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MUSIC NOTATION
AND TERMINOLOGY

By KARL W. GEHRKENS, A.M.

ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF SCHOOL MUSIC
OBERLIN CONSERVATORY OF MUSIC

THE A. S. BARNES COMPANY
NEW YORK 1914

Copyright, 1914, by
THE A. S. BARNES COMPANY

[Pg iii]

PREFACE

The study of music notation and terminology by classes in
conservatories and in music departments of colleges and normal schools
is a comparative innovation, one reason for the non-existence of such
courses in the past being the lack of a suitable text-book, in which
might be found in related groups clear and accurate definitions of the
really essential terms. But with the constantly increasing interest in
music study (both private and in the public schools), and with the
present persistent demand that music teaching shall become more
systematic and therefore more efficient in turning out a more
intelligent class of pupils, it has become increasingly necessary to
establish courses in which the prospective teacher of music (after
having had considerable experience with music itself) might acquire a
concise and accurate knowledge of a fairly large number of terms, most
of which he has probably already encountered as a student, and many of
which he knows the general meaning of, but none of which he perhaps
knows accurately enough to enable him to impart his knowledge clearly
and economically to others.

To meet the need of a text-book for this purpose in his own classes the
author has been for several years gathering material from all available
sources, and it is hoped that the arrangement of this material in
related groups as here presented will serve to give the student not only
some insight into the present meaning of a goodly number of terms, but
will also enable him to see more clearly why certain terms have the
meaning which at present attaches to them. To this latter end the
[Pg iv]derivations of many of the terms are given in connection with their
definition.

The aim has not been to present an exhaustive list, and the selection of
terms has of course been influenced largely by the author’s own
individual experience, hence many teachers will probably feel that
important terms have been omitted that should have been included. For
this state of affairs no apology is offered except that it would
probably be impossible to write a book on this subject which would
satisfy everyone in either the selection or actual definition of terms.

In formulating the definitions themselves an attempt has been made to
use such words as note, tone, et cetera with at least a fair degree
of accuracy, and while the attitude of the author on this point may be
criticized as being puristic and pedantic, it is nevertheless his
opinion that the next generation of music students and teachers will be
profited by a more accurate use of certain terms that have been
inaccurately used for so long that the present generation has to a large
extent lost sight of the fact that the use is inaccurate. The author is
well aware of the fact that reform is a matter of growth rather than of
edict, but he is also of the belief that before reform can actually
begin to come, the need of reform must be felt by a fairly large
number of actively interested persons. It is precisely because so few
musicians realize the need of any change in music terminology that the
changes recommended by committees who have given the matter careful
thought are so slow in being adopted. It is hoped that some few points
at which reform in the terminology of music is necessary may be brought
to the attention of a few additional musicians thru this volume, and
that the cause may thus be helped in some slight degree.

It is suggested that in using the book for class-room purposes the
teacher emphasize not only the definition and derivation of all terms
[Pg v]studied, but the spelling and pronunciation as well. For this latter
purpose a pronouncing index has been appended.

It is impossible to give credit to all sources from which ideas have
been drawn, but especial mention should be made of the eminently clear
and beautifully worded definitions compiled by Professor Waldo S. Pratt
or the Century Dictionary, and the exceedingly valuable articles on an
almost all-inclusive range of topics found in the new edition of Grove’s
Dictionary. Especial thanks for valuable suggestions as to the
arrangement of the material, etc., are also due to Dr. Raymond H.
Stetson, Professor of Psychology, Oberlin College; Arthur E. Heacox,
Professor of Theory, Oberlin Conservatory of Music; and Charles I. Rice,
Supervisor of Music, Worcester, Mass., as well as to various members of
the Music Teachers’ National Association who have offered valuable
advice along certain specific lines.

K.W.G.

Oberlin Conservatory of Music, June, 1913

[Pg vii]

CONTENTS

Chapter I.—Some Principles of Correct Notation 1
1. Note.
2, 3. Rules for turning stems.
4. Use of cross-stroke.
5. Rest.
6. G Clef.
7. F Clef and C Clef.
8. Sharp and double-sharp.
9. Flat, double-flat and natural.
10. Tie.
11. Dot after a note.

Chapter II.—Symbols of Music Defined 5
12. Staff and Great Staff.
13. Leger Lines.
14. Staff degrees.
15. Clef.
16. Treble and bass Clefs.
17. Movable C Clef.
18. Sharp.
19. Flat.
20. Double-sharp and double-flat.

Chapter III.—Symbols of Music Defined (continued) 8
21. Natural
22, 23. Key-signature; how determine whether a major or minor key.
24, 25. Accidentals; with tie across bar.
26. Rules concerning altered staff degrees.
27. Enharmonic.
28. Notes; pitch and length of tones.
29. Rests.
30. Lists of notes and rests.
31. English names for.
32. Less common forms.
33. Whole rest, peculiar use of.
34. Bar.
35. Double-bar.

Chapter IV.—Abbreviations, Signs, etc. 13
36-40. Signs for repetition.
41. Continuation.
42. Rest.
43. Pause.
44. Hold.
45-47. Alteration of Pitch.
48. Octave names.

Chapter V.—Abbreviations, Signs, etc. (continued) 17
49-51. Dots after notes.
52. Dots over or under notes.
53. Dash over note.
54. Tie.
55. Slur.
56. Slur or tie with dots.
57. Dash over note.
58. Dash and dot over note.
59. Accent marks.
60. m.d., m.g., etc.
61. Arpeggio.
62. Messa di voce.
63. Violin bow signs.

Chapter VI.—Embellishments 22
64. Definition and kinds.
65. Trill.
66-68. Mordent.
69-72. Turn.
73, 74. Appoggiatura.
75. Acciaccatura.

Chapter VII.—Scales 27
76. Definition, and old forms.
77. Origin.
78. Key.
79. Three general classes.
80. Diatonic, defined.
81. Major diatonic.
82. Tetrachords.
83. The fifteen positions.

Chapter VIII.—Scales (continued) 33
84. Minor diatonic.
85. Original form.
86. Harmonic minor.
87. Melodic minor.
88. Eleven positions.
89. Relative minor.
90. Tonic minor.
91. Diatonic scale names.
92. Syllable-names.
93. Chromatic scale.
94. Nine positions.
[Pg viii]95. Whole-step scale.

Chapter IX.—Auxiliary Words and Endings 42

Chapter X.—Measure 44
97. Definition.—Two essential characteristics. Rhythm vers measure.
98. Syncopation.
99. Simple and compound measures.
100. Commonest varieties.
101. Other varieties.
102. Rare varieties.
103. The signs, C and
.

Chapter XI.—Tempo 48
104. Misuses of the word “time.”
105-107. How to correct these: by substituting “rhythm,” “measure,”
and “tempo.”
108. Three ways of finding the correct tempo.
109. A convenient grouping of tempo-terms.

Chapter XII.—Tempo (continued) 52
110-119. Tempo-terms.

Chapter XIII.—Dynamics 56
120-131. Terms relating to dynamics.

Chapter XIV.—Terms Relating to Forms and Styles 62
132. Definition of form.
133. Basis of form.
134. Difference between form and style.
135. Introductory.
136. Two styles.
137. Monophonic music.
138. Polyphonic music.
139. Counterpoint.
140. Imitation.
141. Canon.
142. School round.
143. Fugue.

Chapter XV.—Terms Relating to Forms and Styles (continued) 67
144. Phrase-section.
145. Period. Antecedent. Consequent.
146. Primary forms.
147. Theme.
148. Thematic development.
149. Rondo.
150. Suite.
151. Dances in suite.
152. Scherzo.
153. Sonata.
154. Trio. Quartet. Chamber Music.
155. Concerto.
156. Symphony.
157. Sonata-form.
158. Sonatina. Grand Sonata.
159. Program music.
160. Symphonic or tone poem.

Chapter XVI.—Terms Relating to Vocal Music 76
161. Anthem.
162. A capella.
163. Motet.
164. Choral.
165. Mass.
166. Cantata.
167. Oratorio.
168. Opera.
169. Libretto.
170. Recitative.
171. Aria.
172. Lied.
173. Ballad.
174. Folk-song.
175. Madrigal.
176. Glee.
177. Part-song.

Chapter XVII.—Rhythm, Melody, Harmony and Intervals 82
178. The four elements of music.
179. Rhythm.
180. Melody.
181. Harmony.
182. Timbre.
183. Interval—harmonic and melodic.
184. Number name and specific name.
185. Prime.
186. Second.
187. Third.
188. Fourth.
189. Fifth.
190. Sixth.
191. Seventh.
192. Octave.
193. Ninth.
194. Major, minor, perfect, diminished and augmented intervals.
195. Inverted intervals.

Chapter XVIII.—Chords, Cadences, etc. 87
196. Chord. Triad. Root.
197. Major, minor, diminished, augmented triads.
198. The Common chords.
199. Fundamental position. First inversion. Second inversion.
200. Figured bass.
201. Seventh-chord. Ninth chord.
202. Cadence.
203. Authentic cadence.
204. Perfect authentic. Imperfect authentic.
205. Plagal cadence.
206. Half-cadence.
207. Deceptive cadence.
208. Sequence.
209. Modulation, harmonic and melodic: Dominant Seventh.
[Pg ix]210. Suspension.
211. Retardation.
212. Anticipation.
213. Pedal point.
214. Close and open position.
215. Transposition.

Chapter XIX.—Miscellaneous Terms 95

Chapter XX.—Miscellaneous Terms (continued) 98

Appendix A.—The History of Music Notation 101

Appendix B.—Musical Instruments 112
1. Two classes.
2. Piano.
3, 4. Organ, reed and pipe.
5. Instruments used for ensemble playing.
6. Band.
7. Orchestra.
8. The stringed instruments.
9. Wood-wind.
10. Brass.
11. Percussion.
12. Proportion of instruments, in an orchestra.
13. Books recommended.
14. Violin.
15. Viola.
16. Violoncello.
17. Double-bass.
18. Flute.
19. Piccolo.
20. Oboe family.
21. Clarinet and bass clarinet; saxophone.
22. French horn.
23. Trumpet.
24. Cornet.
25. Trombone.
26. Tuba.
27. Kettle-drum.
28. Harp.

Appendix C.—Acoustics 131
1. Definition.
2. Sound, production of.
3. Sound, transmission of.
4. Rate of travel.
5. Intensification of.
6. Classification of.
7. Tones, properties of.
8. Pitch.
9. Intensity.
10. Quality.
11. Overtones.
12. Equal temperament.
13. Standards of pitch.

Appendix D.—Terminology Reform 139

Appendix E.—Analysis of Beethoven Sonata, Op. 31, No. 3 149

Pronouncing Index 159

[Pg 1]

CHAPTER I

Some Principles of Correct Notation

1. The note (from nota—Latin—a mark or sign) consists of either
one, two, or three parts, () these being referred to
respectively as head, stem, and hook. The hook is often called tail or
cross-stroke. The stem appears on the right side of the head when turned
up, but on the left side when turned down.[1]
The hook is
always on the right side.[2]

2. When only one part (or voice) is written on the staff, the following
rules for turning stems apply: (1) If the note-head is below the
third line, the stem must turn up. (2) If the note-head is above the
third line the stem must turn down. (3) If the note-head is on the
third line the stem is turned either up or down with due regard to the
symmetrical appearance of the measure in which the note occurs. The
following examples will illustrate these points.

[Listen]

[Pg 2]

3. When two parts are written on the same staff, the stems of the upper
part all turn up, and those of the lower part turn down, in order that
the parts may be clearly distinguished. (Fig. 2.) But in music for piano
and other instruments on which complete chords can be sounded by one
performer and also in simple, four-part vocal music in which all voices
have approximately the same rhythm, several notes often have one stem in
common as in Fig. 3.

[Listen]

[Listen]

4. Notes of small denomination (eighths and smaller) are often written
in groups of two or more, all stems in the group being then connected by
one cross-stroke. In such a case all the stems must of course be
turned the same way, the direction being determined by the position of
the majority of note-heads in the group. Notes thus stroked may be of
the same or of different denomination. See Fig. 4.

[Listen]

In vocal music notes are never thus stroked when a syllable is given to
each note. (See p. 19, Sec. 55, C.)

5. Rests, like notes, are best made with a heavy pen stroke or by
using a piece of chalk on its side. (See note under Sec. 1.) The
double-whole rest, whole rest, and half rest occupy the third space
unless for the sake of clearness in writing two parts on the same staff
they are written higher or lower. The rests of smaller denomination may
be placed at any point on the staff, the hooks being always placed on
the spaces. The hook[Pg 3] of the eighth rest is usually placed on the
third space. Rests are sometimes dotted, but are never tied.

6. The G clef should be begun at the second line rather than below the
staff. Experiments have shown clearly that beginners learn to make it
most easily in this way, and the process may be further simplified by
dividing it into two parts, thus,
. The descending stroke
crosses the ascending curve at or near the fourth line. The circular
part of the curve occupies approximately the first and second spaces.

7. The F clef is made either thus,
, or thus,
the dots being placed one on either side of the
fourth line of the staff, which is the particular point that the clef
marks. The C clef has also two forms,
and
.

8. The sharp is made with two light vertical strokes, and two heavy
slanting ones, the slant of the latter being upward from left to right,
♯. The sharp should never be made thus, #.

The double sharp is made either thus
or
*, the first form being at present the more common.

9. The flat is best made by a down stroke retraced part way up, the
curve being made without lifting pen from paper. The double flat
consists of two flats,[3] ♭♭. The natural or cancel is
made in two strokes, down-right and right-down, thus
♮.

10. The tie usually connects the heads of notes, thus
.

11. The dot after a note always appears on a space, whether the
note-head is on a line or space. (See Fig. 5.) In the case of a dot
after a note on a line, the dot usually appears on the space above
that line if the next note is higher in position and on the space below
it if the following note is lower.[Pg 4]

[Listen]

[Pg 5]

CHAPTER II

Symbols of Music Defined

12. A staff is a collection of parallel lines, together with the
spaces belonging to them. The modern staff has five lines and six
spaces, these being ordinarily referred to as first line, second line,
third line, fourth line, and fifth line (beginning with the lowest); and
space below (i.e., space below the first line), first space, second
space, third space, fourth space, and space above.

The definition and discussion above refer more specifically to one of
the portions of the “great staff,” the latter term being often applied
to the combination of treble and bass staffs (with one leger line
between) so commonly used in piano music, etc.

13. The extent of the staff may be increased either above or below by
the addition of short lines called leger lines,[4] and notes may be
written on either these lines or on the spaces above and below them.

14. The lines and spaces constituting the staff (including leger lines
if any) are often referred to as staff degrees, i.e., each separate
line and space is considered to be “a degree of the staff.” The tones of
a scale are also sometimes referred to as “degrees of the scale.”

15. A clef[5] is a sign placed on the staff to designate what pitches
are to be represented by its lines and spaces. Thus, e.g., the G clef
shows us not only that the second line of the staff represents G, but
that the first line represents E, the first space F, etc. The F clef
similarly shows us that the fifth line[Pg 6] of the bass staff represents the
first A below middle C, the fourth line the first F below middle C, etc.

The student should note that these clefs are merely modified forms of
the letters G and F, which (among others) were used to designate the
pitches represented by certain lines when staff notation was first
inaugurated. For a fuller discussion of this matter see
Appendix A, p. 101.

16. When the G clef is used the staff is usually referred to as the
treble staff, and when the F clef is used, as the bass staff. Such
expressions as “singing from the treble clef,” or “singing in the treble
clef,” and “singing in the bass clef” are still frequently heard, but
are preferably replaced by “singing from the treble staff,” and “singing
from the bass staff.” Fig. 6 shows the permanent names of lines and
spaces when the G and F clefs are used.[6]

17. The movable C clef or
,
formerly in very common use, is now utilized for only two purposes,
viz., (1) in music written for certain orchestral instruments (cello,
viola, etc.) of extended range, in order to avoid having to use too many
leger lines; and (2) for indicating the tenor part in vocal music. This
latter usage seems also to be disappearing however, and the tenor part
is commonly written on the treble staff, it being understood that the
tones are to be sung an octave lower than the notes would indicate.[Pg 7]

The C clef as used in its various positions is shown in Figs. 7, 8, and
9. It will be noted that in each case the line on which the clef is
placed represents “middle C.”

18. A sharp is a character which causes the degree of the staff with
which it is associated to represent a pitch one half-step higher than it
otherwise would.

19. A flat is a character that causes the degree of the staff with
which it is associated to represent a tone one half-step lower than it
otherwise would. (See note under Sec. 18 and apply the same discussion
here.)

