch long, lanceolate, 2-fid at
the tip, awned in the cleft, lobes are hairy; awn is 3/4 inch long,
paleate, usually bisexual, rarely female; palea is two-thirds of the
glume in height, broadly ovate or quadrate, lobulate at the apex.
Styles are very long, purple, anthers long, yellow. Grain narrow
ellipsoidal or cylindric as long as the palea.

This grass is found in Chingleput, Nellore and Chittoor districts
in open waste places in loamy soils.

Distribution.—The Konkan, Kanara and Central Provinces.

[Pg 170]

24. Apluda, L.

These are tall leafy slender perennial grasses, with branching
stems erect or geniculately ascending from a creeping or decumbent
base. The inflorescence is a leafy panicle of many small spikes
enclosed in spathiform bracts. Spikes are of one linear joint
gibbously bulbous at the base, and jointed on the peduncle at the
base of the spathe by a minute curved pedicel. Spikelets are
three, a sessile, 2-flowered bisexual one in front, and two pedicelled
ones behind, one of which is imperfect and reduced to a glume and
the other perfect male or rarely bisexual. The two pedicels are
flat, prolonged from one side of the rounded rachis, oblong linear,
truncate with a few long hairs along the margin. Sessile spikelets
have four glumes. The first glume is chartaceous, linear oblong,
many-nerved, shortly bifid at the apex, longer than the other
glumes. The second glume is thinner, dorsally gibbous, keeled, 5-
to 9-nerved, beaked and minutely bifid. The third glume is
hyaline, oblong, acute, 3-nerved, paleate and male. The fourth
glume is hyaline, deeply bifid, awned in the sinus, bisexual with a
minute palea. The pedicelled spikelet has also four glumes. The
first and the second glumes are nearly equal, rather chartaceous.
linear-oblong, acute or acuminate, many-nerved. The third glume
is hyaline, oblong-lanceolate, 3-nerved, paleate and male. The
fourth glume is hyaline, bifid, paleate, 1-nerved, female or
bisexual. Lodicules are two. Stamens are three. Grain is oblong.

[Pg 171]

Apluda varia, Hack.

This is a tall leafy perennial grass with wiry roots. Stems are
densely tufted, branched, geniculately ascending, erect or the
branches scandent, solid, smooth and polished, 1 to 7 feet.

The leaf-sheath is glabrous or slightly hairy, the upper ones
being shorter and dilated into spathes with subulate tips. The
ligule is a short stiff slightly lacerate membrane.

The leaf-blade is linear-lanceolate, finely acuminate, base
narrowed into a petiole, scaberulous on both the surfaces.

The inflorescence consists of simple spikes, each in a spathiform
bract, and forming clusters terminating the stem and the branches.
The spikes have their bases rounded and swollen and each spike
consists of a sessile bisexual spikelet and two flat linear, truncate,
parallel pedicels, one terminated by a spikelet, and the other by a
solitary minute glume. Spathes are 1/8 to 1/3 inch long, sessile or
pedicellate, green, cymbiform, with subulate tips.

Fig. 142.—Apluda varia.

A. A cluster of spikes containing five spikes with their spathes; B and C. spikes.

The sessile as well as the pedicelled spikelets have four glumes. The
sessile spikelets are 1/8 to 1/5 inch long. The first glume is spreading
or erect, chartaceous, many-nerved, two-toothed at the apex and
with narrow hyaline margins from about the middle to the apex.
The second glume is compressed, dorsally gibbous, keeled, 7-nerved.
The third glume is hyaline, oblong-lanceolate, 3-nerved, paleate
with three stamens; palea is narrow. The fourth glume is shorter
than the third, deeply 2-fid and awned in the cleft, bisexual or
female, 3- to 5-nerved below the cleft, the lateral nerves arching
and meeting the mid-nerve just at the cleft, with a small ovate
palea. There are two lodicules. The pedicelled spikelets are dorsally
compressed. The first glume is lanceolate, oblong, subacute,
many-nerved, coriaceous and glabrous. The second glume is as long
as the first, many-nerved, lanceolate-oblong, coriaceous and
glabrous. The third glume is hyaline, shorter than the second,
3-nerved, paleate and with three stamens. The fourth glume is
shorter than or equal to the third, hyaline, 1-nerved rarely with
two short lateral nerves, female or imperfect. Lodicules are two.

[Pg 172]

A very common grass occurring in the plains and lower hills, all
over the Presidency and grows well in all kinds of soil.

Distribution.—All over India.

Fig. 143.—Apluda varia.

1, 2, 3 and 4. The first, second, third and the fourth glume, respectively, of the
sessile spikelet; 3a and 4a. are the palea of the third and the fourth glume, respectively;
5. stamens, ovary and lodicules; 6, 7, 8 and 10. the first, second, third and the fourth
glume, respectively, of the pedicelled spikelet; 9 and 11. palea of the third and the
fourth glumes.

