TEXTILES

FOR COMMERCIAL, INDUSTRIAL, AND DOMESTIC
ARTS SCHOOLS; ALSO ADAPTED TO THOSE
ENGAGED IN WHOLESALE AND RETAIL
DRY GOODS, WOOL, COTTON, AND
DRESSMAKER’S TRADES

BY

WILLIAM H. DOOLEY

PRINCIPAL LOWELL INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL
LOWELL, MASS.

REVISED EDITION
WITH EXPERIMENTS

D. C. HEATH & COMPANY
BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO

COPYRIGHT, 1910, 1912, AND 1914, BY
D. C. HEATH AND COMPANY

COTTON PLANT

[Pg v]

PREFACE

The author established and since its inception has
been in charge of the first industrial school for boys
and girls in Massachusetts. At an early date he recognized
the need of special text-books to meet the demand
of young people who are attending vocational schools.
There are plenty of books written on textiles for technical
school students and advanced workers. But the
author has failed to find a book explaining the manufacture
and testing of textiles for commercial, industrial,
domestic arts, and continuation schools, and for those
who have just entered the textile or allied trades. This
book is written to meet this educational need. Others
may find the book of interest, particularly the chapters
describing cotton, woolen, worsted, and silk fabrics.

The author is under obligations to Mr. Franklin W.
Hobbs, treasurer of the Arlington Mills, for permission to
use illustrations and information from literature published
by the Arlington Mills; to Mr. S. H. Ditchett,
editor of Dry Goods Economist, for permission to use
information from his publication, “Dry Goods Encyclopedia”;
[Pg vi]
to the editor of the Textile Mercury; to
Frank P. Bennett, of the American Wool and Cotton
Reporter, for permission to use information from “Cotton
Fabrics Glossary”; and to the instructors of the
Lawrence Industrial School for valuable information.
In addition, information has been obtained from the
great body of textile literature, which the author
desires to acknowledge.

[Pg vii]

CONTENTS

[Pg 1]

TEXTILES

CHAPTER I

FIBERS

All the materials used in the manufacture of clothing
are called textiles and are made of either long or short
fibers. These fibers can be made into a continuous
thread. When two different sets of threads are interlaced,
the resulting product is called cloth.

The value of any fiber for textile purposes depends
entirely upon the possession of such qualities as firmness,
length, curl, softness, elasticity, etc., which adapt it
for spinning. The number of fibers that possess these
qualities is small, and may be classified as follows:

Animal Fibers: Wool, Silk, Mohair.

Vegetable Fibers: Cotton, Flax, Jute, Hemp, etc.

Mineral Fibers: Asbestos, Tinsel, and other metallic
fibers.

Remanufactured Material: Noils, Mungo, Shoddy,
Extract, and Flocks.

Artificial Fibers: Spun Glass, Artificial Silk, and
Slag Wool.

The Structure of Wool. A large part of the people
of the world have always used wool for their clothing.
Wool is the soft, curly covering which forms the fleecy
[Pg 2]
coat of the sheep and similar animals, such as the
goat and alpaca. Wool fiber when viewed under
the microscope is seen to consist
roughly of three parts:

1st. Epidermis, or outer surface,
which is a series of scales lying one
upon the other.

2d. Cortex, or intermediate substance,
consisting of angular, elongated
cells, which give strength to the wool.

3d. Medulla, or pith of the fiber.

WOOL FIBER
Highly magnified

Difference between Wool and Hair.
Not all animal fibers are alike. They
vary in fineness, softness, length, and
strength, from the finest Merino wool to
the rigid bristles of the wild boar. At
just what point it can be said that the animal fiber ceases
to be wool and becomes hair, is difficult to determine,
because there is a gradual and imperceptible gradation
from wool to hair.[1] The distinction between wool and
hair lies chiefly in the great fineness, softness, and wavy
delicacy of the woolen fiber, combined with its highly serrated
surface—upon which the luster of the wool depends.

Characteristics of Wool. The chief characteristic
of wool is its felting or shrinking power. This felting
property from which wool derives much of its value, and
which is its special distinction from hair, depends in
part upon the kinks in the fiber, but mainly upon the
[Pg 3]
scales with which the fiber is covered. These scales
or points are exceedingly minute, ranging from about
1,100 to the inch to nearly 3,000. The stem of the fiber
itself is extremely slender, being less than one thousandth
of an inch in diameter. In good felting wools
the scales are more perfect and numerous, while inferior
wools generally possess fewer serrations, and are
less perfect in structure.

In the process of felting the fibers become entangled
with one another, and the little projecting scales hook
into one another and hold the fibers closely interlocked.
The deeper these scales fit into one another the closer
becomes the structure of the thread.

Classification of Wool. The various kinds of wool
used in commerce are named either from the breed of
the sheep or from the country or locality in which the
sheep are reared. Thus we get Merino wool from
Merino sheep, while English, American, and Australian
wools are named from the respective countries. As
the result of cross breeding of different sheep in different
parts of the world, under different climatic conditions,
physical surroundings, and soil, there exist a great many
varieties of wool. The wool of commerce is divided
into three great classes: (1) Short wool or clothing wool
(also called carding wool), seldom exceeding a length of
two to four inches; (2) long wool or combing wool, varying
from four to ten inches; (3) carpet and knitting
wools, which are long, strong, and very coarse.

The distinction between clothing or carding wools
on the one hand, and combing wools on the other, is an
[Pg 4]
old one. Combing wools are so called because they
are prepared for spinning[2] into yarn by the process of
“combing”—that is, the fibers are made to lie parallel
with one another preparatory to being spun into thread.
Carding wools—made to cross and interlace and interlock
with one another—are shorter than combing wools,
and in addition they possess to a much greater degree
the power of felting—that is, of matting together in a
close compact mass. Combing wools, on the other
hand, are not only longer than the carding wools, but
they are also harder, more wiry, and less inclined to be
spiral or kinky. It must be understood, however,
that under the present methods of manufacture, short
wools may be combed and spun by the French method
of spinning just as the long wools are combed and spun
by the Bradford or English system.

Carpet and knitting wools are the cheapest, coarsest,
and harshest sorts of wools. They come principally
from Russia, Turkey, China, Greece, Peru, Chili,
etc., and from the mountain districts of England and
Scotland. Carpet wools approach more nearly to hair
than other wools. The only staple of this class produced
in the United States is grown on the original
Mexican sheep of the great Southwest. Few of these
Mexican sheep are left, for they have been improved
by cross breeding, but they constitute the foundation
stock of most of our Western flocks, which now
produce superior clothing and combing wool.

[Pg 5]
Sheep Shearing. In order to get an idea of the importance
of the sheep industry in the United States, one
must take a glance at its condition in the big states of
the West. Wyoming has more than 4,600,000 sheep
within its borders. Montana, which held the record
until 1909, has 4,500,000 sheep. Then comes Idaho with
2,500,000, Oregon with 2,000,000, and so on down the list
until the nation’s total reaches 40,000,000 sheep, four-fifths
of which are west of the Missouri river.

SHEEP SHEARING

[Pg 6]
To harvest the wool from such an enormous number
of backs is a task that calls for expert shearers,
men who can handle the big shears of the machine
clippers with a skill that comes from long practise.
The shearing must be done at the right time of the
year. If the wool is clipped too early, the sheep suffer
from the cold; if the shearing comes too late, the sheep
suffer from intense heat, and in either case are bound
to lose weight and value.

To meet the exacting conditions a class of men has
risen expert in the sheep-shearing business. These
shearers begin work in southern and middle California,
Utah, etc. Another month finds them busy in the great
sheep states of Wyoming, Montana, Idaho, and Oregon,
where they find steady employment until July, when
they go to the ranges of Canada. In this way the
shearers keep busy nearly all the year, and at high wages.

The Mexicans are particularly expert with the hand
shears, though this form of clipping is being done away
with, owing to the installation of power plants for
machine shearing. These plants are installed at various
points on the great sheep ranges. Long sheds are
erected and shafting extends down both sides of the
shearing place. Twenty or more shearers will be
lined up in one of these sheds, each man operating a
clipping machine connected with the shafting. The
sheep are brought in from the range in bands of 2,500
or more, and are put in the corrals adjoining the shearing
sheds. Then they are driven down chutes to the
shearers.

[Pg 7]
A shearer reaches into a small corral behind him
and pulls out a sheep. With a dexterous fling the animal
is put in a sitting posture between the shearer’s knees,
and then the steel clippers begin clipping off the wool.
The machine-shearing saves much wool, as it gets
closer to the skin of the sheep and shears more evenly.
In fact, some sheep owners say that the increased
weight of their fleeces at each shearing is enough to pay
the extra expense of running a power plant.

As fast as the sheep are turned out by the shearers
they are run along a narrow chute and each one
is branded. The branding mark is usually a letter
painted on the back of the sheep so that it can be plainly
seen when they are coming through a chute. The
mark remains on the fleece and is always easily distinguished.

Fleece. There is a great variation in the weight of
fleeces. Some sheep, such as those on the best ranges
in Oregon, Montana, and Wyoming, will average an
eight-pound fleece full of natural oil, while sheep from
the more sterile alkaline ranges of New Mexico will
not average much more than five pounds of wool.

The shearing season on the plains is much like the
threshing season in agricultural communities. With
a crew of first-class shearers working in a shearing
shed, it is not long until the floor is a sea of wool. Boys
are kept busy picking up the fleeces, tying them into
compact bundles, and throwing them to the men who
have been assigned to the task of filling the wool sacks.
These sacks, which hold about 400 pounds, are
[Pg 8]
suspended from a wooden framework, and as fast as the
fleeces are thrown in, they are tramped down until the
sacks will not hold a pound more. Most of the sacks
are shipped to warehouses in such wool centers as
Casper, Wyoming, or Billings, Montana, the latter
place being the greatest wool shipping center in the
world. Here they are sold to Eastern buyers, who
examine the clips at their leisure and make their bids.

Value of Wool Business. Some idea of the fortunes
at stake in the wool business can be gathered from
the fact that the total wool product of the country
in 1909 was valued at $78,263,165. It is expected
that the returns from the wool clip in a fairly good
year will pay all a sheepman’s running expenses, such
as hire of herders, cost of shearing, etc. He then has the
sale of his lambs as clear profit. Enormous fortunes
are being made in the sheep business in the west, owing
to the high price of wool and mutton.

Saxony and Silesian Wool. Among wools of all
classes the Saxony and Silesian take the first place,
and for general good qualities, fineness, and regularity of
fiber, they are unequalled. The fiber is short in staple,
possesses good felting properties, and is strong and
elastic. This wool is used chiefly in the manufacture
of cloths where much milling[3] is required, such as
superfines and dress-faced fabrics.

Australian Wools. Australia furnishes wools of a
superior character, and some of the choicest clips rival
[Pg 9]
the Saxony and Silesian wools. They are used both
for worsted[4] and woolen yarns. They are generally
strong and of an elastic character, possess numerous
serrations, and are of good color, with good felting
properties. The principal Australian wools are Port
Philip, Sydney, and Adelaide wools. These are the
best brands imported from that country.

Port Philip Wool. Port Philip wool is suitable
for either worsted or woolen yarns. The fiber is not
quite as fine as Saxony, but it makes a good thread, is
fairly sound in staple, and is of good length and color.
It is very wavy and serrated. The longest and best of
this wool is used for the very finest worsted yarns, and
will spin up to 130’s counts.[5] The sheep are descendants
of the original Spanish Merino. Cross bred Port
Philip wool is from the same Merino sheep crossed with
Leicesters, which yield a medium quality fleece of sound
fiber and good quality for spinning counts from 40’s to
56’s. The yarn has a bright, clear appearance.

Sydney Wools. Sydney wools are moderately fine
in fiber and of medium length. They are rather deficient
in strength, uneven in color, and often contain
yellow locks which make them undesirable when required
for dyeing light shades. They are used for
nearly the same purpose as Port Philip wools, but do
not spin quite as far in worsted yarns, nor are they
equal in milling qualities.

[Pg 10]
Adelaide Wool. Adelaide wool has a reputation
for sound Merinos, the average quality being a little
lower than for the Port Philip and Sydney wools. Its
fiber is moderately fine, but not of uniform length; its
color is not so good, and it contains a large amount of
yolk.[6] Adelaide wool is used for worsted dress goods,
weft (filling)[7] yarn up to 60’s, and certain worsted
warps.[7] It is used for medium fancy woolens.

Van Wool from Tasmania. The climate of this
island is well suited to the growing of wool, and produces
excellent qualities, fine in fiber, of good length,
and strong in the staple, which will spin as high counts
as 70’s and 80’s worsted. This wool is useful for mixing
with other good wools. Its color is very white,
which makes it a useful wool for dyeing light shades.
Its milling properties are good, and the shorter sorts
are suitable for woolens.

New Zealand Wools are very supple, which make
them valuable to the spinner. These wools are suitable
for almost all classes of Merino and crossbred yarns.
They are of good length, sound staple, have good felting
properties, and are of good color. They are useful for
blending with mungo and shoddy, to give to these
remanufactured materials that springy, bulky character
which they lack.

Cape Wools. Cape Colony and Natal produce
merino wool that is somewhat short in staple, rather
tender, and less wavy than some other wools. The
[Pg 11]
sheep are not so well cared for, and are fed on the leaves
of a small shrub. The absence of grass leaves the
ground very sandy, and this makes the fleece heavy
and dirty. Its color is fair, but it lacks elasticity. It
is used chiefly to cheapen blends[8] of 60’s top.[9] The
short wool is combed for thick counts for weft and
hosiery, and is also used for shawls and cloths where
felting is not an essential feature.

MERINO SHEEP

Wools from South America. These wools are of
the same standard of excellence as the Australian
wools, but they are generally deficient in strength and
elasticity. Buenos Ayres and Montevideo wools are
fairly fine in fiber, but lack strength and elasticity,
and are deficient in milling properties; they are also
[Pg 12]
burry. The climate suits the sheep well, and the feed
is good, but the careless methods of classing and packing
have earned for these wools a poor reputation
that is well deserved.

The best 60’s wool is combed in oil, but a large portion
of the shorter is combed and used in thick counts,—20’s
to 36’s worsted for the hosiery trade.

Russian Wool. The staple of this is generally strong,
and the fibers are of a medium thickness; the color is
milky white. It is useful to blend with Australian or
other good wools. It produces a good yarn, and is very
often used in the fancy woolen trade and in fabrics
that require to be finished in the natural color.

Great Britain Wools. These may be divided into
three groups: (1) long wools, of which the Lincoln and
Leicester are typical examples; (2) short wools, which
include Southdown, Shropshire, Suffolk, and others;
and (3) wool from the mountain or hilly breeds of sheep,
such as the Cheviot, Scotch Blackface, Shetland, Irish,
and Welsh.

Lincoln Wool is a typical wool obtained from the
long wool sheep, and noted for its long, lustrous fiber,
which is silky and strong. The staple varies from
ten to eighteen inches in length, and the average fleece
will yield from ten to fourteen pounds in weight.

Leicester Wool has a somewhat finer fiber than Lincoln.
It is a valuable wool, of good color, uniform and
sound in staple, curly, with good, bright luster and
no dark hairs. While luster wools are grown extensively
in England, they also grow in Indiana and
[Pg 13]
Kentucky, and are commonly known in the trade as
braid wool.

Southdown is one of the most valuable of short
staple wools. It possesses a fine hair, is close and
wavy, and fairly sound in staple, but rather deficient in
milling qualities. The shorter varieties are carded
and made into flannels and other light fabrics, while
the longer qualities are used in the production of worsted
goods. The weight of a Southdown fleece averages
from four to five pounds.

WOOL MARKET AT BUENOS AYRES

Shropshiredown wool is of good quality, with strong,
fine, lustrous fiber, of good length. It resembles Southdown,
but is not as lustrous as mohair, the natural
colors being either white, black, brown, or fawn. It is
used chiefly in the manufacture of dress goods.

Cashmere Wool is the fine, woolly, extremely soft,
white or gray fur of the Cashmere goat which is bred
in Thibet. There are two kinds of fiber obtained: one,
[Pg 14]
which is really the outer covering, consists of long
tufts of hair; underneath this is the Cashmere wool of
commerce, a soft, downy wool of a brownish-gray tint,
with a fine, silky fiber. It is used for making the
costly oriental (Indian) shawls and the finest wraps.

The Norfolkdown and Suffolkdown Wools are fairly
fine in fiber and soft, but slightly deficient in strength
and elasticity.

Cheviot Wool may be taken as representative of the
hilly breeds of sheep. It is an average wool, with
staple of medium length, soft, and with strong and
regular fiber; it is of a good, bright color, and
possesses desirable milling properties, being used for
both woolen and worsted, but chiefly in the fancy
woolen trade. The average weight of the fleece is
about 4½ pounds. The black-faced or Highland breed
yields a medium wool, coarser and more shaggy than
the Cheviot, and varying much in quality. It is
almost all used in the production of rugs, carpets, and
blankets.

Welsh Wools lack waviness and fineness of fiber.
They are chiefly used for flannels.

Shetland Wools are similar in character to Welsh
wools, but slightly finer in fiber and softer. They are
used in the manufacture of knitted goods, such as
shawls and wraps. They lack felting properties.