20. A double-sharp causes the staff degree on which it is placed to
represent a pitch one whole-step higher than it would without any sharp.
Similarly, a double-flat causes the staff degree on which it is placed
to represent a pitch one whole-step lower than it would without any
flat.

[Pg 8]

CHAPTER III

Symbols of Music Defined (Continued)

21. The natural[8] (sometimes called cancel) annuls the effect of
previous sharps, flats, double-sharps, and double-flats, within the
measure in which it occurs. After a double-sharp or double-flat the
combination of a natural with a sharp, or a natural with a flat is often
found: in this case only one sharp or flat is annulled. (Sometimes also
the single sharp or flat will be found by itself, cancelling the
double-sharp or double-flat). The natural is often used when a
composition changes key, as in Fig. 11, where a change from E to G is
shown.

22. The group of sharps or flats (or absence of them) at the beginning
of a staff partially indicates the key in which the composition is
written. They are called collectively the key-signature.

23. The same key-signature may stand for either one of two keys, the
major key, or its relative minor, hence in order to determine in what
key a melody is one must note whether the tones are grouped about the
major tonic DO or the minor tonic LA. In a harmonized composition it is
almost always possible to determine the key by referring to the last
bass note; if the final chord is clearly the DO chord the composition is
in the major key, but if this final chord is clearly the LA chord then
it is almost certain that the entire composition is in the[Pg 9] minor key.
Thus if a final chord appears as that in Fig. 12 the composition is
clearly in G major, while if it appears as in Fig. 13, it is just as
surely in E minor.

[Listen]

24. Sharps, flats, naturals, double-sharps and double-flats, occurring
in the course of the composition (i.e., after the key signature) are
called accidentals, whether they actually cause a staff degree to
represent a different pitch as in Fig. 14 or simply make clear a
notation about which there might otherwise be some doubt as in Fig. 15,
measure two. The effect of such accidentals terminates at the bar.

[Listen]

25. In the case of a tie across a bar an accidental remains in force
until the combined value of the tied notes expires. In Fig. 16 first
measure, third beat, an accidental sharp makes the third space represent
the pitch C sharp. By virtue of the tie across the bar the third space
continues to represent C sharp thru the first beat of the second
measure, but for the remainder of the measure the third space will
represent C unless the sharp is repeated as in Fig. 17.

[Listen]

26. The following rules for making staff degrees represent pitches
different from those of the diatonic scale will be found useful by the
beginner in the study of music notation. These[Pg 10] rules are quoted from
“The Worcester Musical Manual,” by Charles I. Rice.

[Listen]

27. When two different notations represent the same pitch, the word
enharmonic is applied. Thus we may say that F sharp and G flat (on
keyboard instruments at least) are enharmonically the same.

This word enharmonic is used in such expressions as enharmonic change,
enharmonic keys, enharmonic interval, enharmonic modulation, enharmonic
relation, etc., and in all such combinations it has the same meaning,
viz.—a change in notation but no change in the pitch represented.

28. A note is a character expressing relative duration, which when
placed on a staff indicates that a certain tone is to be sounded for a
certain relative length of time. The pitch of the tone to be sounded is
shown by the position of the note on the staff, while the length of time
it is to be prolonged is shown by the shape of the note. Thus e.g., a
half-note on the second line of the treble staff indicates that a
specific pitch (g’) is to be played or sung for a period of time twice
as long as would be indicated by a quarter-note in the same composition.

29. A rest is a character which indicates a rhythmic silence of a
certain relative length.[Pg 11]

30. The notes and rests in common use are as follows:

	Whole-note. An open note-head without stem.
	Half-note. An open note-head with stem.
	Quarter-note. A closed note-head with stem.
	Eighth-note. A closed note-head with stem and one hook.
	Sixteenth-note. A closed note-head with stem and two hooks.
	Thirty-second-note. A closed note-head with stem and three hooks.
	Whole-rest.
	Half-rest.
	Quarter-rest.
	Eighth-rest.
	Sixteenth-rest.
	Thirty-second-rest.

31. The English names for these notes are:

The corresponding rests are referred to by the same system of
nomenclature: e.g., semi-breve rest, etc.

32. Sixty-fourth and one-hundred-and-twenty-eighth-notes are
occasionally found, but are not in common use. The double-whole-note
(breve), made or
, is still used,
especially in English music, which frequently employs the half-note as
the beat-unit. Thus in four-half measure the breve would be necessary to
indicate a tone having four beats.

33. The whole-rest has a peculiarity of usage not common to any of the
other duration symbols, viz., that it is often employed as a
measure-rest, filling an entire measure of beats, no matter what the
measure-signature may be. Thus, not only in four-quarter-measure, but in
two-quarter, three-quarter, six-eighth, and other varieties, the
whole-rest fills the[Pg 12] entire measure, having a value sometimes greater,
sometimes less than the corresponding whole-note. Because of this
peculiarity of usage the whole-rest is termed Takt-pausa
(measure-rest) by the Germans.

34. A bar is a vertical line across the staff, dividing it into
measures. The word bar is often used synonymously with measure by
orchestral conductors and others; thus, “begin at the fourteenth bar
after J.” This use of the word, although popular, is incorrect.

35. A double-bar consists of two vertical lines across the staff, at
least one of the two being a heavy line. The double bar marks the end of
a division, movement, or entire composition.

[Pg 13]

CHAPTER IV

Abbreviations, Signs, Etc.

36. A double bar (or single heavy bar) with either two or four dots
indicates that a section is to be repeated. If the repeat marks occur at
only one point the entire preceding part is to be repeated, but if the
marks occur twice (the first time at the right of the bar but the second
time at the left), only the section thus enclosed by the marks is to be
repeated.

37. Sometimes a different cadence (or ending) is to be used for the
repetition, and this is indicated as in Fig. 24.

38. The Italian word bis is occasionally used to indicate that a
certain passage or section is to be repeated. This use is becoming
obsolete.

39. The words da capo (D.C.) mean literally “from the head,” i.e.,
repeat from the beginning. The words dal segno (D.S.) indicate a
repetition from the sign ( or
) instead of
from the beginning.

In the case of both D.C. and D.S. the word fine (meaning literally
the end) is ordinarily used to designate the point at which the
repeated section is to terminate. The fermata () was
formerly in common use for this same purpose, but is seldom so employed
at present.[Pg 14]

40. In certain cases where the repetition of characteristic figures can
be indicated without causing confusion, it is the practice of composers
(especially in orchestral music) to make use of certain signs of
repetition. Some of the commonest of these abbreviations are shown in
the following examples.

[Listen]

In Fig. 28 the repetition of an entire measure is called for.

[Listen]

41. The word simile
(sometimes segue) indicates that a certain effect previously begun is
to be continued, as e.g., staccato playing, pedalling, style of bowing
in violin music, etc. The word segue is also occasionally used to show
that an accompaniment figure (especially in orchestral music) is to be
continued.

42. When some part is to rest for two or more measures several methods
of notation are possible. A rest of two measures is usually indicated
thus
. Three measures thus
. Four measures
thus
. Rests of more than[Pg 15] four measures are usually
indicated in one of the following ways:
. Sometimes the
number of measures is written directly on the staff, thus;
.

43. The letters G.P. (general pause, or grosse pause), the words lunga
pausa, or simply the word lunga, are sometimes written over a rest to
show that there is to be a prolonged pause or rest in all parts. Such
expressions are found only in ensemble music, i.e., music in which
several performers are engaged at the same time.

44. The fermata or hold
over a note or chord
indicates that the tone is to be prolonged, the duration of the
prolongation depending upon the character of the music and the taste of
the performer or conductor. It has already been noted that the hold over
a bar was formerly used to designate the end of the composition, as the
word fine is employed at present, but this usage has practically
disappeared and the hold over the bar now usually indicates a short rest
between two sections of a composition.

45. The sign 8va…… (an abbreviation of all’ottava,
literally at the octave) above the staff, indicates that all tones are to be
sounded an octave higher than the notes would indicate. When found below
the staff the same sign serves to indicate that the tones are to be
sounded an octave lower. The term 8va bassa has also this latter
signification.

46. Sometimes the word loco (in place) is used to show that the part
is no longer to be sounded an octave higher (or lower), but this is more
often indicated by the termination of the dotted (or wavy) line.

47. The sign Col 8 (coll’ottava—with
the octave) shows that the
tones an octave higher or lower are to be sounded with the tones
indicated by the printed notes.

48. For the sake of definiteness in referring to pitches, a particular
name is applied to each octave, and all pitches in[Pg 16] the octave are
referred to by means of a uniform nomenclature. The following figure
will make this system clear:

Thus e.g., “great G” (written simply G), is the G represented by the
first line of the bass staff. Small A (written a), is represented by the
fifth line of the bass staff. Two-lined G, (written
),
is represented by the space above the fifth line, treble staff.
Three-lined C, (written
), is represented by the
second added line above the treble staff, etc. The one-lined octave
may be described as the octave from middle C to the B represented by
the third line of the treble staff, and any tone within that octave is
referred to as “one-lined.” Thus—one-lined D, one-lined G, etc.

[Pg 17]

CHAPTER V

Abbreviations, Signs, Etc., (Continued)

49. A dot after a note shows that the value of the note is to be half
again as great as it would be without the dot, i.e., the value is to
be three-halves that of the original note.

50. When two dots follow the note the second dot adds half as much as
the first dot has added, i.e., the entire value is seven-fourths that
of the original note.

51. When three dots follow the note the third dot adds one-half the
value added by the second, i.e., the entire value of the triple-dotted
note is fifteen-eighths that of the original note.

52. A dot over or under a note is called the staccato mark and
indicates that the tone is to be sounded and then instantly released.
In music for organ and for some other instruments the
staccato note is sometimes interpreted differently, this depending on
the character of the instrument.

53. The wedge-shaped dash over the note (staccatissimo) was formerly
employed to indicate a tone still more detached[Pg 18] than that indicated by
the dot, but this sign is really superfluous, and is seldom used at
present.

54. A tie is a curved line connecting the heads of two notes that call
for the same tone. It indicates that they are to be sounded as one tone
having a duration equal to the combined value of both notes. E.g., a
half-note tied to a quarter-note would indicate a tone equal in
duration-length to that shown by a dotted half-note; two half-notes tied
would indicate a tone equal in duration to that shown by a whole-note.
(See examples under Sections 49, 50, and
51).

Fig. 30 illustrates the more common variety of tie, while Fig. 31 shows
an example of the enharmonic[10] tie.

[Listen]

55. The slur is used in so many different ways that it is impossible
to give a general definition. It consists of a curved line, sometimes
very short (in which case it looks like the tie), but sometimes very
long, connecting ten, fifteen, or more notes. Some of the more common
uses of the slur are:

A. To indicate legato (sustained or connected) tones, as contrasted
with staccato (detached) ones.

B. As a phrase-mark, in the interpretation of which the first tone of
the phrase is often accented slightly, and the last one shortened in
value.

[Listen]

[Pg 19]

C. In vocal music, to show that two or more tones are to be sung to one
syllable of text. See Fig. 35.

[Listen]

[Listen]

D. To mark special note-groups (triplets, etc.), in which case the slur
is accompanied by a figure indicating the number of notes in the group.
See Fig. 37 (a)

[Listen]

[Pg 20]

56. The combination of slur or tie and dots over the notes indicates
that the tones are to be somewhat detached, but not sharply so.

57. The horizontal dash over a note
indicates that the
tone is to be slightly accented, and sustained. This mark is also
sometimes used after a staccato passage to show that the tones are no
longer to be performed in detached fashion, but are to be sustained.
This latter use is especially common in music for stringed instruments.

58. The combination of dash and dot over a note

indicates that the tone is to be slightly accented and separated from
its neighboring tones.

59. Accent marks are made in a variety of fashions. The most common
forms follow. sf
fz. All indicate that a certain tone or chord is to be differentiated
from its neighboring tones or chords by receiving a certain relative
amount of stress.

60. In music for keyboard instruments it is sometimes necessary to
indicate that a certain part is to be played by a certain hand. The
abbreviations r.h. (right hand), m.d. (mano destra, It.), and m.d. (main
droite, Fr.), designate that a passage or tone is to be played with the
right hand, while l.h. (left hand), m.s. (mano sinistra, It.), and m.g.
(main gauche, Fr.), show that the left hand is to be employed.[Pg 21]

61. The wavy line placed vertically beside a chord

indicates that the tones are to be sounded consecutively instead of
simultaneously, beginning with the lowest tone, all tones being
sustained until the duration-value of the chord has expired. This is
called arpeggio playing. When the wavy line extends through the entire
chord (covering both staffs) as in Fig. 38, all the tones of the chord
are to be played one after another, beginning with the lowest: but if
there is a separate wavy line for each staff as at Fig. 39 then the
lowest tone represented on the upper staff is to be played
simultaneously with the lowest tone represented on the bass staff.

[Listen]

62. The sign
over a note indicates that
the tone is to be begun softly, gradually increased in power, and as
gradually decreased again, ending as softly as it began. In vocal music
this effect is called messa di voce.

63. In music for stringed instruments of the violin family, the sign
indicates down-bow and the sign

up-bow. In cello music the down-bow sign is sometimes written
.

[Pg 22]

CHAPTER VI

Embellishments

64. Embellishments (or graces) (Fr. agréments) are ornamental tones,
either represented in full in the score or indicated by certain signs.
The following are the embellishments most commonly found: Trill (or
shake), mordent, inverted mordent (or prall trill), turn (gruppetto),
inverted turn, appoggiatura and acciaccatura.

Usage varies greatly in the interpretation of the signs representing
these embellishments and it is impossible to give examples of all the
different forms. The following definitions represent therefore only the
most commonly found examples and the most generally accepted
interpretations.

65. The trill (or shake) consists of the rapid alternation of two
tones to the full value of the printed note. The lower of these two
tones is represented by the printed note, while the upper one is the
next higher tone in the diatonic scale of the key in which the
composition is written. The interval between the two tones may therefore
be either a half-step or a whole-step.

The trill is indicated by the sign
.

[Listen]

[Pg 23]

[Listen]

The above examples would be termed perfect trills because they close
with a turn. By inference, an imperfect trill is one closing without a
turn.

66. The mordent
consists of three tones; first the
one represented by the printed note; second the one next below it in the
diatonic scale; third the one represented by the printed note again.

[Listen]

67. The double (or long) mordent has five tones (sometimes seven)
instead of three, the first two of the three tones of the regular
mordent being repeated once or more. (See Fig. 43.)

In the case of both mordent and double-mordent the tones are sounded as
quickly as possible, the time taken by the embellishment being
subtracted from the value of the principal note as printed.

[Listen]

68. The inverted mordent
(note the absence
of the vertical line) is like the mordent except that the tone below is
replaced by the tone above in each case. This ornament is sometimes
called a “transient shake” because it is really only a part of the more
elaborate grace called “trill.” (See Fig. 44.)[Pg 24]

[Listen]

69. The turn consists of four tones; first, the diatonic scale-tone
above the principal tone; second, the principal tone itself; third, the
tone below the principal tone; and fourth, the principal tone again.

When the sign ( or
) occurs over a note
of small value in rapid tempo (Fig. 45) the turn consists of four tones
of equal value; but if it occurs over a note of greater value, or in a
slow tempo, the tones are usually played quickly (like the mordent), and
the fourth tone is then held until the time-value of the note has
expired. (Fig. 46.)

[Listen]

70. When the turn-sign is placed a little to the right of the note the
principal tone is sounded first and held to almost its full time-value,
then the turn is played just before the next tone of the melody. In this
case the four tones are of equal length as in the first example. (See
Fig. 47.)

[Listen]

71. Sometimes an accidental occurs with the turn, and in this case when
written above the sign it refers to the highest tone of the turn, but
when written below, to the lowest (Fig. 48).

[Listen]

72. In the inverted turn the order of tones is reversed, the lowest
one coming first, the principal tone next, the highest tone third, and
the principal tone again, last.

[Listen]

73. The appoggiatura (lit. leaning note) consists of an ornamental
tone introduced before a tone of a melody, thus delaying the melody tone
until the ornamental tone has been heard. The time taken for this
ornamental tone is taken from that of the melody tone.

74. Three rules for the interpretation of the appoggiatura are commonly
cited, viz.:

[Listen]

75. The acciaccatura (or short appoggiatura) is written like the
appoggiatura except that it has a light stroke across its stem.
It has no definite duration-value, but is sounded as
quickly as possible, taking its time from that of the principal tone.
The appoggiatura is always accented, but the acciaccatura never is, the
stress always falling on the melody tone. (See Grove, op. cit. Vol. I,
p. 96.)