[Pg 173]

25. Rottboellia, Linn. f.

These are tall, annual or perennial grasses, with leafy stems
and narrow leaves. The spikes are few or many, solitary or
panicled, with a jointed usually fragile rachis; the joints are
rounded or compressed, hollowed on one side and excavated at the
tip. The spikelets are usually binate, one-sessile closing or sunk
in the cavity of the joint and the other pedicelled, smaller than the
sessile or rudimentary with the pedicel usually adnate to the joints
and equal to or shorter than it. The sessile spikelets are bisexual,
1- to 2-flowered, equal to or shorter than the joint and four-glumed.
The first glume is coriaceous dorsally flattened, obtuse,
margins narrowly incurved. The second glume is thinner than the
first, broadly ovate, acute and gibbously convex. The third glume
is hyaline, ovate, acute, male or neuter, with a membranous palea.
The fourth glume is hyaline, bisexual, broadly ovate, acute with a
hyaline, ovate-lanceolate palea. There are three stamens with
linear anthers. There are two cuneate lodicules. Styles are two
with laterally exserted stigmas. The grain is broadly oblong.
The pedicelled spikelets are smaller than the sessile, male or
neuter, with four glumes. The first glume is herbaceous, many-nerved,
ovate-acute, minutely bifid at the apex. The second, third
and the fourth are more or less similar to those of the sessile
spikelet.

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

[Pg 174]

Rottboellia Myurus, Benth.

This is a tufted perennial with creeping stems which branch
freely into ascending compressed branches, 10 inches to 2 feet
high.

The leaf-sheath is quite glabrous and compressed. The ligule
is a short ciliate membrane. Nodes are glabrous.

The leaf-blade is flat, linear, acute, glabrous, 2 to 6 inches long.

The inflorescence consists of a solitary terminal or axillary
raceme 1 to 2 inches long; joints are shorter than the spikelets,
excavate on one side and with a pore which is hidden by the
sessile spikelet. The sessile spikelet consists of four glumes. The
first glume is somewhat fiddle-shaped, dilated above the middle
into an orbicular wing, and towards the base into two auricles
joined by a transverse ridge, scaberulous, 5-nerved. The second
glume is somewhat membranous, ovate, acute and 3-nerved. The
third glume is hyaline, thin, oblong, obtuse and nerveless. The
fourth glume is lanceolate, nerveless and without a palea, bisexual.
There are two cuneate lodicules. The pedicelled spikelets also
have four glumes and the pedicels usually free, but also sometimes
adnate. The first glume is oblong, obtuse, winged on one side
only, 5-nerved. The second glume is boat-shaped, chartaceous, 3-nerved
crested with a semi-circular wing at the apex. The
third glume is hyaline, broadly oblong, obtuse, 3-nerved with a
lanceolate hyaline palea. The fourth glume is oblong, obtuse, male.

Fig. 144.—Rottboellia Myurus.

1. A portion of the raceme showing front view; 2. a portion of the raceme showing
the back view; 3. a sessile and a pedicelled spikelet showing the front side; 4. the same
showing the back side; 5, 6, 7 and 8. the first, second, third and the fourth glume of the
sessile spikelet, respectively; 9 ovary and lodicules; 10, 11, 12 and 14. the first, second,
third and the fourth glume, respectively, of the pedicelled spikelet; 13 and 15. palea of
the third and fourth glumes of the sessile spikelet.

This is very common in dry somewhat sandy places in the East
Coast districts.

Distribution.—Common in Deccan peninsula.

[Pg 175]

Rottboellia exaltata, L.f.

This grass is usually annual and rarely perennial. Stems are
stout, erect, hispid, branching from the base, varying in height
from 3 to 10 feet.

The leaf-sheaths are loose, hispid with tubercle-based hairs, or
glabrous, with mouth contracted. The ligule is short and ciliate.

The leaf-blade is linear-lanceolate, setaceously-acuminate with a
stout midrib prominent beneath, hispid or scabrid above, smooth
or sometimes scaberulous and glaucous beneath, spinulosely scabrid
at the margin, 5 to 24 inches by 1/4 to 1 inch.

Fig. 145.—Rottboellia exaltata.

1 and 2. A portion of the spike, back and front view; 3, 4, 5 and 7. the first, second,
third and the fourth glume, respectively, of the sessile spikelet; 6 and 8. palea of the
third and the fourth glumes of the sessile spikelet; 9. ovary; 10, 11, 12 and 14. the
first, second, third and the fourth glume of the pedicelled spikelet; 13 and 15. palea of
the third and the fourth glume of the pedicelled spikelet.

The racemes are stout, cylindrical below and very narrow and
with imperfect spikelets above, joints are smooth and rounded
dorsally. The sessile spikelets are as long as the joint or slightly
shorter and has four glumes. The first glume is ovate-oblong,
thickly coriaceous, smooth at the back with a truncate base and a
transverse ridge at the base inside, many-nerved, with very narrow
inflexed margins and very narrow wings at the top, the apex is
obtuse or emarginate. The second glume is equal to the first glume
in height, chartaceous, gibbously convex, broadly ovate, acute, 9-
to 11-nerved, and with a short wing to the keel at the apex. The
third glume is oblong or elliptic-oblong, rigid with a hyaline centre
and coriaceous at the sides, 3-nerved, paleate and with three
stamens; palea is as long as the glume, coriaceous with inflexed
hyaline margins. Lodicules are cuneate, with toothed edge. The
fourth glume is a little shorter than the third, ovate from a broad
base, hyaline and acute, 1-nerved, paleate and usually with an
ovary and two lodicules: palea is hyaline, as long as the glume.[Pg 176]
but narrower, nerveless. Lodicules are quadrate; grain somewhat
large oblong and compressed. The pedicelled spikelets are usually
imperfect.

