A

DICTIONARY

OF THE

ENGLISH LANGUAGE:

IN WHICH

THE WORDS ARE DEDUCED FROM THEIR ORIGINALS,
EXPLAINED IN THEIR DIFFERENT MEANINGS,

AND

AUTHORIZED BY THE NAMES OF THE WRITERS IN WHOSE WORKS
THEY ARE FOUND.

ABSTRACTED FROM THE FOLIO EDITION,

BY THE AUTHOR,

SAMUEL JOHNSON, LL.D.

TO WHICH IS PREFIXED,

DR. JOHNSON’S PREFACE TO THE ORIGINAL FOLIO EDITION,

AND

HIS GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

1812.

A GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE.

[17]
Grammar, which is the art of using words properly,
comprises four parts: Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody.

In this division and order of the parts of grammar I follow the common
grammarians, without inquiring whether a fitter distribution might not be
found. Experience has long shown this method to be so distinct as to
obviate confusion, and so comprehensive as to prevent any inconvenient
omissions. I likewise use the terms already received, and already
understood, though perhaps others more proper might sometimes be
invented. Sylburgius, and other innovators, whose new terms have sunk
their learning into neglect, have left sufficient warning against the
trifling ambition of teaching arts in a new language.

Orthography is the art of combining letters into syllables,
and syllables into words. It therefore teaches previously the form
and sound of letters.

The letters of the English language are,

To these may be added certain combinations of letters universally used
in printing; as, fl, ff, fi, ffi, ffl,
and &, or and per se, and.

Our letters are commonly reckoned twenty-four, because anciently
i and j as well as u and v were expressed by
the same character; but as those letters, which had always different
powers, have now different forms, our alphabet may be properly said to
consist of twenty-six letters

Vowels are five, a, e, i, o, u.

Such is the number generally received; but for i it is the
practice to write y in the end of words, as thy,
holy; before i, as from die, dying; from
beautify, beautifying; in the words says,
days, eyes; and in words derived from the Greek, and
written originally with υ, as
sympathy, συμπαθεια,
system, συστημα.

For u we often write w after a vowel, to make a
diphthong; as, raw, grew, view, vow,
flowing; lowness.

The sounds of all the letters are various.

In treating on the letters, I shall not, like some other grammarians,
inquire into the original of their form, as an antiquarian; nor into
their formation and prolation by the organs of speech, as a mechanick,
anatomist, or physiologist; nor into the properties and gradation of
sounds, or the elegance or harshness of particular combinations, as a
writer of universal and transcendental grammar. I consider the English
alphabet only as it is English; and even in this narrow disquisition I
follow the example of former grammarians, perhaps with more reverence
than judgment, because by writing in English I suppose my reader already
acquainted with the English language, and consequently able to pronounce
the letters of which I teach the pronunciation; and because of sounds in
general it may be observed, that words are unable to describe them. An
account, therefore, of the primitive and simple letters, is useless,
almost alike to those who know their sound, and those who know it
not.

OF VOWELS

A.

A has three sounds, the slender, open, and broad.

A slender is found in most words, as face, mane,
and in words ending in ation, as creation,
salvation, generation.

The a slender is the proper English a, called very
justly by Erpenius, in his Arabick Grammar, a Anglicum cum e
mistum, as having a middle sound between the open a and the
e. The French have a similar sound in the word pais, and in
their e masculine.

A open is the a of the Italian, or nearly resembles it;
as father, rather, congratulate, fancy,
glass.

A broad resembles the a of the German; as all,
wall, call.

Many words pronounced with a broad were anciently written with
au; as sault, mault; and we still say, fault,
vault. This was probably the Saxon sound, for it is yet retained
in the northern dialects, and in the rustick pronunciation; as
maun for man, haund for hand.

The short a approaches to the a open, as
grass.

The long a, if prolonged by e at the end of the word, is
always slender, as graze, fame.

[18]
A forms a diphthong only with i or y, and u
or w. Ai or ay, as in plain, wain,
gay, clay, has only the sound of the long and slender
a, and differs not in the pronunciation from plane,
wane.

Au or aw has the sound of the German a, as raw,
naughty.

Ae is sometimes found in Latin words not completely naturalized
or assimilated, but is no English diphthong; and is more properly
expressed by single e, as Cesar, Eneas.

E.

E is the letter which occurs most frequently in the English
language.

E is long, as in scēne; or short, as in
cĕllar, sĕparate, cĕlebrate,
mĕn, thĕn.

It is always short before a double consonant, or two consonants, as in
vĕx, pĕrplexity, relĕnt,
mĕdlar, rĕptile, sĕrpent,
cĕllar, cĕssation, blĕssing,
fĕll, fĕlling, dĕbt.

E is always mute at the end of a word, except in monosyllables
that have no other vowel, as the; or proper names, as
Penelope, Phebe, Derbe; being used to modify the
foregoing consonants, as since, once, hedge,
oblige; or to lengthen the preceding vowel, as băn,
bāne; căn, cāne; pĭn,
pīne; tŭn, tūne; rŭb,
rūbe; pŏp, pōpe; fĭr,
fīre; cŭr, cūre; tŭb,
tūbe.

Almost all words which now terminate in consonants ended anciently in
e, as year, yeare; wildness,
wildnesse; which e probably had the force of the French
e feminine, and constituted a syllable with its associate
consonant; for in old editions words are sometimes divided thus,
clea-re, fel-le, knowled-ge. This e was
perhaps for a time vocal or silent in poetry as convenience required; but
it has been long wholly mute. Camden in his Remains calls it the
silent e.

It does not always lengthen the foregoing vowel, as glŏve,
lĭve, gĭve.

It has sometimes in the end of words a sound obscure, and scarcely
perceptible, as open, shapen, shotten,
thistle, participle, metre, lucre.

This faintness of sound is found when e separates a mute from a
liquid, as in rotten, or follows a mute and liquid, as in
cattle.

E forms a diphthong with a, as near; with
i, as deign, receive; and with u or w,
as new, stew.

Ea sounds like e long, as mean; or like
ee, as dear, clear, near.

Ei is sounded like e long, as seize,
perceiving.

Eu sounds as u long and soft.

E, a, u, are combined in beauty and its
derivatives, but have only the sound of u.

E may be said to form a diphthong by reduplication, as
agree, sleeping.

Eo is found in yeoman, where it is sounded as o
short; and in people, where it is pronounced like ee.

I.

I has a sound long, as fīne; and short as
fĭn.

That is eminently observable in i, which may be likewise
remarkable in other letters, that the short sound is not the long sound
contracted, but a sound wholly different.

The long sound in monosyllables is always marked by the e
final, as thĭn, thīne.

I is often sounded before r, as a short u; as
flirt, first, shirt.

It forms a diphthong only with e, as field,
shield, which is sounded as the double ee; except
friend, which is sounded as frĕnd.

I is joined with eu in lieu, and ew in
view; which triphthongs are sounded as the open u.

O.

O is long, as bōne, ōbedient,
corrōding; or short, as blŏck, knŏck,
ŏblique, lŏll.

Women is pronounced wimen.

The short o has sometimes the sound of close u, as son,
come.

O coalesces into a diphthong with a, as moan,
groan, approach: oa has the sound of o
long.

O is united to e in some words derived from Greek, as
œconomy; but as being not an English diphthong, they are
better written as they are sounded, with only e,
economy.

With i, as oil, soil, moil,
noisome.

This coalition of letters seems to unite the sounds of the two
letters, as far as two sounds can be united without being destroyed, and
therefore approaches more nearly than any combination in our tongue to
the notion of a diphthong.

With o, as boot, hoot, cooler; oo
has the sound of the Italian u.

With u or w, as our, power, flower;
but in some words has only the sound of o long, as in soul,
bowl, sow, grow. These different sounds are used to
distinguish different significations: as bow an instrument for
shooting; bow, a depression of the head; sow, the she of a
boar; sow, to scatter seed; bowl, an orbicular body;
bowl, a wooden vessel.

Ou is sometimes pronounced like o soft, as court;
sometimes like o short, as cough; sometimes like u
close, as could; or u open, as rough, tough,
which use only can teach.

Ou is frequently used in the last syllable of words which in
Latin end in or and are made English, as honour,
labour, favour, from honor, labor,
favor.

Some late innovators have ejected the u, without considering
that the last syllable gives the sound neither of or nor
ur, but a sound between them, if not compounded of both; besides
that they are probably derived to us from the French nouns in eur,
as honeur, faveur.

[19]

U.

U is long in ūse, confūsion; or short, as
ŭs, concŭssion.

It coalesces with a, e, i, o; but has
rather in these combinations the force of the w consonant, as
quaff, quest, quit, quite, languish;
sometimes in ui the i loses its sound, as in juice.
It is sometimes mute before a, e, i, y, as
guard, guest, guise, buy.

U is followed by e in virtue, but the e
has no sound.

Ue is sometimes mute at the end of a word, in imitation of the
French, as prorogue, synagogue, plague,
vague, harangue.

Y.

Y is a vowel, which, as Quintilian observes of one of the Roman
letters, we might want without inconvenience, but that we have it. It
supplies the place of i at the end of words, as thy, before
an i, as dying; and is commonly retained in derivative
words where it was part of a diphthong, in the primitive; as,
destroy, destroyer; betray, betrayed,
betrayer; pray, prayer; say, sayer;
day, days.

Y being the Saxon vowel y, which was commonly used where
i is now put, occurs very frequently in all old books.

GENERAL RULES.

A vowel in the beginning or middle syllable, before two consonants, is
commonly short, as ŏppŏrtunity.

In monosyllables a single vowel before a single consonant is short; as
stag, frog.

Many is pronounced as if it were written manny.

OF CONSONANTS.

B.

B has one unvaried sound, such as it obtains in other
languages.

It is mute in debt, debtor, subtle, doubt,
lamb, limb, dumb, thumb, climb,
comb, womb.

It is used before l and r, as black,
brown.

C.

C has before e and i the sound of s; as
sincerely, centrick, century, circular,
cistern, city, siccity: before a, o,
and u, it sounds like k, as calm, concavity,
copper, incorporate, curiosity,
concupiscence.