[Pg 27]

CHAPTER VII

Scales

76. A scale (from scala, a Latin word meaning ladder; Ger.
Ton-leiter) is an ascending or descending series of tones, progressing
according to some definite system, and all bearing (in the case of
tonality scales at least) a very intimate relation to the first
tone—the key-tone or tonic. (See p. 28,
Sec. 78; also note 1 at
bottom of p. 38.)

[Listen]

[Pg 28]

77. In studying the theory of the scale the student should bear in mind
the fact that a scale is not an arbitrary series of tones which some one
has invented, and which others are required to make use of. It is rather
the result of accustoming the ear to certain melodic combinations (which
were originally hit upon by accident), and finally analyzing and
systematizing these combinations into a certain definite order or
arrangement. The application of this idea may be verified when it is
recalled that most primitive peoples have invented melodies of some
sort, but that only in modern times, and particularly since the
development of instrumental music, have these melodies been analyzed,
and the scale upon which they have been based, discovered, the inventors
of the melodies being themselves wholly ignorant of the existence of
such scales.

78. A key is a number of tones grouping themselves naturally (both
melodically and harmonically) about a central tone—the key tone. The
word tonality is often used synonymously with key in this sense.

79. There are three general classes of scales extant at the present
time, viz.: (1) Diatonic; (2) Chromatic; (3) Whole-tone.[13]

80. The word diatonic means “through the tones” (i.e., through the
tones of the key), and is applied to both major and minor scales of our
modern tonality system. In general a diatonic scale may be defined as
one which proceeds by half-steps and whole-steps. There is, however, one
exception to[Pg 29] this principle, viz., in the progression six to seven in
the harmonic minor scale, which is of course a step-and-a-half. (See p. 33,
Sec. 86.)

81. A major diatonic scale is one in which the intervals between the
tones are arranged as follows:

In other words, a major diatonic scale is one in which the intervals
between three and four, and between seven and eight are half-steps, all
the others being whole-steps. A composition based on this scale is said
to be written in the major mode, or in a major key. The major diatonic
scale may begin on any one of the twelve pitches C, C♯ or D♭,
D, D♯ or E♭, E, F, F♯ or G♭, G, G♯ or
A♭, A, A♯ or B♭, B, but in each case it is the same
scale because the intervals between its tones are the same. We have then
one major scale only, but this scale may be written in many different
positions, and may be sung or played beginning on any one of a number of
different pitches.

82. It is interesting to note that the major scale consists of two
identical series of four tones each; i.e., the first four tones of the
scale are separated from one another by exactly the same intervals and
these intervals appear in exactly the same order as in the case of the
last four tones of the scale. Fig. 53 will make this clear. The first
four tones of any diatonic scale (major or minor) are often referred to
as the lower tetrachord[14] and the upper four tones as the upper
tetrachord.

[Listen]

[Pg 30]

It is interesting further to note that the upper tetrachord of any
sharp scale is always used without change as the lower tetrachord of
the next major scale involving sharps, while the lower tetrachord of any
flat scale is used as the upper tetrachord of the next flat scale. See
Figs. 54 and 55.

[Listen]

83. From the standpoint of staff notation the major scale may be written
in fifteen different positions, as follows:

[Listen]

[Pg 31]

It will be observed that in the above series of scales those beginning
on F♯ and G♭ call for the same keys on the piano, i.e.,
while the notation is different, the actual tones of the scale are the
same. The scales of C♯ and D♭ likewise employ the same tones.
When two scales thus employ the same tones[Pg 32] but differ in notation they
are said to be enharmonic, (cf. p. 38,
Sec. 93.)

[Pg 33]

CHAPTER VIII

Scales (Continued)

84. The minor diatonic scale is used in several slightly different
forms, but the characteristic interval between the first and third tones
(which differentiates it from the major scale) remains the same in every
case. This interval between the first and third tones consists of four
half-steps in the major scale and of three half-steps in the minor scale
and this difference in size has given rise to the designation major
for the scale having the larger third, and minor for the scale having
the smaller one.

85. The original (or primitive) form of the minor scale has its tones
arranged as follows.

As its name implies, this is the oldest of the three forms (being
derived from the old Greek Aeolian scale), but because of the absence of
a “leading tone” it is suitable for the simplest one-part music only,
and is therefore little used at present.

86. The harmonic minor scale is like the primitive form except that it
substitutes a tone one half-step higher for the seventh tone of the
older (i.e., the primitive) form. This change was made because the
development of writing music in several parts (particularly harmonic
part-writing) made necessary a “leading tone,” i.e., a tone with a
strong tendency to move on up to the key-tone as a closing point. In
order[Pg 34] to secure a tone with such a strongly upward tendency the
interval between seven and eight had to be reduced in size to a
half-step. It should be noted that this change in the seventh tone of
the scale caused an interval of a step-and-a-half between the sixth and
seventh tones of the scale.

87. The melodic minor scale substitutes a tone one half-step higher
than six as well as one a half-step higher than seven, but this change
is made in the ascending scale only, the descending scale being like the
primitive form. The higher sixth (commonly referred to as the “raised
sixth”) was used to get rid of the unmelodic interval of a
step-and-a-half[15] (augmented second), while the return to the
primitive form in descending is made because the ascending form is too
much like the tonic major scale.

This form is used only to a very limited extent, and then principally in
vocal music, the harmonic form being in almost universal use in spite of
the augmented second.

88. The minor scale in its various positions (up to five sharps and five
flats) and in all three forms follows: a composition based on any one of
these forms (or upon a mixture of them, which often occurs) is said to
be in the minor mode. It will be noted that the first four tones are
alike in all three forms; i.e., the lower tetrachord in the minor
scale is invariable no matter, what may happen to the upper tetrachord.
The sign + marks the step-and-a-half.[Pg 35]

[Enlarge]

[Listen to A minor
scales]

[Pg 36]

89. A minor scale having the same signature as a major scale is said to
be its relative minor. E.g.,—e is the relative minor of G, c of
E♭, d of F, etc., the small letter being used to refer to the minor
key or scale, while the capital letter indicates the major key or scale
unless accompanied by the word minor. Relative keys are therefore
defined as those having the same signature. G and e are relative keys,
as are also A and f♯, etc.

90. A minor scale beginning with the same tone as a major scale is
referred to as its tonic minor. Thus, e.g., c with three flats in
its signature is the tonic minor of C with all degrees in natural
condition; e with one sharp is the tonic minor of E with four sharps,
etc. Tonic keys are therefore those having the same key-tone.

91. The eight tones of the diatonic scale (both major and minor) are
often referred to by specific names, as follows:

[Pg 37]

92. The syllables commonly applied to the various major and minor scales
in teaching sight-singing are as follows:[16]

[Pg 38]

93. The chromatic scale[18] is one which proceeds always by
half-steps. Its intervals are therefore always equal no matter with what
tone it begins. Since, however, we have (from the standpoint of the
piano keyboard) five pairs of tones[19] which are enharmonically the
same, it may readily be seen that the chromatic scale might be notated
in all sorts of fashions, and this is in fact the real status of the
matter, there being no one method uniformly agreed upon by composers.

94. For sight-singing purposes the chromatic scale[20] is usually
written by representing the intermediate tones in ascending by sharps,
(in some cases naturals and double-sharps), and the intermediate tones
in descending by flats (sometimes naturals and double-flats). The
chromatic scale in nine different positions, written from this
standpoint, follows, and the syllables most commonly applied in
sight-singing have also been added. In the first two scales the student
of harmony is asked to note that because of the very common prac[Pg 39]tice of
modulating to the dominant and sub-dominant keys, the intermediate tones
♯4 and ♭7 are quite universally used in both ascending and
descending melody passages. In other words the scales that follow would
more nearly represent actual usage if in each case ♯4 (FI) were
substituted for ♭5 (SE) in the descending scale; and if ♭7
(TE) were substituted for ♯6 (LI) in the ascending form.

[Listen to C chromatic scale]

[Pg 40]

95. The whole-step scale (the third type mentioned in
Sec. 79) is, as
its name implies, a scale in which the intervals between the tones
consist in every instance of whole-steps. This reduces the number of
tones in the scale to seven. Beginning with C the scale reads: C, D, E,
F♯ or G♭, A♭, B♭, C. This scale has been used
somewhat extensively by the ultramodern French school of composition
represented by Debussy, Ravel, and others, but is not making any
progress toward universal adoption. The remarks of a recent English
writer[21] on this subject may be interesting to the student who is
puzzled by the apparent present-day tendencies of French music. He says:

There may be some difference of opinion among acousticians as to whether
Mr. Stanford is correct in his scientific assumptions regarding the
difference between “tempered” and “pure” scales,[22] but even so, there
is a far more potent reason why the whole-step scale will probably never
become popular as the major and minor scales now are, viz., the fact
that it offers no possibility of inculcating tonality feeling, which
has always been the basis of even the simplest primitive music. Tonality
scales give rise to a feeling of alternate periods of contraction and
relaxation—an active tone (or chord) followed by a passive one, but no
such effect is possible in the whole-step scale, and it seems suitable
therefore only for that class of music whose outlines are purposely
intended to be vague and indefinite—the impressionistic style of music
writing.

[Pg 42]

CHAPTER IX

Auxiliary Words and Endings

96. Being a list of articles, adverbs, conjunctions, prepositions, and
endings, often utilized in compounding terms relating to musical
effects.

A working knowledge of these auxiliary terms will aid the student
greatly in arriving at the meaning of hundreds of terms without stopping
to look up each individual one.

[Pg 44]

CHAPTER X

Measure

97. From the standpoint of the eye, a measure is that portion of the
staff found between two bars, (in certain cases this space may be less
than a measure, as e.g., at the beginning and end of a movement); but
from the standpoint of the ear a single, isolated measure is not
possible, and the term must therefore be defined in the plural form.

Measures are similarly accented groups of evenly-spaced beats, each
group having at least one accented and one non-accented beat. The
strongest accent falls normally on the first beat in the measure.

Two essential characteristics are involved in the ordinary musical
measure:

(1) A group of even beats (or pulses), always felt, though not always
actually sounded, one or more of these beats being stronger than the
rest;

(2) Certain rhythmic figures ( etc.) which form the
actual musical content of these groups.

98. In syncopation the normal system of accenting is temporarily
suspended and the accented tone falls on the regularly unaccented part
of the measure. Syncopation may therefore be defined as the temporary
interruption of a normal[Pg 45] series of accents, i.e., accenting a beat
that is usually not accented. Thus e.g., in Fig. 56, measure one has
the regular system of accents normally found in four-quarter-measure,
(strong accent on one, secondary accent on three); but measure three
has only one accent, and it falls on the second beat.

[Listen]

99. Measures are usually classified as simple and compound. A
simple measure is one which has but a single accent, i.e., the
measure cannot be divided into smaller constituent groups. There are two
main classes of simple measures, two-beat measure, and three-beat
measure. A compound measure is (as its name implies) one made up by
combining two or more simple measures, or by the elaboration of a single
measure (in slow tempo) into several constituent groups. The principal
compound measures are four-beat and six-beat, both being referred to as
compound-duple measures. Five-beat, seven-beat, nine-beat, and
twelve-beat measures are also classified as compound measures.

[Pg 46]

100. The commonest varieties of measure are:

101. Other varieties of measure sometimes found are 9/8 and 12/8, but
these are practically always taken as three-beat and four-beat measures
respectively, being equivalent to these if each group of three tones is
thought of as a triplet.
is identical in effect with
.

102. Quintuple (five-beat) and septuple (seven-beat) measures are
occasionally met with, but these are rare and will always be sporadic.
The five-beat measure is taken as a combination of three and two, or of
two and three (sometimes a mixture of both in the same composition),
while the[Pg 47] seven-beat measure is taken in groups of four and three, or
of three and four.

103. The sign is usually understood to mean
four-quarter measure, and the sign
, two-half measure,
but usage varies somewhat, and the second sign is sometimes used to
indicate four-half measure. It may safely be said however that the sign
always indicates
that a half-note has a beat. may occasionally be found indicating four-half measure
but this is rare.

[Pg 48]

CHAPTER XI

Tempo

104. The word time in musical nomenclature has been greatly abused,
having been used to indicate:

To obviate the confusion naturally resulting from this three-fold and
inexact use of the word, many teachers of music are adopting certain
changes in terminology as noted in Sections 105,
106, and 107. Such
changes may cause some confusion at first, but seem to be necessary if
our musical terminology is to be at all exact.

105. The first of the changes mentioned in the above paragraph is to
substitute the word rhythm for the word time when correcting
mistakes involving misplaced accent, etc. E.g., “Your rhythm in the
third measure of the lower score was wrong,” instead of “Your
time—was wrong.”

106. The second change mentioned would eliminate such blind and
misleading expressions as “two-four time,” “three-four time,” “four-four
time,” “six-eight time,” etc., and substitute therefor such
self-explanatory designations as “two-quarter measure,” “three-quarter
measure,” “four-quarter measure,” “six-eighth measure,” etc. E.g.,
“The first movement of the Beethoven Sonata Op. 2, No. 3, is in
four-quarter measure.”

107. The third change referred to above would substitute the word
tempo (plural—tempi) for the word time in all allusions to rate
of speed. E.g., “The scherzo was played in very rapid tempo.”[Pg 49]

108. There are several ways of finding the correct tempo of a
composition:

109. In spite of the inexactness of use in the case of expressions
relating to tempo, these expressions are nevertheless extremely useful
in giving at least a hint of what was in the composer’s mind as he
conceived the music that we are trying to interpret. Since a number of
the terms overlap in meaning, and since the meaning of no single term is
absolute, these expressions relating to tempo are best studied in
groups. Perhaps the most convenient grouping is as follows:

[Pg 52]

CHAPTER XII

Tempo (Continued)

110. Innumerable combinations of the words defined in Sec. 109 with one
another and with other words occur. Some of these combinations with
their approximate meanings follow. The meaning of any such expression
not found in the list may usually be arrived at by consulting the terms
defined in paragraph 109 and recalling the use of certain auxiliary
terms quoted in Chapter IX.

111. There are certain terms which indicate a modification of the
normal tempo of a movement, these being divided into two classes, (a)
those terms which indicate in general a slower tempo, and (b) those
which indicate in general a more rapid tempo. The further subdivisions
of these two classes are shown below.

(a) Terms indicating a slower tempo.

(For terms indicating both slower tempo and softer tone, see
page 59,
Sec. 127.)

(b) Terms indicating a more rapid tempo.

112. After any modification in tempo (either faster or slower) has been
suggested it is usual to indicate a return to the normal rate by some
such expression as a tempo (lit. in time), a tempo primo (lit. in
the first time), tempo primo, or tempo.

113. Tempo rubato (or a tempo rubato) means literally in robbed
time, i.e., duration taken from one measure or beat and given to
another, but in modern practice the term is quite generally applied to
any irregularity of rhythm or tempo not definitely indicated in the
score.

The terms ad libitum, (ad lib.), a piacere, and a capriccio,
also indicate a modification of the tempo at the will of the performer.
Ad libitum means at liberty; a piacere, at pleasure; and a
capriccio, at the caprice (of the performer).

114. The term tempo giusto is the opposite of tempo rubato (and of
the other terms defined in paragraph 113). It means literally in exact
time. (Tempo giusto is sometimes translated quite rapidly,[29] but
this is very unusual.)

[Pg 55]

115. L’istesso tempo means—at the same rate of speed. E.g., when a
measure signature changes from 2/4 to 6/8 with a change in beat-note
from a quarter to a dotted-quarter, but with the same tempo carried
through the entire movement.

116. Tenuto (ten.) indicates that a tone or chord is to be held to
its full value. This word is sometimes used after a staccato passage to
show that the staccato effect is to be discontinued, but is often used
merely as a warning not to slight a melody-tone—i.e., to give it its
full value.

117. Veloce means—swiftly, and is applied to brilliant passages
(e.g., cadenzas) which are to be played as rapidly as possible without
much regard for measure rhythm. The words rapidamente, brillante and
volante (flying) have the same meaning as veloce.

118. The following expressions referring to tempo are also in common
use but cannot easily be classified with any of the groups already
defined.

119. Tempo di marcia is given by Riemann (Dictionary of Music, p. 783)
as equivalent to andante, M.M. 72-84. The same writer gives tempo di
menuetto as equivalent to allegretto, and tempo di valso as
equivalent to allegro moderato (which he regards as indicating a more
rapid tempo than allegretto).

[Pg 56]

CHAPTER XIII

Dynamics

120. The word dynamics (cf. dynamic—the opposite of static) as used
in the nomenclature of music has to do with the various degrees of power
(i.e., the comparative loudness and softness) of tones.

As in the case of words referring to tempo, the expressions referring to
dynamics are always relative, never absolute; it is possible to
indicate that one measure is to be louder than another, but it is not
possible (nor desirable) to indicate exactly how loud either is to be.
Thus dynamics, perhaps even more than tempo, will be seen to depend on
the taste of the performer or conductor.