This grass occurs all over the Presidency in cultivated dry
fields.

Distribution.—Throughout the lower hills and plains of India
and in Australia and Africa.

[Pg 177]

26. Mnesithea, Kunth.

These are erect slender perennial grasses with narrow leaves.
The spikes are solitary and slender, with a fragile, articulated
rachis; the joints are terete, ribbed, all but a few upper with two
equal and similar sessile spikelets, sunk in sub-opposite oblong
cavities, separated by a hyaline septum, and with sometimes a
minute glume representing a third spikelet (the pedicelled) on the
upper margin of the joint. The sessile spikelets are one-flowered,
nearly as long as the internode. There are four glumes in the
spikelet. The first glume closing the mouth of the cavity in the
joint is obliquely oblong, obtuse, smooth with narrowly incurved
margins. The second and the third glumes are as long as the first,
obtuse and hyaline. The third glume is empty, paleate or not.
The fourth glume is rather small, oblong, obtuse, bisexual and
palea shorter than the glume. The lodicules are not present. The
stamens are three. Ovary is very small with stigmas not exserted.
The grain is narrowly oblong compressed. The pedicelled spikelets
are confined to the upper 1-flowered joints of the spike and their
pedicels are confluent with the walls of the joints and their margins
are marked by two ribs. The first glume is very minute and the
other glumes are absent.

[Pg 178]

Mnesithea lævis, Kunth.

This is an erect slender perennial grass with smooth simple or
branched stems varying in height from 2 to 4 feet.

The leaf-sheath is terete, tight, glabrous. The ligule is a short
toothed membrane. Nodes are glabrous.

The leaf-blade is flat, linear from a narrow base, glabrous or base
hairy; apices of upper leaves acuminate, and those of the lower
obtuse, with finely serrate margins and a midrib prominent below,
6 to 12 inches long and 1/10 to 1/6 inch wide.

Racemes are short, exserted from the uppermost sheath, erect, 4
to 8 inches long; joints are 1/5 inch long, contracted in the middle,
with two equal and similar spikelets, sunk in the opposite oblong
cavities separated by a thin hyaline septum and sometimes with a
minute glume of the third spikelet on the upper margin of the
joint.

Fig. 146.—Mnesithea lævis.

1 and 2. Portions of a spike; 3, 4, 5 and 6. the first, second, third and the fourth
glume, respectively; 7. palea of the fourth glume; 8. ovary; 9 and 10. a part of the
spike at the terminal portion.

The sessile spikelets are 1-flowered, as long as the joint and
varying in length from 1/7 to 1/5 inch and have four glumes. The
first glume is obliquely oblong, coriaceous, smooth, obtuse, margins
narrowly incurved, truncate and pitted at the base, 5- to 7-nerved.
The second glume is as long as the first hyaline, oblong and obtuse.
The third glume is like the second but thinner and slightly broader,
paleate or not, empty. The fourth glume is rather smaller than the
third, oblong, obtuse, bisexual and paleate; the palea is shorter
than the glume. Lodicules are not present.

This grass is usually found in dry fields all over the presidency
but it is nowhere abundant.

Distribution.—Throughout India and Ceylon.

[Pg 179]

27. Manisuris, Sw.

These are erect leafy much branched annual grasses. Leaves
are amplexicaul and cordate at the base. The inflorescence
consists of small, terete, axillary and terminal spikes with
peduncles often confluent in a leafy spiciform panicle; the rachis
is fragile with short broad joints, deeply excavate opposite the
sessile spikelets and the tips with two pits. Spikelets are in
dissimilar pairs, one globose, sessile and bisexual and the other
ovate, pedicelled, neuter with the pedicels adnate to, or closely
appressed to the joint of the rachis. The sessile spikelet has four
glumes. The first glume is globose, hard, coarsely pitted, with
an oblong ventral opening opposite the cavity in the joint of
the rachis. The second glume is chartaceous, minute, oblong, 1-nerved
immersed in the cavity of the first glume and closing the
opening. The third and the fourth glumes are hyaline and minute.
The lodicules are broadly cuneate. Anthers are minute. The
styles are free and stigmas are short exserted from the opening in
the first glume. Grain is sub-globose.

[Pg 180]

Manisuris granularis, L.f.

This is a freely branching annual with stems leafy to the top
and varying in length from 1 to 2-1/2 feet.

The leaf-sheath is inflated, covered with scattered tubercle-based
hairs. The ligule is a short membrane with ciliate margin. Nodes
are with long hairs.

The leaf-blade is linear, cordate and amplexicaul at base, acute,
flat, flaccid, with scattered tubercle-based hairs on both the
surfaces, 4 to 10 inches by 1/4 to 1/2 inch.

The spikes are solitary, axillary and terminal and 1/4 to 1 inch,
the peduncles of the spikes are often confluent in a leafy spathiform
panicle; the rachis is fragile with short joints deeply excavate
on one side.

Fig. 147.—Manisuris granularis.

1 and 2. The front and back view of a bit of a spike; 3, 4, 5 and 6. the first,
second, third and the fourth glume, respectively, of the sessile spikelet; 7. ovary anthers
and lodicules; 8, 9, 10 and 12. the first, second, third and the fourth glume, respectively,
of the pedicelled spikelet; 11 and 13. palea of the third and fourth glumes.