Irish Wools possess a strong, thick hair of moderate
length and fine color. They are similar in many
respects to the Welsh wools, and are often classed with
them. They are used in the production of low and
[Pg 15]
medium tweeds—fancy woolen cloths not requiring
small yarns or milling qualities.

Mohair is a lustrous wool obtained from the Angora
goat, which derives its name from the district of Asia
Minor from which it comes. These animals have also
been successfully bred in Spain and France. The hair
is pure white, fine, wavy, and of good length, and
possesses a high luster. It is used in making plushes,
velvets, astrakhans, and curled fabrics, also half silk
goods and fine wraps.

Alpaca Wool is the fleece of the Peruvian sheep,
which is a species of llama. The staple is of good
length and soft, but is not quite as lustrous as mohair,
the natural colors being either white, black, brown, or
fawn. It is used chiefly in the manufacture of dress
goods.

How Wool is Marketed. The bulk of the wool of
commerce comes into the market in the form of fleece
wool, the product of a single year’s growth, and cut
from the body of the animal usually in April or May.
The first and finest clip, called lamb’s wool, may be
taken from the young sheep at the age of eight to
twelve months. All subsequently cut fleeces are known
as wether wool and possess relatively somewhat less
value than the first clip.

[Pg 16]

CHAPTER II

WOOL SORTING

Fleece wool as it comes to the mill is rolled up in
bundles and must be sorted. This process consists in
sorting and classifying the fibers of the fleece. Not only
do the various species of sheep furnish widely different
qualities of wool, but different qualities are obtained
from the same animal, according to the part of the body
from which the wool is taken. This variation in some
instances is very marked, and sometimes is greater
than that which separates the wools of the different
breeds of sheep. Hence the sorting and classing of
wool become necessary for the production of good,
sound yarn of even quality.

An attempt to utilize the fleece as a whole would result
in the spinning of uneven, faulty, and unsatisfactory
yarns. As many as twelve or fourteen sorts may be
obtained from one fleece (by very fine sorting), but
generally not more than five or seven are made. The
following table shows the relative qualities of wools
from the various parts of a Merino sheep:

1 and 2. Head (top and sides): The wools grown on
these parts are remarkable for length of staple, softness,
and uniformity of character. They are usually the
choicest wools in the fleece.

[Pg 17]
3. Upper part of the back: This also is a wool of good,
sound quality, resembling in staples Nos. 1 and 2, but
not as soft or as fine of fiber.

4. Loin and back: The staple here is comparatively
short, not as fine, but generally of unvarying character,
sometimes rather tender.

SORTING ROOM

5. Upper parts of legs: This wool is medium in length
but coarse of fiber, and has a tendency to hang in loose,
open locks. It is generally sound, but likely to contain
vegetable matter.

6. Upper portion of the neck: The staple clipped
from this part of the neck is of an inferior quality,
frequently faulty and irregular in growth, and contains
twigs, thorns, etc.

[Pg 18]
7. Central part of the neck: This wool is similar to
No. 6 but rather tender in staple.

8. Belly: This wool is from under the sheep, between
the fore and hind legs. It is short and dirty, poor in
quality, and generally tender.

9. Root of tail: In this wool the fibers are coarse,
short, and glossy.

10. Lower parts of the legs: This wool is generally
dirty and greasy, the staple having no wave and lacking
fineness. It is generally burry and contains much
vegetable matter.

11. Front of Head; 12. Throat; 13. Chest: The wools
from these parts are sometimes classed together, all
having the same characteristics. The fiber is stiff,
straight, coarse, and covered with fodder.

14. Shins: This is another short, thick, straight
wool of glossy fiber, commonly known as shanks.

Classing. Classing is a grading of the fleeces, and
is usually, but not always, a process preliminary to
sorting. It is an important part of sorting, and when
well done greatly facilitates the making of good,
uniform matchings.

Grades of Wool. In the grading of wool no set
standard of quality exists. The same classification
may be applied in different years, or in different localities,
to qualities of wool showing much variation, the
best grade obtainable usually setting the standard for
the lower grades. The highest quality of wool in the
United States is found on full-blooded Merino sheep.

Merino Wool. The Merino sheep was bred for wool
[Pg 19]
and not mutton. The fleece of this breed is fine,
strong, elastic, and of good color; it also possesses a
high felting power. Though naturally short, it is now
grown to good length and the fleece is dense. The
Merino sheep is a native of Spain, and Spain was for a
long period the chief country of its production. It
was also in past centuries extensively bred in England
and English wool owes much to the Merino for the improvement
it has effected in the fleeces of other breeds
of English sheep. It was also introduced into Saxony
and was highly bred there, and Saxony soon came to
surpass Spanish wool in fineness, softness, and felting
properties. The Merino was introduced into the United
States at the beginning of the nineteenth century.
By 1810, 5,000 Merino sheep had been imported and
these 5,000 sheep formed the basis of most of the fine
wool-producing flocks of our country to-day.

The terms half blood, three-eighths blood, and quarter
blood refer to the full-blooded Merino standard. As
the scale descends the wool becomes coarser, the wool
of a quarter blood usually being a comparatively coarse
fiber. The general classifications of fine, medium,
coarse, and low, refer to the relative fineness of Merino
combing wools. These distinctions naturally overlap
according to the opinion of the parties in transactions.
Picklock XXX and XX represent the highest
grades of clothing wool, the grade next lower being X,
and then Nos. 1 and 2. These again are used in connection
with the locality from which the wool is grown,
as Ohio XX, Michigan X, New York No. 1, etc.

[Pg 20]
Difference Between Lamb’s and Sheep’s Wool.
One of the first points to be understood in wool sorting
is the difference between the wool of lambs and one-year-old
sheep, and that of sheep two or more years old.
Lamb’s wool is naturally pointed at the end, because it
has never been clipped. It is termed hog or hoggett
wool, and is more valuable when longer, of about fourteen
months’ growth. It is finer in quality and possesses
more waviness, which is a help in the process
of spinning.

The wool of sheep two or more years old is known
as wether. The ends of the fiber from such sheep are
thick and blunted, on account of having been previously
cut. It is necessary to be able to tell at once a
hog fleece from a wether, and this can be done in two
ways: by examining the ends of the fiber to see if they
are pointed; or by pulling a staple out of the fleece. If
it is wether, the staple will come out clean, without
interfering to any extent with those around it; but if
hog, some of the fibers will adhere to the one that is
being pulled. Hog wool is generally more full of dirt,
moss, straw, and other vegetable matter.

Dead Wool is wool obtained from the pelts of sheep
that have died.

Pulled Wool. Pulled wool is wool from the pelts[10] as
they come from the slaughter-houses of large packing
plants. These pelts are thrown into vats of water and
left to soak for twenty-four hours to loosen the dirt
which has become matted into the wool. From these
[Pg 21]
vats the pelts are taken to scrubbing machines from which
the wool issues perfectly clean and white. The pelts
are next freed from any particles of flesh or fat which
may have adhered to them, and are then taken to the
“painting” room. Here they are laid flesh side up and
carefully painted with a preparation for loosening the
roots of the wool. This preparation is allowed to remain
on the pelts for twenty-four hours, when it is cleaned
off and the pelts taken to the “pulling” room. Each
wool puller stands before a small wooden framework over
which the pelt is thrown, and the wool, being all thoroughly
loosened by the “paint” preparation, is easily
and quickly pulled out by the handful. As it is pulled
it is thrown into barrels conveniently arranged according
to grade and length.

When a barrel is filled, it is transferred to a large
room across which are several rows of wire netting,
raised about three feet from the floor. Each sheet of
netting is about six feet wide. Here the wool is piled
on the netting to a depth of several inches and hot air is
forced underneath it by means of a blower. Meanwhile
it is worked over by men with rakes, and soon dries.
When thoroughly dry, it is raked up and taken to the
storeroom, where it is dumped into bins. Here it usually
remains open for inspection and sampling till it is sold,
when it is bagged. The bags of wool ultimately find
their way to the woolen mill or sampling house. Sometimes
the fleece will retain its fleece form, but usually
it breaks up. The wool contains lime and has to be
specially treated by a scouring process to prevent lime
[Pg 22]
from absorbing the cleansing substances used for
scouring the wool.

Delaine Wool is a variety of fine, long combing wool.

Cotty Wool, or cotts, is wool from sheep that have
been exposed to severe weather and lack of nourishment,
and for these reasons have failed to throw off
the yolk necessary to feed the wool. As a result it
becomes matted or felted together, and is hard and
brittle and almost worthless.

Wool Sorter. The sorter begins by placing the
fleece upon his board or table, always arranging it so
that he faces the north, as this gives the most constant
light and no glare of the sun. The fleece thus spread
out shows a definite dividing line through the center.
The sorter parts the two halves and proceeds to analyze
their different qualities. The number of sorts is
determined by the requirements of the manufacturer
who, in purchasing his wool, buys those grades that
will produce the greatest bulk of the qualities for present
use, and that leave in stock the smallest number of
sorts and least weight for which he has no immediate
use. The sorter then removes all extraneous matter
adhering to the fleece, such as straw, twigs, and seeds,
and cuts off the hard lumps of earth, tar, or paint,
which, if not removed at this time, will dissolve in the
scouring process and stain the wool. With these preliminaries
finished, he proceeds to cast out the locks,
according to quality, into baskets or skeps provided
for that purpose. After skirting or taking off the outside
edges of the fleece, usually known as brokes, and
[Pg 23]
the legs and tail, known as breech, he separates the
other portions from the better qualities.

SORTED WOOL IN PILES READY TO BE TRANSPORTED TO THE
DEGREASING PLANT

Picklock, prime, choice, super, head, downrights,
seconds, breech, etc., are some of the terms used. Picklock
comprises the choicest qualities; prime is similar
to picklock, but slightly inferior; choice is true staple,
but not as fine in fiber; super is similar to choice, but
as a rule not as valuable; head includes the inferior
sorts from this part of the sheep; downrights come from
the lower parts of the sides; seconds consist of the best
wool clipped from the throat and breast; breech, the
short, coarse fibers obtained from the skirting and
edgings of the fleece.

In the worsted trade different names are used. The
[Pg 24]
terms generally adopted are: blue, from the neck;
fine, from the shoulders; neat, from the middle of the
sides and back; brown-drawings, from the haunches;
breech, from the tail and hind legs; cowtail, when the
breech is very strong; brokes, from the lower part of
the front legs and belly, which are classed as super,
middle, and common.

Fine, short wools are sorted according to the number
of counts of yarn they are expected to spin, as 48’s,
60’s, 70’s, and so on. Thus we see there are different
methods of indicating qualities in different districts,
and also of indicating differences of qualities between
the woolen and worsted branches of the trade.

It may be noted that the quality of the wool varies
in the same way as the quality of the flesh. The
shoulder is finest in grain and most delicate, so the
wool is finer in fiber. There is more wear and tear for
the sheep at its haunches than at its shoulders, hence
the wool is longer and stronger; about the neck the
wool is short, to prevent the sheep from being weighted
down while eating, etc.; the wool on the back becomes
rough and thin, being most exposed to the rain. From
the foregoing it will be readily seen that there is necessity
for careful sorting, in order to insure obtaining an
even running yarn, and subsequently a uniform quality
of fabrics.

Wool Washing. Fleece wool as it comes into the
market is either in the “grease,” that is, unwashed and
with all the dirt which gathers on the surface of the
greasy wool; or it is received as washed wool, the
[Pg 25]
washing being done as a preliminary step to the sheep
shearing. Wool, unlike cotton, cannot be worked into
yarn without being thoroughly cleansed of its impurities.
These impurities consist of greasy and sweaty secretions,
of the nature of a lubricant to the fiber. Combined
with dirt, sand, etc., which adhere to the wool,
these secretions form an encrusting compound, known
as yolk, which acts as a natural preservative to the
wool, keeping it soft and supple. This compound, with
other extraneous matter, must be removed before the
wool is in a workable condition. The amount of yolk
varies, the greatest amount being found in fine, short
wools from the warm climates. In long-staple wool
the amount of yolk is comparatively small.

WASHING ROOM

[Pg 26]
Various methods of removing these impurities have
been tried; one is the use of absorbent substances, such
as fossil meal, alumina, etc., to withdraw the greasy
matter, so that the remaining impurities can be easily
removed by washing. In other methods, naphtha or
similar solvent liquids are used to dissolve the wool
fats. This is followed by washing in tepid water to
dissolve the potash salts, leaving the dirt to fall away
when the other substances are no longer present. To
work this method with safety requires a costly and
intricate plant with skilled supervision. The method
which is practically in universal use is washing the
wool in alkaline solutions, properties of which combine
with and reduce the impurities to a lathery emulsion
which is easily washed off from the wool.

Great stress is laid upon the necessity of care in the
washing process, as the luster may be destroyed and a
brownish-yellow tint given to the wool, the spinning
properties very seriously injured, the softness destroyed,
or the fiber dissolved. Some wools are easy to wash,
requiring little soap and a reasonable temperature;
other wools are cleansed with great difficulty. A note,
therefore, should be made of any particular brand or
class of wool requiring special attention, to serve as a
guide in the treatment of future lots. The danger lies
in using unsuitable agents,—hard water, excessive
temperatures, strong reagents, etc.

Caustic alkalies have a most destructive effect on
wool as they eat into it and destroy its vitality. Carbonate
alkalies are less severe. Whatever cleansing
[Pg 27]
substances are used, it is essential that they should be
free from anything that is likely to injure the wool—that
they remove the impurities and still preserve all
the qualities in the wool. If the washing is properly
performed the alkaline portion of the yolk is removed,
leaving only the colorless animal oil in the fiber. If
the work is not thoroughly done the wool passes as
“unmerchantable washed.” “Tub washed” is the
term applied to fleeces which are broken up and washed
more or less by hand. Scoured wool is tub washed with
warm water and soap, and then thoroughly rinsed in
cold water until nothing remains but the clean fiber.

DEGREASING PLANT—REMOVING GREASE FROM WOOL

An improved method of washing wool by hand is to
have a series of tanks with pressing rollers attached to
[Pg 28]
each tank: the wool is agitated by means of forks, and
then passed to the pressing rollers and into each tank
in succession. The tanks are usually five in number,
and so arranged that the liquor can be run from the
upper to the lower tank. Upon leaving the pressing
rollers the excess of water is driven off in a hydro
extractor[11] and the wool is beaten into a light, fluffy
condition by means of a wooden fan or beater.

Wool Drying. The process of drying wool is not
intended to be carried to such an extent that the wool
will be in an absolutely dry state, for in such a condition
it would be lusterless, brittle, and discolored. It
is the nature of wool to retain a certain amount of
moisture since it is hygroscopic, and to remove it entirely
would result in partial disintegration of the fibers.
Buyers and sellers have a recognized standard of moisture,
16 per cent. If, on the other hand, it is left too
wet, the fibers will not stand the pulling strain in the
succeeding operations, and if not broken, they are so
unduly stretched that they have lost their elasticity.

The theory which underlies the drying process is
that dry air is capable of absorbing moisture, hence by
circulating currents of dry air in and around wet wool,
the absorbing power of the air draws off the moisture.
For continuous drying free circulation is a necessity,
as otherwise the air would soon become saturated and
incapable of taking up more moisture. Warming the
air increases its capacity to absorb moisture; thus a
[Pg 29]
higher temperature is capable of drying the wool much
quicker than the same volume of air would at a low
temperature. A free circulation of air at 75 to 100
degrees F., evenly distributed, and with ample provision
for the escape of the saturated air, is essential for good
work.

Oiling. After being scoured wool generally has to
be oiled before it is ready for the processes of spinning,
blending, etc. As delivered from the drying apparatus,
the wool is bright and clean, but somewhat harsh and
wiry to the touch, owing to the removal of the yolk
which is its natural lubricant. To render it soft and
elastic, and to improve its spinning qualities, the fiber
is sprinkled with lard oil or olive oil. As the oil is a
costly item, it is of consequence that it be equally distributed
and used economically. To attain this end
various forms of oiling apparatus have been invented,
which sprinkle the oil in a fine spray over the wool,
which is carried under the sprinkler by an endless cloth.

Burring and Carbonizing. After wool has been
washed and scoured it frequently happens that it cannot
be advanced to the succeeding operations of manufacture
because it is mixed with burs, seeds, leaves,
slivers, etc., which are picked up by the sheep in the
pasture. These vegetable impurities injure the spinning
qualities of the stock, for if a bur or other foreign
substance becomes fastened in the strand of yarn while
it is being spun, it either causes the thread to break or
renders it bunchy and uneven. For removing burs,
etc., from the wool two methods are pursued: the
[Pg 30]
one purely mechanical, the other chemical, and known
respectively as burring and carbonizing.

Bur Picker. For the mechanical removing of burs a
machine called the bur picker is employed. In this
machine the wool is first spread out into a thin lap or
sheet; then light wooden blades, rotating rapidly, beat
upon every part of the sheet and break the burs into
pieces. The pieces fall down into the dust box or upon
a grating beneath the machine, and are ejected together
with a good deal of the wool adhering to them. Often
the machine fails to beat out fine pieces and these are
scattered through the stock.