The following words referring to dynamics are in common use:

121. The terms defined in Sec. 120 are often combined with others, as
e.g.,

[Pg 57]

As in the case of terms relating to tempo, the meaning of many other
expressions relating to dynamics may easily be arrived at by recalling
the list of auxiliary terms quoted under Sec. 96.

122. The terms sforzando, forzando, sforzato and forzato all
indicate a strong accent on a single tone or chord. These words are
abbreviated as follows:—sf,fz, and sfz, the abbreviation being
placed directly above (sometimes below) the note or chord affected. The
signs and
are also
commonly used to indicate such an accent.

123. The words rinforzando and rinforzato (abb.—rinf. and rfz.)
mean literally reinforced, and are used to indicate a sudden increase
in power usually extending over an entire phrase or passage instead of
applying only to a single tone or chord as in the case of sforzando,
etc.

124. Crescendo (abb.—cresc. or
) means a gradual
increase in power. It will be noted that this word does not mean loud,
nor does it mean a sudden increase in power unless accompanied by some
auxiliary term such as subito, or molto.

Broadly speaking there are two varieties of crescendo: (1) that in
which the same tone increases in power while being prolonged; (2) that
in which succeeding tones are each sounded more strongly than the
preceding one. The first variety is possible only on instruments giving
forth a tone which can be varied after it begins. Thus e.g., the
human voice, the violin, the organ enclosed in a swell box, and certain
wind instruments, are all capable of sounding a tone softly at first and
gradually increasing the volume until the maximal point of power has
been reached. But on the piano, organ not enclosed in a swell-box,
kettle drum, etc., the power of the[Pg 58] tone cannot be varied after the
tone has once been sounded, and a crescendo effect is therefore
possible only in a passage, in rendering which each succeeding tone is
struck more forcibly than its immediate predecessor. This second variety
of crescendo offers a means of dramatic effect which may be employed
most strikingly, as e.g., when a long passage begins very softly and
increases in power little by little until the utmost resources of the
instrument or orchestra have been reached. A notable example of such an
effect is found in the transition from the third to the fourth movements
of the Beethoven Fifth Symphony.

125. Certain combinations of the word crescendo with other words are
so common that they should be especially noted. Among these are:

126. Decrescendo (decresc. or
) means a gradual
diminishing of the tone. It is the opposite of crescendo. The word
diminuendo is synonymous with decrescendo.

Decrescendo (or diminuendo) al pianissimo means—decrease
gradually in power until the pianissimo (or very soft) point is
reached.[Pg 59]

127. A number of terms referring to both softer tone and slower tempo
are in use. The most common of these are:—mancando, moriente,[30]
morendo, perdendo (from perdere—to lose), perdendosi,
calando, and smorzando.[31] Such expressions are usually
translated—”gradually dying away.”

128. In piano music the abbreviation Ped. indicates that the damper
pedal (the one at the right) is to be depressed, while the sign
shows that it is to be released. In many modern editions
this depression and release of the damper pedal are more accurately
indicated by the sign
.

129. The words una corda (lit.—one string) indicate that the “soft
pedal” (the one at the left) is to be depressed, while the words tre
corde (lit. three strings) or tutte le corde (all the strings) show
that the same pedal is to be released. These expressions refer to the
fact that on grand pianos the “soft pedal” when depressed moves the
hammers to one side so that instead of striking three strings they
strike only two (in the older pianos only one, hence una corda), all
three strings (tre corde) being struck again after the release of the
pedal.

130. Other terms relating either directly or indirectly to the subject
of dynamics are:

131. Many other terms are encountered which on their face sometimes seem
to be quite formidable, but which yield readily to analysis. Thus
e.g., crescendo poco a poco al forte ed un pochettino accelerando,
is seen to mean merely—”increase gradually to forte and accelerate a
very little bit.” A liberal application of common sense will aid greatly
in the interpretation of such expressions.

[Pg 62]

CHAPTER XIV

Terms Relating to Forms and Styles

132. A form in music is a specific arrangement of the various parts of
a composition resulting in a structure so characteristic that it is
easily recognized by the ear. Thus e.g., although every fugue is
different from all other fugues in actual material, yet the arrangement
of the various parts is so characteristic that no one who knows the
fugue form has any doubt as to what kind of a composition he is
hearing whenever a fugue is played. The word form is therefore seen to
be somewhat synonymous with the word plan as used in architecture; it
is the structure or design underlying music. Examples of form are the
canon, the fugue, the sonata, etc.

133. The primal basis of form is the repetition of some characteristic
effect, and the problem of the composer is to bring about these
repetitions in such a way that the ear will recognize them as being the
same material and will nevertheless not grow weary of them. This is
accomplished by varying the material (cf. thematic development), by
introducing contrasting material, and by choice of key.

134. The student should note at the outset of this topic the difference
in meaning between the terms form and style:[Pg 63] A form is a plan
for building a certain definite kind of composition, but a style is
merely a manner of writing. Thus e.g., the fugue is a
form—i.e., it is a plan, which although capable of variation in
details, is yet carried out fairly definitely in every case; but
counterpoint is merely a style or manner of writing (just as Gothic
architecture is a style of building), which may be cast into any one of
several forms.

135. The material found in the following sections is an attempt to
explain in simple language certain terms relating to forms and
styles which are in common use; in many cases the definition is too
meagre to give anything but a very general idea, but it is hoped that
the student will at least be set to thinking and that he will eventually
be led to a more detailed and scholarly study of the subject. (The
article “Form” and the separate articles under each term here defined,
as found in Grove’s Dictionary, are especially recommended. For examples
of the various forms described, see also Mason and Surette—”The
Appreciation of Music,” Supplementary Volume.)

136. In a very general way there may be said to be two styles of
musical composition, the monophonic (or homophonic)—the
one-voiced—and the polyphonic—the many voiced. The polyphonic[32]
style antedates the monophonic historically.

137. In monophonic music there is one voice which has a pronounced
melody, the other voices (if present) supporting this melody as a
harmonic (and often rhythmic) background. An example of this is the
ordinary hymn-tune with its melody in the highest part, and with three
other voices forming a “four-part harmony.” The sonata, symphony, opera,
modern piano piece, etc., are also largely monophonic, though
polyphonic passages by way of contrast are often to be found.[Pg 64]

138. In polyphonic music each voice is to a certain extent melodically
interesting, and the “harmony” is the result of combining several
melodies in such a way as to give a pleasing effect, instead of treating
a melody by adding chords as an accompaniment or support. Counterpoint,
canon, round, fugue, etc., are all polyphonic in style. The word
contrapuntal is often used synonymously with polyphonic.

139. Counterpoint is the art of adding one or more parts or melodies
to a given melody, the latter being known as the “cantus firmus,” or
subject. It may therefore be broadly defined as “the art of combining
melodies.”

140. Imitation is the repetition by one part, of a subject or theme
previously introduced by another part. If the imitation is exact, the
term strict imitation is applied, but if only approximate, then the
term free imitation is used in referring to it. The repetition need
not have the exact pitches of the subject in order to be strict; on
the contrary the imitation is usually at the interval of an octave, or a
fifth, or a second, etc. Fig. 57 shows an example of strict imitation in
which the third part comes in an octave lower than the first part.

141. A canon is a contrapuntal composition in the style of strict
imitation, one part repeating exactly (but at any interval) what another
part has played or sung. The term “canonic style” is sometimes applied
to music in which the imitation is not exact. An example of three-part
canon is given in Fig. 57.[Pg 65]

CANON IN THREE VOICES, IN THE UNISON AND OCTAVE

[Listen]

142. The common school round is an example of canon, each voice
repeating exactly what the first voice has sung, while this first voice
is going on with its melody. The round is therefore defined as a
variety of canon in which the imitation is always in unison with the
subject.

143. The fugue (Latin, fuga = flight) is a form of contrapuntal
composition in which the imitation is always in the dominant key,
i.e., a fifth above or a fourth below. The imitation (called “the
answer”) may be an exact repetition of the subject (sometimes called
“the question”), but is usually not so.

[Pg 67]

CHAPTER XV

Terms Relating to Forms and Styles (Continued)

144. A phrase is a short musical thought (at least two measures in
length) closing with either a complete or an incomplete cadence. The
typical phrase is four measures long. The two-measure phrase is
often called section. The word phrase as used in music terminology
corresponds with the same word as used in language study.

145. A period is a little piece of music typically eight measures
long, either complete in itself or forming one of the clearly defined
divisions of a larger form. The period (when complete in itself) is
the smallest monophonic form.

The essential characteristic of the regular period is the fact that it
usually consists of two balanced phrases (often called antecedent and
consequent or thesis and antithesis), the first phrase giving rise
to the feeling of incompleteness (by means of a cadence in another key,
deceptive cadence, etc.,) the second phrase giving the effect of
completeness by means of a definite cadence at the close.

[Pg 68]

[Listen to Fig. 58]

[Listen to Fig. 59]

146. The primary forms are built up by combining two or more periods.

The small two-part primary form (often called song-form or
Lied-form) consists of two periods so placed that the second
constitutes a consequent or antithesis to the first. The second half of
this second period is often exactly the same as the second half of the
first period, thus binding the two periods together into absolute unity.
The theme of the choral movement of the Ninth Symphony (Beethoven)
quoted below is a perfect example of this form. Other examples are
“Drink to Me Only With Thine Eyes,” and “The Last Rose of Summer.”

[Listen]

[Pg 69]

The small three-part primary form is like the two-part primary form
except that it has a section of contrasting material interpolated
between the two periods. This middle part is usually an eight-measure
phrase.

The large two- and three-part primary forms usually have
sixteen-measure periods instead of eight-measure ones, but are otherwise
similar in construction.

147. A theme is a fragment of melody used as the subject of a fugue,
as the basis of the development section in “sonata form,” etc. Sometimes
it is a complete tune (often in period form), on which variations are
made, as e.g., in the familiar theme and variations.

148. Thematic development consists in taking a short theme (or several
short themes) and by means of transposition, interval expansion and
contraction, rhythmic augmentation and diminution, inversion, tonality
changes, etc., building out of it a lengthy composition or section of a
composition. Fig. 60 b, c, d, e, and f show how the theme
given in Fig. 60 (a) may be varied in a few of these ways. There are
hundreds of other fashions in which this same theme might be varied
without destroying its identity. For other examples of thematic
development see the development section of Sonata Op. 31, No. 3, as
analyzed in Appendix E.

[Listen]

[Pg 70]

149. A rondo is an instrumental composition (in homophonic style) in
which a certain theme appears several times almost always in the same
form (i.e., not thematically varied), the repetitions of this theme
being separated by contrasting material.

The rondo is the oldest of the larger monophonic forms and has been
used in many different ways, but perhaps its most characteristic
construction is as follows: (1) Principal subject; (2) second subject in
dominant key; (3) principal subject; (4) third subject; (5) first
subject again; (6) second subject, in tonic key; (7) coda (or ending).

The student should note particularly the problem of repetition and
contrast (mentioned in Sec. 134) as here worked out, as the rondo was
the first monophonic form in which this matter was at all satisfactorily
solved, and its construction is especially interesting because it is
readily seen to be one of the direct predecessors of the highest form of
all—the sonata. Examples of rondos may be found in any volume of
sonatas or sonatinas.

150. A suite is a set of instrumental dances all in the same or in
nearly related keys. The first dance is usually preceded by an
introduction or prelude, and the various dances are so grouped as to
secure contrast of movement—a quick dance being usually followed by a
slower one.[Pg 71]

The suite was formerly written for solo instrument only (harpsichord,
clavichord, piano) but modern composers like Dvořák, Lachner,
Moszkowski, and others have written suites for full orchestra also.

151. Among the dances commonly found in suites are the following:

The allemande is especially interesting to students of music form
because of its relation to the sonata, it being the prototype of the
sonata-allegro (i.e., the first movement of the sonata). The
sarabande and courante are likewise interesting as the prototypes of
the second movement, and the bourée, minuet, etc., for their
connection with the third movement.

152. The scherzo (lit. musical joke) is a fanciful instrumental
composition. It was used by Beethoven as the third movement of the
sonata instead of the more limited minuet, but is also often found as an
independent piece.

153. A sonata is an instrumental composition of three or more
movements (usually four), the first and last of which are[Pg 72] almost always
in rapid tempo. Each of these movements is a piece of music with a unity
of its own, but they are all merged together in a larger whole with a
broad underlying unity of larger scope. The composition receives its
name from the fact that its first movement is cast in sonata-form.
(See Sec. 157 for description of sonata-form.)

When the sonata has four movements, these are usually arranged as
follows:

These movements are all in closely related keys, but in a variety of
contrasting rhythms.

154. A trio is a sonata for three instruments (such as piano, violin,
and cello), while a quartet is a sonata for four instruments, the most
common quartet combination being as follows: First and second violins,
viola, and violoncello.

The term chamber music is often applied to instrumental music for
trio, quartet, quintet, and other similar combinations which are
suitable for a small room rather than for a large concert hall.

155. A concerto is a sonata for a solo instrument with orchestral
accompaniment, the form being usually somewhat modified so as to adapt
it to a composition in which there must[Pg 73] necessarily be opportunity for
a good deal of technical display. There are usually but three movements
in the concerto.

156. A symphony is a sonata for full orchestra. In general its
construction is the same as that of the sonata, but it is usually of
much larger proportions and has in it much greater variety of both tonal
and rhythmic material. The symphony is generally conceded to be the
highest type of instrumental music ever evolved.

The word symphony was formerly used synonymously with ritornelle,
both words being applied to instrumental interludes between parts of
vocal works, but this usage has now entirely disappeared.

157. Sonata-form (sometimes called sonata-allegro) is a plan for the
construction of instrumental music (sonatas, quartets, symphonies,
etc.), in which three rather definite divisions always occur, the third
division being a more or less literal repetition of the first.

158. A sonatina, as its name implies, is a little sonata. It differs
from the sonata proper principally in having little or no development,
the second section being of slight importance as compared with the
corresponding section of a sonata.

A grand sonata is like an ordinary sonata in form, but is of unusually
large dimensions.

159. Program music is instrumental music which is supposed to convey
to the listener an image or a succession of images that will arouse in
him certain emotions which have been previously aroused in the
composer’s mind by some scene, event, or idea. The clue to the general
idea is usually given at the beginning of the music in the form of a
poem or a short description of the thing in the mind of the composer,
but there are many examples in which there is no clue whatsoever except
the title of the composition.

[Pg 75]

160. A symphonic poem (or tone poem) is an orchestral composition of
large dimensions (resembling the symphony in size), usually embodying
the program idea. It has no prescribed form and seems indeed to be often
characterized by an almost total lack of design, but there are also
examples of symphonic poems in which the same theme runs throughout the
entire composition, being adapted at the various points at which it
occurs to the particular moods expressed by the program at those
points.

[Pg 76]

CHAPTER XVI

Terms Relating to Vocal Music

161. An anthem is a sacred choral composition, usually based on
Biblical or liturgical[34] words. It may or may not have an instrumental
accompaniment, and is usually written in four parts, but may have five,
six, eight, or more.

A full anthem is one containing no solo parts; a solo anthem is one
in which the solo part is predominant over the chorus, while a verse
anthem is one in which the chorus parts alternate with passages for
concerted solo voices (i.e., trios, quartets, etc.).

162. A capella (sometimes spelled cappella) or alla capella music
is part-singing (either sacred or secular) without accompaniment.

163. A motet is a sacred choral composition in contrapuntal style. It
has no solo parts, thus corresponding to the madrigal (q.v.) in secular
music. The motet is intended for a capella performance, but is often
given with organ accompaniment.

164. A choral is a hymn-tune of the German Protestant Church. It is
usually harmonized in four voices. The choral (sometimes spelled
chorale) is described as having “a plain melody, a strong harmony, and
a stately rhythm.” It differs from the ordinary English and American
hymn-tune in being[Pg 77] usually sung at a much slower tempo, and in having a
pause at the end of each line of text.

165. The mass is the liturgy for the celebration of the Lord’s Supper
in the service of the Roman Catholic Church. As used in the terminology
of music the word refers to the six hymns which are always included when
a composer writes a musical mass, and which form the basis of the
celebration of the Communion.[35] These six hymns are as follows:

166. A cantata is a vocal composition for chorus and soloists, the
text being either sacred or secular. The accompaniment may be written
for piano, organ, or orchestra.

167. An oratorio is a composition on a large scale for chorus,
soloists, and orchestra, the text usually dealing with some religious
subject. The oratorio, as noted above, is not[Pg 78] intended for the church
service, but is written for concert performance.