The spikelets are 1- to 2-flowered in dissimilar pairs, one
globose, sessile and bisexual and the other ovate, pedicelled,
neuter; the pedicel is adnate to the joint of the rachis.

The sessile spikelet has four glumes. The first glume is hard,
globose, foveolate, with an oblong opening, faintly nerved. The
second glume is chartaceous, immersed in the cavity of the joint,
and filling the opening. The third glume is small hyaline and
empty. The fourth glume is hyaline, small and paleate. The grain
is sub-globose. Lodicules are broadly cuneate.

The pedicelled spikelets also have four glumes. The first glume
is ovate, sub-chartaceous, winged on one side with a broad hyaline
ciliate wing, 5- to 7-veined. The second glume is cymbiform,
compressed laterally, with a dorsal hyaline ciliate wing to the
keel, 5- to 7-veined. The third glume is hyaline, membranous,
oblong, 2-nerved and paleate or not, and with or without stamens.[Pg 181]
The fourth glume is similar to the third, but slightly smaller, paleate
and with three stamens.

This grass occurs in open loamy soils and in cultivated dry
fields.

Distribution.—Throughout India and Ceylon and also in most of
the tropical countries.

[Pg 182]

28. Andropogon, L.

The grasses of this genus are either perennial or annual and
vary very much in habit. The inflorescence consists of solitary,
binate, digitate, or panicled racemes. The rachis is usually jointed
and fragile. Spikelets are binate, a sessile female or bisexual and
a pedicelled male or neuter. The sessile spikelet is 1-flowered
and has usually four glumes. The first glume is coriaceous or
chartaceous, dorsally compressed, with incurved margins, usually
2-keeled. The second glume is as long as the first, thinner, with
a median keel, laterally compressed, awned or not. The third
glume is hyaline, empty, nerveless and without a palea. The
fourth glume is hyaline, narrow or broad, 2-fid and awned,
or reduced to an awn more or less dilated at the base, paleate
or not. There are two lodicules and three stamens. Stigmas
are feathery. Grain is free. The pedicelled spikelets are usually
smaller than the sessile and have three or four glumes and are
awnless.

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

[Pg 184]

Fig. 148.—Andropogon foveolatus.

[Pg 185]

Andropogon foveolatus, Del.

The stems are slender at first, slightly decumbent at the base
and then erect, covered at base with silkily villous sheaths, branches
freely above before flowering, the lower portion of stems alone
being leafy.

The leaf-sheath is somewhat scaberulous, partly green and partly
purplish, always shorter than the internode. The ligule is short,
truncate, hyaline and ciliate. Nodes are tumid and purplish with
a ring of hairs.

The leaf-blade is linear, narrow, sometimes even filiform,
acuminate slightly cordate at the base, scabrid throughout with
a few scattered long bulbous-based hairs near the base to a
distance of less than 1/2 inch about it and varies from 2 to 4
inches in length.

Fig. 149.—Andropogon foveolatus.

1 and 2. Sessile and pedicelled spikelets; 3, 4, 5 and 6. the first, second, third
and the fourth glume, respectively, of the sessile spikelet; 7. lodicules, anthers and ovary;
8, 9 and 10. the two glumes and the palea of the pedicelled spikelet.

The spikes are solitary, 1 to 1-3/4 inch long exserted far above the
small spathiform leaf-sheaths, peduncles are capillary and scaberulous,
pedicels and joints are somewhat flattened, and have along
both the narrow margins long, white, ascending hairs; callus is
short with a ring of short white hairs.

There are two kinds of spikelets, sessile and pedicelled, and both
are oblong-lanceolate and equal. The sessile spikelet consists of four[Pg 186]
glumes. The first glume is lanceolate, flat and smooth, keels scabrid
with usually a deep dorsal pit, 4-nerved. The second glume
is lanceolate, acute, as long as the first, 3-nerved. The third
glume is small, membranous, linear-lanceolate, nerveless. The
fourth glume is the dilated base of the awn, awn is about 3/4 inch
twisted to half its length, scabrid, the lower twisted part dark and
the upper pale. There are three stamens and two lodicules.
Ovary has two feathery stigmas. The pedicelled spikelets have only
two glumes and contain three stamens. The first glume is oblong-lanceolate,
5-nerved, pitted above the middle, with recurved
margins and scabrid keels and nerves. The second glume is
lanceolate, membranous, hairy at the top, 3-nerved with margins
infolded; palea is oblanceolate, thinly membranous, nerveless
and ciliated at the top; there are three stamens and two lodicules.

This is a fairly common grass occurring all over the Presidency
much liked by cattle and yields plenty of foliage if properly looked
after. It grows on all kinds of soils, even laterite.

Distribution.—Throughout India.

[Pg 187]

Fig. 150.—Andropogon pumilus.

[Pg 188]

Andropogon pumilus, Roxb.

It is a tufted annual with numerous radiating branches, growing
on all directions, bent below and erect above; they vary in length
from 6 inches to 18 inches, but sometimes when growing under
favourable conditions attain the length of 2-1/2 feet. The stem is
slender, green, or pale reddish in the exposed portions and pale
in parts covered by sheaths slightly flattened, smooth.

The leaf-sheaths are smooth, compressed, distinctly keeled. The
ligule is a short, truncate, white, glabrous membrane. The nodes
are glabrous.