C might be omitted in the language without loss, since one of
its sounds might be supplied by, s, and the other by k, but
that it preserves to the eye the etymology of words, as face from
facies, captive from captivus.

Ch has a sound which is analyzed into tsh, as
church, chin, crutch. It is the same sound which the
Italians give to the c simple before i and e, as
citta, cerro.

Ch is sounded like k in words derived from the Greek, as
chymist, scheme, choler. Arch is commonly
sounded ark before a vowel, as archangel, and with the
English sound of ch before a consonant, as archbishop.

Ch, in some French words not yet assimilated, sounds like
sh, as machine, chaise.

C, according to English orthography, never ends a word;
therefore we write stick, block, which were originally,
sticke, blocke. In such words c is now mute.

It is used before l and r, as clock,
cross.

D.

Is uniform in its sound, as death, diligent.

It is used before r, as draw, dross; and w
as dwell.

F.

F, though having a name beginning with a vowel, is numbered by
the grammarians among the semivowels, yet has this quality of a mute,
that it is commodiously sounded before a liquid, as flask,
fry, freckle. It has an unvariable sound, except that
of is sometimes spoken nearly as ov.

G.

G has two sounds; one hard, as in gay, go,
gun; the other soft, as in gem, giant.

At the end of a word it is always hard, as ring, snug,
song, frog.

Before e and i the sound is uncertain.

G before e is soft, as gem, generation,
except in gear, geld, geese, get,
gewgaw, and derivatives from words ending in g, as
singing, stronger, and generally before er at the
ends of words, as finger.

G is mute before n, as gnash, sign,
foreign.

G before i is hard, as give, except in
giant, gigantick, gibbet, gibe,
giblets, Giles, gill, gilliflower,
gin, ginger, gingle, to which may be added
Egypt and gypsy.

Gh in the beginning of a word has the sound of the hard
g, as ghostly; in the middle, and sometimes at the end, it
is quite silent, as though, right, sought, spoken
tho’, rite, soute.

It has often at the end the sound of f, as laugh; whence
laughter retains the same sound in the middle; cough,
trough, sough, tough, enough,
slough.

It is not to be doubted, but that in the original pronunciation
gh has the force of a consonant deeply guttural, which is still
continued among the Scotch.

G is used before h, l, and r.

H.

H is a note of aspiration, and shows that the following vowel
must be pronounced [20] with a strong emission of breath, as
hat, horse.

It seldom begins any but the first syllable, in which it is always
sounded with a full breath, except in heir, herb,
hostler, honour, humble, honest,
humour and their derivatives.

It sometimes begins middle or final syllables in words compounded, as
blockhead; or derived from the Latin, as comprehend.

J.

J consonant sounds uniformly like the soft g, and is
therefore a letter useless, except in etymology, as ejaculation,
jester, jocund, juice.

K.

K has the sound of hard c, and is used before e
and i, where, according to English analogy, c would be
soft, as kept, king, skirt, skeptick, for so
it should be written, not sceptick, because sc is sounded
like s, as in scene.

It is used before n, as knell, knot, but totally
loses its sound in modern pronunciation.

K is never doubled; but c is used before it to shorten
the vowel by a double consonant, as cockle, pickle.

L.

L has in English the same liquid sound as in other
languages.

The custom is to double the l at the end of monosyllables, as
kill, will, full. These words were originally
written kille, wille, fulle; and when the e
first grew silent, and was afterward omitted, the ll was retained,
to give force, according to the analogy of our language, to the foregoing
vowel.

L, is sometimes mute, as in calf, half,
halves, calves, could, would, should,
psalm, talk, salmon, falcon.

The Saxons, who delighted in guttural sounds, sometimes aspirated the
l at the beginning of words, as hlaf, a loaf, or
bread; hlaford, a lord; but this pronunciation is
now disused.

Le at the end of words is pronounced like a weak el, in
which the e is almost mute, as table, shuttle.

M.

M has always the same sound, as murmur,
monumental.

N.

N has always, the same sound, as noble,
manners.

N is sometimes mute after m, as damn,
condemn, hymn.

P.

P has always the same sound which the Welsh and Germans
confound with b.

P is sometimes mute, as in psalm, and between m
and t, as tempt.

Ph is used for f in words derived from the Greek, as
philosopher, philanthropy, Philip.

Q.

Q, as in other languages, is always followed by u, and
has a sound which our Saxon ancestors well expressed by cw, as
quadrant, queen, equestrian, quilt,
inquiry, quire, quotidian. Qu is never
followed by u.

Qu is sometimes sounded, in words derived from the French, like
k, as conquer, liquor, risque,
chequer.

R.

R has the same rough snarling sound as in the other
tongues.

The Saxons used often to put h before it, as before l at
the beginning of words.

Rh is used in words derived from the Greek, as myrrh,
myrrhine, catarrhous, rheum, rheumatick,
rhyme.

Re, at the end of some words derived from the Latin or French,
is pronounced like a weak er, as theatre,
sepulchre.

S.

S has a hissing sound, as sibilation, sister.

A single s seldom ends any word, except in the third person of
verbs, as loves, grows; and the plurals of nouns, as
trees, bushes, distresses; the pronouns this,
his, ours, yours, us; the adverb thus;
and words derived from Latin, as rebus, surplus; the close
being always either in se, as house, horse, or in
ss, as grass, dress, bliss, less,
anciently grasse, dresse.

S, single at the end of words, has a grosser sound, like that
of z, as trees, eyes, except this,
thus, us, rebus, surplus.

It sounds like z before ion, if a vowel goes before it,
as intrusion; and like s, if it follows a consonant, as
conversion.

It sounds like z before e mute, as refuse, and
before y final, as rosy; and in those words, bosom,
desire, wisdom, prison, prisoner,
present, present, damsel, casement.

It is the peculiar quality of s, that it may be sounded before
all consonants, except x and z, in which s is
comprised, x being only ks, and z a hard or gross
s. This s is therefore termed by grammarians suæ
potestatis litera; the reason of which the learned Dr. Clarke
erroneously supposed to be, that in some words it might be doubled at
pleasure. Thus we find in several languages.

Σβεννυμι,
scatter, sdegno, sdrucciolo, sfavellare,
σφιγξ, sgombrare,
sgranare, shake, slumber, smell,
snipe, space, splendour, spring,
squeeze, shrew, step, strength,
stramen, stripe, sventura, swell.

S is mute in isle, island, demesne,
viscount.

T.

T has its customary sound; as take,
temptation.

[21]
Ti before a vowel has the sound of si as salvation,
except an s goes before, as question; excepting likewise
derivatives from words ending in ty, as mighty,
mightier.

Th has two sounds; the one soft, as thus,
whether; the other hard, as thing, think. The sound
is soft in these words, then, thence, and there,
with their derivatives and compounds, and in that, these,
thou, thee, thy, thine, their,
they, this, those, them, though,
thus; and in all words between two vowels, as, father,
whether; and between r and a vowel, as burthen.

In other words it is hard, as thick, thunder,
faith, faithful. Where it is softened at the end of a word,
an e silent must be added, as breath, breathe;
cloth, clothe.

V.

V has a sound of near affinity to that of f, as
vain, vanity.

From f in the Islandick alphabet, v is only
distinguished by a diacritical point.

W.

Of w, which in diphthongs is often an undoubted vowel, some
grammarians have doubted whether it ever be a consonant; and not rather
as it is called a double u, or ou, as water may be
resolved into ouater; but letters of the same sound are always
reckoned consonants in other alphabets: and it may be observed, that
w follows a vowel without any hiatus or difficulty of utterance,
as frosty winter.

Wh has a sound accounted peculiar to the English, which the
Saxons better expressed by hw, as, what, whence,
whiting; in whore only, and sometimes in wholesome,
wh is sounded like a simple h.

X.

X begins no English word: it has the sound of ks, as
axle, extraneous.

Y.

Y, when it follows a consonant, is a vowel; when it precedes
either a vowel or a diphthong, is a consonant, as ye,
young. It is thought by some to be in all cases a vowel. But it
may be observed of y as of w, that it follows a vowel
without any hiatus, as rosy youth.

The chief argument by which w and y appear to be always
vowels is, that the sounds which they are supposed to have as consonants,
cannot be uttered after a vowel, like that of all other consonants; thus
we say tu, ut; do, odd; but in wed,
dew; the two sounds of w have no resemblance to each
other.

Z.

Z begins no word originally English; it has the sound, as its
name izzard or s hard expresses, of an s uttered
with a closer compression of the palate by the tongue, as freeze,
froze.

In orthography I have supposed orthoepy, or just utterance
of words, to be included; orthography being only the art of
expressing certain sounds by proper characters. I have therefore observed
in what words any of the letters are mute.

Most of the writers of English grammar have given long tables of words
pronounced otherwise than they are written, and seem not sufficiently to
have considered, that of English, as of all living tongues, there is a
double pronunciation, one cursory and colloquial, the other regular and
solemn. The cursory pronunciation is always vague and uncertain, being
made different in different mouths by negligence, unskilfulness, or
affectation. The solemn pronunciation, though by no means immutable and
permanent, is yet always less remote from the orthography, and less
liable to capricious innovation. They have however generally formed their
tables according to the cursory speech of those with whom they happened
to converse; and concluding that the whole nation combines to vitiate
language in one manner, have often established the jargon of the lowest
of the people as the model of speech.

For pronunciation the best general rule is, to consider those as the
most elegant speakers who deviate least from the written words.

There have been many schemes offered for the emendation and settlement
of our orthography, which, like that of other nations, being formed by
chance, or according to the fancy of the earliest writers in rude ages,
was at first very various and uncertain, and is yet sufficiently
irregular. Of these reformers some have endeavoured to accommodate
orthography better to the pronunciation, without considering that this is
to measure by a shadow, to take that for a model or standard which is
changing while they apply it. Others, less absurdly indeed, but with
equal unlikelihood of success, have endeavoured to proportion the number
of letters to that of sounds, that every sound may have its own
character, and every character a single sound. Such would be the
orthography of a new language, to be formed by a synod of grammarians
upon principles of science. But who can hope to prevail on nations to
change their practice, and make all their old books useless? or what
advantage would a new orthography procure equivalent to the confusion and
perplexity of such an alteration?