Process of Carbonizing. For the complete removal
of all foreign vegetable substances from wool the most
effective process is carbonizing, in which the burs, etc.,
are burned out by means of acid and a high degree of
heat. The method of procedure is as follows: The
wool to be treated is immersed in a solution of sulphuric
or hydrochloric acid for about twelve hours, the
acid bath being placed in cement cisterns or in large
lead-lined tubs and not made strong enough to injure the
fiber of the wool. During the immersion the stock is
frequently stirred. Next, the wool is dried and then
placed in an enclosed chamber and subjected to a high
temperature (75 degrees C.). The result of this process
is that all the vegetable matter contained in the wool
is “carbonized” or burned to a crisp, and on being
slightly beaten or shaken readily turns to dust. This
dust is removed from the wool by various simple
processes. The carbonizing process was first introduced
[Pg 31]
in 1875, though it made but slight headway against the
old burring method until after 1880.

Blending. Pure wool of but one quality is not often
used in the production of woven fabrics, so, before the
raw material is ready for spinning into yarn, or for
other processes by which it is worked into useful forms,
it is blended. Wools are blended for many reasons
(among which cheapness figures prominently), the
added materials consisting usually of shoddy, mungo,
or extract fibers. Ordinarily, however, blending has
for its object the securing of a desired quality or weight
of cloth. The question of color, as well as quality, also
determines blending operations, natural colored wools
being frequently intermixed to obtain particular shades
for dress goods, tweeds, knitting yarns, etc. Stock
dyed wools are also blended for the production of mixed
colors, as browns, grays, Oxfords, etc. There is practically
no limit to the variety of shades and tints obtainable
by mixing two or more colors of wool together.
The various quantities of wool to be blended are spread
out in due proportion in the form of thin layers, one on
top of the other, and then passed through a machine
called the teaser. The teaser consists of a combination
of large and small rollers, thickly studded with small
pins, which open the wool, pull it apart, and thoroughly
intermix it. A blast of air constantly plays upon the
wool in the teaser and aids the spikes and pins in opening
out the fibers. The material is subjected to this
operation several times and is finally delivered in a
soft, fleecy condition, ready to be spun into yarn.

[Pg 32]

CHAPTER III

WOOL SUBSTITUTES AND WASTE PRODUCTS

Remanufactured wool substitutes are extensively used
in the manufacture of woolen and worsted goods.
There is no need for the prejudice that is sometimes
met regarding these reclaimed materials, for by their
use millions of people are warmly and cheaply clothed.
If the immense quantity of these materials were wasted,
countless persons would be unable to afford proper clothing,
as it is difficult to estimate what the price of wool
would be; and it is also doubtful if a sufficient quantity
could be produced to supply the need. In almost all
instances the use of wool substitutes is for the special
purpose of producing cloths at a much lower price.

The cloths made from waste products, such as noils,
are not much inferior in quality to those produced from
the wool from which the noils are obtained; but the
great majority of cloths made from other waste products
are much inferior. The following are the most important
substitutes: noils, shoddy, mungo, extract-wool,
and flocks.

Noils are the rejected fibers from the process of combing
the different wools and hairs; thus, wool noils are
from the sheep, mohair noils from the Angora goat, and
alpaca noils from the Peruvian sheep.

[Pg 33]
Noils are divided into classes, namely, long-wool
noils, short or fine-wool noils, mohair noils, and alpaca
noils. They are all obtained in the process of combing,
that is, the process which separates the long from the
short fibers; the former are known as the “top,” and
are used in worsted and in the production of mohair
and alpaca yarns; while the latter are used to advantage
in the production of many different kinds of woolen
fabrics. With the exception of length, noils are practically
of the same quality as the tops from which they
are taken.

Long-wool noils are from the combings of such wools
as Leicester and similar wools. These noils, like the
wool from which they are obtained, are much coarser
in quality and fiber than the short-wool noils. Occasionally,
when strength is required in the fabric, these
noils are used, and they are also mixed with short-wool
noils. Many of the cheviot fabrics are made exclusively
of these noils. They are also mixed with shoddy
and cotton in the production of dark-colored fabrics,
and in medium and low-priced goods requiring a
fibrous appearance they are extremely useful.

Short or fine-wool noils are the most valuable, and
are obtained from combing Australian and other fine
wools. The number and variety of uses to which they
are put are innumerable. They are used to advantage
in the plain and fancy woolen trade, in the manufacture
of shawls and plain woolens of a soft nature, and
are also suitable for mixing with cotton in the production
of twist threads.

[Pg 34]
Mohair and alpaca noils are obtained by the combing
of these materials. They are lacking in felting properties,
but are lustrous and possess strength, and are
most valuable in the manufacture of fabrics where
strength and luster are required. These noils are used
in the production of yarns for Kidderminster carpets,
as yarns for these carpets must possess strength, brightness,
and thickness of fiber. They are also used in combination
with shoddy and cotton to produce weft or
filling yarns for a lower quality of goods.

Shoddy and Mungo are in reality wool products, or
wool fiber which has previously passed through the
processes of manufacture whereby its physical structure
has been considerably mutilated. These were first
produced about sixty years ago. Shoddy is higher in
value than mungo. The value and quality of the waste
or rags from which it is made determine the quality or
value of the material. Shoddy is derived from waste
or rags of pure unmilled woolens, such as flannels, wraps,
stockings, and all kinds of soft goods.

Mungo is made from rags of hard or milled character
and is much shorter in fiber than shoddy. Its length,
varying from one-quarter to three-quarters of an inch,
can be regulated by the treatment the rags receive, and
by the proper setting of the rollers in the grinding
machine. Both shoddy and mungo may be divided
into classes. Mungo is divided into two classes, namely,
new and old mungo. New mungo is made from rags
chiefly composed of tailor’s clippings, unused pattern-room
clippings, etc. Old mungo is made from cast-off
[Pg 35]
garments, etc. By a careful selection of the rags previous
to grinding, it is possible to make a large number
of qualities, and a great variety of colors and shades
without dyeing. Owing to their cheapness shoddy and
mungo are used in cloths of low and medium qualities.
Shoddies are utilized in fabrics of the cheviot class and in
the production of backing yarns. Mungoes of the best
quality are used in the low fancy tweed trade, in both
warp and weft, but chiefly in union and backed fabrics.

Method of Producing Shoddy and Mungo. Before
the fibrous mungo is obtained, the rags have to pass
through the following necessary preliminary operations:

A. Dusting. This is carried on in a shaking machine,
which consists of a cylinder possessing long and strong
spikes, which are enclosed, having underneath a grating
to allow the dust to pass through. The dust is then
driven by a fan into a receptacle provided for that
purpose.

B. Sorting. All rags, both old and new, must be
sorted, and considerable care must be exercised in this
operation, as on this work alone depends the obtaining
of different qualities and shades, as well as the securing
of the production of a regular and uniform product.

C. Seaming. This is only necessary with the rags
procured from garments. It is simply removing the
cotton threads from the seams, and any metallic or
hard substances from the rags.

D. Oiling. The rags are oiled to soften them and
make them more pliable, and thus to facilitate the
grinding.

[Pg 36]
E. Grinding. This is the principal operation, and the
rags are made fibrous in this process. The machine by
which this is effected is made up of the following parts:
feed apron, fluted rollers, swift, and a funnel for conveying
the material out of the machine. The principal
features of the machine are the swift and its speed.
The swift is enclosed in a framework, and is about
forty-two inches in diameter and eighteen inches wide,
thus possessing a surface area of 2,376 square inches,
containing from 12,000 to 14,000 fine strong iron spikes.
The speed of the swift may be from 600 to 800 revolutions
per minute. The rags are fed by placing them on
the traveling feed apron, and are thus conveyed to the
fluted rollers. As they emerge from the rollers they
are presented to the swift, and by strong iron teeth,
moving with exceedingly high surface velocity, they
are torn thread from thread and fiber from fiber. The
fluted rollers run very slowly, and the rags are held
while the swift carries out this operation. By means of
the strong current of air created by the high speed of the
swift, the mungo is expelled from the machine through
the funnel into a specially arranged receptacle. If by
any chance the machine should be overcharged, that is,
if too many rags are passing through the rollers, the top
fluted roller is raised up, and the rags are simply carried,
or thrown by the swift, over into a box on the
opposite side of the machine without being subjected
to the tearing process. The top roller is weighted by
levers with weights attached to keep it in position, thus
bringing downward pressure to bear upon it, as it is
[Pg 37]
driven simply by friction. By the adjustment of the
feed rollers in relation to the swift, the length of the
fiber may be varied to a small degree.

Extract Wool. This is obtained from union cloths,
that is, from cloths having a wool weft and warp of
cotton, etc., also from cloths having the same material
for warp, but possessing a woolen or mungo warp or
filling, etc. It is the wool fiber that is required. Therefore
the vegetable matter (cotton) must be extracted
from it by the process of carbonizing. To effect this,
the tissue or rags are steeped in a solution of sulphuric
acid and water and then subjected to heat in an
enclosed room. The water is evaporated, leaving the
acid in a concentrated form, which acts upon the cotton,
converting it into powder. The powder readily
becomes separated, and thus the cotton is eliminated.
The material that is left is well washed to remove all
acid, dried, and then passed through a miniature carder,
to impart to it the appearance of a woolly and a
softer fabric.

Flocks. These are of three kinds, and are waste
products of the milling, cropping, and raising operations.
The most valuable are those derived from the
fulling mill, being clean and of a bright color. They
are chiefly used by sail spinners, and in the manufacture
of low grade cloths of a cheviot class. White flocks
are suitable for blending with wool, and as a rule command
a fair price. Raising flocks are those obtained
from the dressing or raising gigs, and are applied to
purposes similar to those for which fulling flocks are
[Pg 38]
used. Cutting or cropping flocks are the short fibers
which are removed from the cloths in this operation.
They are practically of no value to the textile manufacturer,
being unfit for yarn production, but are used
chiefly by wall-paper manufacturers in producing “flock-papers,”
which are papers with raised figures resembling
cloth, made of poor wool, and attached with a gluey
varnish.

CARD ROOM

1. Automatic Feed.
2. Bur Guards.
3. Bur Tray.
4. 1st Top Divider.
5. 2d Top Divider.
6. Workers.
7. Strippers.
8. Doffer Cylinder.
9. Main Cylinders.
10. Main Card Drive on 2d Main Cylinder Shaft.
11. 1st Lickerin.
12. 2d Lickerin.
13. 3d Lickerin.
14. 4th Lickerin.
15. Fancy Hood.

[Pg 39]

CHAPTER IV

WORSTED YARNS

Carding. After the wool is washed it undergoes a
number of operations before it is finished into worsted
or woolen yarn.[12] The first step in the manufacturing
of worsted yarn is to pass the washed wool through a
worsted card which consists of a number of cylinders
covered with fine wire teeth mounted on a frame. The
effect of these cylinders on the wool is to disengage the
wool fibers, make them straight, and form a “sliver”
or strand. It is now ready for the combing machine.

Combing. The process of combing consists of subjecting
the card sliver to the operations of the automatic
wool comber, which straightens the fibers and
removes all short and tufted pieces of wool. Combing
is a guarantee that every fiber of the wool lies perfectly
straight, and that all fibers follow one after the
other in regular order.

Comb. A comb is a complicated machine. The
principal feature is a large metal ring with rows of fine
steel pins (pin circles), which is made to revolve horizontally
within the machine. By various devices the
[Pg 40]
wool is fed into the teeth of the ring in the form of
tufts. The fibers of the tufts by an intricate process
are separated into long and short lengths, and a set of
rollers draws each out separately and winds it into
a continuous strand called “tops.” On leaving the
comber, the wool is free from short fibers, specks, and
foreign substances, and presents a fine, flowing, and lustrous
appearance. The short combed-out wool is called
noils, and is used in making carpet yarns, ground up
into shoddy stock, or utilized in spinning fancy yarns.

Worsted Tops. American textile manufacturers are
finding it advantageous to have their combing done by
those who make the work a specialty rather than to do
it themselves. In the manufacture of tops all varieties of
combing wools are used: Australian, Merino, and Crossbred
wools, South American Merino and Crossbred
wools, Cape Merino wools, Merino and Crossbred wools
grown in the United States, the lustrous wools of pure
English blood, Mohair from Asiatic Turkey, and Alpaca
from the Andes. Tops are sold to worsted spinneries.[13]
Many mills or worsted spinneries send their wools,
either sorted or unsorted as they may desire, to a combing
mill, where the wool is put into top at a lower price
than that at which most spinneries can do their own
combing. By means of the naphtha process a larger
amount of top from a given amount of wool can be
secured than by any other process, and in addition, a
top in better condition for drawing and spinning.

[Pg 41]

COMB ROOM

1. Driving pulley on horizontal shaft (2).
3. Boxes containing bevel gears.
4. Pillars.
5. Driving pulley for dabbing motion.
6. Boxes containing dabbing-brush mechanism.
7. Dabbing brushes.
8. Star or stroker wheels.
9. Large circle containing rows of pins.
10. Drawing-off apron and rollers for large circle.
11. Brass boxes or conductors.
12. Guides for comb ball ends.
13. Comb balls (4 ends each).
14. Fluted wooden rollers on which comb balls rest.
15. Comb leg (4 in number).
16. Foundation plate.

[Pg 42]
In a strand of combed wool, called top, no single
fiber lies across the strand; all lie in the direction
of the length. This order is preserved until the
fibers have been converted into yarn, which is accomplished
by passing through “gill boxes.” These gill
boxes are machines with bars of iron having upon their
surface two rows of minute steel pins, by this means
kept perfectly straight. The bars on which they are
placed are worked on screws between two sets of rollers.
The wool enters between the first set of rollers, and,
as it passes through, is caught by one of these gills
that is raised up for the purpose, being succeeded by
others as the rollers revolve. These gills are moved
forward on screws in the direction of the other set of
rollers, and the pins in the gills always keep the fiber
perfectly straight. The second set of rollers is termed
the draught rollers, since by them the wool, after passing
through the front rollers, is drawn out and reduced
in thickness. This is accomplished because the second
rollers revolve at a higher rate of speed than the first
rollers, the speed being regulated according to the
length of the wool, and the thickness of the yarn to be
produced. These gills are used in the production of
worsted yarn until the size of the rope of wool has been
so reduced and twisted that there is no chance of any
fiber getting crossed or out of the order of straightness.
A worsted yarn is, consequently, a straight yarn, or a
yarn produced from perfectly straight fibers.

[Pg 43]

GILLING

1. Cans containing Comb Ends or Sliver.
2. Balling Head.
3. Stock from Balling Head No. 2.
4. Screws for applying pressure to Back Rollers.
5. Screws for applying pressure to Front Rollers.
6. Faller Screws situated between No. 4 and No. 5.
7. Guard for covering gears which drive Back Rollers.
8. Guard covering gears which drive Balling Head.
9. Balling Head.

[Pg 44]
The combing of wool may be dispensed with in some
cases, although such a yarn is not in common use.
When combing is dispensed with, the gills, in connection
with the draught of the rollers, make the fibers straight,
and produce a worsted yarn, although such a yarn has
a tendency to be uneven and knotty.

Before the wool can be spun it must be made into
roving of a suitable thickness. This is done by
passing it, after being combed, through a series of
operations termed drawing, whose functions are to
produce a gradual reduction in thickness at each
stage. Although the number of machines varies
according to the kind of wool to be treated, still
the same principle applies to all.

Spinning. The process of spinning is the last in the
formation of yarn or thread, the subsequent operations
having for their object the strengthening of the yarn
by combining two or more strands and afterward
arranging them for weaving or for the purpose for
which the yarn is required. It is also the last time that
the fibers are mechanically drawn over each other or
drafted, and this is invariably done from a single roving.
The humidity and temperature of the spinning room
must be adjusted to conditions. Each spinner is
provided with a wet and dry thermometer so that the
best temperature can be ascertained. The most suitable
heat and humidity can only be obtained by comparison
and observation. A dry and warm atmosphere
causes the wool to become charged with electricity and
then the fibers repel each other.

[Pg 45]

WORSTED SPINNING. “BRADFORD SYSTEM”

1. Bobbins containing Worsted Yarn.
2. Conical shape caps placed on top of spindles.
3. Tin Wings fastened to Eyeboard.
4. Eyeboard containing pot eyes, through which yarn passes to the bobbin.
5. Scratch fluted front rollers.
6. Leather covered Pressing Rollers for No. 5 Rollers.
7. Smooth metal Pressing Rollers for Back Rollers.
8. Large Front Roller Gear.
9. Pulley for driving Twist gear.
10. Spools of Roving held by a series of pegs.
11. Spindle bands.
12. Sifter plate or rail.

[Pg 46]
Worsted yarn is spun by two different methods
known respectively as the Bradford or English system
and the French system. The difference in these systems
of spinning worsteds lies principally in the drawing
and spinning processes, a radically different class
of machinery being used for each. The combing process
is practically the same in both cases, but the wool
is combed dry for the French system, and by the English
method the stock is thoroughly oiled before being
combed. The result of the English method is the production
of a smooth level yarn in which the fibers lie
nearly parallel to each other. The yarn made according
to the French system is somewhat fuzzier and more
woolly. On account of the absence of oil, the shrinkage
of French spun worsted is considerably less than
that made by the Bradford system.