The leaf-blade is linear, finely acuminate, glabrous, but sometimes
somewhat scabrid along the nerves and with scattered long delicate
hairs above especially when young, varying in length from 1 to
7 inches and 1/10 to 1/8 inch in breadth.

The inflorescence consists of paired spikes with very slender
peduncles arising from flattened, glabrous, acuminate spathes,
varying in length from 1/2 to 1-1/4 inches. The spikes are spreading
and one of them always slightly longer than the other, reddish or
pale green, 1/2 to 1 inch long; the rachis consists of five to eight
flat joints broadened at the top and ending in a cup, densely ciliate
on both the margins, but hairs on one margin are shorter than those
on the other. Each joint bears a sessile and a pedicelled spikelet.

Fig. 151.—Andropogon pumilus.

1. A portion of the spike to show the arrangement of the spikelets; 1. the first
glume of the sessile spikelet; 2. second glume of the sessile spikelet; 3 and 4. third and
fourth glumes of the sessile spikelet; 5. anthers, lodicules and the ovary; A, B and C.
the three glumes of the pedicelled spikelets.

The sessile spikelet is about 3/16 inch with an awn 7/16 inch long.
There are four glumes in the spikelet. The first glume is narrow,
linear, membranous, grooved, finely bicuspidate at the apex, with
incurved margins and two nerves ending in tubercles below. The
second glume is a little longer than the first, narrow, lanceolate,
boat-shaped, thinly coriaceous with membranous margins, 1-nerved
and shortly awned. The third glume is about 2/3 of the
[Pg 189]second glume in length, and shorter than the first glume, linear-lanceolate,
hyaline, nerveless or sometimes very obscurely 2-nerved.
The fourth glume is narrow linear, hyaline with two very
fine lobes at the apex with an awn between, 7/16 inch long. Palea
is hyaline and very small. Stamens are three, ovary with two long
reddish feathery stigmas. Lodicules small and cuneate. Grain is
long and narrow.

The pedicelled spikelets have only three glumes, and are slightly
shorter than the sessile ones, pedicel is similar to the joint. The
first glume is ovate-lanceolate, thinly coriaceous, distinctly many-nerved,
acuminate, margins infolded and membranous. The
second glume is ovate-lanceolate, membranous, glabrous and 3-nerved.
The third glume is short, oblong-lanceolate, nerveless or
faintly 2-nerved. There are three stamens.

This grass is variable in its size. In dry soils such as laterite
soils, it is a very small plant not exceeding 9 or 10 inches
across its spread. But in good soil and under favourable conditions
the plant measures across 5 or 6 feet. Cattle eat the
grass before it flowers and do not relish it so much when in flower.

A common grass flourishing all over the Presidency.

Distribution.—Occurs in drier parts throughout India.

[Pg 190]

Fig. 152.—Andropogon pertusus.

[Pg 191]

Andropogon pertusus, Willd.

This grass is perennial. Stems are tufted, very slender, widely
creeping on all sides, purplish, but the flowering branches are erect
or ascending from a geniculate base, leafy at base, the nodes of
the creeping branches rooting and bearing tufts of branches which
finally become independent plants at each node, the creeping
branches vary in length from 1 to 3 feet and the erect ones from
10 to 18 inches or more.

The leaf-sheaths are terete or somewhat compressed, glabrous,
sometimes ciliated near the node and shorter than the internode.
The ligule is a truncate membrane, slightly ciliate or not. Nodes
are bearded.

The leaf-blades in the prostrate branches are crowded, short
linear-lanceolate, finely acuminate, soft, shortly hairy along the
nerves, sparsely ciliate near the rounded base, varying in length
from 1 to 2 inches and in breadth 1/8 to 1/4 inch; but on the
flowering branches the leaves are longer, sometimes as long as
twelve inches with bigger sheaths.

Fig. 153.—Andropogon pertusus.

1. A portion of a spike; 2. a pair of spikelets; a. sessile and b. pedicelled;
a-1. first glume; a-2. second glume; a-3. third glume; a-4. fourth glume and awn;
a-5. ovary and stamens; a-6. grain; b-1. first glume of pedicelled spikelet front and
back; b-2. second glume front and back; b-3. third glume.

The inflorescence consists of three to nine, slender, flexuous, erect,
purplish spikes, 1 to 2 inches long, alternately arranged on
a thin, long, slender, smooth peduncle of about six inches; rachis is
slender and the joints and pedicels are densely silky with long
hairs.

The spikelets are in pairs, one sessile and one-pedicelled, both are
equal, purplish or pale. The sessile spikelet consists of four glumes
[Pg 192]and contains a complete flower and the callus is short and bearded
with long hairs. The first glume is coriaceous, oblong-lanceolate,
acute, truncate or emarginate, slightly hairy, or glabrous with a deep
pit above the middle (sometimes with two or three pits also) 7- to 9-nerved
with a few long hairs below the middle and with margins infolded
and shortly ciliate. The second glume is lanceolate-acuminate
and finely pointed at the tip and the point projecting slightly
beyond the first glume, 3-nerved or 3- to 5-nerved, membranous,
slightly hairy or glabrous, obscurely keeled. The third glume
is thin, membranous, shorter than the second glume, linear-oblong,
subobtuse or acute at the tip and nerveless. The fourth glume
is the base of the awn and the awn is not twisted, bent at about
the middle, 1/2 to 2/3 inch long; there is no palea. Anthers are three
and yellow; stigmas purple. The grain is oblong-obovate, slightly
transparent.