Some ingenious men, indeed, have endeavoured to deserve well of their
country, by writing honor and labor for honour and
labour, red for read in the preter-tense,
sais for says, repete tor repeat,
explane for explain, or declame for declaim.
Of these it may be said, that as they have done no good they have done
little harm; both because they have innovated little, and because few
have followed them.

The English language has properly no dialects; the style of writers
has no professed diversity in the use of words, or of their flexions and
terminations, nor differs but by different degrees of skill or care. The
oral diction is uniform in no spacious country, but has less variation in
England than in most other nations of equal extent. The language of the
northern counties retains many words now out of use, but which are
commonly of the genuine Teutonick race, and is uttered with a
pronunciation which now seems harsh and rough, but was probably used by
our ancestors. The northern speech is therefore not barbarous, but
obsolete. The speech in the western provinces seems to differ from the
general diction rather by a depraved pronunciation, than by any real
difference which letters would express.

[22]

ETYMOLOGY.

Etymology teaches the deduction of one word from another, and the
various modifications by which the sense of the same word is diversified;
as horse, horses; I love, I loved.

Of the ARTICLE.

The English have two articles, an or a, and
the.

AN, A.

A has an indefinite signification, and means one, with
some reference to more; as This is a good book; that is, one
among the books that are good; He was killed by a sword; that
is, some sword; This is a better book for a man than a boy;
that is, for one of those that are men than one of those that are
boys; An army might enter without resistance; that is, any
army.

In the senses in which we use a or an in the singular,
we speak in the plural without an article; as these are good
books.

I have made an the original article, because it is only the
Saxon an, or æn, one, applied to a new use, as the German
ein, and the French un; the n being cut off before a
consonant in the speed of utterance.

Grammarians of the last age direct, that an should be used
before h; whence it appears that the English anciently asperated
less. An is still used before the silent h; as an
herb, an honest man; but otherwise a; as

An or a can only be joined with a singular: the
correspondent plural is the noun without an article, as, I want a
pen, I want pens; or with the pronominal adjective
some, as, I want some pens.

THE.

The has a particular and definite signification.

That is, that particular fruit, and this world in which we
live. So, He giveth fodder for the cattle, and green herbs
for the use of man; that is, for those beings that are
cattle, and his use that is man.

The is used in both numbers.

Many words are used without articles; as

1. Proper names, as John, Alexander, Longinus,
Aristarchus, Jerusalem, Athens, Rome,
London. GOD is used as a proper name.

2. Abstract names, as blackness, witch-craft,
virtue, vice, beauty, ugliness, love,
hatred, anger, good-nature, kindness.

3. Words in which nothing but the mere being of any thing is implied:
This is not beer, but water; this is not brass, but
steel.

Of NOUNS SUBSTANTIVE.

The relations of English nouns to words going before or following are
not expressed by cases, or changes of termination, but, as in most
of the other European languages, by prepositions, unless we may be said
to have a genitive case.

Singular.

Plural.

Our nouns are therefore only declined thus:

These genitives are always written with a mark of elision,
master’s, scholar’s, according to an opinion long received,
that the ‘s is a contraction of his, as the soldier’s
valour, for the soldier his valour: but this cannot be
the true original, because ‘s is put to female nouns, Woman’s
beauty; the Virgin’s delicacy; Haughty Juno’s unrelenting
hate; and collective nouns, as Women’s passions; the
rabble’s insolence; the multitude’s folly: in all these cases
it is apparent that his cannot be understood. We say likewise
the foundation’s strength; the diamond’s lustre; the
winter’s severity: but in these cases his may be understood,
he and his having formerly been applied to neuters in the
place now supplied by it and its.

The learned and sagacious Wallis, to whom every English
grammarian owes a tribute of reverence, calls this modification of the
noun an adjective possessive; I think with no more propriety than
he might have applied the same to the genitive in equitum decus,
Trojæ oris, or any other Latin genitive. Dr. Lowth, on the other
part, supposes the possessive pronouns mine and thine to be
genitive cases.

This termination of the noun seems to constitute a real genitive
indicating possession. It is derived to us from the Saxon’s who declined
smith, a smith; Gen. smither, of a smith; Plur.
smither or smithar, smiths; and so in two other of their
seven declensions.

It is a further confirmation of this opinion, that in the old poets
both the genitive and plural were longer by a syllable than the original
word: knitis for knight’s, in Chaucer; leavis for
leaves, in Spenser.

[23]

When a word ends in s, the genitive may be the same with the
nominative, as Venus temple.

The plural is formed by adding s, as table,
tables; fly, flies; sister, sisters;
wood, woods; or es where s could not
otherwise be sounded, as after ch, s, sh, x,
z; after c sounded like s, and g like
j; the mute e is vocal before s, as lance,
lances; outrage, outrages.

The formation of the plural and genitive singular is the same.

A few words still make the plural in n, as men,
women, oxen, swine, and more anciently eyen,
shoon. This formation is that which generally prevails in the
Teutonick dialects.

Words that end in f commonly form their plural by ves,
as loaf, loaves; calf, calves.

Except a few, muff, muffs; chief, chiefs.
So hoof, roof, proof, relief,
mischief, puff, cuff, dwarf,
handkerchief, grief.

Irregular plurals are teeth from tooth, lice from
louse, mice from mouse, geese from
goose, feet from foot, dice from die,
pence from penny, brethren from brother,
children from child.

Plurals ending in s have no genitives; but we say, Womens
excellencies, and Weigh the mens wits against the
ladies hairs.

Dr. Willis thinks the Lords’ house may he said for the house
of Lords; but such phrases are not now in use; and surely an English
ear rebels against them. They would commonly produce a troublesome
ambiguity, as the Lord’s house may be the house of Lords,
or the house of a Lord. Besides that the mark of elision is
improper, for in the Lords’ house nothing is cut off.

Some English substantives, like those of many other languages, change
their termination as they express different sexes; as prince,
princess; actor, actress; lion,
lioness; hero, heroine. To these mentioned by Dr.
Lowth may be added arbitress, poetess, chauntress,
duchess, tigress, governess, tutress,
peeress, authoress, traytress, and perhaps othets.
Of these variable terminations we have only a sufficient number to make
us feel our want; for when we say of a woman that she is a
philosopher, an astronomer, a builder, a
weaver, a dancer, we perceive an impropriety in the
termination which we cannot avoid; but we can say that she is an
architect, a botanist, a student. because these
terminations have not annexed to them the notion of sex. In words which
the necessities of life are often requiring, the sex is distinguished not
by different terminations but by different names, as a bull, a
cow; a horse, a mare; equus, equa; a
cock, a hen; and sometimes by pronouns prefixed, as
a he-goat, a, she-goat.

Of ADJECTIVES.

Adjectives in the English language are wholly indeclinable; having
neither case, gender, nor number, and being added to substantives in all
relations without any change; as, a good woman, good women,
of a good woman; a good man, good men, of good
men.

The Comparison of Adjectives.

The comparative degree of adjectives is formed by adding er,
the superlative by adding est, to the positive; as, fair,
fairer, fairest; lovely, lovelier,
loveliest; sweet, sweeter, sweetest;
low, lower, lowest; high, higher,
highest.

Some words are irregularly compared; as, good, better,
best; bad, worse, worst; little,
less, least; near, nearer, next;
much, more, most; many (for moe),
more (for moer) most (for moest);
late, later, latest or last.

Some comparatives form a superlative by adding, most, as
nether, nethermost; outer, outermost;
under, undermost; up, upper,
uppermost; fore, former, foremost.

Most is sometimes added to a substantive, as, topmost,
southmost.

Many adjectives do not admit of comparison by terminations, and are
only compared by more and most, as, benevolent,
more benevolent, most benevolent.

All adjectives may be compared by more and most, even
when they have comparatives and superlatives regularly formed; as,
fair, fairer, or more fair; fairest, or
most fair.

In adjectives that admit a regular comparison, the comparative
more is oftener used than the superlative most, as more
fair is oftener written for fairer, than most fair for
fairest.

The comparison of adjectives is very uncertain; and being much
regulated by commodiousness of utterance, or agreeableness of sound, is
not easily reduced to rules.

Monosyllables are commonly compared.

Polysyllables, or words of more than two syllables, are seldom
compared otherwise than by more and most, as,
deplorable, more deplorable, most deplorable.

Dissyllables are seldom compared if they terminate in some, as
fulsome, toilsome; in ful, as, careful,
spleenful, dreadful; in ing, as trifling,
charming; in ous, as porous; in less, as,
careless, harmless; in ed, as wretched; in
id, as candid; in al, as mortal; in
ent, as recent, fervent; in ain, as
certain; in ive, as missive; in dy, as
woody; in fy, as puffy; in ky, as
rocky, except lucky; in my, as roomy; in
ny, as skinny; in py, as ropy, except
happy; in ry, as hoary.

Some comparatives and superlatives are yet found in good writers
formed without regard to the foregoing rules; but in a language subjected
so little and so lately to grammar, such anomalies must frequently
occur.

So shady is compared by Milton.

And virtuous.

So trifling by Ray, who is indeed of no great
authority.

[24]

It is not so decorous, in respect of God, that he should immediately
do all the meanest and triflingest things himself, without making
use of any inferior or subordinate minister.      
  Ray on the Creation.

Famous, by Milton.

Inventive, by Ascham.

Those have the inventivest heads for all purposes, and roundest
tongues in all matters.           Ascham’s
Schoolmaster.

Mortal, by Bacon.

The mortalest poisons practised by the West Indians, have some
mixture of the blood, fat, or flesh of man.      
  Bacon.

Natural, by Wotton.

I will now deliver a few of the properest and naturalest
considerations that belong to this piece.      
  Wotton’s Architecture.

Wretched, by Jonson.

The wretcheder are the contemners of all helps; such as
presuming on their own naturals, deride diligence, and mock at terms when
they understand not things.           Ben
Jonson.

Powerful, by Milton.