168. An opera is a composition for vocal soloists, chorus, and
orchestra, with characters, action, scenery, and dramatic movement. It
is a drama set to music.

169. A libretto (lit.—little book) is the word-text of an opera,
oratorio, cantata, or some other similar work.

170. Recitative is a style of vocal solo common to operas, oratorios,
and cantatas, especially those written some time ago. Its main
characteristic is that the word-text is of paramount importance, both
rhythm and tone-progression being governed by rhetorical rather than by
musical considerations.

[Listen]

171. Aria is likewise a style of vocal solo found in operas, etc., but
its predominating characteristic is diametrically opposed to that of the
recitative. In the aria the word-text is usually entirely subordinate
to the melody, and the latter is often very ornate, containing trills,
runs, etc.

The rendition of this ornate style of music is often referred to as
“coloratura singing,” but it should be noted that not all arias are
coloratura in style.

[Pg 80]

172. A lied (Ger. = song) is a vocal solo in which the text, the
melody, and the accompaniment contribute more or less equally to the
effect of the whole.

The most pronounced characteristic of the lied is the fact that it
usually portrays a single mood, sentiment, or picture, thus differing
from the ballad, which is narrative in style. It will be noted that this
“single mood, or sentiment, or picture” was originally conceived by the
poet who wrote the word-text, and that the composer in writing music to
this text has first tried to get at the thought of the poet, and has
then attempted to compose music which would intensify and make more
vivid that thought. This intensification of the poet’s thought comes as
often through the rhythm, harmony, and dynamics of the accompaniment as
through the expressiveness of the voice part.

173. A ballad was originally a short, simple song, the words being in
narrative style, i.e., the word-text telling a story. In the earlier
ballads each verse of the poem was usually sung to the same tune
(strophe form), but in the art-ballad as developed by Loewe and others
the continuous style of composition is employed, this giving the
composer greater opportunities of making vivid through his music the
events described by the poem. These later ballads are in consequence
neither “short” nor “simple” but compare in structure with the lied
itself.[Pg 81]

174. A folk-song is a short song sung by and usually originating among
the common people. Its dominant characteristic is usually simplicity,
this applying to word-text, melody, and accompaniment (if there is one).
The text of the folk-song is usually based on some event connected
with ordinary life, but there are also many examples in which historical
and legendary happenings are dealt with. Auld Lang Syne, and Comin’ thru
the Rye, are examples of folk-songs.

175. A madrigal is a secular vocal composition having from three to
eight parts. It is in contrapuntal style, like the motet, and is usually
sung a capella.

176. A glee is a vocal composition in three or more parts, being
usually more simple in style than the madrigal, and sometimes having
more than one movement. The glee may be either gay or sad in mood, and
seems to be a composition peculiar to the English people.

177. A part-song is a composition for two or more voices, (usually
four) to be sung a capella. It is written in monophonic rather than in
polyphonic style, thus differing from the madrigal and glee. Morley’s
“Now is the Month of Maying” is an example of the part-song, as is
also Sullivan’s “O Hush Thee, My Baby.” The term part-song is often
loosely applied to glees, madrigals, etc.

[Pg 82]

CHAPTER XVII

Rhythm, Melody, Harmony and Intervals

178. The four elements commonly attributed to music (in the order of
their development) are: Rhythm, Melody, Harmony, and Timbre (or
tone-color).

179. Rhythm is the regular recurrence of accent. In music it is more
specifically the regular recurrence of groups of accented and
non-accented beats (or pulses)—according to some specified
measure-system. Since rhythm implies continuity, there must usually be
at least two such measure groups in order to make musical rhythm
possible. (See p. 44, Sec. 97.)

180. A melody is a succession of single tones of various pitches so
arranged that the effect of the whole will be unified, coherent, and
pleasing to the ear.

181. Harmony is the science of chord construction and combination.

182. Timbre is that peculiar quality of sound which enables one to
distinguish a tone produced by one instrument (or[Pg 83] voice) from a tone
produced by an equal number of vibrations on another instrument.

183. An interval is the relation of two tones with regard to pitch. If
the two tones are sounded simultaneously the result is an harmonic
interval, but if sounded consecutively the result is a melodic
interval. Fig. 62 represents the pitches f’ and a’ as a harmonic
interval, while Fig. 63 represents the same pitches arranged as a
melodic interval.

[Listen]

184. In classifying intervals two facts should be constantly kept in
mind:

185. A prime is the relation between two tones whose pitches are
properly represented by the same degree of the staff.

186. A second is the relation between two tones whose pitches are
properly represented by adjacent degrees of the staff. (The first line
and first space are adjacent degrees, as are also the third line and
fourth space.)

187. A third is an interval comprising two seconds.

188. A fourth is an interval comprising three seconds.[Pg 85]

189. A fifth is an interval comprising four seconds.

190. A sixth is an interval comprising five seconds.

191. A seventh is an interval comprising six seconds.

192. An octave is an interval comprising seven seconds.

193. A ninth is usually treated as a second, a tenth as a third,
etc. The interval of two octaves is often referred to as a fifteenth.[Pg 86]

194. If the major diatonic scale be written and the interval between
each tone and the key-tone noted, it will be observed that the intervals
are all either major or perfect. See Fig. 64.

[Listen]

In this connection also it will be noted that the interval next smaller
than major is always minor, while that next smaller than perfect
or minor is always diminished: but that the interval next larger
than both major and perfect is augmented.

195. An interval is said to be inverted when the tone originally the
upper becomes the lower. Thus C—E, a major third, inverted becomes
E—C, a minor sixth.

[Pg 87]

CHAPTER XVIII

Chords, Cadences, Etc.

196. A chord is a combination of several tones sounding together and
bearing an harmonic relation to each other. The simplest chord is the
triad, which consists of a fundamental tone called the root, with
the third and fifth above it. C—E—G is a triad, as are also D—F—A,
F—A—C, and G—B—D.

197. Triads are classified as major, minor, diminished, or
augmented.

198. A triad may be built on any scale-tone, but those on I, IV, and V,
are used so much oftener than the others that they are often called the
common chords. In referring to triads the Roman numerals are used to
show on what scale-tone the triad is based, the size of the numeral
(with other signs) indicating the kind of triad found on each tone of
the scale. Thus e.g., the large I shows that the triad on the first
tone (in major) is a major triad, the small ii shows that the[Pg 88] triad
on the second tone is minor, etc. The following figure will make this
clear.

[Listen]

The triads in the minor scale are as follows:

[Listen]

199. A triad is said to be in fundamental position when its root is
the lowest tone. It is said to be in the first inversion when the
third is the lowest tone, and in the second inversion when the fifth
is the lowest tone. Thus e.g., in Fig. 66 the same chord (C—E—G) is
arranged in three different positions, at (a) in fundamental position,
at (b) in the first inversion, and at (c) in the second inversion.

[Listen]

200. When the root is not the bass note, figures are sometimes used to
show what chord is to be played or written. Thus, e.g., the figure 6
over a bass note means that the note given is the third of a chord,
the root being found by going up a sixth from the bass note: i.e., the
chord is to be sounded in its first inversion. In the same way the
figures 6/4 indicate that the note given is the fifth of the chord,
the root and fifth being found by going up a sixth and a fourth from the
note given; i.e., the chord is to be sounded in its second inversion.[Pg 89]

The use of these and other similar figures and signs is called figured
bass (or thorough bass) notation. An example of a figured bass is
given in Fig. 67.

[Listen]

201. A seventh chord consists of a fundamental tone with its third,
fifth, and seventh. The fifth is sometimes omitted. A ninth chord
consists of a fundamental with its third, fifth, seventh, and ninth.

202. A cadence is the close of a musical phrase: in melody it refers
to the last two tones; in harmony to the last two chords.

203. The most frequent cadence in harmony is that involving the chord on
I preceded by the chord on V. Because of its directness the cadence V—I
is called the authentic cadence.

204. The most satisfactory form (to the ear) of the authentic cadence is
that in which the highest voice (the soprano) of the final chord is the
root of that chord. When the final chord appears in this position the
cadence is called perfect[36] authentic,[Pg 90] and when the third or
fifth of the chord appear in the soprano, the cadence is called
imperfect authentic. Fig. 68 shows the chord G—B—D cadencing to
C—E—G in three different ways. The first one (a) is called a perfect
authentic cadence, but the last two (c) and (d) are imperfect
authentic.

[Listen]

205. A plagal cadence is one in which the tonic chord is preceded by
the sub-dominant chord (IV—I). The plagal cadence (sometimes called
the church cadence, or amen cadence), like the authentic, is
described as being perfect when the soprano of the tonic chord is the
root of that chord, and imperfect when the soprano of the final chord
is the third or fifth of that chord. Fig. 69 shows the chord F—A—C
cadencing to C—E—G in three ways. The first one (a) is called a
perfect plagal cadence, the last two are imperfect plagal.

[Listen]

206. A half-cadence occurs when the dominant chord is used as the
final chord of a phrase, and is immediately preceded by the tonic chord.
This form is used to give variety in the course of a composition, but is
not available at the end because it does not give a definite close in
the tonic key. Fig. 70 shows the use of the half-cadence at the close
of such a phrase.[Pg 91]

[Listen]

207. A deceptive cadence is the progression of the dominant chord to
some other chord than the tonic, the word deceptive implying that the
ear expects to hear V resolve to I and is deceived when it does not do
so. The most common form of deceptive cadence is that in which V (or
V⁷) resolves to VI. It is used to give variety, but as in the case of
the half-cadence, is not available at the end of a composition. Fig. 71
gives an example.

[Listen]

208. A sequence is a succession of similar harmonic progressions,
these resulting from a typical or symmetrical movement of the bass part.
See Fig. 72.

[Listen]

The word sequence is also applied to a succession of similar melodic
progressions, as in Fig. 73.[Pg 92]

[Listen]

209. Modulation is a change of key without any break in the continuity
of chords or melody tones. Harmonic modulations are usually effected
through the medium of a chord, some or all of whose tones are common to
both keys. Examples of both harmonic and melodic modulations are
shown in Figs. 74 and 75.

[Listen]

The chord most frequently used in modulating is the dominant seventh,
i.e., a seventh chord (see Sec. 201) on the dominant tone of the key.
In the key of C this chord is G—B—D—F; in the key of D it is
A—C♯—E—G; in the key of A♭ it is
E♭—G—B♭—D♭, etc.

[Listen]

210. A suspension is the temporary substitution of a tone a degree
higher than the regular chord-tone, this temporary tone being later
replaced by the regular chord-tone. See Fig. 76 (a).

[Listen]

[Pg 93]

211. A retardation is the temporary substitution of a tone a degree
lower than the regular tone, this tone (as in the case of the
suspension) being later replaced by the regular chord tone. See Fig. 77
(a).

[Listen]

The “regular chord tone” to which both suspension and retardation
resolve is called the tone of resolution.

212. The anticipation is a chord-tone introduced just before the rest
of the chord to which it belongs is sounded. See Fig. 78 (a).

[Listen]

213. A pedal point (or organ point) is a tone sustained through a
succession of harmonic progressions, to the chords of some of which it
usually belongs. The term pedal point originated in organ playing,
(where the foot on a pedal can sustain a tone while the hands are
playing a succession of harmonies), but as now used it may be applied to
any kind of music. The dominant and tonic are the tones most often used
in this way. See Fig. 79.[Pg 94]

[Listen]

214. When the upper three voices of a four-voice composition are written
close together (the soprano and tenor never appearing more than an
octave apart), the term close position is applied. But when the upper
voices are not written close together, the term open position is
applied.

215. By transposition is meant playing, singing, or writing a piece of
music in some other key than the original. Thus e.g., if a song
written in the key of G is too high in range for a soloist, the
accompanist sometimes transposes it to a lower key (as F or E), thus
causing all tones to sound a second or a third lower than they did when
the same song was played in the original key.

[Pg 95]

CHAPTER XIX

Miscellaneous Terms

A battuta—with the beat; in strict rhythm.

À quatre mains—for four hands.

Accompagnamento—the accompaniment.

All’unisono—in unison.

Alla breve—2/2 measure.

Alla capella—usually the same as a capella (see p. 76,
Sec. 162) but
sometimes used in the same sense as alla breve.

Alla marcia—in march style.

Alla zingara—in gypsy style.

Alt—see in alt.

Alto—the lowest female voice. Range approximately g-e”.

Animato come sopra—in animated style as above.

Antiphony (antiphonal)—the responsive singing of two choirs,
usually one at either end of the church, or at either side of the
chancel.

Arabesque—an instrumental composition in light, somewhat fantastic
style.

Arioso—in the style of an air or song, i.e., a flowing, vocal
style.

Attacca—attack the next division without any pause.

Attacca subito—same as attacca.

Attacca subito il seguente—attack
at once that which follows.

Attack—the promptness or firmness with which a phrase is begun.

Bagpipe—A Scotch instrument on which the tone is produced by a
combination of bellows and reeds. Its characteristic effect is the
continuous sounding of a low tone (sometimes several tones) while the
melody is being played on the higher reeds.

Barcarole (or barcarolle)—a boat song. Also applied to a vocal or
instrumental composition in the style of the gondolier’s boat song.

Baritone (or barytone)—the male voice having a range between that
of the tenor and that of the bass. Approximate range G-g’.

Bass—the lowest male voice. Approximate range E-e’.

Basso—same as bass.

Berceuse—a cradle song.

Binary form—a form in two parts.

Binary measure—a measure having two beats.[Pg 96]

Bis—twice. Used to indicate a repetition. (Rare.)

Brace—the sign used to join several staffs, showing that all tones
represented on these staffs are to be performed together. The term is
often used also in referring to the music written on staffs so joined;
as—”Begin with the upper brace.”

Broken chord—a chord whose tones are not all sounded simultaneously,
as e.g., in an accompaniment group.

Broken octave—an octave whose tones are sounded one at a time instead
of simultaneously.

Cacophony—harsh, discordant, unpleasant, especially incorrect
combinations of tones. The opposite of euphony.

Cadenza—A brilliant passage, usually in an instrumental composition,
introduced just before the close of a movement. The cadenza was
formerly improvised by the performer, (thus giving an opportunity of
displaying his technical skill), but since Beethoven, composers have
usually written their own cadenzas.

Cantabile—in a singing style.

Cantando—same as cantabile.

Canto—the highest voice part; i.e., the soprano part.

Carol—a hymn of joyful praise, usually sung in connection with Easter
or Christmas festivities. The word carol meant originally a dance,
hence the happy character of songs of this type.

Catch—a round set to humorous words.

Chromatic (noun)—a term somewhat loosely applied to any tone not
belonging to the key as indicated by the signature. Many teachers are
replacing the word chromatic in this sense with the term intermediate
tone, this term being applicable whether the foreign tone is actually
used for ornamental purposes as a chromatic, or to effect a
modulation. Thus e.g., “F♯ is the intermediate tone between F
and G in the key of C.”

Clavichord—an instrument with keys, resembling the square piano in
appearance. The tone was produced by forcing wedge-shaped pieces of
metal against the strings, thus setting them in vibration. The
clavichord was one of the immediate predecessors of the piano, much of
the music written by Bach being composed for it, although this music is
now played on the modern piano.

Colla voce—with the voice: i.e., play the accompaniment according
to the soloist’s performance rather than strictly according to the
rhythm indicated in the score.

Colla parte—same as colla voce.

Coloratura—florid passages in singing. Also applied to the style of
singing employed in rendering such passages. (See p. 76,
Sec. 171.)

Consonance—A combination of tones agreeable to the ear and requiring
no resolution to other tone-combinations in order to give the effect of
finality. The major triad C—E—G is an example of a consonant chord.

Contralto—same as alto.

Con variazioni—with variations.

Direct—a sign () placed at the end of the last staff
on a page, to indicate what the first note on the next page is going to
be. This sign is now practically obsolete.[Pg 97]

Dirge—a funeral chant. The dirge is named from the first word of a
chant used in the “office for the dead,” which begins—Dirige Domine,
Deus meus, in conspectu tuo viam meam (Direct, O Lord, My God, my way
in Thy sight).

Discord—an ugly, unharmonious combination of tones.

Dissonance—a harmonic combination of tones giving rise to the feeling
of incompleteness or unrest, and therefore requiring resolution to some
other combination which has an agreeable or final feeling. (cf.
consonance.) The diminished triad C—E♭—G♭ is an example of a
dissonant chord.

Divisi—divided. An indication showing that the first violins, or the
sopranos, or any other body of performers ordinarily sounding in unison
are now to divide into two or more parts.

Duet—a composition for two performers. (From the It. word
due—two.)

École—a school or style of composition or performance.

Etude—a study. Also an instrumental composition in the style of a
study, but intended for artistic performance.