The pedicelled spikelets are slightly narrower than the sessile,
generally not pitted (though pitted in some plants), and not awned,
and each one consists of three glumes only; the pedicel is more
than half as long as the sessile spikelets. The first glume is slightly
hairy, oblong-lanceolate, acute or obtuse, ciliate at the margins,
7- to 9-, or 13-nerved, generally without pits, but occasionally with
one, two or three pits; the keels are ciliolate throughout the
length. The second glume is membranous, ovate-lanceolate, acute,
with incurved margins, 5-nerved. The third glume is hyaline,
linear-oblong, glabrous and thinly ciliate at the tip or not with
or without stamens.

This is an excellent fodder grass and it grows quickly and
stands cutting very well. Cattle eat this grass very well.

Distribution.—This grass is found all over India in the plains or
lower elevations of hills.

[Pg 193]

Andropogon squarrosus, L.f.

(Vetiveria zizanioides.)

This is a densely tufted perennial grass with branching root-stocks
and spongy aromatic roots.

The stems are leafy, with equitant, hard, leaf-sheaths at the
base, smooth and polished, solid, 2 to 3-1/2 feet high.

The leaf-sheaths are smooth, coriaceous, glabrous, keeled and
compressed. The ligule is a very short membrane.

Leaf-blades are narrowly linear, erect, strongly keeled and flat,
acuminate, glabrous both above and below, very much narrower
than the sheath at the base, 1 to 2 feet by 1/3 to 3/4 inch.

The panicle is conical, erect with branches, fascicled, varying
in length from 4 to 12 inches. The spikes consist of both sessile
and pedicelled spikelets, that are either grey, green, or purplish.

Fig 154.—Andropogon squarrosus.

1. A portion of a branch; 2. a sessile and a pedicelled spikelet; 3, 4, 5 and 6. the
first, second, third and the fourth glume, respectively, of the sessile spikelet; 7. palea of
the fourth glume; 8. lodicules, stamens and the ovary; 9, 10, 11 and 12. glumes of the
pedicelled spikelet; 13. palea of the fourth glume.

The sessile spikelets are about 1/6 inch long, lanceolate and with a
shortly bearded callus. The first glume is ovate-oblong, thickly coriaceous,
obscurely 2- to 4-nerved (occasionally 5- to 7-nerved), acute,
dorsally flat, with incurved margins and with two rows of tubercle-based
minute prickles or mere excrescences at the sides. The second
glume is as long as the first, oblong, coriaceous, keeled, with hyaline
and ciliolate margins, 1-nerved (sometimes 3-nerved, marginal
faint), and with minute prickles on the keel. The third glume is
broadly oblong, hyaline, nerveless or rarely with two obscure veins
ciliolate at the margins and acute or acuminate. The fourth glume
is shorter than the third, linear-oblong, mucronate or very shortly
awned at the apex, paleate; palea about two-thirds the length of the
glume, lanceolate. Lodicules are two, quadrate and conspicuous
[Pg 194]though small. Styles and stigmas short. Stamens are three with
yellow anthers. Stigmas are purple.

The pedicelled spikelets are similar to the sessile ones, but are
slightly smaller and the prickles are less prominent. The fourth
glume has no mucro or awn and has three stamens.

This grass is fairly abundant in moist situations, in the margins
of tanks and in tankbeds in the Coromandel districts, but in other
inland districts it is not so common. In some places it seems to
be cultivated. This is the khus-khus grass.

Distribution.—Throughout the plains and lower hills of India,
Burma and Ceylon, also said to occur in Java and Tropical Africa.

[Pg 195]

Andropogon asper, Heyne.

(Chrysopogon asper, Heyne.)

This is a tufted perennial grass. Stems are stout below with
distichous leaves and very slender above, 2 to 3-1/2 feet long.

The leaf-sheaths are distichous and towards the base of the
stem are 1/2 inch broad, compressed, keeled and with scattered
tubercle-based hairs. The ligule is a short membrane fringed
with close set hairs.

Fig. 155.—Andropogon asper.

Leafy shoot, a bit of the stem with leaf-sheaths and a bit of the leaf.

The leaf-blades are broad, distinctly linear, acute or acuminate,
coriaceous, glabrous or softly hairy on both the surfaces, with a
slender midrib which bears short stiff tubercle-based hairs all
along, and margins with similar hairs, but a few leaves towards the
[Pg 196]base are longer, and varying in length from 12 to 18 inches and in
breadth from 1/2 to 3/4 inch.

The panicle is somewhat narrow, 7 to 8 inches long, branches
are very slender, whorled, usually with only one spike consisting
of a sessile and two pedicelled spikelets.

The sessile spikelets are 1/4 inch long, laterally compressed, with
a long callus villous all round, and bisexual. The first glume is
coriaceous, linear-oblong, strongly compressed above and with a
few stiff short bristles beneath the tip. The second glume is linear,
oblong, coriaceous, with an awn as long as itself or shorter, keeled
and with short stiff bristles on the keel and on the sides above the
middle. The third glume is hyaline, narrow, obtuse, shorter than
the second, 2-nerved, ciliate.
The fourth glume is the linear,
hyaline, 3-nerved base of the
awn; the awn is 1-1/2 to 2-1/2
inches and bent at about the
middle.