Characteristics of Worsted Yarn. The unique
structure of worsted yarn makes it invaluable in
the production of textile fabrics in which luster and
uniformity of surface are the chief characteristics.
The methods by which worsted is formed render it
capable of sustaining more tension in proportion to
its size than the pure woolen yarn. This feature,
combined with its lustrous quality, gives it a pre-eminent
position in the manufacture of fine coatings,
dress goods, etc. The method of arranging the
fibers in the formation of a woolen yarn is such as to
produce a strand with a somewhat indefinite and
fibrous surface, which destroys to a large degree the
clearness of the pattern effect in the woven piece. In
the construction of worsted yarn the fibers are arranged
in a parallel relationship to each other, resulting in the
production of a smooth, hard yarn having a well-defined
surface; hence weave-ornamentation of a decided or
marked type is possible by its use. There is, in a word,
more scope for pattern effects, since the level and regular
structure of the yarn imparts a distinction to every
part of a woven design. From this peculiarity arises
the great variety of effects seen in the worsted dress
fabrics, coatings, trouserings, etc., both in colored
patterns and in fabrics of one shade throughout.

[Pg 47]

SPOOL ROOM

1. Jack Spooler frame.
2. Drum upon which Jack Spool rests.
3. Jack Spool.
4. Guides for spool ends.
5. Spools containing yarn.
6. Pressers which rest on spools to prevent slack ends.
7. Spool creel.

[Pg 48]

FRENCH SPINNING

1. Balling heads.
2. Bobbins upon which stock is wound.
3. Rub or condenser aprons.
4. Gearing for driving rub motion.
5. Shipper rod and handles.
6. Bobbins held in place in creel by skewers.
7. Weights with system of levers for applying pressure to rollers.

Worsted yarn can be made of pure wool; and as a
rule, the wool used in the English system is of fairly
good length and uniform staple, for if otherwise it is
only with difficulty that the yarn can be spun straight.
[Pg 49]
Shorter wool can be combed and spun under the French
system, and this is the reason why the French system
of spinning is being introduced. On the other hand, in
the spinning of woolen yarns great length of staple is
not essential, for the machinery employed will work
the small fibers.

Uses of Worsted Yarn. Worsted yarn may be used
in any of the following fabrics:

1. Combed wool yarn for ornamental needlework
and knitting, as Berlin, Zephyr, and Saxony wools.

2. Cloth made from combed wool not classified
according to material.

Counts. Yarn is measured by a system of “counts”;—the
number of yards of yarn to the pound. The
counts of worsted yarn are based on the number of
hanks in one pound, each hank containing 560 yards.
Thus No. 30 worsted yarn consists of 30 hanks of 560
yards each, or 16,800 yards to the pound.

[Pg 50]

CHAPTER V

WOOLEN YARN

In manufacturing worsted yarn every necessary operation
is performed to arrange the wool fibers so that they
will lie smoothly and parallel to each other. In the
case of woolen yarn every operation is performed so as
to have the fibers lie in every direction and to cross and
overlap each other.

To produce yarn of the woolen type a set of
machinery entirely different from that used in worsted
manufacture is necessary. The wool is carded, but no
attempt is made to get the fibers parallel. The reduction
in thickness of the sliver is not brought about upon
the so-called drawing frame, but by a mule frame
where the drawing and twisting are done at the same
operation. As neither combs nor gills are employed,
there is not the same smooth, level yarn, but one which
possesses a fringe-like covering or fuzzy appearance
that makes the woolen yarn so valuable.

The operation is as follows:

Carding. After washing the material for woolen yarn,
it is passed through three carding processes, and from the
last of them is taken direct to the spinning frame to be
made into yarn. The object of woolen carding is different
from carding in any other textile manufacture.

[Pg 51]
In most processes of carding the fibers are subjected
to a “combing” principle, and the aim is to lay the
fibers parallel. Woolen carding aims to open the
raw wool fiber, and put it in a perfectly loose condition,
without leaning toward any definite arrangement.

The carding machines are called, respectively, first,
second, and third breaker. Each machine consists of a
complicated series of card-covered cylinders of different
sizes, running at different rates of speed—sometimes
in the same and sometimes in an opposite direction.
These rollers take the wool from one another in
regular order until it is finally delivered from the third
breaker in a soft, fluffy rope or roll called a sliver.
This sliver is wound on a bobbin, and taken from the
card to the mule spinning frame.

The sliver on the bobbins from the card is taken to
the mule spinning frame where it is passed through
rolls, and the sliver attenuated by means of a traveling
carriage.

Count. In the case of woolen yarn there are numerous
systems for denoting the count, varying with the locality
in which it is spun and the character of the product.
In the United States there are two systems employed,
but the one in most general use is known as “American
run counts.” This is based on the number of
“runs,” each containing 1,600 yards to the pound.
Thus, a yarn running 8,000 yards to the pound is called
a 5 “run” yarn, a yarn with 5,200 yards to the pound
is equal to a 3¼ “run.”

[Pg 52]
In the vicinity of Philadelphia woolen yarn is based
on the “cut,” each cut consisting of 300 yards, and the
count is the number of cuts in a pound. Thus, No. 30
cut yarn consists of 9,000 yards to the pound. No. 15
contains 4,500 yards to the pound.

Woolen yarn is suitable for cloths in which the colorings
are blended and the fibers napped, as exemplified
in tweed, cheviot, doeskin, broadcloth, beaver, frieze,
chinchilla, blanket, and flannel.

[Pg 53]

CHAPTER VI

WEAVING

Preparatory to Weaving. Yarn is wound on bobbins
on the ring or mule spinning frame. These bobbins are
transferred to a machine called a spooler where the yarn
is re-wound on a spool preparatory to making the warp.

A warp is formed by obtaining a definite number of
threads (called ends), usually in a precisely designed
order of given length, and allowing the ends to wind
over a cylinder called a beam. In order to do this it is
necessary to have spools placed in a definite position
in a frame called a creel.

Before the warp can be placed in the loom so as to
weave or interlace it with filling it must be sized.
This is necessary for all single twist warp yarns. Its
primary object is to increase the strength and smoothness
of the thread, thus enabling it to withstand the
strain and friction due to the weaving operation.
Other objects of sizing are the increase of weight and
bulk of the thread and the improvement and feel
of the cloth. The warp is usually sized by passing it
over a roller and through a bath of a starch mixture.
The machine for sizing is called a slasher. The warp
is now ready to have the ends drawn in and placed in
the loom.

[Pg 54]
Weaving. Every woven piece of cloth is made up
of two distinct systems of threads, known as the warp
and filling (weft), which are interlaced with each other
to form a fabric. The warp threads run lengthways
of the piece of cloth, and the filling runs across from
side to side. The manner in which the warp and filling
threads interlace with each other is known as the
weave. When the word “end” is used in connection
with weaving it always signifies the warp thread, while
each filling thread is called a pick. The fineness of the
cloth is always expressed as so many picks and ends to
the inch. The fabrics produced by weaving are named
by the manufacturers or merchants who introduce
them. Old fabrics are constantly appearing under new
names, usually with some slight modification to suit
the public taste.

Weaving Processes. In order to understand the
different kinds of weaves it is necessary to know, or
at least to understand, the process of forming cloth,
called weaving. This is done in a machine called a
loom. The principal parts of a loom are the frame,
the warp-beam, the cloth-roll, the heddles, and their
mounting, the reed. The warp-beam is a wooden
cylinder back of the loom on which the warp is wound.
The threads of the warp extend in parallel order from
the warp-beam to the front of the loom, and are
attached to the cloth-roll. Each thread or group of
threads of the warp passes through an opening (eye)
of a heddle. The warp threads are separated by the
heddles into two or more groups, each controlled and
[Pg 55]
automatically drawn up and down by the motion of the
heddles. In the case of small patterns the movement
of the heddles is controlled by “cams” which move up
the heddles by means of a frame called a harness; in
larger patterns the heddles are controlled by harness
cords attached to a Jacquard machine. Every time
the harness (the heddles) moves up or down, an opening
(shed) is made between the threads of warp,
through which the shuttle is thrown.

A SIMPLE HAND-LOOM
Showing frame, warp beam, cloth-roll, heddles, and reed

The filling thread is wound on a bobbin which is
fastened in the shuttle and which permits the yarn to
[Pg 56]
unwind as it passes to and fro. As fast as each filling
thread is interlaced with warp it is pressed close to the
previous one by means of a reed which advances toward
and recedes from the cloth after each passage of the
shuttle. This is done to make the cloth firm. There
are various movements on the loom for controlling the
tension of the warp, for drawing forward or taking up
the cloth as it is produced, and for stopping the loom in
the case of breakage of the warp thread or the running
out of the filling thread.

Weaving may be performed by hand in hand-looms
or by steam-power in power-looms, but the arrangements
for both are to a certain extent the same. A
great number of different kinds of power-looms are
manufactured for producing the various classes of textiles
in use at the present time. These looms are distinguished
by the name of the material which they are
designed to weave, as the ribbon-loom, blanket-loom,
burlaps- and sacking-loom, plush-loom, double-cloth
loom, rug-loom, fancy cotton-loom, silk-loom, worsted-loom,
etc.

Weaving is distinct from knitting, netting, looping,
and braiding, which are operations depending on the
interlacing of a single thread, or single set of threads,
while weaving is done with two distinct and separate
sets of threads.

[Pg 57]

MAIN WEAVE ROOM

1. Warp beam containing warp.
2. Lease Rods.
3. Harnesses.
4. Dobby Head motion to lift harnesses.
5. Jacquard Head motion.
6. Cards containing design—working in connection with Jacquard Head motion.
7. Whip Roll.

[Pg 58]
Classes of Weave. The character of the weave offers
the best basis for classification of woven goods. Nearly
all the varieties of cloth may be classified from the
following weaves:

Plain or Homespun Weave. Plain cloth is the simplest
cloth that can be woven. In this weave one series
of threads (filling) crosses another series (warp) at
right angles, passing over one and under one in regular
order, thus forming a simple interlacement of the
threads. This combination makes a strong and firm
cloth, but does not give a close or a heavy fabric, as
the threads do not lie as close and compact as they do
in other weaves. In plain cloth, if not fulled or shrunk
in the finish, the result is a fabric perforated with large
or small openings according to the size or twist of yarn
used. If heavy or coarse threads are used the perforations
will be large; if finer threads, the perforations
will be smaller.

This weave is used in the production of sheeting,
muslin, lawn, gingham, broadcloth, taffeta, etc. In
plain weaving it is possible to produce stripes by the
use of bands of colored warp, and checks where both
warp and weft are parti-colored. This weave is commonly
used when the cloth is intended to be ornamented
with printed patterns. In weaving cloth of only one
color but one shuttle is used, while for the production of
checks, plaids, etc., two or more shuttles are required.

GIRL DRAWING EACH THREAD OF WARP THROUGH THE REED
AND HARNESS READY TO BE PLACED ON LOOM
A, warp beam. B, warp. C, harness frame

Twill Weave. A twill weave has diagonal lines across
the cloth. In this class of weaves the filling yarn
or threads pass over 1 and under 2, or over 1 and
[Pg 59]
under 3, 4, 5, or 6, or over 2 or 3 and under 1, 2, 3,
or 4, or over 4 and under 4, 3, 6, etc. Each filling
thread does not pass under and over the same set of
warp threads, as this would not give the desired interlacings.
Instead the order of interlacing moves one
thread to the right or left with each filling thread that
is woven. If there are the same number of threads to
an inch in warp and filling, twill lines will form an
angle of 45 degrees; if the warps are closer together
than the filling, the angle will be steeper; if the filling
threads are closer together the lines will approach
[Pg 60]
more nearly the horizontal. Different effects are obtained
in patterns by variation in the sizes of the yarn
and twist, by the use of heavy threads to form cords,
ribs, etc., and by the mixture of vari-colored materials in
the yarn. Often one form of twill-weave is combined with
another to produce a fancy twill-weave. The object of
the twill-weaving is to increase the bulk and strength of a
fabric, or to ornament it. The disposition of the threads
permits the introduction of more material into the cloth,
and hence renders it heavier, and of closer construction
than in the case of plain-weaving.

Satin Weaves. The object of a satin weave is to
distribute the interlacings of the warp and filling in
such a manner that no trace of the diagonal (twill)
line will be seen on the face of the cloth. In weaving
a satin design the filling thread is made to pass under
1 and over 4, 7, 9, 11, or more if a larger plush satin
is required. The raising of the warp end to allow
the filling to pass under is done in such a way as to
prevent twill lines from showing in the cloth. The
result is that practically all of the filling is on the face
of the cloth. This is called a filling-face satin weave.
A warp-face satin weave may be produced by reversing
the order; in this case practically all of the warp is
brought to the face of the cloth. In this way a worsted
warp and a cotton filling might be woven so that practically
all of the warp would show on the cloth, and
give it the appearance of a worsted fabric. A number
of classes of silk goods are made in this way, with a silk
filling covering a cotton warp.

[Pg 61]
This weave produces an even, close, smooth surface,
capable of reflecting the light to the best advantage,
and having a lustrous appearance which makes it
resemble satin cloth. Satin cloth is made of silk using a
satin weave.

Satin weaves are used very largely in producing different
styles of cotton and silk fabrics, and are also
frequently found in woolen goods. They are more
extensively used in the manufacture of damask and
table-covers than for any other class of goods. Satin
stripes are frequent in madras, shirtings, and fancy dress
goods in connection with plain and figured weaves.

Figure Weaving. To produce complicated and
irregular patterns in the loom a large number of different
openings (sheds) must be made in the warp, and to
secure such a large number an attachment is placed on
top of the loom called a Jacquard apparatus. The
Jacquard is merely an apparatus for automatically selecting
warp threads, by which each separate one can be
made to move independently of any of the others. It
is provided with weighted strings attached to each of
the warp threads. The weighted strings are controlled
by wire needles which are in turn controlled by perforated
cards. Each motion of the loom changes their
position and allows some needles to go through the holes
in the cards, thus drawing up the warp, while others
strike the card and leave the warp down. In this way
the perforations of the cards determine the figure of
the patterns. The Jacquard is chiefly used to produce
patterns of great width in which all or most of the
[Pg 62]
threads in the pattern move independently. For the
weaving of elaborate effects and flowing lines it is
practically indispensable. All elaborate designs are
classed under the name of Jacquards.

Double Cloth. Double cloth is a descriptive term
applied in weaving to fabrics produced by combining
two single cloths into one. Each one of these single
cloths is constructed with its own systems of warp and
filling, the combination being effected in the loom by
interlacing some of the warp or filling threads of one
cloth into the other cloth at certain intervals, thus fastening
them securely together. The reasons for making
double-cloths are many. Sometimes it is done to reduce
the cost of heavy weight fabrics by using cheaper materials
for the cloth forming the back; again it may be
to produce double-face fabric; it allows great freedom
for the formation of colored patterns which may or
may not correspond in pattern on both sides; it is the
basis of tubular weaving such as is practised for making
pillow cases, pockets, seamless grain bags, etc.;
more frequently, the object is to increase the bulk or
strength of certain kinds of fabrics, such as heavy
overcoatings, cloakings, pile-fabrics, golf-cloth, rich
silk, etc.

Pile Weave. A pile weave is a general term under
which are classed numerous varieties of cloth woven
with a pile surface, as plush, velvet, velveteen, and carpeting
of various kinds. Turkish towels are an excellent
illustration of pile weaving. A pile surface is a
closely set, elastic face covering various kinds of
[Pg 63]
woolen, silk, and cotton fabrics, and consists of threads
standing close together, either in the form of loops
or as erect thread-ends sheared off smooth so as to
form a uniform and even surface. In the production of
a pile fabric a third thread is introduced into the weaving
and formed into loops usually by carrying it over
the wires laid across the breadth of the cloth. The
wires are afterward drawn out, leaving the loops
standing; the loops may then be cut so as to form a
cut pile, as in velvet and plush, or they may be left in
their original form as in Brussels carpet and Turkish
towels.

Gauze Weaving. In gauze weaving all the warp
threads are not parallel to each other, but are made to
intertwist more or less among themselves, thereby
favoring the production of light, open fabrics, in which
many ornamental lace-like combinations can be obtained.
Two sets of warp threads are used, one being
the ground warp and the other the “douping,” the
latter performing the entwining process. Gauze is
especially characterized by its openness and yields the
lightest and strongest fabric with the least material.
When gauze is combined with plain weaving it is styled
“leno.” Gauze fabrics are designed for women’s summer
gowns, flounces, window-curtains, etc.

Lappet Weaving. Lappet weaving, really a form
of embroidery, is used for producing small designs on
cloth by means of needles placed in a sliding-frame, the
figures being stitched into the warp. Elaborate figures
are beyond the range of lappet weaving, but there
[Pg 64]
are many small effects that can be economically produced
in this manner, such as the detached spots in
dotted swiss, and narrow and continuous figures running
more or less into stripes. This form of weaving
imitates embroidery and is used mainly on plain and
gauze fabrics.

[Pg 65]

CHAPTER VII

DYEING AND FINISHING

Dyeing. When a fabric or fiber is impregnated
with a uniform color over its whole surface, it is said
to be “simply dyed.” On the other hand, if distinct
patterns or designs in one or more colors have been
impressed upon a fabric, it is called printing.