The termination in ish may be accounted in some sort a degree
of comparison, by which the signification is diminished below the
positive, as black, blackish, or tending to blackness;
salt, saltish, or having a little taste of salt; they
therefore admit no comparison. This termination is seldom added but to
words expressing sensible qualities, nor often to words of above one
syllable, and is scarcely used in the solemn or sublime style.

Of PRONOUNS.

Pronouns, in the English language, are, I, thou,
he, with their plurals, we, ye, they;
it, who, which, what, whether,
whosoever, whatsoever, my, mine, our,
ours, thy, thine, your, yours,
his, her, hers, theirs, this,
that, other, another, the same,
some.

The pronouns personal are irregularly inflected.

You is commonly used in modern writers for ye,
particularly in the language of ceremony, where the second person plural
is used for the second person singular, You are my friend.

For it the practice of ancient writers was to use he,
and for its, his.

The possessive pronouns, like other adjectives, are without cases or
change of termination.

The possessive of the first person is my, mine,
our, ours; of the second, thy, thine,
your, yours; of the third, from he, his; from
she, her, and hers; and in the plural, their,
theirs, for both sexes.

Ours, yours, hers, theirs, are used when
the substantive preceding is separated by a verb, as These are our
books. These books are ours. Your children
excel ours in stature, but ours surpass yours in
learning.

Ours, yours, hers, theirs, notwithstanding
their seeming plural termination, are applied equally to singular and
plural substantives, as, This book is ours. These books are
ours.

Mine and thine were formerly used before a vowel, as
mine amiable lady: which though now disused in prose, might be
still properly continued in poetry: they are used as ours and
yours, when they are referred to a substantive preceding, as
thy house is larger than mine, but my garden is more
spacious than thine.

Their and theirs are the possessives likewise of
they, when they is the plural of it, and are
therefore applied to things.

Pronouns relative are, who, which, what,
whether, whosoever, whatsoever.

Who is now used in relation to persons, and which in
relation to things; but they were anciently confounded. At least it was
common to say, the man which, though I remember no example of the
thing who.

Whose is rather the poetical than regular genitive of
which.

The fruit

Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste

Brought death into the world.           Milton.

Whether is only used in the nominative and accusative cases;
and has no plural, being applied only to one of a number, commonly
to one of two, as Whether of these is left I know not. Whether
shall I choose? It is now almost obsolete.

What, whether relative or interrogative, is without
variation.

Whosoever, whatsoever, being compounded of who or
what, and soever, follow the rule of their primitives.

The plural others is not used but when it is referred to a
substantive preceding, as I have sent other horses. I
have not sent the same horses, but others.

[25]
Another, being only an other, has no plural.

Here, there, and where, joined with certain
particles, have a relative and pronominal use. Hereof,
herein, hereby, hereafter, herewith,
thereof, therein, thereby, thereupon,
therewith, whereof, wherein, whereby,
whereupon, wherewith, which signify, of this, in
this, &c. of that, in that, &c. of
which, in which, &c.

Therefore and wherefore, which are properly there
for and where for, for that, for which, are now
reckoned conjunctions, and continued in use. The rest seem to be passing
by degrees into neglect, though proper, useful, and analogous. They are
referred both to singular and plural antecedents.

There are two more words used only in conjunction with pronouns,
own and self.

Own is added to possessives, both singular and plural, as my
own hand, our own house. It is emphatical, and implies a
silent contrariety, or opposition; as, I live in my own house,
that is, not in a hired house. This I did with my own hand,
that is, without help or not by proxy.

Self is added to possessives, as myself,
yourselves; and sometimes to personal pronouns, as himself,
itself, themselves. It then, like own, expresses
emphasis and opposition, as I did this myself, that is, not
another; or it forms a reciprocal pronoun, as We hurt ourselves by
vain rage.

Himself, itself, themselves, are supposed by
Wallis to be put by corruption, for his self, it self,
their selves; so that self is always a substantive. This
seems justly observed, for we say, He came himself; Himself
shall do this; where himself cannot be an accusative.

Of the VERB.

English verbs are active, as I love; or neuter, as I
languish. The neuters are formed like the actives.

Most verbs signifying action may likewise signify
condition or habit, and become neuters; as I
love, I am in love; I strike, I am now striking.

Verbs have only two tenses inflected in their terminations, the
present, and simple preterit; the other tenses are compounded of the
auxiliary verbs, have, shall, will, let,
may, can, and the infinitive of the active or neuter
verb.

The passive voice is formed by joining the participle preterit to the
substantive verb, as I am loved.

To have. Indicative Mood.

Present Tense.

Has is a termination connoted from hath, but now more
frequently used both in verse and prose.

Simple Preterit.

Compound Preterit.

Preterpluperfect.

Future.

Second Future.

By reading these future tenses may be observed the variations of
shall and will.

Imperative Mood.

Conjunctive Mood.

Present.

Preterit simple as in the Indicative.

Preterit compound.

Future.

Second Future.

Potential.

The potential form of speaking is expressed by may, can,
in the present; and might, could, or should, in the
preterit, joined with the infinitive mood of the verb.

Present.

Preterit.

Present.

[26]

Preterit.

In like manner should is united to the verb.

There is likewise a double Preterit.

In like manner we use, I might have had; I could have
had, &c.

Infinitive Mood.

Verb Active. To love.

Indicative. Present.

Preterit simple.

Imperative.

Conjunctive. Present.

Potential.

Infinitive.

The passive is formed by the addition of the participle preterit to
the different tenses of the verb to be, which must therefore be
here exhibited.

Indicative. Present.

Preterit.

Wert is properly of the conjunctive mood, and ought not to be
used in the indicative.

Imperative.

Conjunctive. Present.

Preterit.

Potential.

Infinitive.

Passive Voice. Indicative Mood.

Conjunctive Mood.

Potential Mood.

Infinitive.

There is another form of English verbs, in which the infinitive mood
is joined to the verb do in its various inflections, which are
therefore to be learned in this place.

To do.

Indicative. Present.

Preterit.

Imperative.

Conjunctive. Present.

The rest are as in the Indicative.

[27]

Do is sometimes used superfluously, as I do love, I did
love; simply for I love, or I loved; but this is
considered as a vitious mode of speech.

It is sometimes used emphatically; as,

It is frequently joined with a negative; as, I like her, but I
do not love her; I wished him success, but did not help
him. This, by custom at least, appears more easy than the other form
of expressing the same sense by a negative adverb after the verb, I
like her, but love her not.

The imperative prohibitory is seldom applied in the second person, at
least in prose, without the word do; as, Stop him, but do not
hurt him; Praise beauty, but do not dote on it.

Its chief use is in interrogative forms of speech, in which it is used
through all the persons; as, Do I live? Dost thou strike
me? Do they rebel? Did I complain? Didst thou love
her? Did she die? So likewise in negative interrogations; Do
I not yet grieve? Did she not die?

Do and did are thus used only for the present and simple
preterit.

There is another manner of conjugating neuter verbs, which, when it is
used, may not improperly denominate them neuter passives, as they
are inflected according to the passive form by the help of the verb
substantive to be. They answer nearly to the reciprocal verbs in
French; as, I am risen, surrexi, Latin; Je me suis levé,
French. I was walked out, exieram: Je m’étois promené.

In like manner we commonly express the present tense; as, I am going,
eo. I am grieving, doleo, She is dying, illa
moritur. The tempest is raging, furit procella. I am pursuing
an enemy, hostem insequor. So the other tenses, as, We were
walking, ετυγχανομεν
περιπατουντες,
I have been walking, I had been walking, I shall or
will be walking.

There is another manner of using the active participle, which gives it
a passive signification: as, The grammar is now printing, grammatica
jam nunc chartis imprimitur. The brass is forging, ara
excuduntur. This is, in my opinion, a vitious expression, probably
corrupted from a phrase more pure, but now somewhat obsolete: The book
is a printing, The brass is a forging; a being
properly at, and printing and forging verbal nouns
signifying action, according to the analogy of this language.

The indicative and conjunctive moods are by modern writers frequently
confounded, or rather the conjunctive is wholly neglected, when some
convenience of versification docs not invite its revival. It is used
among the purer writers of former times after if, though,
ere, before, till or until, whether,
except, unless, whatsoever, whomsoever, and
words of wishing; as, Doubtless thou art our father, though
Abraham be ignorant of us, and Israel acknowledge us
not.

Of IRREGULAR VERBS.

The English verbs were divided by Ben Jonson into four conjugations,
without any reason arising from the nature of the language, which has
properly but one conjugation, such as has been exemplified: from which
all deviations are to be considered as anomalies, which are indeed, in
our monosyllable Saxon verbs, and the verbs derived from them, very
frequent; but almost all the verbs which have been adopted from other
languages, follow the regular form.

Our verbs are observed by Dr. Wallis to be irregular only in the
formation of the preterit, and its participle. Indeed, in the scantiness
of our conjugations, there is scarcely any other place for
irregularity.

The first irregularity is a slight deviation from the regular form, by
rapid utterance or poetical contraction: the last syllable ed is
often joined with the former by suppression of e; as lov’d
for loved; after c, ch, sh, f,
k, x, and after the consonants s, th, when
more strongly pronounced, and sometimes after m, n,
r, if preceded by a short vowel, t is used in
pronunciation, but very seldom in writing rather than d; as
plac’t, snatch’t, fish’t, wak’t,
dwel’t, smel’t for plac’d, snatch’d,
fish’d, wak’d, dwel’d, smel’d; or
placed, snatched, fished, waked,
dwelled, smelled.

Those words which terminate in l or ll, or p,
make their preterit in t, even in solemn language; as
crept, felt, dwelt; Sometimes after x,
ed is changed into t; as vext: this is not
constant.

A long vowel is often changed into a short one; thus kept,
slept, wept, crept, swept; from the verbs to
keep, to sleep, to weep, to creep, to
sweep.