The pedicelled spikelets are
about 1/3 inch, narrowly lanceolate,
male or neuter and with
short rusty hairs on both the
margins of the pedicel and a
semi-circular tip. The first
glume is thin, 2-toothed or not at
the tip, awned, awn being as
long as itself or longer, 7-nerved,
ciliate at the sides from
base to tip; the nerves are
either equidistant or the lateral
nerves nearer the margin. The
second glume is lanceolate-acuminate,
not awned, 3-nerved,
margins hyaline, and
ciliolate. The third glume is
hyaline, linear-oblong, 2-nerved,
ciliolate. The fourth glume
is linear or linear-lanceolate,
hyaline, nerveless or 1-nerved.

Fig. 156.—Andropogon asper.

1. Spike; 2, 3, 4 and 5. the first, second,
third and the fourth glume, respectively, of
the sessile spikelet; 6. the ovary, lodicules
and stamens; 7, 8, 9 and 10. the first, second,
third and the fourth glume, respectively, of
the pedicelled spikelet; 11. callus of the
spike.

This grass grows abundantly
on the sides of the Kambakkam
Drug, Chingleput district,
and in Penchalkonda, Nellore
district, and seems to be an endemic species. It is usually confined
to the hill sides and not found in the plains. This grass is very
closely allied to Andropogon Wightianus and it differs from it only
in the general habit of the plant and in having bristles on the
leaf-sheaths. On the whole this is a coarser and larger plant than
A. Wightianus.

Distribution.—Kambakkam Drug in the Chingleput district and
Penchalkonda in Nellore district.

[Pg 197]

Andropogon Wightianus, Steud.

(Chrysopogon Wightianus, Nees.)

This is a perennial. Stems are erect or ascending from a
creeping root-stock, varying in height from 2 to 3 feet.

The leaf-sheath is flattened, softly hairy or glabrous, often
ciliated near the mouth. The ligule is a fringe of very short
hairs.

The leaf-blade is narrowly or rarely broadly linear, obtuse or
acute and abruptly mucronate, or narrowly drawn into a point
glabrous or pubescent, margins shortly ciliate.

The panicle is narrow, 3 to 6 inches long, peduncle smooth
below but thinly pubescent above, lower branches long, few in a
whorl; rachis is very slender, angular, glabrous or hairy. The
spikes are solitary and each one consists of one sessile and two
pedicelled spikelets. The callus is long and densely bearded
with brown hairs.

Fig. 157.—Andropogon Wightianus.

1. A spike; 2, 3, 4 and 5. the first, second, third and the fourth glume, respectively,
of the sessile spikelet; 6. lodicules, stamens and the ovary; 7, 8, 9 and 10. the first,
second, third and the fourth glume, respectively, of the pedicelled spikelet.

Sessile spikelets are bisexual, sub-cylindric about 1/4 inch long.
There are four glumes. The first glume is chartaceous, laterally
compressed, obscurely 4-nerved, glabrous below, hispid near the
apex, minutely 2-toothed or not at the apex, not awned or rarely
with a short awn. The second glume is chartaceous, distinctly
awned, the awn being as long as the glume or longer, hispid above
and at the sides also. The third glume is hyaline, linear-oblong,
2-nerved ciliate. The fourth glume is narrow with hyaline margins,
[Pg 198]with an awn 2 to 3 inches long; awn is hispid below, twisted and
geniculate at and less hairy above the middle. Stamens are three.
Styles are two and feathery. Lodicules are very small.

Pedicelled spikelets are male or neuter, flattened, hairy, rarely
glabrous. The pedicels are half as long or slightly longer than the
sessile spikelet, truncate or semi-circular at the top, and with brown
villous hairs along the margin. There are four glumes. The first
glume is about 3/8 inch, ciliate, along the inflexed margin, 7-nerved,
awned; awn equal to or longer than the glume. The second glume
is as long as the first, shortly awned or acuminate, 3-nerved, ciliate.
The third glume is hyaline, oblong, 2-nerved, sparsely ciliate. The
fourth glume is narrow, ciliate, nerveless or rarely 1-nerved, erose
or bifid at the top. Anthers three or more.

This grass grows on the plains as well as on the hills. It is
very closely allied to Andropogon asper, Heyne, and it is very
difficult to distinguish them. Andropogon Wightianus is somewhat
smaller compared with Andropogon asper, and the tubercle-based
bristles on the leaf-sheaths, so characteristic of A. asper, is
absent.

Distribution.—Madras, Chingleput district, Kodaikānal and
the Nilgiris.

[Pg 199]

Andropogon monticola, Schult.

(Chrysopogon monticola.)

This is a perennial grass.

The stems are usually slender, densely tufted, erect, simple, or
branched, leafy especially at the base, varying in height from 1 to
3 feet.

The leaf-sheaths are sparsely hairy or glabrous, the lower somewhat
compressed and the upper terete. The ligule is a short,
ciliated membrane. The nodes are glabrous.

The leaf-blade is narrow, linear, acute, rigid, flat, glaucous,
smooth or scaberulous, with margins scabrid and ciliated with
tubercle-based hairs especially towards the base, and varying in
length from 2 to 15 inches.