Vegetable dyes were formerly used, but since the
coal tar dyes have been discovered the latter are used
entirely. Over fourteen thousand colors have been
produced from coal tar. Different fibers and fabrics
attract dyestuffs with varying degrees of force. Wool
and silk attract better than cotton and linen.

Wool Dyeing. The methods of dyeing wool differ
considerably from those employed for cotton and other
vegetable fibers. They may be divided into three
parts: piece dyed, cross dyed, and yarn dyed.

Piece goods are those woven with yarns in their gray
or natural state, and then cleansed and dyed in the
piece to such colors as are required. They are woven
in plain weaves and in a great variety of twills—in fact,
in all styles of weaves—and are also made on the Jacquard
loom. The principal fabrics in this classification
are all wool serges, cheviots, hopsackings, suitings,
satines, prunellas, whipcords, melroses, Venetian
[Pg 66]
broadcloths, zibelines, rainproof cloths; nun’s veiling, canvases,
grenadines, albatrosses, crêpes, and French
flannels; silk warp Henriettas, voiles, and sublimes.
Whenever it is possible, it is better to dye textile
fabrics in the form of woven pieces than in the yarn.
During the process of weaving it is impossible to avoid
getting yarn dirty and somewhat greasy, and the
scouring necessary to remove this dirt impairs the color
used in weaving. Piece dyeing is the cheapest method
of applying color to textiles. The chief fault of piece
dyeing is the danger of cloud spots, stains, etc., which
do not appear in the other two methods. Then again
in the case of thick, closely woven goods the dyestuff
does not penetrate into the fabric, and the interior
remains nearly white.

The cloth is dyed by means of passing over a roller
into a dye vat. Small pieces or “swatches” are taken
from the ends of the fabric, and compared with the
pattern. For it must be remembered that no two lots
of crude dyes are of equal strength, and the wools and
cottons of different growths and seasons vary greatly,
so that the use of a fixed quantity of dye to a given
amount of goods will not always give the exact shade.
In comparing a sample with the pattern the two are
placed side by side below the eyes (reflected light),
and then held up to the light and the eye directed
along the surface. A judgment must be formed quickly,
as a prolonged gaze fatigues the eye and renders it
unable to perceive fine shades of difference.

DYE ROOM

1. Dye tub or vat containing dyestuffs.
2. Rolls or cylinders upon which cloth is wound.
3. Cloth leaving dye tub—being wound upon No. 2 cylinder.

Cross Dyed. Cross-dyed goods may be described
[Pg 67]
as fabrics woven with black or colored cotton warps
and wool or worsted filling and afterwards dyed in the
piece. Since cotton has not the same attraction for
dyestuffs as wool it is a difficult task to dye a fabric
woven with cotton and wool so that both fibers will be
identical in depth of color, tone, and brightness. In
some cases it is possible to dye a mixed fabric at a single
operation, but the usual process is to dye the wool in
yarn state and then dye the warp a color as near the
color of the wool as possible. In the weaving operation
the wool is thrown to the surface. In another method
the warp is dyed and woven with a white wool or
[Pg 68]
worsted filling, and dyed in the piece with a dyestuff
that will not affect the cotton. In this way the cotton
does not take the wool dye, but retains its original
color. This class of work is generally used in mohair,
alpaca, and luster fabrics, because the natural brilliancy
of the luster wool, alpaca, or mohair in the filling is not
impaired as would be the case if the cotton in the goods
were subjected to a cotton-dye bath after being woven.
The principal cloths in this classification are cotton,
warp figured melroses, Florentines, glacés, brilliantines,
lusters, alpacas, and mohairs; rainproof cloths, and
fancy waistings, and in these may be found the same
great variety of weaves and patterns that is to be found
in the piece-dyed goods already described.

Yarn Dyed. Yarn-dyed goods differ from those previously
described in that they are made of yarns that
are dyed before being woven, or yarns spun from dyed
wool. Wool may be dyed in the raw state (fleece),
slubbing, or yarn. Fleece dyeing is preferable for goods
intended to stand friction, and that in spite of wear and
tear must preserve their color. It is preferred for dark
colored goods where much friction is to be encountered,
but is seldom used for light colors, since these would
be soiled during subsequent processes of manufacture.
In this case every fiber is colored uniformly all over.
The yarn from this wool and the cloth woven from it
are dyed through and through and do not become
grayish or whitish by wear and tear.

Slubbing dyeing is preferred to yarn dyeing, for the
dyestuff penetrates the loosely twisted roving, and if
[Pg 69]
unevenly dyed, the subsequent operations equalize
most thoroughly the irregularities in color.

Yarn dyeing is especially applicable to checks, plaids,
and suitings, and in their manufacture the drop box
loom (a loom with two or more shuttles) is used. Goods
manufactured under this classification include cotton
warp checks and mixtures; all wool homespuns, mixture
coatings and suitings, storm skirtings, rainproof
cloths. These goods are made in a great variety of
weaves, the effect in each being secured by the color
and the weave.

Piece-dyed fabrics may be distinguished from yarn-dyed
fabrics by unraveling threads of each kind. In
the case of yarn-dyed fabrics the dyestuff has penetrated
through the yarn, while in the case of piece-dyed
fabrics the dyestuff has no chance to penetrate as
completely as the yarn-dyed fabric.

Textile Printing. Printed fabrics such as print cloths
can generally be distinguished by observing the back
side of the cloth. If the figure or pattern on the face of
the cloth does not penetrate through to the back but only
shows the outline, the fabric has been printed. Fabrics
are printed by coming into contact with rotating rollers
on which the pattern is engraved.

The attraction of cotton for coloring is generally
feebler than that of wool or silk. Few of the natural
dyestuffs attach themselves permanently without use
of a mordant. A mordant is a substance which has an
affinity for, or which can penetrate, the fiber to be
colored, and which possesses the power of combining
[Pg 70]
with the dyestuff and thus forming an insoluble compound
upon the fiber. Cotton is dyed in an unspun
state, and also as yarn or spun thread, either in the hank
or skein. Silk is dyed in unspun skeins, although to a
considerable extent it is also dyed in the piece.

Styles. Since styles and designs are constantly
changing it is necessary for the mills to meet this demand
by producing new styles. Some of the patterns
which are at this time considered to be in the best
style would have appeared much out of date two or
three years ago, while perhaps a few years hence, the
patterns which are now almost obsolete will, with some
changes, become the most popular sellers of the season.
As the mill officials or designers are not out among the
trade, they are not in a position to judge what lines or
patterns would most likely appeal to the market. This
information is obtained by the “styler” of the selling
house. The styler receives all the latest foreign samples
and fashion papers from abroad, and often goes or
sends his representative to Europe to ascertain what
goods, designs, and colors are taking well over there.
The selling agent or styler then supplies the designing
department of the mill with all the samples, information,
and suggestions necessary in getting out the samples.

Construction of Cloth. In reproducing a sample of
cloth in the mill it is necessary that the construction
of the cloth be first known, that is, there must be
ascertained the width, warp ends, and picks per inch,
the number or size of the yarn used for the warp, the
number that is used for the filling, and the number of
[Pg 71]
ounces per yard or yards per pound. Then the interlacings
of the threads in the sample must be picked out
in order to get the design or weave on the design paper,
from which the data are obtained for regulating the
movement of the harness or heddles. Design paper is
paper ruled by lines into a number of squares. An
imitation of the cloth can be produced on this paper by
showing the interlacings of the warp and filling. This
is done by filling in certain squares with paint, or pencil
marks, while the others are left empty. In practical
work it is the general custom to make a cross with a
pencil to indicate the squares that are to be filled in,
thus showing that the warp thread is over the filling
thread at this point. When a square is left blank it
shows that the warp thread is under the filling at this
point. When a warp thread is up on a certain pick,
the harness which controls this thread must be raised
on this pick.

Finishing. The fabric as it comes from the loom
is in an imperfect condition for use. When worsted
fabrics leave the loom they require but few and simple
finishing operations, and in this respect differ much
from woolen cloths, which require elaborate finishing
operations. The finishing processes of woolen and
worsted cloths are similar. The following description
of processes and machines gives a clear idea of the
necessary finishing processes for a standard woolen or
worsted cloth; for particular styles of finish the processes
must be varied in accordance with the particular
requirements of the style of fabric in hand.

[Pg 72]
Perching. The fabric as it comes from the loom
receives a perching and measuring inspection at the
weave room before leaving for the finishing room.
This examination is to detect quickly such imperfections
as require prompt attention at the loom.

Burling. Every knot that has been tied in the
threads during winding, dressing, beaming, and weaving,
must be looked for and felt for during burling, carefully
drawn to the surface of the cloth, and then clipped off
with the scissors, leaving the ends long enough so that
no space without a thread will occur. Threads which
are found loose on the face or back of cloth, caused by
the weaver having tied in a broken end, should be cut
off and not pulled off. All places where threads are
not woven in are marked so that the sewing-in girl
(mender) can adjust such places. The cloth is subjected
to perching again. It is examined for imperfections,
and when these are found, they are marked
with chalk to call the attention of the menders to such
places.

Mending. The object of darning or mending is to
make all repairs in the structure of the cloth before the
process of fulling. The mender must have a good eye for
colors necessary to produce various effects and for the
interlacing of the threads. More exact work is required
for threadbare fabrics that require little if any finishing
afterward, than in dealing with a face finish fabric,
where the nap is to be raised and will cover many imperfections
so that they will never be noticed in the
finished cloth.

[Pg 73]
Fulling. The object of fulling is to render woolen
and worsted goods stronger and firmer in body. Fulling
is similar to felting, the principal object of each
being to condense the fibers, thereby increasing the
firmness. Certain varieties of woolens are fulled nearly
one-half their original width and length. The process
of fulling includes three steps: cleansing, scouring, and
condensing the fibers of the cloth. The object of scouring
is to get rid of oil used preparatory to spinning, and
to remove from the cloth stains and the sizing used in
dressing the warp. The cloth is first saturated with hot
water and soap, and is then scoured and rubbed between
the slow-revolving rollers of the machine from two to
eighteen hours, according to the character of goods and
the amount of shrinkage desired. The more prolonged
the operation, the more the material shrinks. When
sufficiently fulled, the length of cloth is scoured to free
it from soap. This is done with water, warmed at first,
but gradually cooled, until at the end the cloth is worked
in cold water. Next the cloth is stretched uniformly
in all directions, so that it may dry evenly without
wrinkles or curls. Sometimes the cloth is placed in a
hot-air chamber to hasten the drying. The fulling or
shrinking is effected by the application of moisture,
heat, and pressure. Every one is familiar with the
fact that woolen blankets, flannels, and hosiery tend to
contract with frequent washings, gaining in thickness
and solidity what they lose in elasticity. Such shrinkage
is greatly hastened when they are rubbed vigorously
in hot water and then allowed to cool suddenly.
[Pg 74]
This change is due to the physical properties of the
wool fiber.

Such goods as beavers, kerseys, meltons, and fancy
cassimeres are seldom fulled more than one-sixth of
their woven width, while worsted goods are shrunk but
a small fraction of their woven width. The amount
of fulling received is the distinguishing feature of many
varieties of cloth. In the treatment of broadcloth,
doeskin, and all nap finished woolens, the fulling is
carried to a point where the fibers become densely
matted, obliterating all traces of the weave and giving
the cloth the appearance of felt.

Crabbing. After the cloth has been dried in the
hydro extractor, where it throws off superfluous moisture,
it must be stretched full width for the future
finishing processes, and “set” at this width.

Crabbing consists of two operations, first the loosening
process, then the setting process. Goods are run on
a cylinder, then passed over several rolls, and are kept
tight so as to avoid wrinkles. The cylinders are immersed
in hot water and the goods are allowed to rotate
in this water for about twenty minutes, after which
they are taken out for one or two hours. They are then
returned to the machine for about twenty-five minutes
and are subjected to boiling and also to additional
pressure. The boiling water sets the fabric and the
additional pressure gives the desired finish.

Tentering. The object of tentering[14] is to straighten
and level the fabric. After the cloth leaves the
[Pg 75]
tentering machine it has lost its natural moisture, and is
not at all fitted, as far as fiber condition is concerned,
for the napping. To bring it into a fit state for this
operation it is passed through a trough containing a
brush which gives it the desired moisture. It is then
ready for napping.

Napping. Most cloths at this stage of finishing are
more or less unsightly on account of long and irregular
fibers on the surface. A nap may be raised on the surface
of a fabric for various reasons: in order to render
the material warmer, softer, or more pleasant to the
touch, as in the case of blankets and flannels intended
to be worn next to the body; or for the purposes of
increasing the durability of the fabric, as in the case of
melton, kersey, broadcloth, and similar goods; or a nap
may be raised with a view to removing all the fiber
from the underlying structure in order to leave the pattern
of the cloth well defined and free from hairiness.
The covering of nap over the surface of the fabric
tends to conceal many defects caused by imperfect
yarns and faulty weaving. Coarse, inferior yarns at
best produce an unsightly fabric, but when the cloth
constructed of such threads is finished with a fine, delicate
nap the surface takes on a softer and richer appearance.
Not only are the defects in the structure
concealed, but the material is rendered more sightly
and desirable and appears to be more expensive than
it really is.

The operation of napping is performed by passing the
cloth in a tightly stretched condition over a revolving
[Pg 76]
cylinder covered with teasels or steel hooks. These
thousands of little hooks scratch the entire surface of the
cloth, opening up the short fibers and covering the whole
with a nap. Since the fibers are of different lengths it
is necessary to brush the fabric vigorously and then
pass it through the shearing machine in order to make
an even and uniform length. The shearing machine
acts on the principle of the lawn mower and either cuts
the nap completely or leaves a pile surface. The cloth
is cleaned by passing through a brushing machine.

Pressing Machine. The fabric now requires consolidating
and lustering, or “smarting up” in appearance—practically
pressing—before it is forwarded
to the warehouse. This is done by passing the cloth
over a pressing roll heated to a high temperature.
Having obtained a satisfactory luster, it is necessary
to fix this by winding the cloth on rollers and allowing
dry steam to pass through the piece. This fixes a permanent
luster and finish on the piece and sets it so as
to prevent shrinkage. The cloth is now packed and
sent to the jobbers or tailors to be cut up into suits.

Theories of Coloring in Textile Design. The three
primary elements of textile design are weave, combination
of form, and blend of colors. They enter either
separately or in connection with each other into every
species of loom effect. Weave relates specifically to
the build or structure of the cloth and is an indispensable
factor in any type of cloth. Schemes of weaves
will produce in one operation an even and firm cloth,
decorated with a type of pattern that usually consists
[Pg 77]
of minute parts but which is pronounced and decided
in combination. Combination of forms is a surface
decoration obtained by uniting straight and curved
lines. Color brightens and improves the qualities of
the design. In fact, the discarding of color shades
would diminish the elegance of the design and impoverish
its appearance and would practically destroy
the woolen industry. Whether the pattern be stripe,
check, figure, or intermingled effect, it obtains its outline
and detail from methods of coloring adopted. In
worsted there is a larger diversity of weave design than
in woolen; but still colors are very extensively employed
to develop effects due to weave and form, and also to
impart a cheerful and lustrous appearance to cloth.

Patterns in dress fabrics, shirtings, and other articles
made entirely of cotton are frequently mere combinations
of fancy shades, while fabrics composed of silk
and jute materials, including silk ties, handkerchiefs,
etc.—in fact the cloths in which fancy shades are
used—show that coloring and its combinations in all
woven product embellished with design, are elements
which give tone and character to the styles. Though
the cloth may be soft to the touch, substantially made,
of uniform structure, and skilfully finished, yet a lack
of brightness and elegance in coloring so powerfully
detracts from the appearance of the pattern that these
qualities alone are not sufficient.

On subjecting cotton, silk, wool, and worsted goods
to inspection, color is found to have a different tone
or cast in each fabric. Fancy colors in cotton, while
[Pg 78]
decidedly firm and clear in effect, are non-lustrous, raw,
and dull in toning. Silk colorings, on the contrary,
possess both compactness and brilliancy; woolen colorings
have a unique depth and saturation of hue characteristic
of the material employed in the manufacture
of woolen goods; while worsted colorings are bright,
definite, and smart in appearance.

These differences are due to the physical properties
of the several fibers. Thus a filament of silk is transparent
and shines like smooth glass when light falls
upon it; that of wool is solid and opaque in the center,
but its exterior consists of a multitude of semi-transparent
scales which, when of large dimensions and uniformly
arranged—as in the best qualities of wool—reflect
light with a small amount of dispersion and impart
to the woven material a lustrous aspect. Cotton
has no such partially transparent sheath. What light is
reflected is so broken up that the color is poor. Compare
three plain woven crimson textures made of silk,
wool, and cotton respectively. The first literally shines;
luster, brilliance, and richness are the elements of its
coloring. Though bright, it lacks that fulness and
depth of color which belongs to the wool product,
whose millions of filaments, closely compounded, all
tinted alike, possess a peculiar bloom and weight of
color not to be found either in the silk or cotton article.
Lastly, take the crimson calico. How deficient in
warmth and richness it seems to be, after examining
the woolen and silk texture! It is dull and has a raw
and deficient character.