Euphony—agreeable tone combinations; the opposite of cacophony. (From
the Greek word meaning well-sounding.)

Facile—easy.

Fanfare—a trumpet call.

Fantasia—An instrumental composition not based on any regular form.

Fiasco—a complete failure or breakdown.

Gamut—all the tones of a scale.

Glissando—playing a scale on the keyboard by drawing the finger along
over the keys, thus depressing them in very rapid succession. The word
is derived from the French word glisser—to glide.

Harpsichord—one of the immediate predecessors of the piano.

Humoresque—a capricious, fantastic composition. (Cf. fantasia.)

Idyl—a short, romantic piece of music in simple and unaffected style.

In alt—pitches in the first octave above the treble staff. Thus
e.g., “C in alt” is the C represented by the second added line above
the treble staff.

In altissimo—pitches in the octave above the alt octave.

Instrumentation—see orchestration.

Interlude—a short movement between two larger movements.

Loco—place; i.e., play as written. (See p. 15,
Sec. 46.)

Lunga trillo—a long trill.

[Pg 98]

CHAPTER XX

Miscellaneous Terms (Continued)

Lyric—a short, song-like poem of simple character. Also applied to
instrumental pieces of like character.

Maggiore—major.

Marcato il canto—the melody well marked; i.e., subdue the
accompaniment so that the melody may stand out strongly.

Melos—melody. This word melos is also applied to the peculiar style
of vocal solo found in Wagner’s music dramas. See recitative (p. 75,
Sec. 170).

Mellifluous—pleasing; pleasant sounding.

Menuetto, menuet—same as minuet. (See p. 68,
Sec. 151.)

Mezzo soprano—a woman’s voice of soprano quality, but of somewhat
lower compass than the soprano voice. Range approximately b to g”.

Minore—minor.

Nocturne (sometimes spelled nocturn, notturna, nokturne,
etc.)—a night piece; a quiet, melodious, somewhat sentimental
composition, usually for piano solo.

Nuance—delicate shading; subtle variations in tempo and dynamics
which make the rendition of music more expressive.

Obbligato (sometimes incorrectly spelled obligato)—an accessory
melody accompanying harmonized music, (usually vocal music).

Offertory (sometimes spelled offertoire, or offertorium)—a piece
of music played or sung during the taking up of the offering in the
church service. The word is often applied by composers to any short,
simple piece of music (usually for organ) that is suitable for the above
purpose.

Opus—work; used by composers to designate the order in which their
compositions were written, as e.g., Beethoven, Op. 2, No. 1.

Orchestration—the art of writing for the orchestra, this implying an
intimate knowledge of the range, quality, and possibilities of all the
orchestral instruments.

Ossia—or else; used most often to call the attention of the performer
to a simpler passage that may be substituted for the original one by a
player whose skill is not equal to the task he is attempting to perform.

Overture—(from overt—open)—an instrumental prelude to an opera or
oratorio. The older overtures were independent compositions and bore
no particular relation to the work which was to follow, but in modern
music (cf. Wagner, Strauss, etc.), the overture introduces the
principal themes that are to occur in the work itself, and the
introduction thus becomes an integral part of the work as a whole. The
word overture is sometimes applied to independent orchestral
compositions that have no connection with vocal works, as the Hebrides
Overture by Mendelssohn.[Pg 99]

Pizzicato—plucked. A term found in music for stringed instruments,
and indicating that for the moment the bow is not to be used, the tone
being secured by plucking the string.

Polacca—a Polish dance in three-quarter measure.

Polonaise—same as polacca.

Postlude—(lit. after-play)—an organ composition to be played at the
close of a church service.

Prelude—(lit. before-play)—an instrumental composition to be played
at the beginning of a church service, or before some larger work (opera,
etc.). The term is also applied to independent piano compositions of
somewhat indefinite form. (Cf. preludes by Chopin, Rachmaninoff, etc.)

Prière—a prayer; a term often applied (especially by French
composers) to a quiet, devotional composition for organ.

Quintole, quintuplet—a group of five notes to be performed in the
time ordinarily given to four notes of the same value. There is only one
accent in the group, this occurring of course on the first of the five
tones.

Religioso, religiosamente—in a devotional style.

Requiem—the mass for the dead in the Roman Catholic service. It is so
called from its first word requiem which means rest. (See p. 77,
Sec. 165.)

Rhapsody—an irregular instrumental composition of the nature of an
improvisation. A term first applied by Liszt to a series of piano pieces
based on gypsy themes.

Ribattuta—a
device in instrumental music whereby a two-note phrase is
gradually accelerated, even to the extent of becoming a trill. (See
Appendix E, p. 150, for an example.)

Ritornello, ritornelle—a short instrumental prelude, interlude, or
postlude, in a vocal composition, as e.g., in an operatic aria or
chorus.

Schottische—a dance in two-quarter measure, something like the
polka.

Sec, secco—dry, unornamented: applied to a style of opera recitative
(see p. 75, Sec. 170), and also to some particular chord in an
instrumental composition which is to be sounded and almost instantly
dropped.

Score—a term used in two senses:

Senza replica, senza repetizione—without repetition; a term used in
connection with such indications as D.C., D.S., etc., which often
call for the repetition of some large division of a composition, the
term senza replica indicating that the smaller repeats included within
the larger division are not to be observed the second time.

Serenade, serenata—an evening song.

Sextet—a composition for six voices or instruments.[Pg 100]

Sextuplet—a group of six notes to be performed in the time ordinarily
given to four of the same value. The sextuplet differs from a pair of
triplets in having but one accent.

Simile, similiter—the same; indicating that the same general effect
is to be continued.

Solfeggio, solfège—a vocal exercise sung either on simple vowels or
on arbitrary syllables containing these simple vowel sounds. Its purpose
is to develop tone quality and flexibility. These terms are also often
applied to classes in sight-singing which use the sol-fa syllables.

Sopra—above.

Soprano—the highest female voice. Range approximately b—c”’.

Sostenuto—sustained or connected; the opposite of staccato.

Sotto—under. E.g., sotto voce—under the voice, i.e., with
subdued tone.

Solmization—sight-singing by syllable.

Staccato—detached; the opposite of legato.

Subito—suddenly.

Tenor—the highest male voice. Range approximately d—c”.

Tenuto—(from teneo, to hold)—a direction signifying that the tones
are to be prolonged to the full value indicated by the notes.

Toccata—a brilliant composition for piano or organ, usually
characterized by much rapid staccato playing.

Triplet—a group of three tones, to be performed in the time
ordinarily given to two of the same value. The first tone of the triplet
is always slightly accented.

Tutti—(derived from totus, toti, Latin—all)—a direction
signifying that all performers are to take part. Also used occasionally
to refer to a passage where all performers do take part.

[Pg 101]

APPENDIX A

The History of Music Notation

Many conflicting statements have been made regarding the history and
development of music writing, and the student who is seeking light on
this subject is often at a loss to determine what actually did happen in
the rise of our modern system of writing music. We have one writer for
example asserting that staff notation was begun by drawing a single red
line across the page, this line representing the pitch f (fourth line,
bass staff), the neumae (the predecessors of our modern notes)
standing either for this pitch f, or for a higher or lower pitch,
according to their position on the line, or above or below it.
“Another line,” continues this writer, “this time of yellow color, was
soon added above the red one, and this line was to represent c’ (middle
C). Soon the colors of these lines were omitted and the letters F and
C were placed at the beginning of each of them. From this arose our F
and C clefs, which preceded the G clef by some centuries.”[37]

Another writer[38] gives a somewhat different explanation, stating that
the staff system with the use of clefs came about through writing a
letter (C or F) in the margin of the manuscript and drawing a line from
this letter to the neume which was to represent the tone for which this
particular letter stood.

A third writer[39] asserts that because the alphabetical notation was
not suitable for recording melodies because of its[Pg 102] inconvenience in
sight-singing “points were placed at definite distances above the words
and above and below one another.” “In this system … everything
depended on the accuracy with which the points were interspersed, and
the scribes, as a guide to the eye, began to scratch a straight line
across the page to indicate the position of one particular scale degree
from which all the others could be shown by the relative distances of
their points. But this was not found sufficiently definite and the
scratched line was therefore colored red and a second line was added,
colored yellow, indicating the interval of a fifth above the first.”

It will be noted that all three writers agree that a certain thing
happened, but as in the case of the four Gospels in the New Testament,
not all the writers agree on details and it is difficult to determine
which account is most nearly accurate in detail as well as in general
statement. Communication was much slower a thousand years ago than now
and ideas about new methods of doing things did not spread rapidly,
consequently it is entirely possible that various men or groups of men
in various places worked out a system of notation differing somewhat in
details of origin and development but alike in final result. The point
is that the development of musical knowledge (rise of part-writing,
increased interest in instrumental music, etc.), demanded a more exact
system of notation than had previously existed, just as the development
of science in the nineteenth century necessitated a more accurate
scientific nomenclature, and in both cases the need gave rise to the
result as we have it to-day.

Out of the chaos of conflicting statements regarding the development of
music notation, the student may glean an outline-knowledge of three
fairly distinct periods or stages, each of these stages being intimately
bound up with the development of music itself in that period. These
three stages are:[Pg 103]

Of the Greek system little is known beyond the fact that the letters of
the alphabet were used to represent pitches. This method was probably
accurate enough, but it was cumbersome, and did not afford any means of
writing “measured music” nor did it give the eye any opportunity of
grasping the general outline of the melody in its progression upward and
downward, as staff notation does. The Greek system seems to have been
abandoned at some time preceding the fifth century. At any rate it was
about this time that certain accent marks began to be written above
the text of the Latin hymns of the church, these marks serving to
indicate in a general way the progress of the melody. E.g., an upward
stroke of the pen indicated a rise of the melody, a downward stroke a
fall, etc. In the course of two or three centuries these marks were
added to and modified quite considerably, and the system of notation
which thus grew up was called “neume notation,” the word neume
(sometimes spelled neuma, or pneuma) being of Greek origin and
meaning a nod or sign.

This system of neumes was in some ways a retrogression from the Greek
letter system, for the neumes indicated neither definite pitches nor
definite tone-lengths. But it had this advantage over the Greek system,
that the position of the signs on the page indicated graphically to the
eye the general direction of the melody, as well as giving at least a
hint concerning the relative highness or lowness of each individual tone
(the so-called diastematic system), and this was a great aid to the
eye in singing, just as the relative highness and lowness of notes on
the modern staff is of great value in reading music at the present time.
Thus although the neumae did not enable one to sing a new melody at
sight as our[Pg 104] modern staff notation does, yet they served very well to
recall to the eye the general outline of a melody previously learned by
ear and therefore enabled the singer (the system was used for vocal
music only) to differentiate between that particular melody and the
dozens of others which he probably knew. Neume notation was used mostly
in connection with the “plain-song melodies” of the Church, and since
the words of these chants were sung as they would be pronounced in
reading, the deficiency of the neume system in not expressing definite
duration values was not felt. But later on with the rise of so-called
“measured music” (cf. invention of opera, development of independent
instrumental music, etc.), this lack was seen to be one of the chief
disadvantages of the system.

The elements of neume-writing as given by Riemann in his Dictionary of
Music are:

“(1) The signs for a single note: Virga (Virgula) and Punctus (Punctum).
(2) The sign for a rising interval: Pes (Podatus). (3) The sign for a
falling interval: Clinis (Flexa). (4) Some signs for special manners of
performance: Tremula (Bebung), Quilisma (shake), Plica (turn), etc. The
others were either synonyms of the above-named or combinations of
them….”

Since music in the middle ages was always copied by hand, it will
readily be understood that these neumae were not uniform either in shape
or size, and that each writer made use of certain peculiarities of
writing, which, although perfectly intelligible to himself, could not
readily be interpreted by others (cf. writing shorthand). Here then we
observe the greatest weakness of the neume system—its lack of
uniformity and its consequent inability accurately to express musical
ideas for universal interpretation.

[Pg 105]

As music grew more and more complex, and especially as writing in
several parts came into use (cf. rise of organum, descant, and
counterpoint), it became increasingly difficult to express musical ideas
on the basis of the old notation, and numerous attempts were made to
invent a more accurate and usable system. Among these one of the most
interesting was that in which the words of the text were written in the
spaces between long, parallel lines, placing the initial letters of the
words tone and semi-tone at the beginning of the line to indicate
the scale interval. An example will make this clear.

This indicated the precise melodic interval but did not give any idea of
the rhythm, and the natural accents of the text were the only guide the
singer had in this direction, as was the case in neume-notation and in
early staff-notation also. Various other attempts to invent a more
definite notation were made, but all were sporadic, and it was not until
the idea of using the lines (later lines and spaces) to represent
definite pitches, and writing notes of various shapes (derived from the
neumae) to indicate relative duration-values—it was only when this
combination of two elements was devised that any one system began to be
universally used.

Just how the transition from neume to staff notation was made no one
knows: it was not done in a day nor in a year but was the result of a
gradual process of evolution and improvement. Nor is it probable that
any one man deserves the entire credit for the invention of staff
notation, although this feat is commonly attributed to an Italian monk
named Guido d’Arezzo (approximate dates 995-1050). To this same monk we
are indebted, however, for the invention of the[Pg 106] syllables (UT, RE, MI,
etc.) which (in a somewhat modified form) are so widely used for
sight-singing purposes. (For a more detailed account of the transition
to staff notation, see Grove, op. cit. article notation.) It will now
be readily seen that our modern notation is the result of a combination
of two preceding methods (the Greek letters, and the neumes) together
with a new element—the staff, emphasizing the idea that higher tones
are written higher on the staff than lower ones. The development of
the neumes into notes of various shapes indicating relative time values
and the division of the staff into measures with a definite measure
signature at the beginning are natural developments of the earlier
primitive idea. In the system of “musica mensurabilis” or measured
music which was inaugurated a little later, the virga (which had
meanwhile developed into a square-headed neume) was adopted as the
longa or long note, and the punctus in two of its forms as breve and
semi-breve (short and half-short). The longa is now extinct, but the
modern form of the breve is still used as the double-whole-note, and the
semi-breve is our modern whole-note.

Red-colored notes were sometimes used to indicate changes in value and
before long outline notes (called empty notes) came into use, these
being easier to make than the solid ones. The transition from square-
and diamond-shaped notes to round and oval ones also came about because
of the greater facility with which the latter could be written, and for
the same reason notes of small denomination were later “tied together”
or stroked. This latter usage began about 1700 A.D.

It is interesting to find that when “measured music” was finally
inaugurated there were at first but two measure-signatures, viz.—the
circle, standing for three-beat measure (the so-called perfect
measure) and the semi-circle (or broken circle) which indicated
two-beat measure. Occasionally three-beat measure was indicated by three
vertical strokes at the[Pg 107] beginning of the melody, while two-beat measure
was shown by two such strokes. Upon the basis of these two varieties of
measure, primitive in conception though they may have been, has been
built nevertheless the whole system now employed, and in the last
analysis all forms of measure now in use will be found to be of either
the two-beat or the three-beat variety. The circle has disappeared
entirely as a measure-sign, but the broken circle still survives, and
from it are derived the familiar signs
and
, which are sometimes erroneously referred to as being
the initial letter of our word common (as used in the expression
“common time”). The transition from the older style of measure-signature
to the present one seems to have occurred during the century following
the invention of opera, i.e., from about 1600 to about 1700 A.D.

The rest came into use very soon after “measured music” began to be
composed and we soon find rests corresponding with the various
denominations of notes in use, viz.:

The terms applied to these rests vary in different authorities, but it
will be noted that the pausa, semi-pausa, and suspirum correspond
respectively to the double-whole-rest, whole-rest, and half-rest in use
at present.

The bar and double bar may be developments of the maxima rest (as some
writers suggest) but are probably also derived from the practice of
drawing a line vertically through the various parts of a score to show
which notes belonged together, thus facilitating score reading. The bar
may occasionally be found as early as 1500, but was not employed
universally until 1650 or later.

The number of lines used in the staff has varied greatly since the time
of Guido, there having been all the way from[Pg 108] four to fifteen at various
times and in various places, (four being the standard number for a
long time). These lines (when there were quite a number in the staff)
were often divided into groups of four by red lines, which were not
themselves used for notes. These red lines were gradually omitted and
the staff divided into sections by a space, as in modern usage. The
number of lines in each section was changed to five (in some cases six)
for the sake of having a larger available range in each section.

The clefs at the beginning of the staffs are of course simply altered
forms of the letters F, C, and G, which were written at first by Guido
and others to make the old neume notation more definite.

The staccato sign seems not to have appeared until about the time of
Bach, the legato sign being also invented at about the same time. The
fermata was first used in imitative part-writing to show where each part
was to stop, but with the development of harmonic writing the present
practice was inaugurated. Leger lines came into use in the seventeenth
century.