The inflorescence is an open panicle, ovate or oblong, varying
in length from 2 to 5 inches; the rachis is slender, smooth or
scaberulous, the branches are capillary, whorled and spreading,
tip oblique, bearded and bearing a single sessile and two pedicellate
spikelets.

Fig. 158.—Andropogon monticola.

1. Sessile and pedicellate spikelets; 2, 3, 4 and 5. the first, second, third and the
fourth glume, respectively, of the sessile spikelet; 6. anthers, ovary and lodicules; A-1,
A-2, A-3 and A-4. the glumes of the pedicelled spikelet; A-5. lodicules of the pedicelled
spikelet.

The sessile spikelets are bisexual, about 1/4 inch or less, with a
long callus bearded on one side with long rusty hairs. There are
four glumes in the spikelet. The first glume is chartaceous, linear,
complicate, 2-toothed at the tip and with short bristles towards the
apex, 4-veined. The second glume is chartaceous, ovate-lanceolate,
much broader than the first, ciliate with long rufous bristles on the
keel, shortly toothed at the apex with an awn about 1/3 of an inch
and with broadly hyaline margins. The third glume is hyaline,
narrow-oblong, ciliate and obtuse. The fourth glume is narrow,
oblong, hyaline with an awn nearly an inch long. There are
[Pg 200]three stamens and two lodicules. The stigmas are long and
feathery.

The pedicelled spikelets are as long as the sessile and the
pedicels are flattened and with long rufous hairs on both the
margins. There are four glumes. The first glume is lanceolate,
acute and awned between two teeth, 7-nerved and scaberulous.
The second glume is lanceolate, acuminate, with thinly ciliate
hyaline margins, 3-nerved. The third glume is shorter than the
second, narrow, hyaline, ciliate at the margins, 2-nerved. The
fourth glume also is small, hyaline, ciliate, and 1-nerved. There
are three stamens and two lodicules.

This grass is found growing all over the Presidency on the
plains and even on low hills. It grows into a tall plant in rich
soils and remains stunted in poor, dry and rocky soils. Cattle eat
this grass.

Distribution.—Throughout India and Ceylon and in Africa.

[Pg 201]

Andropogon caricosus, L.

This is a perennial grass more or less tufted in habit and
closely allied to Andropogon annulatus, Forsk.

Stems are erect or decumbent below or ascending from a
creeping base, rooting at the nodes, smooth, glabrous and much
branched, varying in height, from 1 to 2 feet; branches are short,
slender and sometimes even capillary, with nodes bearded or not
in branches ending in solitary spikes, and completely glabrous
when they end in binate spikes.

The leaf-sheaths are glabrous, rather compressed, striate, shorter
than the internodes. Ligule is membranous, short, very finely
ciliolate or not.

The leaf-blade is linear, finely acuminate, sparsely hairy,
sometimes with tubercle-based hairs, becoming glabrous when old
with scaberulous margins 2 to 8 inches by 1/10 to 1/6 inch, base
rounded mostly with a few long hairs.

Fig. 159.—Andropogon caricosus.

1 and 2. Front and back view of a bit of spike; 3. a sessile and a pedicelled
spikelet; 4, 5 and 6. the first, second and the third glume, respectively, of the sessile
spikelet; 7. awn representing the fourth glume; 8. stamens, lodicules and the ovary;
9. the first glume of the pedicelled spikelet.

The spikes are either binate or solitary varying in length from 1
to 2 inches, joints and pedicels about 1/3 as long as the sessile
spikelets, slightly angular or flat, ciliate along one side with white
hairs; peduncle is slender, pale or purple, pubescent or glabrous
just below the spike.

The spikelets are about 1/8 inch, imbricate, a sessile and a stalked
one from the top of each joint, greenish or purple. The sessile
spikelet contains a bisexual flower and consists of four glumes. The
callus is short, and shortly hairy below. The first glume is somewhat
chartaceous, obovate-oblong, obtuse or truncate, 7- to 11-nerved,
margin slightly folded, keel shortly rigidly ciliate towards
the apex, and thinly ciliate below, dorsal surfaces sparsely hairy
[Pg 202]below the middle. The second glume is chartaceous, ovate-lanceolate,
acute, equal to or slightly longer than the first glume but
narrower, 3-nerved, margin infolded, thinly shortly ciliate, dorsally
glabrous, shining. The third glume is hyaline, ovate-oblong, acute,
nerveless, margins sparsely ciliate or not. The fourth glume is the
base of the awn, 3/4 to 1 inch, scaberulous. Stamens are three with
yellow or purple tinged anthers, ovary oblong with two feathery
stigmas. Lodicules are two, cuneate.

The pedicelled spikelets are either male or neuter and consist of
four glumes. The first glume is chartaceous, obovate-oblong, obtuse,
many-nerved (thirteen or more), thinly ciliate with long hairs
and with a few rigid short hairs towards the apex; margins are
slightly infolded, dorsally sparsely hairy without. The second glume
is membranous, ovate-lanceolate, acute, 3-nerved (occasionally
4-nerved), margins are thinly ciliate and infolded. The third
glume is hyaline, nerveless and ciliate. The fourth glume is
hyaline, nerveless, linear and oblong, glabrous, small, the apex is
narrowed and deeply bifid. There are three stamens and two
lodicules.