[Pg 79]
The various methods of employing fancy shades in
patterns obtained in the loom may be briefly summarized:

I. In mixture cloths, for suitings, coatings, etc.

II. In plain, twilled, mat, and fancy weave designs
for trouserings, coatings, suitings, jackets, dresses, costumes,
flannels, shirtings, etc.

III. In figured designs for dresses, vestings, etc.

Dress goods fall naturally into two distinct classes
when regarded from the standpoint of fashion—staples
and fancies. Staples are those fabrics which are made
of the same construction year in and year out. They
vary only in coloring to meet the changes of fashion.

The Staples are:

Brilliantines,
Sicilians,
Mohairs,
Imperial Serges,
Storm Serge,
Cheviots,
Panamas,
Batistes,
Taffetas,
Voile,
Nun’s Veiling,
Cashmere,
Shepherd Checks.

[Pg 80]
The Fancies are:

Produced through
Variation of weave,
Variation of color,
Variation of color and weave:
Brocades,
Cuspettes,
Meliores,
Hopsacking, etc.
Coloring includes:
Stripes,
Checks,
Plaids,
Malenges,
Mixtures.

Prior to the factory era our fathers and mothers
made homespun clothes and wore them till they had
passed their period of usefulness. The average consumption
of wool at that time averaged not more than
three pounds per capita. As wealth increased the
home loom and spinning-wheel were slowly supplanted
by the mill and factory. The different textile manufacturers
at length found that competition was so keen
that it was necessary to adulterate, particularly any
fabric that was popular. The classes of goods that are
most adulterated are the expensive fabrics, those of
wool and silk. There are such changes of fashion in
dress at the present day that garments composed of
materials formerly considered good enough are often
thrown aside as old-fashioned when only half worn.
Manufacturers cater to the whims and fancies of people
and import to this country foreign styles. The rapidly
changing styles cause people to throw upon the market
a great amount of cast-off clothing only partially worn.

[Pg 81]

SALES DEPARTMENT OF THE SELLING AGENT OF A LARGE MILL

[Pg 82]
The result is that there is not wool enough to provide
the public with clothing made of new wool. The
requirement per capita has risen to six pounds. The
immense amount of fiber in cast-off clothing does not
find its way into the paper mills, but rather into the
shoddy mill, where it is remanufactured into cloth again,
or where part of the fiber is mixed with good wool to
make “pure wool” cloth. In other words, the rapidly
changing styles of to-day and the limited supply of
wool are responsible for the wholesale adulteration
which is being practised in modern cloth manufacture.
This adulteration furthermore is becoming more and
more difficult to detect by reason of the rapid improvements
made in the finishing processes of cloth manufacture.
Hence the necessity for people to know how and
why adulteration occurs, how it affects prices, and what
are the means of detecting it. Shoddy is considered a
legitimate adulteration in woolen and worsted goods.
The following adulterations are not legitimate unless
sold as such:

1. Cotton combed with wool.

2. Thin cotton threads twisted in with worsted during
the process of drawing.

3. Cotton threads of the same color as the wool or
worsted used as filling or warp.

4. Cotton veneered with wool.

5. Cotton threads of the same color as wool used in
weaving.

[Pg 83]

CHAPTER VIII

WOOLEN AND WORSTED FABRICS[15]

Albatross. A dress fabric of worsted warp and
worsted filling; of open texture and fancy weaves.

Alpaca. A thin fabric of close texture made from
the fibers of an animal of the llama species; mixed with
silk or with cotton. It is usually woven with cotton
warp and mohair filling. Imitations of all cotton are
manufactured and sold under this name.

Corded Alpaca. Corded weave, lengthwise of the
piece, cotton warp alpaca filling; one of the first
products of the American loom.

Angora. The fiber of this goat is commercially
known as mohair. The skins are largely used in the
making of children’s muffs, for the scalps of dolls, and
for trimming coats and capes. Carriage robes also
claim a good share of the skins; the hair, being nearly
one foot in length, makes them beautiful and serviceable.
The fiber enters largely into that class of goods
known as Astrakhan, Crepons, Plushes, Brilliantines,
Zibelines, fine Cashmeres, and many other fabrics
usually sold as all wool or worsted, according to the
[Pg 84]
mode of preparing the stock before spinning into yarn.
It is found in the finest of silk and worsted fabrics for
ladies’ wear, also in linings, mittens, and fine cloaking
and overcoating. It is noted especially for its water
repelling qualities, its beauty, and high luster; and not
so much for its warmth-retaining properties, for which
wool stands unequalled.

Astrakhan. A fabric manufactured from Astrakhan
fiber; of a curly, wavy surface applied to a curly faced
cloth resembling Astrakhan fleece.

Bandanna. From the Indian bandanna, to bind or
tie. In dyeing, the cloth is tied in knots when dipped,
and thus has a clouded effect.

Beaver. A heavy cloth manufactured of fine
wool, with a finish on the surface to resemble the fur of
the animal by that name.

Fur Beaver. Similar in many respects to Beaver,
but having on its surface a long, dense nap, in imitation
of the fur of the Beaver. Used for overcoats,
cloaks, and capes.

Bedford Cord. A fine woolen fabric, with fine recesses
running with the piece, and extensively used for
ladies’ dress goods. An all wool cloth of close texture
for gentlemen’s clothing. The recesses may also be
made with fine cotton yarn hidden in the wool filling.

Beige. Cloth of undyed or natural wool. The name
is the French word for “natural.”

Bindings. A species of narrow fabric of silk,
worsted or cotton, for binding the edges of garments,
the bottom of dress skirts, etc.

[Pg 85]
Bombazine. A twilled fabric of which the warp
is silk and the filling is worsted.

Bottany. A term applied to worsted yarns made from
bottany wool. It is considered the finest of all worsted
yarns, and is used for fine fabrics of close texture.

Boucle. Curled hair or wool woven in any cloth in
such a way as to show the curl makes boucle. The word
is French for curl.

Broadcloth. Broadcloth is a soft, closely woven
material with a satin finish. The best qualities are
called satin broadcloth.

The origin of broadcloth dates back to early times,
the first historical mention of it being made in 1641.
In America, among the first products manufactured
by the colonial woolen mills were black and colored
broadcloths, and these (with satinets) formed the distinctive
character of American woolen fabrics at that
time. They were honestly made of pure, fine-fibered
Saxony wool, and sold as high as $6.50 per yard.

The warp and filling are made of carded wool so that
the web (cloth) will shrink or full evenly. The stock is
generally dyed in the raw state when used for men’s
wear. When taken from the loom it does not have the
smooth, lustrous appearance which is its distinctive
feature. It is rough and dull colored, with the threads
showing plainly. To improve its appearance it is first
subjected to the action of the fulling mill, with the result
that the fibers of the warp and weft become entangled
to such an extent that the cloth never unravels. Then
the cloth is slightly napped and sheared down close,
[Pg 86]
in order to produce a smooth, even surface. Next it
is successively wetted, steamed, calendered, and hot
pressed for the purpose of bringing out the luster. It is
commonly twill woven, but is sometimes plain, finished
with a slightly napped and lustrous face. It must
have a bright, beaver finish, and be close and felty in
the weave.

The broadcloth used for women’s clothing is of a
lighter weight and is generally piece dyed. It is used
for ladies’ suits, coats, and gentlemen’s evening dress
suits, frock coats, and tuxedos. It is expensive; prices
range from $1.75 to $3.50 per yard in ladies’ broadcloth,
and higher for men. The price depends on the quality
of wool used, and uniformity of the nap and perfection
of the finish.

Bunting. A plain even thread weave of mohair,
wool, or worsted, used mostly for making flags. The
name is from German, bunt, meaning variegated or gay
colored.

Caniche. A name given to curled wool fabric showing
the effect of the coat of the caniche, a French dog.

Cashmere. A cloth made from the hair of the Cashmere
goat. The face of the fabric is twilled, the twills
being uneven and irregular because of the unevenness
of the yarn. Cashmere yarn was first hand spun. The
goats are grown for their wool in the vale of Cashmere
in the Himalaya Mountains.

All Wool Cashmere. As no material by this name
exists there can be no definition. When the term is
used in defining a fabric, it is a delusion and a snare.

[Pg 87]
Cashmere Double. A cloth having Cashmere twill
on one side or face and poplin cord on the reverse.

Cassimere. The name is a variation of Cashmere.
Cassimere, when properly made, is of Cashmere wool.
Usually a twill weave.

Castor. Same as beaver, of a light weight.

Challis. (Also spelled challie.) A name given to a
superior dress fabric of silk and wool first manufactured
at Norwich, England, in 1832. In texture the original
material was soft, thin, fine, and finished without gloss.
When first introduced it ranked among the best and most
elegant silk and wool textures manufactured. It was
composed of fine materials, and instead of giving it a
glossy surface, such as is usually produced from silk
and fine wool, the object was to make it without luster.
The name is now applied to an extremely light weight
summer dress fabric, composed of either cotton or wool,
or a mixture of these fabrics. In structure it is both
plain woven and figured, the ornamental patterns being
produced either in the loom or yarn, dyed or printed.
It is not sized. All wool challis does not differ essentially
from the old-fashioned muslin delaine. Most
challis patterns are copied from the French silks, and
this accounts in part for their tasteful designs and artistic
effects. French challis is a material similar to the
above, though usually characterized by a more glossy
finish.

Cheviot. A descriptive term of somewhat loose
application, being used indiscriminately of late years
to denote almost any sort of stout woolen cloth finished
[Pg 88]
with a rough and shaggy surface. Originally the fabric
known as cheviot was woven in England, from the strong,
coarse wool of the Cheviot sheep, whence the name.

It is at present a worsted or woolen fabric made of
cheviot or “pulled wool,” slightly felted, with a short
even nap on the surface and a supple feel. Worsted
cheviots, in plain colorings or of fancy effects, are manufactured
from combed yarn. Woolen cheviots are made
from carded yarn. The greater portion of this class of
goods in carded yarns contains little or no new wool
in its make-up. Shoddy, mungo, and a liberal mixture
of cotton to hold it together, blended in the many colorings,
help to cover the deception. Prices range from
50 cents to $3.00. The material is plain or twill woven,
and has many of the qualities of serge.

The distinguishing feature of cheviot, whatever the
grade of cloth, is the finish, of which there are two
kinds. One is known as the “rough” finish, and the
other as the “close” finish. Real cheviot is a rough-finished
fabric, composed of a strong, coarse wool and
fulled to a considerable degree. The process of finishing
cheviot is simple, and practically the same methods are
followed for both the “rough” and the “close” styles.
On leaving the loom the cloth is first washed in soap and
water to remove any dirt or other foreign matter it
may contain. It is then fulled, which consists in shrinking
the cloth both in length and breadth, thus rendering
the texture heavier and denser. Next it is “gigged”
or napped. This is accomplished by passing the face of
the matted cloth against a cylinder covered with sharp
[Pg 89]
pointed teasels which draw out the fibers from the
yarn. This operation is continued until a nap more or
less dense is raised over the entire surface.

From the gig the cloth is taken to the shearing machine,
the revolving blades of which cut the long, irregular
nap down to a uniform level. Sometimes the style
of finish called for is that approaching a threadbare
cassimere, and in this case great care is necessary to
prevent the blades from cutting the yarn. In the
rough finish the nap, although sparingly raised, is comparatively
long. Having been napped and sheared,
the cloth is pressed and carefully examined for defects,
then brushed, pressed, and highly steamed. When
measured, rolled, and steamed, it is ready for market,
and is used mostly for ladies’ and gentlemen’s suitings.
The pattern and design are light stripes and checks of
small dimensions. Cheviot is a name given to many
materials used for suiting.

Chinchilla. Heavy coating with rough wavy face.
The name is Spanish for a fur-bearing animal of the
mink species.

Chudah. Applied to billiard cloth; relates to color.
Chudah is the Hindoo name of a bright green cloth.

Corduroy. Heavy corded cotton material used for
servants’ livery. The name is from the French Corde
du Roi—king’s cords.

Côte Cheval. In France corded cloth for riding
costumes, such as Bedford cord, is called côte cheval,
the application being through cheval, horse; côte,
ribbed or lined.

[Pg 90]
Coupure. Coupure is French for cut through.
Coupure or cut cashmere is a cashmere weave showing
lines cut through the twills lengthwise of the
piece.

Covert. Heavy twilled cloth in natural undyed
shades, used in England for men’s overcoats worn
while riding to covert in fox hunting.

Delaine. From the French “of wool”; applies to
the most primitive weave of plain wool yarn. Thirty
years ago delaine was the staple dress goods stock.
It was made in solid colors.

Diagonal Cheviot. Same as cheviot, only in the
weaving the pattern is marked by zigzag lines or
stripes.

Doeskin. Of the broadcloth range, made with shiny
napped face, soft finish, as the pelt of a doe.

Drap d’Été. A heavy cashmere or double warp
merino, with the back teasled or scratched, used mostly
for clergymen’s clothing and in lighter weights for
women’s dresses. The name is French for “cloth of
summer.”

Empress Cloth. Similar to poplin; made of hard
twisted worsted filling and cotton warp. Was made
a success in the early seventies of the last century by
the Empress Eugenie of France. Empress cloth was
a staple in all well-regulated dress goods lines.

Épingline. A fine corded fabric of wool or silk,
showing the cords woven close together and appearing
as if lined with a pin point. This application is from
épingle, French for pin.

[Pg 91]
Etamine. French name for bolting or sifting cloth,
made of silk for sifting flour; applied to mesh or net
weaves in America.

Felt. Fabric made by rolling or pressing a pulpy mass
or mixture of wool into a flat mat. The name is from
the process. To felt is to mix and press into shape.

Flannel. Wales appears to have been the original
home of flannel, and history informs us that this was
the only textile produced in that country for hundreds
of years. It is constructed either of cotton or wool,
or of an intermixture of these fibers, and is a coarse-threaded,
loosely woven, light-weight fabric, more or
less spongy and elastic, with an unfinished, lusterless
surface. Generally speaking all grades of plain colored
flannel are piece dyed, the soft open texture of the goods
permitting the fibers to absorb the dye as readily in the
web as in the yarn. Flannels are subjected to several
finishing operations, such as fulling, teaseling, pressing,
and stretching. Flannels do not require a great deal
of fulling. All that is necessary is enough to give a
degree of stability and body to the goods.

Dress Flannel. All wool fabric used chiefly for
women’s winter dresses; also called flannel suiting.
It has a diversity of qualities, colors, and styles of
finish. It is commonly put up in double fold, width
from twenty-six to fifty inches.

French Flannel. A fine, soft twill, woven variety
dyed in solid shades, and also printed with patterns
after the manner of calico; used for morning gowns,
dressing sacques, waists, etc.

[Pg 92]
Shaker Flannel. A variety of white flannel finished
with considerable nap, composed of cotton warp and
woolen weft.

Indigo Blue. A superior all wool grade used in the
manufacture of men’s suits and particularly for the
uniform of members of the G. A. R.

Mackinaw. The name applied to an extra heavy
blanket-like material used in cold climates by miners
and lumbermen for shirts and underwear.

Navy Twilled Flannel. A heavy all wool variety commonly
dyed indigo blue, commonly used in the manufacture
of overshirts for out-door laborers, firemen, sailors,
and miners.

Silk Warp Flannel. A high grade, pure variety of
flannel woven with a silk warp and a fine woolen weft.
It is a very soft, light-weight, loosely woven flannel and
runs only in narrow widths, twenty-seven inches. If
the finishing process is carried beyond fulling the
texture is rendered hard and firm, the cloth thus losing
its softness and elasticity. In the teaseling process it
is necessary for the nap to be raised only slightly, and
this is commonly done in the direction of the grain or
twist of the warp. The perfection of a flannel finish
lies not in the smooth appearance of the cloth, but in
its full, rich softness. Sometimes the nap is sheared,
but more often it is pressed down flat upon the face of
the cloth. After a thorough drying, and careful examination
for defects, the goods are rolled on boards,
and are ready for market. It is used for infants’ wear
and shawls, for undergarments, bed coverings, and also
[Pg 93]
to some extent for outer garments in weights and
styles adapted for that purpose.

Baby Flannel. A very light-weight variety woven
of fine, soft wool, smooth finish, bleached pure white.

Florentine. A heavy twilled mohair fabric for men’s
wear which is sold largely to Italy and Spain. The
name is from Florence, Italy.

Foule. A twilled, unsheared cloth; that is, the face
appears to be unsinged, and shows the woolly roughness
in a slight degree. The cloth when woven in the gray
is fulled or shrunken in width by soaking in soapsuds
and passing it while wet through holes of different sizes
in a steel plate. The name is from fouler, French, to
full or shrink.

Frieze. Frieze is a coarse, heavy cloth with a curly
surface and made at first of lamb’s wool. It is now made
from coarse grades of wool. It is thick and heavily
napped, and is used in the manufacture of warm outer
garments, particularly for men’s wear. It was named
after the people of Friesland in Holland in the 13th
century, and is famous to-day as an Irish fabric. Irish
frieze has extraordinary durability, and the fibers are
the longest and strongest made. The weave is plain,
small twill, or herring bone. When not of a solid color
it is usually a mixture, the colors being mixed in the
raw state. The wool is dyed in the raw state in mass,
then doubled after spinning.