Where d or t go before, the additional letter d
or t, in this contracted form, coalesce into one letter with the
radical d or t: if t were the radical, they coalesce
into t; but if d were the radical, then into d or
t, as the one or the other letter may be more easily pronounced;
as read, led, spread, shed, shred,
bid, hid, chid, fed, bled,
bred, sped, strid, slid, rid; from the
verbs to read, to lead, to spread, to shed,
to shread, to bid, to hide, to chide, to
feed, to bleed, to breed, to speed, to
stride, to slide, to ride. And thus cast,
hurt, cost, burst, eat, beat,
sweat, sit, quit, smit, writ,
bit, hit, met, shot; from the verbs to
cast, to hurt, to cost, to burst, to
eat, to beat, to sweat, to sit, to
quit, to smite, to write, to bite, to
hit, to meet, to shoot. And in like manner,
lent, sent, rent, girt; from the verbs to
lend, to send, to rend, to gird.

The participle preterit or passive is often formed in en
instead of ed; as, been, taken, given,
slain, known, from the verbs to be, to take,
to give, to slay, to know.

Many words have two or more participles, [28] as not only
written, bitten, eaten, beaten,
hidden, chidden, shotten, chosen,
broken; but likewise writ, bit, eat,
beat, hid, chid, shot, chose,
broke, are promiscuously used in the participle, from the verbs to
write, to bite, to eat, to beat, to
hide, to chide, to shoot, to choose, to
break, and many such like.

In the same manner, sown, shewn, hewn,
mown, loaden, laden, as well as sow’d,
show’d, hew’d, mow’d, loaded, laded,
from the verbs to sow, to show, to hew, to
mow, to load, to lade.

Concerning these double participles it is difficult to give any rule;
but he shall seldom err who remembers, that when a verb has a participle
distinct from its preterit, as write, wrote,
written, that distinct participle is more proper and elegant, as
The book is written, is better than The book is wrote.
Wrote however may be used in poetry; at least, if we allow any
authority to poets, who, in the exultation of genius, think themselves
perhaps entitled to trample on grammarians.

There are other anomalies in the preterit.

1. Win, spin, begin, swim, strike,
stick, sing, sting, fling, ring,
wring, spring, swing, drink, sink,
shrink, stink, come, run, find,
bind, grind, wind, both in the preterit imperfect
and participle passive, give won, spun, begun,
swum, struck, stuck, sung, stung,
flung, rung, wrung, sprung, swung,
drunk, sunk, shrunk, stunk, come,
run, found, bound, ground, wound. And
most of them are also formed in the preterit by a, as
began, sang, rang, sprang, drank,
came, ran, and some others; but most of these are now
obsolete. Some in the participle passive likewise take en, as
stricken, strucken, drunken, bounden.

2. Fight, teach, reach, seek,
beseech, catch, buy, bring, think,
work, make fought, taught, raught,
sought, besought, caught, bought,
brought, thought, wrought.

But a great many of these retain likewise the regular form, as
teached, reached, beseeched, catched,
worked.

3. Take, shake, forsake, wake,
awake, stand, break, speak, bear,
shear, swear, tear, wear, weave,
cleave, strive, thrive, drive, shine,
rise, arise, smite, write, bide,
abide, ride, choose, chuse, tread,
get, beget, forget, seethe, make in both
preterit and participle took, shook, forsook,
woke, awoke, stood, broke, spoke,
bore, shore, swore, tore, wore,
wove, clove, strove, throve, drove,
shone, rose, arose, smote, wrote,
bode, abode, rode, chose, trode,
got, begot, forgot, sod. But we say likewise,
thrive, rise, smit, writ, abid,
rid. In the preterit some are likewise formed by a, as
brake, spake, bare, share, sware,
tare, ware, clave, gat, begat,
forgat, and perhaps some others, but more rarely. In the
participle passive many of them are formed by en, as taken,
shaken, forsaken, broken, spoken,
born, shorn, sworn, torn, worn,
woven, cloven, thriven, driven, risen,
smitten, ridden, chosen, trodden,
gotten, begotten, forgotten, sodden. And many
do likewise retain the analogy in both, as waked, awaked,
sheared, weaved, cleaved, abided,
seethed.

4. Give, bid, sit, make in the preterit
gave, bade, sate; in the participle passive
given, bidden, sitten; but in both bid.

5. Draw, know, grow, throw, blow,
crow like a cock, fly, slay, see, ly,
make their preterit drew, knew, grew, threw,
blew, crew, flew, slew, saw,
lay; their participles passive by n, drawn,
known, grown, thrown, blown, flown,
slain, seen, lien, lain. Yet from flee
is made fled; from go, went, (from the old
wend) the participle is gone.

Of DERIVATION.

That the English language may be more easily understood, it is
necessary to inquire how its derivative words are deduced from their
primitives, and how the primitives are borrowed from other languages. In
this inquiry I shall sometimes copy Dr. Wallis, and sometimes endeavour
to supply his detects, and rectify his errours.

Nouns are derived from verbs.

The thing implied in the verb, as done or produced, is commonly either
the present of the verb; as to love, love; to fright, a
fright; to fight, a fight; or the preterit of the verb, as
to strike, I strick or strook, a stroke.

The action is the same with the participle present, as loving,
frighting, fighting, striking.

The agent, or person acting, is denoted by the syllable er
added to the verb, as lover, frighter, striker.

Substantives, adjectives, and sometimes other parts of speech, are
changed into verbs: in which case the vowel is often lengthened, or the
consonant softened; as, a house, to house; brass, to braze;
glass, to glaze; grass, to graze; price, to prize;
breath, to breathe; a fish, to fish; oil, to oil;
further, to further; forward, to forward; hinder, to
hinder.

Sometimes the termination en is added, especially to
adjectives; as, haste, to hasten; length, to lengthen;
strength, to strengthen; short, to shorten; fast, to
fasten; white, to whiten; black, to blacken; hard,
to harden; soft, to soften.

From substantives are formed adjectives [29] of plenty, by adding the
termination y: as a louse, lousy; wealth, wealthy;
health, healthy; might, mighty; worth, worthy; wit,
witty; lust, lusty; water, watery, earth,
earthy; wood, (a wood) woody; air, airy; a heart,
hearty; a hand, handy.

From substantives are formed adjectives of plenty, by adding the
termination ful, denoting abundance; as, joy, joyful;
fruit, fruitful; youth, youthful; care, careful;
use, useful; delight, delightful; plenty, plentiful;
help, helpful.

Sometimes in almost the same sense, but with some kind of diminution
thereof, the termination some is added, denoting something, or in
some degree; as delight, delightsome; game, gamesome; irk,
irksome; burden, burdensome; trouble, troublesome;
light, lightsome; hand, handsome; alone, lonesome;
toil, toilsome.

On the contrary, the termination less added to substantives, makes
adjectives signifying want; as, worthless, witless,
heartless, joyless, careless, helpless. Thus
comfort, comfortless; sap, sapless.

Privation or contrariety is very often denoted by the participle
un prefixed to many adjectives, or in before words derived
from the Latin; as pleasant, unpleasant; wise, unwise;
profitable, unprofitable, patient, impatient. Thus
unworthy, unhealthy, unfruitful, unuseful,
and many more.

The original English privative is un; but as we often borrow
trom the Latin, or its descendants, words already signifying privation,
as inefficacious, impious, indiscreet, the
inseparable particles un and in have fallen into confusion,
from which it is not easy to disentangle them.

Un is prefixed to all words originally English, as
untrue, untruth, untaught, unhandsome.

Un is prefixed to all participles made privative adjectives, as
unfeeling, unassisting, unaided, undelighted,
unendeared.

Un ought never to be prefixed to a participle present to mark a
forbearance of action, as unsighing, but a privation of habit, as
unpitying.

Un is prefixed to most substantives which have an English
termination, as unfertileness, unperfectness, which, if
they have borrowed terminations, take in or im, as
infertility, imperfection; uncivil,
incivility; unactive, inactivity.

In borrowing adjectives, if we receive them already compounded, it is
usual to retain the particle prefixed, as indecent,
inelegant, improper; but if we borrow the adjective, and
add the privative particle, we commonly prefix un, as
unpolite, ungallant.

The prepositive particles dis and mis, derived from the
des and mes of the French, signify almost the same as
un; yet dis rather imports contrariety than privation,
since it answers to the Latin preposition de. Mis
insinuates some errour, and for the most part may be rendered by the
Latin words male or perperam. To like, to dislike;
honour, dishonour; to honour, to grace, to dishonour, to
disgrace; to deign, to disdeign; chance, hap,
mischance, mishap; to take, to mistake; deed,
misdeed; to use, to misuse; to employ, to misemploy,
to apply, to misapply.

Words derived from Latin written with de or dis retain
the same signification; as distinguish, distinguo; detract,
detraho; defame, defamo; detain, detineo.

The termination ly added to substantives, and sometimes to
adjectives, forms adjectives that import some kind of similitude or
agreement, being formed by contraction of lick or like. A
giant, giantly, giantlike; earth, earthly; heaven,
heavenly; world, worldly; God, godly; good,
goodly.

The same termination ly, added to adjectives, forms adverbs of
like signification; as, beautiful, beautifully; sweet,
sweetly; that is, in a beautiful manner; with some
degree of sweetness.

The termination ish added to adjectives, imports diminution;
and added to substantives, imports similitude or tendency to a character;
as green, greenish; white, whitish; soft, softish; a
thief, thievish; a wolf, wolfish; a child,
childish.

We have forms of diminutives in substantives, though not frequent; as
a hill, a hillock; a cock, a cockrel; a pike, a
pickrel; this is a French termination: a goose, a gosling;
this is a German termination: a lamb, a lambkin; a chick, a
chicken; a man, a manikin; a pipe, a pipkin; and thus
Halkin, whence the patronymick, Hawkins; Wilkin,
Thomkin, and others.

Yet still there is another form of diminution among the English, by
lessening the sound itself, especially of vowels, as there is a form of
augmenting them by enlarging or even lengthening it; and that sometimes
not so much by change of the letters, as of their pronunciation; as,
sup, sip, soop, sop, sippet, where,
besides the extenuation of the vowel, there is added the French
termination et; top, tip; spit, spout;
babe, baby; booby, Βουπαις; great
pronounced long, especially if with a stronger sound, grea-t;
little, pronounced long lee-tle; ting, tang,
tong, imports a succession of smaller and then greater sounds; and
so in jingle, jangle, tingle, tangle, and
many other made words.