Sharps and flats were invented because composers found it necessary to
use other tones than those that could be represented by the staff
degrees in their natural condition. The history of their origin and
development is somewhat complicated and cannot be given here, but it
should be noted once more that it was the need of expressing more than
could be expressed by the older symbols that called forth the newer and
more comprehensive method. The use of sharps and flats in key signatures
grew up early in the seventeenth century. In the earlier signatures it
was customary to duplicate sharps or flats on staff degrees having the
same pitch-name, thus:
. (The use of the G
clef as here shown did not of course exist at that time.)[Pg 109]

The double-sharp and double-flat became necessary when “equal
temperament” (making possible the use of the complete cycle of keys) was
adopted. This was in the time of Bach (1685-1750).

Signs of expression (relating to tempo and dynamics) date back at least
as far as the year 1000 A.D., but the modern terms used for this purpose
did not appear until some years after the invention of opera, the date
given by C.F.A. Williams in Grove’s Dictionary being 1638. These words
and signs of expression were at first used only in connection with
instrumental music, but were gradually applied to vocal music also.

Other systems of notation have been invented from time to time in the
course of the last two or three centuries, but in most cases they have
died with their inventors, and in no case has any such system been
accepted with anything even approaching unanimity. The tonic-sol-fa
system[40] is used quite[Pg 110] extensively in England for vocal music, but
has gained little ground anywhere else and the chances are that the
present system of notation, with possibly slight additions and
modifications, will remain the standard notation for some time to come
in spite of the attacks that are periodically made upon it on the ground
of cumbersomeness, difficulty in teaching children, etc. The main
characteristics of staff notation may be summed up as follows:

[Pg 112]

APPENDIX B

Musical Instruments

1. Broadly speaking, musical instruments may be divided into two
classes, viz.: (1) those that have a keyboard and are therefore capable
of sounding several tones simultaneously; (2) those that (as a rule)
sound only one tone at a time, as the violin and trumpet. The piano is
of course the most familiar example of the first class, and a brief
description is therefore given.

2. The most characteristic things about the piano as contrasted with
its immediate predecessors are: (1) that on it the loudness and softness
of the tone can be regulated by the force with which the keys are struck
(hence the name pianoforte meaning literally the soft-loud); (2) the
fact that the piano is capable of sustaining tone to a much greater
extent than its predecessors. In other words the tone continues sounding
for some little time after the key is struck, while on the earlier
instruments it stopped almost instantly after being sounded.

The essentials of the piano mechanism are:

Other interesting details are:

These details regarding the mechanism of the piano can easily be
verified by removing the front of any ordinary upright piano and
observing what takes place when the keys are struck or the pedals
depressed.

3. There are two familiar types of organ in use at the present time,
(1) the reed organ, (2) the pipe-organ.

The reed organ is very simple in construction, the tone being produced
by the vibration of metal reeds (fixed in little cells), through which
air is forced (or sucked) from the bellows, the latter being usually
worked by the feet of the player.[Pg 114] More power may be secured either by
drawing additional stops, thus throwing on more sets of reeds, or by
opening the knee swells which either throw on more reeds (sometimes
octave couplers) or else open a swell box in which some of the reeds
are enclosed, the tone being louder when the box is open than when
closed. More tone may also be secured by pumping harder.

4. The essential characteristic of the pipe-organ is a number of sets
or registers of pipes called stops, each set being capable (usually)
of sounding the entire chromatic scale through a range of five or six
octaves. Thus for example when the stop melodia is drawn (by pulling
out a stop-knob or tilting a tablet), one set of pipes only, sounds when
the keyboard is played on: but if the stop flute is drawn with
melodia, two pipes speak every time a key is depressed. Thus if an
organ has forty speaking stops, all running through the entire
keyboard, then each time one key is depressed forty pipes will speak,
and if a chord of five tones is played, two hundred pipes will speak.
The object of having so many pipes is not merely to make possible a very
powerful tone, but, rather, to give greater variety of tone-color.

The pipe-organ usually has a pedal keyboard on which the feet of the
performer play a bass part, this part often sounding an octave (or more)
lower than the notes indicate.

An eight-foot stop on the organ produces tones of the same pitches as
the piano when corresponding keys are struck: A four-foot stop sounds
tones an octave higher and a two-foot stop tones two octaves higher. A
sixteen-foot stop sounds tones an octave lower than the piano, and a
thirty-two foot stop, tones two octaves lower, while some organs have
also a sixty-four foot stop which sounds three octaves lower. This
gives the organ an exceedingly wide range, its compass being greater
than that of any other single instrument, and comparable in both range
of pitches and variety of color only with the modern orchestra.[Pg 115]

Modern pipe-organs always have a number of combination pedals or
pistons (usually both), by means of which the organist is enabled to
throw on a number of stops with one movement. The selection and use of
suitable stops, couplers, combinations, etc., is called registration.

5. The instruments mentioned at the beginning of this appendix as
belonging to the second class are more familiar in connection with
ensemble playing, being commonly associated with either band or
orchestra.

6. A band is a company of musicians all of whom play upon either wind
or percussion instruments, the main body of tone being produced by the
brass and wood-wind divisions.

7. An orchestra is a company of musicians performing upon stringed
instruments as well as upon wind and percussion. It is differentiated
from the band by the fact that the main body of tone is produced by the
strings.

There are four classes of instruments in the orchestra, viz.,
strings, wood-wind, brass (wind) and percussion. In addition
to these four classes, there is the harp, which although a stringed
instrument, does not belong in the same group as the other strings
because the manner of producing the tone is altogether different.

8. In the first group (the strings) are found the first and second
violins, viola, violoncello (usually spelled cello), and double-bass.
The first and second violins are identical in every way (but play
different parts), while the other members of the family merely represent
larger examples of the same type of instrument.

9. In the second group (the wood-wind) are found the flute, piccolo,
oboe, bassoon, English horn, double-bassoon,[Pg 116] clarinet, and bass
clarinet. The English horn, double-bassoon, bass clarinet, and piccolo
are not called for in the older compositions, hence are not always
present in the orchestra.

10. In the third group (the brass choir) are found the French horn,
(usually referred to as the horn), trumpet (sometimes replaced by the
cornet) trombone, and tuba.

11. The fourth group (percussion) consists of kettle drums, bass drum,
cymbals, snare drum, triangle, bells, etc.

12. In an orchestra of about 100 players the proportion of instruments
is as about as follows, although it varies somewhat according to the
taste of the conductor, the style of composition to be performed, etc.:

18 first violins, 16 second violins, 14 violas, 12 cellos, 10 basses, 1
harp, 3 flutes, 1 piccolo, 3 oboes, 1 English horn, 3 clarinets, 1 bass
clarinet, 3 bassoons, 1 contra (or double) bassoon, 4 horns, 2 trumpets,
3 trombones, 1 tuba, 3 kettle drums, 1 bass drum, 1 snare drum, 1 each
of triangle, cymbals, bells, and other instruments of percussion,
several of which are often manipulated by one performer.

13. The cuts and brief descriptions here added will give at least a
rudimentary idea of the appearance and possibilities of the instruments
most commonly used in bands and orchestras. For fuller descriptions and
particulars regarding range, quality, etc., the student is referred to
Mason’s “The Orchestral Instruments and What They Do,” Lavignac’s “Music
and Musicians,” and to the various articles which describe each
instrument under its own name in Grove’s Dictionary or in any good
encyclopaedia. For still fuller details some work on orchestration will
have to be consulted.

14. The violin has four strings, tuned thus
, these making available a range of about three and one-half octaves
(g—c””). This range[41] may be extended upward somewhat[Pg 117] further by
means of harmonics, these being produced by lightly touching the
string at certain points (while the bow is moving across it) instead of
holding it down against the finger-board. The highest string of the
violin (viola and cello also) is often called the chanterelle
because it is most often used for playing the melody. The violin
ordinarily produces but one tone at a time, but by stopping two
strings simultaneously and so drawing the bow as to set both in
vibration, two tones may be produced at the same time, while three and
four tones can be sounded almost simultaneously.

The mute (or sordino) is a small clamp made of metal, wood, or
ivory, which when clipped to the top of the bridge causes the vibrations
to be transmitted less freely to the body of the violin, giving rise to
a tone modified in quality, and decreased in power.

For certain special effects the player is directed to pluck the string
(pizzicato), this method of playing giving rise to a dry, detached
tone instead of the smooth, flowing one that is so characteristic of the
violin as commonly played.

Violins in the orchestra are divided into firsts and seconds, the
first violins being always seated at the left of the audience and the
seconds at the right.

15. The viola has four strings, also tuned in fifths, thus
. The viola looks exactly like the violin at
a little distance, and is really only a larger sized violin, having a
range a fifth lower. Its tone is not so incisive as that of the violin,
being[Pg 118] rather heavier—”more gloomy,” as it is often described. The
viola is not so useful as the violin as a solo instrument because it
is not capable of producing so many varieties of color, nevertheless it
is invaluable for certain effects. In orchestral music it is of course
one of the most valuable instruments for filling in the harmony. The
viola players are usually seated behind the second violin players in
the orchestra.

16. The violoncello or cello (sometimes called bass viol) has four
strings, tuned thus:
.
Its range is about three
and one-half octaves (from C to e” or f”), but in solo work this range
is sometimes extended much higher. The cello is much more universally
used as a solo instrument than the viola and its tone is capable of a
much greater degree of variation. In the orchestra it plays the bass of
the string quartet (reinforced by the double-bass), but is also often
used for solo passages. Con sordino and pizzicato passages occur as
often for the cello as for the violin.

17. The double bass differs from the other members of the string
family in that it is tuned in fourths instead of in fifths. Its four
strings are tuned as follows
the entire range
of the instrument being from EE to a. In music written for double-bass
the notes are always printed an octave higher than the tones are to
sound: that is, when the bass-player sees the note
he
plays this being done to avoid leger lines. The tone
of the bass is much heavier and[Pg 119] the instrument itself is much more
clumsy to handle than the other members of the group, hence it is almost
never used as a solo instrument but it is invaluable for reinforcing the
bass part in orchestral music. The mute is rarely used on the
double-bass, but the pizzicato effect is very common and the bass
pizzicato tone is much fuller and richer than that of any other stringed
instrument.

18. The flute has a range of three octaves.

It is used in both solo and orchestral playing as well as in bands. The
flute was formerly always made of wood, but is at present often made of
metal.

19. The piccolo is a flute playing an octave higher than the one
described above. The notes are printed as for the flute, but the player
understands that the tone is to sound an octave higher. The piccolo is
used widely in band music and quite often in orchestral music also, but
since the tone is so brilliant and penetrating and is incapable of any
great variation, it is not suitable for solo performance.

[Pg 121]

20. The next four instruments to be described (oboe, bassoon,
English horn, and contra bassoon) are often referred to as the oboe
family since the principle of tone production and general manipulation
is the same in all four. The tone in these instruments is produced by
the vibration of two very thin pieces of cane, which are called together
a double-reed.

The oboe is especially valuable in the orchestra as a solo instrument,
and its thin, nasal tones are suggestive of rustic, pastoral simplicity,
both oboe and English horn being often used by orchestral composers
in passages intended to express the idea of rural out-of-door life. The
English horn is also often used in passages where the idea of
melancholy and suffering is to be conveyed to the audience. In a
military band the oboe corresponds to the first violin of the orchestra.

The bassoon and contra-bassoon are used mostly to provide a bass
part for the harmony of the wood-wind group, but they are also sometimes
employed (especially the bassoon) to depict comic or grotesque
effects.

21. The next two types of instruments to be described (clarinet and
saxophone) are alike in that the tone is produced by the vibration of
a single strip of cane (called single reed) which is held against
the lower lip of the player. The clarinet and bass clarinet are made
of wood and are used in both bands and orchestras, but the saxophone
is usually made of metal, and, the tone being more[Pg 122] strident and
penetrating, the instrument is ordinarily used only in combination with
other wind instruments, i.e., in bands.

Since the fingering of the clarinet is excessively difficult the
performer can play in only certain keys on the same instrument, hence to
play in different keys clarinets in several keys must be provided,
there being usually three in all. The music is written as though it were
to be played in the key of C, but the tones produced are actually in
other keys. For this reason the clarinet is called a transposing
instrument. The range of the clarinet is the greatest possessed by
any of the wind instruments, that of the clarinet in C being from
to
.

[Pg 123]

The sarrusophone is an instrument with a double-reed. It is made of
brass and exists in several sizes, the only one ever used in the
orchestra being the double-bass sarrusophone, which has approximately
the same range as the double-bassoon and is sometimes (but rarely) made
use of in the orchestra instead of the latter instrument. The tone of
the sarrusophone is something like that of the bassoon.

22. The French horn (often called valve horn or simply horn)
really consists of a long tube (about 16 feet) which is bent into
circular form for convenience in handling. Its range is from
to
. In the orchestra French
horns are used in pairs, two of the players taking the higher tones,
and two the lower. The tone is intensely mellow but incapable of any
extensive[Pg 124] variation, but in spite of this lack of variety the tone
itself is so wonderfully beautiful that the instrument is one of the
most useful in the orchestra both in solo passages and to fill in the
harmony. The horn (as well as the trumpet and trombone) differs from
most of the wood-wind instruments in that its mouthpiece contains no
reed, the lips of the player constituting the vibrating body as they are
stretched across the mouthpiece and air is forced against them. The
horn is used in bands as well as in orchestras.

23. The range of the trumpet is
, the typical
tone being brilliant and ringing. It is used in both band and orchestra,
playing the highest parts assigned to the brass choir. The trumpet is
often replaced in both band and orchestra by its less refined cousin the
cornet because of the ease with which the latter can be played as
compared with the trumpet, and the larger number of players that are
available in consequence of this ease of execution.

24. The cornet looks something like the trumpet, but is not so slim
and graceful in appearance. Its tube is only four and one-half feet
long, as compared with a length of about eight feet in the trumpet, and
sixteen feet in the French horn.

The range of the cornet in B♭ is from
to
. The tone is somewhat commonplace as compared
with the[Pg 125] trumpet, but because of its great agility in the rendition of
trills, repeated tones, etc., it is universally used in all sorts of
combinations, even (as noted above) taking the place of the trumpet in
many small orchestras.

25. The pitch sounded by the trombone is altered by lengthening or
shortening the tube of which the instrument is constructed, this being
possible because the lower part slides into the upper and can be pulled
out to increase the total length of the tube through which the air
passes. There are usually three trombones in the orchestra, each
playing a separate part, and the combination of this trio (with the
tuba reinforcing the bass part) is majestic and thrilling, being
powerful enough to dominate the entire orchestra in Fortissimo
passages. But the trombones are useful in soft passages also, and
their tone when playing pianissimo is rich, serene, and sonorous.

26. The bass tuba is a member of the saxhorn family[42] and[Pg 126] supplies
the lowest part of the brass choir, as the double-bass does in the
string choir. It is used in both orchestra and band, being often
supported in the larger bands by a still lower-toned member of the same
family—the contra-bass tuba. The range of the tuba is from
to
.

27. The kettle-drum is the most important member of the percussion
family and is always used either in pairs or in threes. The size of
these instruments varies somewhat with the make, but when two drums are
used the diameter is approximately that given under the illustration.
The range of a pair of drums is one octave
and
when but two drums are used the larger one takes the tones from F to
about C of this range, and the smaller takes those[Pg 127] from about B♭
to F. The most common usage is to tune one drum to the tonic, and the
other to the dominant of the key in which the composition is written.
The pitch of the kettle-drum can be varied by increasing or lessening
the tension of the head by means of thumb-screws which act on a metal
ring.

[Pg 128]

The other important members of the percussion family are shown on this
and the following page, their use being so obvious as to require no
detailed explanation.

[Pg 129]

28. The harp is one of the oldest of instruments (dating back over
6000 years), but it is only in comparatively recent years that it has
been used in the symphony orchestra. Its range is from
to
.

The modern double-action harp has forty-six strings, which are tuned
in half-steps and whole-steps so as to sound the scale of C♭ major.
It has a series of seven pedals around its base, each pedal having two
notches below it, into either of which the pedal may be lowered and
held fast. The first pedal shortens the F♭ string so that it now
sounds F, (giving the key of G♭); the second one[Pg 130] shortens the
C♭ string so that it sounds C (giving the key of D♭); the
third pedal shortens the G♭ string so that it sounds G (giving the
key of A♭); the fourth changes D♭ to D (giving the key of
E♭), and so on until, when all the pedals are fixed in their first
notches, the scale of C is sounded instead of C♭ as was the case
before any of the pedals were depressed. But if the first pedal is now
pushed down into the second notch the original F♭ string is still
further shortened and now sounds the pitch F♯ (giving us the key
of G), and if all the other pedals are likewise successively lowered to
the second notch we get in turn all the sharp keys—D, A, E, B,
F♯ and C♯, the last-named key being obtained as the result
of having all the pedals fixed in their second notches, thus making all
the tones of the original C♭ scale a whole-step higher so that they
now sound the C♯ scale.