Gloria. Plain weave of silk and wool, and silk and
cotton; first made for umbrella covering. Name means
bright.

[Pg 94]
Granada. Popular weave of mohair, made in coating
weight for Spanish trade. Granada is a city in
Spain.

Grenadine. Originally a plain, openwork, net-like
fabric of silk, mohair, cotton, or wool. We have grenadines
in Jacquards and in set patterns. The name is an
adaptation of Granada.

Henrietta Cloth. A twilled cashmere of light weight
and high finish, originally made with silk warp and wool
filling in Yorkshire, England. The name was given in
honor of Henrietta Maria of England, Queen of Charles
I. The silk warp, hand-woven fabric was first produced
about the year 1660.

Homespun. A rough, loosely woven material made
from coarse yarn. It is soft but rather clumsy. A
general term used to designate cloth spun or wrought
at home. The homespun of the present day is a woolen
fabric in imitation of those fabrics made by hand before
the introduction of textile machinery. It is made of
a coarse, rough, and uneven thread; usually of plain
weave and no felting. It was woven by the early settlers
of the Eastern and Southern States. It is now used as
woolen suiting for men’s wear and in various kinds of
coarse, spongy, shaggy cloth for women’s gowns.

Hop Sacking. A coarse bagging made commonly
of a combination of hemp and jute, used for holding
hops during transportation. The name hop sacking is
also applied to a variety of woolen dress goods made
from different classes of yarn. It is made of carded
woolen fabric of the plainest kind. The cloth is
[Pg 95]
characterized by an open weave, and a square check-like
mesh, the structure being designed to imitate that of
the coarse jute bagging. It has very little finish, is
usually dyed in solid colors, and is used for women’s
and children’s dresses.

Jeans. Cotton or woolen coarse twilled fabric. In
cotton used for linings, in wool for men’s cheap clothing.
The name is from a Genoese coin, relating to the
price of the cloth; so much for one jean.

Kersey. A very heavy, felted, satin finish woolen
cloth made with the cotton weave or cross twill for
face, and cotton weave or four harness satin for back.
It was originally made with fine Merino lamb’s wool for
face, and somewhat coarser grade for back. The cheaper
grades are manufactured from a fine-fibered wool and
shoddy, with low grades of shoddy and mungo for
back. It is named from an English town, Kersey, where
from the eleventh to the fifteenth century a large woolen
trade was carried on. The Kersey of early history was a
coarse cloth, known under different names, and before
knitting was used for stockings. In the construction of
Kersey the cloth is woven a few inches wider in the loom
(and correspondingly longer) than it is to appear in the
finished state. This is done in order that the meshes
may be closed up in the fulling mill to insure a covering
of threads. Previous to fulling, however, the face of the
cloth is gigged to produce a good covering for the threads
by forming a light nap, which is fitted in. In the fulling
operation, which comes next, the cloth is shrunk to its
proper width and density, usually to a degree rendering
[Pg 96]
it difficult to see the individual warp and filling threads,
so closely are they matted together. Fulling is followed
by gigging, and in this process a nap more or less heavy
is raised on the face of the goods by means of teasels.
The cloth is run through the gig several times and then
sheared in order to render the fibers forming the nap
short, even, and of uniform length. Great care is exercised
in the shearing, as the nap must be cropped quite
close and yet not expose the threads or cut the face.
The next operation is scouring or steaming, in which
live steam is forced through every part of the goods for
the purpose of developing the natural luster of the wool.
In case the goods are to be piece dyed, the dyeing follows
scouring. After steaming, the cloth is thoroughly
matted and gigged again, care being taken to avoid
stirring up the ground nap. It is then dried and the nap
briskly brushed in a steam brusher and laid evenly in
one direction. Again the cloth is slightly steamed and
primed, face up. The result of this treatment is the
production of a texture firm, yet pliable, with a highly
lustrous face and one not liable to wear rough or threadbare.
Kersey is used for overcoats.

Kerseymere. Light weight twilled worsted; same
derivative of name as Kersey.

Linsey Woolsey. Coarse cloth of linen and wool
used as skirtings by the British peasantry. The name
is from the components of the cloth.

Melrose. Double twilled silk and wool fabric; named
for Melrose, a town on the Tweed, in Scotland.

Melton. A thick, heavy woolen fabric with short
[Pg 97]
nap, feeling somewhat rough. Meltons are made firm
in the loom. The weaves for single cloth meltons are
usually plain, and three or four harness twill. For
double cloths the plain weave is used, or a weave with
a plain face and a one-third weave on the back. All
trace of the weave is destroyed in the finishing. The
colors usually black or dark blue.

Meltonette. A cloth of the same general appearance
as melton, of light weight, for women’s wear.

Merino. A fabric woven of the wool of the Merino
sheep, twilled on both sides, the twill being uneven.
Merino resembles cashmere.

Mohair Brilliantine. A dress fabric resembling alpaca,
of superior quality, and sometimes finished on both
sides. The name is from the Arabic mukayyan, cloth
of goat’s hair. It is made from the long, silky hair of
the Angora goat of Asia Minor, a species which is being
introduced into the United States. The fabric has a
hard, wiry feel, and if made from the pure material has
a high luster. It has cotton warp and luster worsted
filling. The weave is plain ground, or with a small
Jacquard figure, and when a very lustrous fabric is
wanted, the warp yarn is of finer counts than the filling
yarn. The warp and filling yarns are dyed previous to
weaving. They may be of the same color or different
colors. The contrast of colors in connection with the
weave gives the fabric a pretty effect. Fabrics made
with dyed yarns are usually given a dry finish, that is,
simply run through the press and cylinder heated, after
which they are rolled and then packed. Those made
[Pg 98]
with undyed filling are first scoured, then dyed, after
which they are run through a rotary press with fifty
or sixty pounds of steam heat. Mohair brilliantine is
used for dress goods.

Montagnac is heavy overcoating. The French
montagne, for mountain, is the origin of the name, being
for mountain wear.

Orleans. Cloth of cotton warp and bright wool
fulling, made in Orleans, France. Many of the so-called
alpacas and mohairs of to-day are Orleans. These
fabrics are mostly cross-dyed, that is, fabrics with warp
and filling of different shades. After weaving they are
cross-dyed or redyed to give solid colors and glacé
effects.

Panama Cloth is a plain weave worsted fabric of no
uniform construction or finish. Fabrics sold under
this name vary considerably. They are of solid colors,
usually piece dyed, and are used for suitings.

Prunella. From the French prunelle, which means
plum, a stout worsted material named from its color,
which is a purplish shade similar to that of a ripe plum.
The name was originally applied to a kind of lasting of
which clergymen’s gowns were made. It is now used
to denote a variety of rich, satin-faced worsted cloth
employed for women’s dresses. The fibers are worsted.
Prunella is dyed either in piece or yarn state and is
hand finished.

Sacking. Plain solid color flannel in special shades
for women’s dressing sacks, also applied to a fabric
made of hemp for grain sacks.

[Pg 99]
Sanglier. A plain fabric of wiry worsted or mohair
yarn, closely woven, with a rough finished surface.
Sanglier is French for wild boar, the hairy, wiry cloth
resembling the coat of the animal.

Sebastopol. A twill-faced cloth named from
Sebastopol, the Russian fortified town captured by the
English and French in 1855.

Serge. Under this name are classed a large number
of fabrics of twill construction. In weight and texture
a modern serge resembles flannel, except that it is twill
woven and composed of fine yarn finished with a smoother
surface. Serge comes from the Italian word sergea,
meaning cloth of wool mixed with silk. Serges are
woven of worsted, of silk, or of cotton yarn, and
variously dyed, finished, and ornamented, as silk serge,
serge suiting, storm serge, mohair serge, etc. Worsted
serges of various kinds and degrees have been known
since the twelfth century. Worsted serge appears to
have come into general use as a material for men’s wear
in the sixteenth century. Modern serges vary but little
from those made two centuries ago. They are dyed in
a great variety of colors. On leaving the loom the
cloth is washed and scoured with soap and water to
remove the dirt and oil (if these remain the cloth
will not take the dye properly). After dyeing, it is
passed through a pair of metal rollers under pressure,
which renders the surface more regular and even and of
a better luster. This process accomplishes more than
is required, for it produces a bloom on the surface
which will show rain specks when in the garment, if it
[Pg 100]
is allowed to remain. This is ordinary serge. In order
to make storm serge it is necessary to remove part of the
bloom, and to accomplish this the cloth is steamed
sufficiently to neutralize the effect of pressing. Steaming
deadens the bloom and prevents the effects of rain
showing on the cloth. The wearing qualities of serge
are good, but it gets a shine easily. It is used for dress
goods and suitings. Serge suiting used for men’s clothing
is a variety of light, wiry, worsted yarn woven with a
flat twill, and dyed black or in shades of blue, fifty-four
inches in width. Mohair serge is woven with a cotton
warp and a mohair filling, thirty-two inches in width.
This is dyed in a variety of colors and largely used as
lining material for women’s clothes, men’s coats, and
overcoats. Storm serge, designed to withstand exposure
to stormy weather, is a coarse variety of worsted dress
goods produced in a wide range of colors and qualities.
The twill is wider, the texture stouter, and the surface
rougher and cleaner than that of ordinary serge.
Iridescent serge is a variety of worsted dress goods
woven with warp and filling of different colors, causing
a shimmering or iridescent effect. Cravenette serge is a
fine twilled variety having a firm, closely woven texture,
dyed black and in colors, and is used for women’s
gowns, men’s summer suits, etc. Serge de Barry is a
high-grade dress goods of fine texture, with fine twill,
and wiry feel.

Shoddy is made from old woolen stockings or rags,
shredded or picked by hand or machine, to render the
yarn suitable for spinning a second time, or to give a
[Pg 101]
fiber that can be woven or felted with a wool or cotton
warp. The name has come to mean cheap, make-believe.

Sicilian. Heavy weight cotton warp, mohair filled
cloth. Sicilienne, the proper name, was made in the
Island of Sicily as a heavy ribbed, all silk fabric.

Sultane. Twilled cloth of silk and wool; finished in
the rough, not singed or sheared. The name is from
Sultana, the first wife of the Sultan.

Tamise. Similar to etamine, with a very close mesh,
made first of silk and wool. Tamis is French for sieve.

Tartans. Plaids of the Scottish clans worn by men
in the Highlands of Scotland as a diagonal scarf, fastened
on one shoulder and crossing the body. Each clan had
a distinctive tartan or plaid. The name was adapted
from the French tiretaine, a thin woolen checked cloth.

Thibet. Heavy, coarse weave of goat’s hair, made
by the Thibetans in Asia for men’s wear.

Tricot. A heavy, compound fabric characterized by
a line effect running warp way or filling way of the
piece, usually produced with either woolen or worsted
yarn. Tricot was originally a name given to fabrics
made of woolen yarn or thread by hand knitting, and is
the French word meaning knitting. The term was later
applied to materials made on a knitting frame and now
known as jersey cloth. Since 1840 the name tricot has
been applied to finely woven woolen cloth, the weave of
which is intended to imitate the face effect of a knitted
fabric. The fabric is composed of woolen and worsted
fibers, sometimes with cotton warp woven so as to hide
[Pg 102]
the cotton in finishing. The tricot line is similar to the
rib line in a ribbed cloth except that it is not so pronounced.
All tricots are constructed with two sets of
warp thread and are characterized by a texture which,
while dense, is singularly elastic, in this respect being
somewhat similar to heavy jersey cloth. Tricots are
commonly dyed in plain colors, and are finished clear so
as to show the filling. When intended for trousers they
are ornamented with small, neat patterns.

Tweed. A rough unfinished fabric of soft, open, and
flexible texture, of wool or cotton and wool, usually of
yarn of two or more shades; originally the product of
the weavers on the bank of the river Tweed in Scotland.
The face of the cloth presents an unfinished appearance
rather than a sharp and clearly defined pattern.

Veiling includes light weight, usually plain weave
fabrics of various constructions; generally made with
singed or polished yarns. They are in solid colors.
The use is designated by the name.

Venetian. Venetian cloth has a worsted or cotton
warp and worsted filling; named from Venetia, a country
around Venice. The warp yarns are firmly twisted,
the twist being in the opposite direction to the twist in
the filling yarn. Venetian is a trade term of wide application,
in use since early times as a descriptive title for
various fabrics, textures, and garments. One of the many
varieties is a species of twill weaving in which the lines
or twills are of a rounded form and arranged in a more
or less upright position, hence a closely woven worsted
cloth. The name is also applied to other fabrics, as a
[Pg 103]
twilled lining fabric woven with a cotton warp and a
worsted filling known as Italian cloth. It is dyed in
plain colors and is piece or yarn dyed for men. For
women’s wear it has light weight and plain colors with
mixed effects and closely sheared nap. It is finished
smooth so as to show the yarns prominently. Venetian
cloth has not so much felting as broadcloth; it
shows the weave more, but has the same lustrous finish.

Vigogne or Vicuña. A soft wool cloth of the cheviot
order, with teasled face, made from the wool of the
vicuña, a South American animal. Vigogne is the
French name for the animal.

Vigoureux. A name applied to a plain or twill mixture,
woven of undyed natural wool yarns. The French
spinners found that the strongest yarns were those of
the undyed wool. Sometimes two or more shades or
tones are spun into one thread. The name is French
for strong.

Voiles. Voiles are plain weave worsted fabrics made
with hard twisted yarns. As clear a face as possible
is secured in finishing, the cloth being singed or sheared
closely if the yarns are not made comparatively free
from loose fibers before being woven. Voiles are dyed
in solid colors, and are used principally for dress goods.

Whipcord. Hard twisted worsted twills, either solid
or mixed colors. The name is from the hard twisted
lash of a whip.

Worsted Diagonals are characterized by prominent
weave effects running diagonally across the cloth. The
goods are usually of a solid color, and are given a finish
[Pg 104]
which brings the weave into prominence. Diagonals
are used for suitings.

Unfinished worsted is a fabric woven with yarn with
very little twist in it, and finished so as to make it
appear covered with loose fibers, concealing the twill
effect. After leaving the loom the cloth is placed in a
fulling machine which condenses the fibers, thus increasing
the density. It is then passed over hot presses
after a slight shearing.

Finished Worsted is woven with yarn with a considerable
twist, and finished in such a way as to show
the construction of the cloth clearly. The finishing
consists simply of scouring the cloth and not fulling it
and then passing it through hot water baths between
heavy rolls to remove all the soap. It is then sheared
and pressed.

Zephyr. Light worsted yarn, also light weight cotton
gingham. Zephyr is Greek for the light west wind.

Zibeline. A cloth manufactured with Merino lamb’s
wool for warp, and a light wool mixed with camel’s
hair for filling; or, worsted warp and camel’s hair for
filling; or either of the foregoing warps and a mixture
of wool, camel’s hair, and fine cashmere for filling.
The long cashmere hair spreads over the surface. Used
for ladies’ tailor-made coats or suits, according to
weight. The name is derived from the Latin word
sabellum, meaning sable, and was applied originally to a
variety of long-haired fur generally thought to be the
same as sable. Zibeline has long hairs on its right side,
some grades being almost like fur.

[Pg 105]

CHAPTER IX

COTTON

Cotton. Cotton is the most important vegetable
fiber used in spinning. The cotton fiber is a soft,
downy substance which grows around the cotton seed.
When examined under the microscope it appears as a
long twisted cell. Owing to the fact that the cotton-plant
yields so readily to the varying conditions of soil
and climate, there is a large variety of cottons, each
having some peculiarity which is considered enough
to place it in a distinct class. An idea of the number
of species of the cotton-plant can be obtained from the
fact that the United States Department of Agriculture
has recorded about one hundred and thirty varieties.
The most important varieties are: Gossypium herbaceum,
G. arboreum, G. hirsutum, G. barbadense, and G. peruvianum.
The botanical name of a plant is divided into
two parts: first the family name, followed by the
species name.

The Gossypium herbaceum grows from four to six
feet in height and bears a yellow flower. The seeds are
covered with a short gray down. The fiber it bears is
classed as short. It is found in Egypt, Asia Minor,
Arabia, India, and China. The short-stapled variety
of Egyptian cotton is from this species.

[Pg 106]
The G. arboreum when full grown attains a height
from fifteen to twenty feet. The seed is covered with
a greenish fur and is enveloped in a fine, silky down,
yellowish white in color. It is found in Egypt, Arabia,
and China.

The G. hirsutum is a shrubby plant, its maximum
height being about six feet. The young pods are
hairy, and the seeds are numerous and covered with a
firmly adhering green down. It is probable that this
is the original of the green-seeded cotton which is
now cultivated so extensively in the Southern States
of America, and which forms the bulk of the supply
from that source.

The G. peruvianum is similar to the G. barbadense.
The Brazilian and Peru cottons are from this species.

The G. barbadense grows from six to fifteen feet high;
its flowers are yellow and its seeds black and smooth,
being quite destitute of the hair that distinguishes
other members of the species. It is a native of Barbadoes
or has been cultivated there for a long time.
Cottons of the finest texture belong to this species—Sea
Island and Florida cottons—from which our finest
yarns are spun, and it is used chiefly in the manufacture
of fine lace. The long-stapled Egyptian and
several other varieties are said to be from this stock.