Much however of this is arbitrary and fanciful, depending wholly on
oral utterance, and therefore scarcely worthy the notice of Wallis.

Of concrete adjectives are made abstract substantives, by adding the
termination ness; and a few in hood or head, noting
character or qualities: as white, whiteness; hard,
hardness; great, greatness; skilful, skilfulness,
unskilfulness; godhead, manhood, maidenhead,
widowhood, knighthood, priesthood,
likelihood, falsehood.

There are other abstracts, partly derived from adjectives, and partly
from [30] verbs, which are formed by the addition of
the termination th, a small change being sometimes made; as long,
length; strong, strength; broad, breadth; wide,
width, deep, depth; true, truth; warm,
warmth; dear, dearth; slow, slowth; merry,
mirth; heal, health; well, weal, wealth; dry,
drought; young, youth; and so moon, month.

Like these are some words derived from verbs; die, death; till,
tilth; grow, growth; mow, later mowth, after
mowth; commonly spoken and written later math, after
math; steal, stealth; bear, birth, rue, ruth;
and probably earth, from to ear or plow; fly,
flight; weigh, weight; fray, fright; draw,
draught.

These should rather be written flighth, frighth, only
that custom will not suffer h to be twice repeated.

The same form retain faith, spight, wreathe,
wrath, broth, froth, breath, sooth,
worth, light, wight, and the like, whose primitives
are either entirely obsolete, or seldom occur. Perhaps they are derived
from fey or foy, spry, wry, wreak,
brew, mow, fry, bray, say,
work.

Some ending in ship, imply an office, employment, or condition;
as, kingship, wardship, guardianship,
partnership, stewardship, headship,
lordship.

Thus worship, that is, worthship; whence
worshipful, and to worship.

Some few ending in dom, rick, wick, do especially
denote dominion, at least state or condition; as, kingdom,
dukedom, earldom, princedom, popedom,
Christendom, freedom, wisdom, whoredom,
bishoprick, bailiwick.

Ment and age are plainly French terminations and are of
the same import with us as among them, scarcely ever occurring, except in
words derived from the French, as commandment, usage.

There are in English often long trains of words allied by their
meaning and derivation; as, to beat, a bat, batoon,
a battle, a beetle, a battledore, to batter,
batter, a kind of glutinous composition for food, made by
beating different bodies into one mass. All these are of similar
signification, and perhaps derived from the Latin batuo. Thus
take, touch, tickle, tack, tackle; all
imply a local conjunction from the Latin tango, tetigi,
tactum.

From two are formed twain, twice, twenty,
twelve, twins, twine, twist, twirl,
twig, twitch, twinge, between,
betwixt, twilight, twibil.

The following remarks, extracted from Wallis, are ingenious but of
more subtlety than solidity, and such as perhaps might in every language
be enlarged without end.

Sn usually imply the nose, and what relates to it. From
the Latin nasus are derived the French nez and the English
nose; and nesse, a promontory, as projecting like a nose.
But as if from the consonants ns taken from nasus, and
transposed that they may the better correspond, sn denote
nasus; and thence are derived many words that relate to the nose,
as snout, sneeze, snore, snort,snear,
snicker, snot, snivel, snite, snuff,
snuffle, snaffle, snarl, snudge.

There is another sn which may perhaps be derived from the Latin
sinuo, as snake, sneak, snail, snare;
so likewise snap and snatch, snib, snub.
Bl imply a blast; as blow, blast, to
blast, to blight, and, metaphorically, to blast one’s
reputation; bleat, bleak, a bleak place, to look
bleak, or weather-beaten, black, blay,
bleach, bluster, blurt, blister, blab,
bladder, blew, blabber lip’t,
blubber-cheek’t, bloted, blote-herrings,
blast, blaze, to blow, that is, blossom,
bloom; and perhaps blood and blush.

In the native words of our tongue is to be found a great agreement
between the letters and the thing signified; and therefore the sounds of
the letters smaller, sharper, louder, closer, softer, stronger, clearer,
more obscure, and more stridulous, do very often intimate the like
effects in the things signified.

Thus words that begin with str intimate the force and effect of
the thing signified, as if probably derived from στρωννυμι,
or strenuous; as strong, strength, strew,
strike, streak, stroke, stripe,
strive, strife, struggle, strout,
strut, stretch, strait, strict,
streight, that is, narrow, distrain, stress,
distress, string, strap, stream,
streamer, strand, strip, stray,
struggle, strange, stride, stradale.

St in like manner imply strength, but in a less degree, so much
only as is sufficient to preserve what has been already communicated,
rather than acquire any new degree; as if it were derived from the Latin
sto; for example, stand, stay, that is, to remain,
or to prop; staff, stay, that is, to oppose; stop,
to stuff, stifle, to stay, that is, to stop; a
stay, that is, an obstacle; stick, stut,
stutter, stammer, stagger, stickle,
stick, stake, a sharp, pale, and any thing deposited at
play; stock, stem, sting, to sting,
stink, stitch, stud, stuncheon, stub,
stubble, to stub up, stump, whence stumble,
stalk, to stalk, step, to stamp with the
feet, whence to stamp, that is, to make an impression and a stamp;
stow, to stow, to bestow, steward, or
stoward; stead, steady, stedfast,
stable, a stable, a stall, to stall,
stool, stall, still, stall, stallage,
stage, still, adjective, and still, adverb:
stale, stout, sturdy, stead, stoat,
stallion, stiff, stark-dead, to starve with
hunger or cold; stone, steel, stern, stanch,
to stanch blood, to stare, steep, steeple,
stair, standard, a stated measure, stately. In all
these, and perhaps some others, st denote something firm and
fixed.

Thr imply a more violent degree of motion, as throw,
thrust, throng, throb, through,
threat, threaten, thrall, throws.

Wr imply some sort of obliquity or distortion, as wry,
to wreathe, wrest, wrestle, wring,
wrong, wrinch, wrench, wrangle,
wrinkle, wrath, wreak, wrack, wretch,
wrist, wrap.

Sw imply a silent agitation, or a softer kind of lateral
motion; as sway, swag, to sway, swagger,
swerve, sweat, sweep, swill, swim,
swing, swift, sweet, switch,
swinge.

Nor is there much difference of sm in smooth,
smug, smile, smirk, smite; which signifies
the same as to strike, but is a softer word; small,
smell, smack, smother, smart, a smart
blow properly signifies such a kind of stroke as with an originally
silent motion, implied in sm, proceeds to a quick violence,
denoted by ar suddenly ended, as is shown by t.

Cl denote a kind of adhesion or tenacity, as in cleave,
clay, cling, climb, clamber, clammy,
clasp, to clasp, to clip, to clinch,
cloak, clog, close, to close, a clod,
a clot, as a clot of blood, clouted cream, a
clutter, a cluster.

Sp imply a kind of dissipation or expansion, especially a quick
one, particularly if there be an r, as if it were from
spargo or separo: for example, spread,
spring, sprig, sprout, sprinkle,
split, splinter, spill, spit, sputter,
spatter.

Sl denote a kind of silent fall, or a less observable motion;
as in slime, slide, slip, slipper,
sly, sleight, slit, slow, slack,
slight, sling, slap.

And so likewise ash, in crash, rash, gash,
flash, clash, lash, slash, plash,
trash, indicate something acting more nimbly and sharply. But
ush, in crush, rush, gush, flush,
blush, brush, hush, push, imply something as
acting more obtusely and dully. Yet in both there is indicated a swift
and sudden motion not instantaneous, but gradual, by the continued sound,
sh.

Thus in fling, sling, ding, swing,
cling, sing, wring, sting, the tingling of
the termination ng, and the sharpness of the vowel i, imply
the continuation of a very slender motion or tremor, at length indeed
vanishing, but not suddenly interrupted. [31] But in tink,
wink, sink, clink, chink, think, that
end in a mute consonant, there is also indicated a sudden ending.

If there be an l, as in jingle, tingle,
tinkle, mingle, sprinkle, twinkle, there is
implied a frequency, or iteration of small acts. And the same frequency
of acts, but less subtile by reason of the clearer vowel a, is
indicated in jangle, tangle, spangle, mangle,
wrangle, brangle, dangle; as also in mumble,
grumble, jumble. But at the same time the close u
implies something obscure or obtunded; and a congeries of consonants
mbl, denotes a confused kind of rolling or tumbling, as in
ramble, scamble, scramble, wamble,
amble; but in these there is something acute.

In nimble, the acuteness of the vowel denotes celerity. In
sparkle, sp denotes dissipation, ar an acute
crackling, k a sudden interruption, l a frequent iteration;
and in like manner in sprinkle, unless in may imply the
subtilty of the dissipated guttules. Thick and thin differ
in that the former ends with an obtuse consonant, and the latter with an
acute.

In like manner, in squeek, squeak, squeal,
squall, brawl, wraul, yaul, spaul,
screek, shriek, shrill, sharp,
shrivel, wrinkle, crack, crash, clash,
gnash, plash, crush, hush, hisse,
fisse, whist, soft, jar, hurl,
curl, whirl, buz, bustle, spindle,
dwindle, twine, twist, and in many more, we may
observe the agreement of such sort of sounds with the things signified;
and this so frequently happens, that scarce any language which I know can
be compared with ours. So that one monosyllable word, of which kind are
almost all ours, emphatically expresses what in other languages can
scarce be explained but by compounds, or decompounds, or sometimes a
tedious circumlocution.

We have many words borrowed from the Latin; but the greatest part of
them were communicated by the intervention of the French; as,
grace, face, elegant, elegance,
resemble.

Some verbs which seem borrowed from the Latin, are formed from the
present tense, and some from the supines.

From the present are formed spend, expend, expendo;
conduce, conduco; despise, despicio; approve,
approbo; conceive, concipio.

From the supines, supplicate, supplico; demonstrate,
demonstro; dispose, dispono; expatiate, expatior;
suppress, supprimo; exempt, eximo.