Chords of not more than four tones for each hand may be played
simultaneously on the harp, but arpeggio and scale passages are the
rule, and are more successful than simultaneous chords. The notation of
harp music is essentially like that of piano music.

[Pg 131]

APPENDIX C

Acoustics

1. Acoustics is the science which deals with sound and the laws of its
production and transmission. Since all sound is caused by vibration,
acoustics may be defined as the science which treats of the phenomena
of sound-producing vibration.

2. All sound (as stated above) is produced by vibration of some sort:
strike a tuning-fork against the top of a table and see the vibrations
which cause the tone, or, if the fork is a small one and the vibrations
cannot be seen, hold it against the edge of a sheet of paper and hear
the blows it strikes; or, watch one of the lowest strings of the piano
after striking the key a sharp blow; or, look closely at the heavier
strings of the violin (or better still, the cello) and watch them
oscillate rapidly to and fro as the bow moves across them.

The vibrating body may be a string, a thin piece of wood, a piece of
metal, a membrane (cf. drum), the lips (cf. playing the cornet), the
vocal cords, etc. Often it is a column of air whose vibrations give rise
to the tone, the reed or other medium merely serving to set the air in
vibration.

3. Sound is transmitted through the air in somewhat this fashion: the
vibrating body (a string for example) strikes the air-particles in its
immediate vicinity, and they, being in con[Pg 132]tact with other such
air-particles, strike these others, the latter in turn striking yet
others, and so on, both a forward and backward movement being set up
(oscillation). These particles lie so close together that no movement at
all can be detected, and it is only when the disturbance finally reaches
the air-particles that are in contact with the ear-drum that any effect
is evident.

This phenomenon of sound-transmission may perhaps be made more clear by
the old illustration of a series of eight billiard balls in a row on a
table: if the first ball is tapped lightly, striking gently against ball
number 2, the latter (as well as numbers 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7) will not
apparently move at all, but ball number 8 at the other end will roll
away. The air-particles act upon each other in much this same fashion,
the difference being that when they are set in motion by a vibrating
body a complete vibration backward and forward causes a similar
backward and forward movement of the particles (oscillation) instead
of simply a forward jerk as in the case of the billiard balls.

Another way of describing the same process is this: the vibration of
some body produces waves in the air (cf. waves in the ocean, which carry
water forward but do not themselves move on continuously), these waves
spread out spherically (i.e. in all directions) and finally reach the
ear, where they set the ear-drum in vibration, thus sending certain
sound-stimuli to the nerves of hearing in the inner ear, and thus to the
brain.

An important thing to be noted in connection with sound-transmission is
that sound will not travel in a vacuum: some kind of a medium is
essential for its transmission. This medium may be air, water, a bar of
iron or steel, the earth, etc.

4. The rate at which sound travels through the air is about 1100 feet
per second, the rapidity varying somewhat with fluctuations in
temperature and humidity. In water the rate is much higher than in air
(about four times as great)[Pg 133] while the velocity of sound through other
mediums (as e.g., steel) is sometimes as much as sixteen times as
great as through air.

5. Sound, like light, may be intensified by a suitable reflecting
surface directly back of the vibrating body (cf. sounding board); it may
also be reflected by some surface at a distance from its source in such
a way that at a certain point (the focus) the sound may be very clearly
heard, but at other places, even those nearer the source of sound, it
can scarcely be heard at all. If there is such a surface in an
auditorium (as often occurs) there will be a certain point where
everything can be heard very easily, but in the rest of the room it may
be very difficult to understand what is being said or sung.

Echoes are caused by sound-reflection, the distance of the reflecting
surface from the vibrating body determining the number of syllables that
will be echoed.

The acoustics of an auditorium (i.e., its hearing properties) depend
upon the position and nature of the reflecting surfaces and also upon
the length of time a sound persists after the vibrating body has
stopped. If it persists longer than 2-1/4 or 2-1/3 seconds the room will
not be suitable for musical performances because of the mixture of
persisting tones with following ones, this causing a blurred effect
somewhat like that obtained by playing a series of unrelated chords on
the piano while the damper-pedal is held down. The duration of the
reverberation depends upon the size and height of the room, material of
floor and walls, furniture, size of audience, etc.

6. Sound may be classified roughly into tones and noises although
the line of cleavage is not always sharply drawn. If I throw stones at
the side of a barn, sounds are produced, but they are caused by
irregular vibrations of an irregularly constructed surface and are
referred to as noise. But if I tap the head of a kettle-drum, a
regular series of vibrations is set up and the resulting sound is
referred to as tone. In general the[Pg 134] material of music consists of
tones, but for special effects certain noises are also utilized (cf.
castanets, etc.).

7. Musical tones have three properties, viz.:

By pitch is meant the highness or lowness of tone. It depends upon
rate of vibration. If a body vibrates only 8 or 10 times per second no
tone is heard at all: but if it vibrates regularly at the rate of 16 or
18 per second a tone of very low pitch is heard. If it vibrates at the
rate of 24 the pitch is higher, at 30 higher still, at 200 yet higher,
and when a rate of about 38,000 per second has been reached the pitch is
so high that most ears cannot perceive it at all. The highest tone that
can ordinarily be heard is the E♭ four octaves higher than the
highest E♭ of the piano. The entire range of sound humanly audible
is therefore about eleven octaves (rates 16-38,000), but only about
eight of these octaves are utilized for musical purposes. The tones of
the piano (with a range of 7-1/3 octaves) are produced by vibration
rates approximately between 27 and 4224. In the orchestra the range is
slightly more extended, the rates being from 33 to 4752.

Certain interesting facts regarding the relation between vibration-rates
and pitches have been worked out: it has been discovered for instance
that if the number of vibrations is doubled, the pitch of the resulting
tone is an octave higher; i.e., if a string vibrating at the rate of
261 per second gives rise to the pitch c’, then a string one-half as
long and vibrating twice as rapidly (522) will give rise to the pitch
c”, i.e., an octave higher than c’. In the same way it has been found
that if the rate is multiplied by 5/4 the pitch of the tone will be a
major third higher; if multiplied by 3/2, a perfect fifth higher,
etc. These laws are often stated thus: the ratio of the octave to the
fundamental is as two is to one; that of the major third as five is to[Pg 135]
four; that of the perfect fifth as three is to two, and so on through
the entire series of pitches embraced within the octave, the ratio
being of course the same for all octaves.

9. The intensity (loudness or softness) of tones depends upon the
amplitude (width) of the vibrations, a louder tone being the result of
vibrations of greater amplitude, and vice versa. This may be verified by
plucking a long string (on cello or double-bass) and noting that when
plucked gently vibrations of small amplitude are set up, while a
vigorous pluck results in much wider vibrations, and, consequently, in a
louder tone. It should be noted that the pitch of the tone is not
affected by the change in amplitude of vibration.

The intensity of tones varies with the medium conveying them, being
usually louder at night because the air is then more elastic. Tone
intensity is also affected by sympathetic vibrations set up in other
bodies. If two strings of the same length are stretched side by side and
one set in vibration so as to produce tone the other will soon begin to
vibrate also and the combined tone will be louder than if only one
string produced it. This phenomenon is the basis of what is known as
resonance (cf. body of violin, resonance cavities of nose and mouth,
sounding board of piano, etc.).

10. Quality depends upon the shape (or form) of the vibrations which
give rise to the tone. A series of simple vibrations will cause a simple
(or colorless) tone, while complex vibrations (giving rise to overtones
of various kinds and in a variety of proportions) cause more
individualistic peculiarities of quality. Quality is affected also by
the shape and size of the resonance body. (Cf. last part of sec. 9
above.)

11. Practically every musical tone really consists of a combination of
several tones sounding simultaneously, the combined effect upon the ear
giving the impression of a single tone. The most important tone of the
series is the fundamental, which dominates the combination and gives
the pitch,[Pg 136] but this fundamental is practically always combined with a
greater or less number of faint and elusive attending tones called
overtones or harmonics. The first of these overtones is the octave
above the fundamental; the second is the fifth above this octave; the
third, two octaves above the fundamental, and so on through the series
as shown in the figure below. The presence of these overtones is
accounted for by the fact that the string (or other vibrating body) does
not merely vibrate in its entirety but has in addition to the principal
oscillation a number of sectional movements also. Thus it is easily
proved that a string vibrates in halves, thirds, etc., in addition to
the principal vibration of the entire string, and it is the vibration of
these halves, thirds, etc., which gives rise to the harmonics, or
upper partials as they are often called. The figure shows Great C
and its first eight overtones. A similar series might be worked out from
any other fundamental.

[Listen]

It will be recalled that in the section (10) dealing with quality the
statement was made that quality depends upon the shape of the
vibrations; it should now be noted that it is the form of these
vibrations that determines the nature and proportion of the overtones
and hence the quality. Thus e.g., a tone that has too large a
proportion of the fourth upper partial (i.e., the third of the
chord) will be reedy and somewhat unpleasant. This is the case with
many voices that are referred to as nasal. Too great a proportion of
overtones is what causes certain pianos to sound “tin-panny.” The tone
pro[Pg 137]duced by a good tuning-fork is almost entirely free from overtones:
it has therefore no distinctive quality and is said to be a simple
tone. The characteristic tone of the oboe on the other hand has many
overtones and is therefore highly individualistic: this enables us to
recognize the tone of the instrument even though we cannot see the
player. Such a tone is said to be complex.

12. The mathematical ratio referred to on page 134, if strictly carried
out in tuning a keyboard instrument would cause the half-steps to vary
slightly in size, and playing in certain keys (especially those having a
number of sharps or flats in the signature) would therefore sound out of
tune. There would be many other disadvantages in such a system, notably
the inability to modulate freely to other keys, and since modulation is
one of the predominant and most striking characteristics of modern
music, this would constitute a serious barrier to advances in
composition. To obviate these disadvantages a system of equal
temperament was invented and has been in universal use since the time
of Bach (1685-1750) who was the first prominent composer to use it
extensively. Equal temperament means simply dividing the octave into
twelve equal parts, thus causing all scales (as played on keyboard
instruments at least) to sound exactly alike.

13. Various standards of pitch have existed at different times in the
last two centuries, and even now there is no absolute uniformity
although conditions are much better than they were even twenty-five
years ago. Scientists use what is known as the “scientific standard”
(sometimes called the “philosophic standard”), viz., 256 double
vibrations for “middle C.” This pitch is not in actual use for musical
purposes, but is retained for theoretical purposes because of its[Pg 138]
convenience of computation (being a power of 2). In 1885 a conference of
musicians at Vienna ratified the pitch giving Middle C 261 vibrations,
this having been adopted by the French as their official pitch some 26
years before. In 1891 a convention of piano manufacturers at
Philadelphia adopted this same pitch for the United States, and it has
been in practically universal use ever since. This pitch (giving Middle
C 261 vibrations) is known as “International Pitch.”

Concert pitch is slightly higher than International, the difference
between the two varying somewhat, but being almost always less than
one-half step. This higher pitch is still often used by bands and
sometimes by orchestras to give greater brilliancy to the wind
instruments.

[Pg 139]

APPENDIX D

Terminology Reform

A recent writer[43] on vocal terminology makes the following statement
as an introduction to certain remarks advocating a more definite use of
terms relating to tone production by the human voice:—”The correct use
of words is the most potent factor in the development of the thinker.”
If this statement has any basis of fact whatsoever to support it then it
must be evident to the merest novice in musical work that the popular
use of many common terms by musicians is keeping a good many people from
clear and logical thought in a field that needs accurate thinkers very
badly! However this may be, it must be patent to all that our present
terminology is in many respects neither correct nor logical, and the
movement inaugurated by the Music Section of the National Education
Association some years ago to secure greater uniformity in the use and
definition of certain expressions should therefore not only command the
respect and commendation, but the active support of all progressive
teachers of music.

Let it be noted at the outset that such reforms as are advocated by the
committee will never come into general use while the rank and file of
teachers throughout the country merely approve the reports so
carefully compiled and submitted each year: these reforms will become
effective only as individual teachers make up their minds that the end
to be attained is worth the trouble of being careful to use only
correct[Pg 140] terminology every day for a month, or three months, or a
year—whatever length of time may be necessary in order to get the new
habits fixed in mind and muscle.

The Terminology Committee was appointed by the Department of Music of
the N.E.A. in 1906 and made its first report at Los Angeles in 1907.
Since then the indefatigable chairman of the committee (Mr. Chas. I.
Rice, of Worcester, Mass.) has contributed generously of both time and
strength, and has by his annual reports to the Department set many of us
to thinking along certain new lines, and has caused some of us at any
rate to adopt in our own teaching certain changes of terminology which
have enabled us to make our work more effective.

In his first report Mr. Rice says:

“Any one who has observed the teaching of school music in any
considerable number of places in this country cannot fail to have
remarked the great diversity of statement employed by different teachers
regarding the facts which we are engaged in teaching, and the equal
diversity of terminology used in teaching the symbols by which musicians
seek to record these facts. To the teacher of exact sciences our
picturesque use of the same term to describe two or more entirely
different things never ceases to be a marvel…. Thoughtful men and
women will become impressed with the untruthfulness of certain
statements and little by little change their practice. Others will
follow, influenced by example. The revolutionists will deride us for not
moving faster while the conservatives will be suspicious of any change.”

At this meeting in Los Angeles a list of thirteen points was recommended
by the committee and adopted by the Music Department. These points are
given in the N.E.A. Volume of Proceedings for 1907, p. 875.

Since 1907 the committee (consisting of Chas. I. Rice, P.C. Hayden, W.B.
Kinnear, Leo R. Lewis, and Constance[Pg 141] Barlow-Smith) have each year
selected a number of topics for discussion, and have submitted valuable
reports recommending the adoption of certain reforms. Some of the points
recommended have usually been rejected by the Department, but many of
them have been adopted and the reports of the committee have set many
teachers thinking and have made us all more careful in the use and
definition of common terms. A complete list of all points adopted by the
Department since 1907 has been made by Mr. Rice for School Music, and
this list is here reprinted from the January, 1913, number of that
magazine.

The author does not find it possible at present to agree with all the
recommendations made in the above report, but the summary is printed in
full for the sake of completeness.

The Music Teacher’s National Association has also interested itself
mildly in the subject of terminology reform, and at its meeting in
Washington, D.C., in 1908, Professor Waldo S. Pratt gave his address as
president of the Association on the subject “System and Precision in
Musical Speech.” This address interested the members of the Association
to such an extent that Professor Pratt was asked to act as a committee
whose purpose it should be to look into the matter of reforms necessary
in music terminology and report at a later session. In 1910 Professor
Pratt read a report in which he advocated the idea of making some
changes in music nomenclature, but took the ground that the subject is
too comprehensive to be mastered in the short time that can be given to
it by a committee, and that it is therefore impossible to recommend
specific changes. He also took occasion to remark that one difficulty in
the whole matter of terminology is that many terms and expressions are
used colloquially and that such use although usually not scientific,
is often not distinctly harmful and is not of sufficient importance to
cause undue excitement on the part of reformers. Quoting from the report
at this point:—”A great deal of confusion is more apparent than real
between note and tone, between step and degree, between key
and tonality. No practical harm is done by speaking of the first
note of a piece when really first tone would be more[Pg 148] accurate. To
say that a piece is written in the key of B♭ is more convenient
than to say that it is written in the tonality of which B♭ is the
tonic. The truth is that some of the niceties of expression upon which
insistence is occasionally laid are merely fussy, not because they have
not some sort of reason, but because they fail to take into account the
practical difference between colloquial or off-hand speech and the
diction of a scientific treatise. This is said without forgetting that
colloquialism always needs watching and that some people form the habit
of being careless or positively uncouth as if it were a mark of high
artistic genius.”

Professor Pratt’s report is thus seen to be philosophic rather than
constructive, and terminology reform will undoubtedly make more
immediate progress through the efforts of the N.E.A. Committee with its
specific recommendations (even though these are sometimes admittedly
fussy) than through the policy of the M.T.N.A. of waiting for some one
to get time to take up the subject in a scholarly way. Nevertheless the
philosophic view is sometimes badly needed, especially when the spirit
of reform becomes too rabid and attaches too great importance to
trifles. A judicious intermingling of the two committees in a series of
joint meetings would undoubtedly result in mutual helpfulness, and
possibly also in a more tangible and convincing statement of principles
than has yet been formulated by either.