Nothing is more apparent than that Wallis goes too far in quest of
originals. Many of these which seem selected as immediate descendants
from the Latin, are apparently French, as, conceive,
approve, expose, exempt.

Some words purely French, not derived from the Latin, we have
transferred into our language; as, garden, garter,
buckler, to advance, to cry, to plead, from
the French jardin, jartier, bouclier,
avancer, crier, plaider; though, indeed, even of
these part is of Latin original.

As to many words which we have in common with the Germans, it is
doubtful whether the old Teutons borrowed them from the Latins, or the
Latins from the Teutons, or both had them from some common original; as
wine, vinum; wind, ventus; went, veni; way,
via, wall, vallum; wallow, volvo; wool, vellus;
will, volo; worm, vermis; worth, virtus;
wasp, vespa; day, dies; draw, traho; tame,
domo, δαμαω; yoke, jugum, ζευγος; over,
upper, super, ‛υπερ; am, sum, ειμι;
break, frango; fly, volo; blow, flo. I make no doubt
but the Teutonick is more ancient than the Latin: and it is no less
certain, that the Latin, which borrowed a great number of words not only
from the Greek, especially the Æolick, but from other neighbouring
languages, as the Oscan and others, which have long become obsolete,
received not a few from the Teutonick. It is certain, that the English,
German, and other Teutonick languages, retained some derived from the
Greek, which the Latin has not; as, ax, achs, mit,
ford, pfurd, daughter, tochter,
mickle, mingle, moon, sear, oar,
grave, graff, to grave, to scrape,
whole, from αξινη, μετα, πορθμος, θυγατηρ, μεγαλος, μιγνυω, μηνη, ξηρος, γραφω,
‛ολος. Since they received these
immediately from the Greeks, without the intervention of the Latin
language, why may not other words be derived immediately from the same
fountain, though they be likewise found among the Latins?

Our ancestors were studious to form borrowed words, however long, into
monosyllables; and not only cut off the formative terminations, but
cropped the first syllable, especially in words beginning with a vowel;
and rejected not only vowels in the middle, but likewise consonants of a
weaker sound, retaining the stronger, which seem the bones of words, or
changing them for others of the same organ, in order that the sound might
become the softer; but especially transposing their order, that they
might the more readily be pronounced without the intermediate vowels. For
example in expendo, spend; exemplum, sample; excipio,
scape; extraneus, strange; extractum, stretch’d;
excrucio, to screw; exscorio, to scour; excorio, to
scourge; excortico, to scratch; and others beginning with
ex: as also, emendo, to mend; episcopus, bishop, in
Danish bisp; epistola, epistle; hospitale, spittle;
Hispania, Spain; historia, story.

Many of these etymologies are doubtful, and some evidently
mistaken.

The following are somewhat harder, Alexander, Sander;
Elisabetha, Betty; apis, bee; aper, bar;
p passing into b, as in bishop; and by cutting off
a from the beginning, which is restored in the middle; but for the
old bar or bare, we now say boar; as for
lang, long, for bain, bane; for stane,
stone; aprugna, brawn, p, being changed into
b and a transposed, as in aper, and g changed
into w, as in pignus, pawn; lege, law; αλωπηξ, fox, cutting
off the beginning, and changing p into f, as in pellis,
a fell; pullus, a foal; pater, father; pavor,
fear; polio, file; pleo, impleo, fill, full;
piscis, fish; and transposing o into the middle, which was
taken from the beginning; apex, a piece; peak, pike;
zophorus, freese; mustum, stum; defensio, fence;
dispensator, spencer; asculto, escouter, Fr. scout;
exscalpo, scrape; restoring l instead of r, and
hence scrap, scrabble, scrawl; exculpo,
scoop; exterritus, start; extonitus, attonitus,
stonn’d; stomachus, maw; offendo, fined; obstipo,
stop; audere, dare; cavere, ware; whence,
a-ware, beware, wary, warn, warning;
for the Latin v consonant formerly sounded like our w, and
the modern sound of the v consonant was formerly that of the
letter f, that is, the Æolick digamma, which had the sound of
φ, and the modern sound of the
letter f was that of the Greek φ or ph; ulcus, ulcere, ulcer, sore,
and hence sorry, sorrow, sorrowful; ingenium,
engine, gin, scalenus, leaning, unless you would
rather derive it from κλινω, whence inclino;
infundibulum, funnel; gagates, jett, projectum, to jett
forth, a jetty; cucullus, a cowl.

There are syncopes somewhat harder; from tempore, time; from
nomine, name, domina, dame; [32] as the French
homme, femme, nom, from homine, fœmina, nomine.
Thus pagína, page; ποτηριον,
pot; κυπελλα, cup;
cantharus, can; tentorium, tent; precor, pray;
preda, prey; specio, speculor, spy; plico, ply;
implico, imply; replico, reply; complico, comply;
sedes episcopalis, see.

A vowel is also cut off in the middle, that the number of the
syllables may be lessened; as amita, aunt; spiritus,
spright; debitum, debt; dubito, doubt; comes,
comitis, count; clericus, clerk; quietus, quit,
quite; acquieto, to acquit; separo, to spare; stabilis,
stable; stabulum, stable; pallacium, palace,
place; rabula, rail, rawl, wrawl,
brawl, rable, brable; quæsito, quest.

As also a consonant, or at least one of a softer sound, or even a
whole syllable, rotundus, round; fragilis, frail; securus,
sure; regula, rule; tegula, tile; subtilis,
subtle; nomen, noun; decanus, dean; computo,
count; subitaneus, sudden, soon; superare, to
soar; periculum, peril; mirabile, marvel; as magnus,
main; dignor, deign; tingo, stain; tinctum,
taint; pingo, paint; prædari, reach.

The contractions may seem harder, where many of them meet, as κυριακος,
kyrk, church; presbyter, priest; sacristanus,
sexton; frango, fregi, break, breach; fagus, φηγα,
beech, f changed into b, and g into
ch, which are letters near akin; frigesco, freeze,
frigesco, fresh, sc into sh, as above in
bishop, fish, so in scapha, skiff, skip, and
refrigesco, refresh; but viresco, fresh; phlebotamus,
fleam; bovina, beef; vitulina, veal; scutifer,
squire; pœnitentia, penance; sanctuarium,
sanctuary, sentry; quæsitio, chase; perquisitio,
purchase; anguilla, eel; insula, isle, ile,
island, iland; insuletta, islet, ilet,
eyght, and more contractedly ey, whence Owsney,
Ruley, Ely; examinare, to scan; namely, by rejecting
from the beginning and end e and o, according to the usual
manner, the remainder xamin, which the Saxons, who did not use
x, writ csamen, or scamen, is contracted into
scan: as from dominus, don; nomine, noun; abomino,
ban; and indeed apum examen; they turned into
sciame; for which we say swarme, by inserting r to
denote the murmuring; thesaurus, store; sedile, stool;
‛υετος, wet; sudo,
sweat; gaudium, gay; jocus, joy; succus,
juice; catena, chain; caliga, calga; chause, chausse,
French, hose; extinguo, stand, squench,
quench, stint; foras, forth; species, spice;
recito, read; adjuvo, aid; αιων, ævum, ay, age,
ever; floccus, lock; excerpo, scrape,
scrabble, scrawl; extravagus, stray,
straggle; collectum, clot, clutch; colligo,
coil: recolligo, recoil; severo, swear; stridulus,
shrill; procurator, proxy; pulso, to push; calamus,
a quill; impetere, to impeach; augeo, auxi, wax; and
vanesco, vanui, wane; syllabare, to spell; puteus,
pit; granum, corn; comprimo, cramp, crump,
crumple, crinkle.

Some may seem harsher, yet may not be rejected, for it at least
appears, that some of them are derived from proper names, and there are
others whose etymology is acknowledged by every body; as, Alexander,
Elick, Scander, Sander, Sandy, Sanny;
Elizabetha, Elizabeth, Elisabeth, Betty,
Bess; Margareta, Margaret, Marget, Meg,
Peg; Maria, Mary, Mal, Pal, Malkin,
Mawkin, Mawkes; Mathæus, Mattha, Matthew;
Martha, Mat, Pat; Gulielmus, Wilhelmus,
Girolamo, Guillaume, William, Will,
Bill, Wilkin, Wicken, Wicks,
Weeks.

Thus cariophyllus, flos; gerofilo, Italian, giriflee, gilofer, French,
gilliflower, which the vulgar call julyflower, as if
derived from the month July; petroselinum, parsley;
portulaca, purslain; cydonium, quince; cydoniatum,
quiddeny; persicum, peach; eruca, eruke, which they
corrupt to earwig, as if it took its name from the ear; annulus
geminus, a gimmal, or gimbal-ring; and thus the word
gimbal or jumbal is transferred to other things thus
interwoven; quelques choses, kickshaws. Since the origin of these,
and many others, however forced, is evident, it ought to appear no wonder
to any one if the ancients have thus disfigured many, especially as they
so much affected monosyllables; and, to make the sound the softer, took
this liberty of maiming, taking away, changing, transposing, and
softening them.

But while we derive these from the Latin, I do not mean to say, that
many of them did not immediately come to us from the Saxon, Danish,
Dutch, and Teutonick languages, and other dialects; and some taken more
lately from the French or Italians, or Spaniards.

The same word, according to its different significations, often has a
different origin; as, to bear a burden, from fero; but
to bear, whence birth, born, bairn, comes
from pario; and a bear, at least if it be of Latin
original, from fera. Thus perch, a fish, from perca;
but perch, a measure, from pertica, and likewise to
perch. To spell is from syllaba; but spell, an
inchantment, by which it is believed that the boundaries are so fixed in
lands that none can pass them against the master’s will, from
expello; and spell, a messenger, from epistola;
whence gospel, good-spell, or god-spell. Thus
freese, or freeze, from frigesco; but freeze,
an architectonick word, from zophorus; but freeze, for
cloth, from Frisia, or perhaps from frigesco, as
being more fit than any other for keeping out the cold.

There are many words among us, even monosyllables, compounded of two
or more words, at least serving instead of compounds, and comprising the
signification of more words that one; as, from scrip and
roll comes scroll; from proud and dance,
prance; from st of the verb stay or stand and
out, is made stout; from stout and hardy,
sturdy; from sp of spit or spew, and
out, comes spout; from the same sp with the
termination in, is spin; and adding out, spin
out: and from the same sp, with it, is spit, which only
differs from spout in that it is smaller, and with less noise and
force; but sputter is, because of the obscure u, something
between spit and spout: and by reason of adding r,
it intimates a frequent iteration and noise, but obscurely confused;
whereas spatter, on account of the sharper and clearer vowel
a, intimates a more distinct poise, in which it chiefly differs
from sputter. From the same sp and the termination
ark, comes spark, signifying a single emission of fire with
a noise; namely sp, the emission, ar, the more acute noise,
and k, the mute consonant, intimates its being suddenly
terminated; but adding l, is made the frequentative
sparkle. The same sp, by adding r, that is
spr, implies a more lively impetus of diffusing or expanding
itself; to which adding the termination ing, it becomes
spring: its vigour spr imports; its sharpness the
termination ing; and lastly in acute and tremulous, ending
in the mute consonant g, denotes the sudden ending of any motion,
that it is meant in its primary signification, of a single, not a
complicated exilition. Hence we call spring whatever has an
elastick force; as also a fountain of water, and thence the origin of any
thing: and to spring, to germinate, and spring, one of the
four seasons. From the same spr and out, is formed sprout,
and wit the termination ig, sprig; of which the following,
for the most part, is the difference: sprout, of a grosser sound,
imports a fatter or grosser bud; sprig, of a slenderer sound,
denotes a smaller shoot. In like manner, from str of the verb
strive, and out, comes strout, and strut.
From the same str, and the termination uggle, is made
struggle; and this gl imports, but without any great noise,
by reason of the obscure sound of the vowel u. In like manner,
from throw and roll is made troll, and almost in the
same sense is trundle, from throw or thrust, and
rundle. Thus graff or grough is compounded of
grave and rough; and trudge from tread or
trot, and drudge.

In these observations it is easy to discover great sagacity and great
extravagance, an ability to do much defeated by the desire of doing more
than enough. It may be remarked,

1. That Wallis’s derivations are often so made, that by the same
license any language may be deduced from any other.

2. That he makes no distinction between words immediately derived by
us from the Latin, and those which being copied from other languages, can
therefore afford no example of the genius of [33] the English language, or
its laws of derivation.

3. That he derives from the Latin, often with great harshness and
violence, words apparently Teutonick; and therefore, according to his own
declaration, probably older than the tongue to which he refers them.

4. That some of his derivations are apparently erroneous.

SYNTAX.

The established practice of grammarians requires that I should here
treat of the Syntax; but our language has so little inflection, or
variety of terminations, that its construction neither requires nor
admits many rules. Wallis, therefore, has totally neglected it; and
Jonson, whose desire of following the writers upon the learned languages
made him think a syntax indispensably necessary, has published such petty
observations as were better omitted.

The verb, as in other languages, agrees with the nominative in number
and person; as, Thou fliest from good; He runs to
death.

Our adjectives and pronouns are invariable.

Of two substantives the noun possessive is in the genitive; as, His
father’s glory; The sun’s heat.

Verbs transitive require an oblique case; as, He loves me;
You fear him.

All prepositions require an oblique case: as, He gave this to
me; He took this from me; He says this of
me; He came with me.

PROSODY.

It is common for those that deliver the grammar of modern languages,
to omit the Prosody. So that of the Italians is neglected by Buomattei;
that of the French by Desmarais; aad that of the English by Wallis,
Cooper, and even by Jonson, though a poet. But as the laws of metre are
included in the idea of grammar, I have thought proper to insert
them.

PROSODY comprises orthoepy, or the rules of pronunciation; and
orthometry, or the laws of versification.

Pronunciation is just, when every letter has its proper sound,
and every syllable has its proper accent, or, which in English
versification is the same, its proper quantity.

The sounds of the letters have been already explained; and rules for
the accent or quantity are not easily to be given, being subject to
innumerable exceptions. Such, however, as I have read or formed, I shall
here propose.

1. Of dissyllables, formed by affixing a termination, the former
syllable is commonly accented, as chíldish, kíngdom,
áctest, ácted, tóilsome, lóver,
scóffer, faírer, fóremost, zéalous,
fúlness, gódly, meékly, ártist.

2. Dissyllables formed by prefixing a syllable to the radical word,
have commonly the accent on the latter; as to begét, to
beseém, to bestów.

3. Of dissyllables, which are at once nouns and verbs, the verb has
commonly the accent on the latter, and the noun on the former syllable;
as, to descánt, a déscant; to cemént, a
cément; to contráct, a cóntract.

This rule has many exceptions. Though verbs seldom have their accent
on the former, yet nouns often have it on the latter syllable; as
delíght, perfúme.

4. All dissyllables ending in y, as cránny; in
our, as lábour, fávour; in ow, as
wíllow, wállow, except allów; in le, as
báttle, bíble; in ish, as bánish; in
ck, as cámbrick, cássock; in ter, as to
bátter; in age, as coúrage, in en, as
fásten; in et, as quíet; accent the former
syllable.

5. Dissyllable nouns in er, as cánker, bútter,
have the accent on the former syllable.

6. Dissyllable verbs terminating in a consonant and e final, as
compríse, escápe; or having a diphthong in the last
syllable, as appéase, revéal; or ending in two consonants,
as atténd; have the accent on the latter syllable.

7. Dissyllable nouns having a diphthong in the latter syllable, have
commonly their accent on the latter syllable, as appláuse; except
words in ain, cértain, moúntain.

8. Trissyllables formed by adding a termination, or prefixing a
syllable, retain the accent of the radical word; as, lóveliness,
ténderness, contémner, wágonner, phýsical,
bespátter, cómmenting, comménding,
assúrance.

9. Trissyllables ending in ous, as grácious,
árduous; in al, as cápital; in ion, as
méntion; accent the first.

10. Trissyllables ending in ce, ent, and ate,
accent the first syllable, as cóuntenance, cóntinence,
ármament, ímminent, élegant, própagate,
except they be derived from words having the accent on the last, as
connívance, acquáintance; or the middle syllable hath a
vowel before two consonants, as promúlgate.

11. Trissyllables ending in y, as éntity,
spécify, líberty, víctory, súbsidy, commonly
accent the first syllable.

12. Trissyllables in re or le accent the [34] first syllable,
as légible, théatre, except discíple, and some words
which have a position, as exámple, epístle.

13. Trissyllables in ude commonly accent the first syllable, as
plénitude.

14. Trissyllables ending in ator or atour, as
creátour; or having in the middle syllable a diphthong, as
endeávour; or a vowel before two consonants, as doméstick;
accent the middle syllable.

15. Trissyllables that have their accent on the last syllable are
commonly French, as acquiésce, repartée, magazíne,
or words formed by prefixing one or two syllables to an acute syllable,
as immatúre, overchárge.

16. Polysyllables, or words of more than three syllables, follow the
accent of the words from which they are derived, as árrogating,
cóntinency, incóntinently, comméndable,
commúnicableness. We should therefore say dispútable,
indispútable; rather than dísputable, indísputable;
and advertísement, rather than advértisement.

17. Words in ion have the accent upon the antepenult, as
salvátion, perturbátion, concóction; words in
atour or ator on the penult, as dedicátor.

18. Words ending in le commonly have the accent on the first
syllable, as ámicable, unless the second syllable have a vowel
before two consonants, as combústible.

19. Words ending in ous have the accents on the antepenult, as
uxórious, volúptuous.

20. Words ending in ty have their accent on the antepenult, as
pusillanímity, actívity.

These rules are not advanced as complete or infallible, but proposed
as useful. Almost every rule of every language has its exceptions; and in
English, as in other tongues, much must be learned by example and
authority. Perhaps more and better rules may be given that have escaped
my observation.

VERSIFICATION is the arrangement of a certain number of syllables
according to certain laws.

The feet of our verses are either iambick, as alóft,
creáte; or trochaick, as hóly, lófty.

Our iambick measure comprises verses

Of four syllables,

Of six,

Of eight, which is the usual measure for short poems,

Of ten, which is the common measure of heroick and tragick poetry,

In all these measures the accents are to be placed on even syllables;
and every line considered by itself is more harmonious, as this rule is
more strictly observed. The variations necessary to pleasure belong to
the art of poetry, not the rules of grammar.

[35]
Our trochaick measures are Of three syllables,

Of five,

Of seven,

In these measures the accent is to be placed on the odd syllables.

These are the measures which are now in use, and above the rest those
of seven, eight, and ten syllables. Our ancient poets wrote verses
sometimes of twelve syllables, as Drayton’s Polyolbion.

And of fourteen, as Chapman’s Homer.

The measures of twelve and fourteen syllables were often mingled by
our old poets, sometimes in alternate lines, and sometimes in alternate
couplets.

The verse of twelve syllables, called an Alexandrine, is now
only used to diversify heroick lines.

The pause in the Alexandrine must be at the sixth syllable.

The verse of fourteen syllables is now broken into a soft lyrick
measure of verses, consisting alternately of eight syllables and six.

We have another measure very quick and lively, and therefore much used
in songs, which may be called the anapestick, in which the accent
rests upon every third syllable.

In this measure a syllable is often retrenched from the first foot,
as

These measures are varied by many combinations, and sometimes by
double endings, either with or without rhyme, as in the heroick
measure.

So in that of eight syllables,

In that of seven,

In that of six,

In the anapestick,

To these measures and their laws, may be reduced every species of
English verse.

Our versification admits of few licences, except a
synalœpha, or elision of e in the before a
vowel, as th’ eternal; and more rarely of o in to,
as t’ accept; and a synaresis, by which two short vowels
coalesce into one syllable, as question, special; or a word
is contracted by the expulsion of a short vowel before a liquid, as
av’rice, temp’rance.

Thus have I collected rules and examples, by which the English
language may be learned, if the reader be already acquainted with
grammatical terms, or taught by a master to those that are more ignorant.
To have written a grammar for such as are not yet initiated in the
schools, would have been tedious, and perhaps at last ineffectual.