Cotton Growing Countries. The most suitable situation
for growing cotton is between 35 degrees north and
40 degrees south of the equator. The chief cotton
growing countries of the world in order of importance
are: United States, India, Egypt, and Brazil. Cotton
[Pg 107]
is also grown in the following countries, but in no
quantity or quality comparable with the four named
above—West Indies, west coast of Africa, Asia Minor,
China, and Queensland.

The best soil for growing cotton is a light loam or
sandy soil, which receives and retains the heat, and at
the same time preserves a good supply of moisture.
Cold, damp days are not suitable for its growth, while
deep rich soils develop too much leaf and stalk. The
best climate for the cultivation of cotton is where frost
and snow are of short duration, dews are heavy, and the
sun bright, warm, and regular. New soils generally
produce the best cotton. The character of the cotton
fiber is dependent upon three things, the species of the
plant, the nature of the soil, and the locality in which
it is grown.

Rough Peruvian. The nature of this cotton is harsh
and wiry and resembles wool so nearly that it is almost
exclusively used to mix with woolen fabrics. The
staple is rough and generally strong, and is of a springy
tendency, i.e., it does not lie close like American.

East Indian. India depends upon the monsoon for
its moisture, and the success or failure of the crop is
decided by that phenomenon of nature. Indian cottons
as a rule are coarser and shorter than American cottons.
The land is prepared before the breaking of the monsoon,
and the planting begins after it. There is not the
same care bestowed upon the cultivation of the Indian
cotton, nor are such improved methods practised as in
America. The ancient routine of past generations
[Pg 108]
still persists, and as a consequence the yield per acre
is less than one-half that of America. Moreover the
acreage planted is only about two-thirds that of
America. The better growths of East Indian cotton
were once largely used in this country for filling, owing
to their good color and cleanliness; but of late years
the consumption has steadily decreased, owing chiefly
to the increased takings by the Indian mills, also to
the exports to China and Japan, and to the preference
shown by English spinners for American cotton.

Egyptian Cotton. Egyptian cotton, on account of
its long staple and silky gloss, is imported in considerable
quantities. Egyptian is largely used in the manufacture
of hosiery, and also for mixing with worsted
yarn. Owing to its gloss it is used for mixing with
silk, and on account of its strength it is made into the
finer sewing threads. Egyptian cotton is sometimes
so charged with grease that it has a greasy smell; and
to make it workable it is necessary to sprinkle it with
whitening. It has been observed that velvets woven
(or piled) with Egyptian filling do not finish as well
as when picked with yarns made from American cotton,
the reason for this being that the greasy nature of the
Egyptian cotton fiber often varies in strength, causing
different shades in the finished goods. This greasy
nature is said to be due to two things: (1) the fertility
of the soil; (2) the extent to which the cell walls of the
fibers are developed.

In addition to cotton, other crops are grown in Egypt—rice,
sugar, beans, barley, onions, etc.—and the
[Pg 109]
acreage devoted to cotton is regulated to some extent
by the prospects as to which crops are likely to pay
best. It is calculated that not more than one-third of
the area is usually devoted to cotton.

Sea Island Cotton. This is the finest growth of cotton,
and it commands the highest price. The staple,
which is long and silky, varies in length from one and a
half to two and a half inches. It is used for making fine
muslins, laces, spool cotton, and other fabrics, and is
also largely mixed with silk. It is said that this cotton
was first introduced into America in 1786 from the
Bahama Islands, whither it had been brought from the
West Indies. It was first cultivated in Georgia, where
it was found that the small islands running along the
coast were best adapted for its growth, hence the name
“Sea Island.” It was also grown on the uplands of
Georgia, but although remaining good, the quality
deteriorated. Counts as high as four hundred are occasionally
spun in Sea Island cotton.

Other Varieties. Cotton grown in the Southern States
under widely varying conditions of the soil, climate,
and care in cultivation, naturally varies in length,
strength, and other qualities of staple. Cotton known
as “Uplands” or “Boweds” varies in length from
three-fourths to one and one-sixteenth inches and is
used for filling; this is grown in North and South
Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, and Tennessee.
Cotton used for twist is grown in Texas, Louisiana,
Mississippi, and Arkansas, and the length of the staple
varies from one to one and three-sixteenths inches. In
[Pg 110]
the swampy and bottom lands in some of the states
(notably Alabama, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Arkansas),
cotton is grown with staple ranging from one and
one-eighth to one and one-fourth inches. In addition
to these, there are especially long stapled growths,
known as “Extras,” “Allen Seed,” and “Peelers,”
which measure one and three-eighths to one and five-eighths
inches. Of late there has been an extensive
demand for long-stapled American cotton (one and
three-sixteenths to one and one-half inches), owing
to the development of fine spinning.

Cotton Raising. Cotton is planted with a machine,
which puts it under the ground about one and one-half
to two inches. It is not planted as corn is, that is,
dropped so far apart, but is planted in a continuous
stream. After the cotton comes up out of the ground,
when it is about three inches high, it is hoed by ordinary
labor with a hoe, and is cut out or, rather, thinned.
This is called “chopping out” and is for the purpose
of removing the inferior or weak plants until only one
strong plant is left. The distance between the plants
depends on the nature of the plant, frequently about
twelve inches being left between them.

The American Crop. The first step taken is the
preparation of the ground for planting. This begins
in the southern part of Texas as early as the middle of
January, in Florida about the third week; in Alabama,
Georgia, Mississippi, and Louisiana, about the beginning
of February; in Arkansas, Tennessee, and South
Carolina from about the middle of February to the
[Pg 111]
beginning of March. Actual planting begins according
to latitude, principally from the middle of March to
the middle of April, and ends in the first half of May.
These dates, however, are dependent upon the state of
the weather. When the weather is unusually wet the
start is late. The plant suffers from the rank growth of
grass and weeds, and extra labor is required to keep the
fields clean. In abnormally hot weather, especially after
rains, the plant sheds its leaves, thus exposing the bolls,
which fall off, whereupon replanting becomes necessary.
In addition to injuries by the weather the cotton-plant
is subject to depredations by insects. Of late years the
greatest pest has been the Mexican boll weevil.

The cotton-plant blooms ten or eleven weeks after
planting. An early bloom is taken as a sign of good
crops. When the crop is an early one, picking may
commence in the districts in which it ripens first in the
latter half of July; but the usual date is the beginning
of August, following on in the various districts in succession
until the early part of September. The plant
goes on fruiting as long as the weather is mild and open.
It finishes in the early regions about the beginning of
December, the others following through December and
closing in the later regions about the middle of January.
Frosts play an important part in the ultimate yield.
An early killing frost over the entire belt would curtail
the size of the crop by 500,000 bales in a season, as was
the case in 1909 when about 32,000,000 acres were
planted. Light frosts and late frosts do little harm to
the cotton-plant; in fact it is contended that the late
[Pg 112]
frosts do much good under certain conditions of the
crop, by opening the bolls that otherwise would not
open, and thus adding to the quantity of the late pickings.
The effect of frost upon the lint so picked is to
produce tinged and stained cotton. Early killing frosts
occur in some seasons in the early part of November,
when much of the yield may be curtailed. When
killing frosts occur late in the season, when the fruiting
is practically over, it has little or no effect upon the
yield except as regards the color.

The ripening of the crop proceeds in three stages,
the bolls nearest the ground maturing first, then those
around the middle of the plant, and lastly the top crop.
Pods half ripe are often forced open and the fiber sent
on with good cotton. East Indian is more highly
charged with unripe cotton than American. The work
of picking is not heavy, but becomes tedious from its
sameness. Each hand as he goes to the field is supplied
with a large basket and a bag. The basket is
left at the head of the cotton row, the bag being suspended
from the picker’s shoulder by a strap, and
used to hold the cotton as it is plucked from the boll.
When the bag is full it is emptied into the basket, and
this routine continued throughout the day. Each
hand picks from 140 to 180 pounds of cotton per day.
The average yield in the South varies from 500 to 600
pounds per acre. Every boll of cotton contains seeds
resembling unground coffee; when these have been removed
by the gin, there remains about one-third the
weight of the boll in clean cotton.

[Pg 113]

PICKING COTTON

[Pg 114]
Ginning. The next operation to which cotton is
subjected is that of ginning, or separating the seeds
from the fiber. This work was formerly accomplished
by hand, and so great was the quantity of seeds that
frequently an entire day was occupied by a workman
in separating them from one pound of cotton. At the
present day the devices for separating the lint from
the seed are of two classes: roller gins and saw gins.
The former device is the more ancient, having been
used from the earliest times by the Hindoos. In its
simplest form it consists of two rollers made of metal
or hard wood, fixed in rude frames, through which the
cotton is drawn and the seeds forced out in the process.
An improved form of the roller gin is at present used
for cleaning the long-staple Sea Island cotton. The
saw gin, which works on an entirely different principle,
is the machine which, with its improvements and
modifications, has separated the seed from fiber almost
exclusively for one hundred years of American cotton
growing. In this machine the seed cotton is fed into a
box, one side of which is formed of a grating of metal
strips set close together, leaving a narrow opening from
one-eighth to a quarter of an inch wide. Into these
openings a row or “gang” of thin circular saws project
mounted upon a revolving mandrel. The long, protruding
teeth of the saws, whirling rapidly, catch the
fibers, and pull them away from the seeds. The latter,
being too large to pass through the openings of the
grating, roll downward and out of the machine. The
lint, removed from the row of saws by a revolving
[Pg 115]
brush, passes between rollers and is delivered from the
machine in the form of a lap or bat.

This machine is responsible for much of the “nep”
(or knots) found in American cotton, which is caused
when the machine is overcharged. The Whitney gin
will turn through more cotton than any other type of
machine, and will clean from 200 to 300 pounds per
hour. When the machine is
running at high speed the
tendency is to string and knot
the cotton.

COTTON GIN
The upper figure shows Whitney’s invention.
The lower figure shows a later
form.

The working of the ordinary
gin is as follows: The wagon
loaded with cotton is driven
under a galvanized spout
called the sucker, through
which there is a suction of
air which draws the cotton
into the gins. In each of
the gins there are seventy
circular saws revolving on
one shaft. These saws are
about one inch apart, and
the teeth go through the gin breast, much as if one
were to put the teeth of one comb into the teeth of
another comb. This process takes the lint cotton off the
seed, and by the use of brushes the cotton goes into the
lint flute, into the condenser, and into the box, where
it is revolved and made into a bale. While the lint is
going through this process, the seeds, being heavier and
[Pg 116]
smaller, draw to the bottom of the gins, fall into
an auger which is operated by a belt, and then are
dropped into a conveyor and carried to the seed pile
or houses. The lint goes in one direction and the
seed in another.

When the seed is taken from the cotton at the gin,
it is covered with a lint of cotton. In order to remove
this the seeds are put through a delinter, which takes
off the small, short fiber from the seeds, leaving them
clean. This seed is then put through a huller which
takes off the outside hull or thick skin. The kernel
is then put through a hydraulic press, which squeezes
the cotton-seed oil from it and leaves the “meal.”
Cotton-seed oil is used for many purposes, such as
making olive oil, butter or oleomargarine, lard, etc.
Of late an experiment has been made with the meal
for use in the place of flour, and has been pronounced
a success. Seed crushing has now become
an important industry, with the cotton crop each year
amounting to between 12,000,000 and 13,000,000 bales
of 450 pounds each.

The Cotton Gin. The cotton gin was invented in
1792 by Eli Whitney, a citizen of Georgia, but a native
of Massachusetts. The importance of this invention
to the cotton industry of the world cannot be overestimated.
It was the one thing needed to insure a
sufficient supply of raw material to meet the requirements
of newly invented machinery for spinning and
weaving. The result of Whitney’s invention was the
rapid extension of the culture of cotton in the United
[Pg 117]
States, and its permanent establishment as one of the
leading staples of the country.

Cotton Bales. After the cotton is ginned and baled
it is shipped to the mill. The standard size of a cotton
bale in the United States is 54 × 27 × 27 inches, and
contains nearly 500 pounds. To produce this bale
over 1,600 pounds of seed cotton are required. The
bales are wrapped in jute bagging and strapped with
sheet-iron bands, this covering adding about twenty-five
pounds to the weight of the bale.

The Bessonette cylindrical bale is turned out by a
self-feeding press, which receives the lap of lint from
the gin between two heavy rollers. The fiber is rolled
upon a long wooden spool so tightly as to press out
nearly all the air, and forms a package of uniform
shape and size throughout, having a diameter of fourteen
to sixteen inches. The bales are covered with
cotton cloth, held in place by small wire hoops. It is
claimed that the cotton is rolled so tightly by this
process that the bales are practically fireproof and
waterproof.

Egyptian bales are compressed into a shape similar
to the American bale, but the average weight is over
700 pounds.

The Indian bales, which are more closely compressed
than the American, usually weigh 400 pounds.

Cotton is purchased by the mill authorities in the
shape of a bale. The method is to purchase from
cotton brokers, samples being furnished to the buyer
from which to make selection.

[Pg 118]

STOREHOUSES

[Pg 119]
The commercial value of cotton is determined by
its length, fineness, strength, pliability, smoothness,
regularity, color, and cleanliness. As a rule, the cotton
that is the longest is also the finest, but by no means
the strongest. Thus, Sea Island cotton has the longest
staple with the least diameter, and Hinganghat (an
Indian cotton) is much inferior to it in both respects.
The strength of the latter, however, is 50 per cent
greater than the strength of Sea Island cotton. In
every other respect Sea Island cotton is in advance
over Hinganghat cotton. It is the most valuable,
especially for the production of fine yarns.

The most regular cotton is Orleans, in which the
length of the staple varies only a small fraction of an
inch. In consequence of this there is less loss in working
Orleans than is the case with the other cottons,
owing to the fact that their fibers vary in length.

The Leading Growths of Cotton. In order to purchase
the raw material of the cotton manufacture, to
arrange the “mixing” or have much to do with the raw
material in any other capacity, one should know as
much as possible of its characteristics; for ignorance
may cause much trouble and no little loss to those
who have to spin the cotton. Each crop differs from the
previous one to a greater or less degree, as it depends
entirely upon the weather. Thus, in a very dry season
there is a “droughty crop” which, while it may be
(and generally is) clean and well up in class, will be weak,
short, and of irregular fiber. In order to obtain the
desired length and strength of staple the buyer will
[Pg 120]
have to pay a relatively higher price than in what may
be termed a normal season.

FANCY COTTON LOOM

Again, in a crop that is poor in class, a defect that
may have been caused by too much rain in the early
or middle stages of its growth, or by unfavorable weather
for the production of cotton of good grade, the staple
will probably be all that could be desired, leafy and
small, but the buyer will have to pay more to obtain
his usual grade, especially if he requires it for good
[Pg 121]
filling. Then there are seasons when the crop turns
out fairly well in class and staple, but the cotton
is wasty, dirty, or abnormally leafy; and in this case
the buyer has to exercise great care and judgment in
calculating the extra loss that will ensue.

The terms of purchase of cotton include an allowance
of 4 per cent for tares. That is, a bale of cotton
weighing 400 pounds would be paid for as 384 pounds,
or should the buyer have reason to believe that the tares
are unusually heavy, he has the option of claiming the
actual tare. This is ascertained by stripping ten bales
and weighing the covering and the hoops, which means
considerable work, and although it is at the option of
the buyer, it is an exception rather than the rule.

As a result of these causes we find cotton divided
into the following grades:

Full Grades of Cotton. Egyptian cotton is graded
as follows: extra fine, fine, good, fully good fair, good
fair, fair, middling fair, middling.

Indian cotton is graded as follows: superfine, fine,
fully good, good, fully good fair, good fair, fully fair.

Brazilian cotton may be classed: fine, good, good
fair, fair, middling fair, middling.

American cotton has seven grades: fair, middling fair,
good middling, middling, low middling, good ordinary,
and ordinary.

In addition to the full grades there are half and
quarter grades. The American cottons are graded as
follows:

[Pg 122]

The following are a few of the leading varieties of
cotton, with the numbers of yarn they will make:

During the last few years considerable discussion
has taken place among mill men, both in this country
and abroad, bearing upon the subject of moisture contained
in baled cotton. Of course the natural moisture
in the cotton fiber varies, as might be expected, from
year to year, according to the character of the season
during the picking. The standard of moisture is based
upon what is known as regain, that is, if 100 parts of
absolutely dry cotton are exposed to the air, they will
[Pg 123]
absorb about 8½ per cent of moisture, although a much
higher per cent is sometimes found.

In some of the small Southern mills located in the
cotton raising section, the cotton is delivered by team
direct from the gin, without going through the compress.
In this way they save the greater part of transportation
expense. They also save in the strength of
the cotton fiber itself, since the process of compression
injures the fiber. They get better cotton, being nearer
the source of supply and having better opportunities
for selection.

When the cotton arrives in the shape of a bale, it is
necessary to cut ties and loosen up the cotton before
use. This may be done in two ways. One method
being to pull the bale apart by hand, and the other to
pass it through a bale breaker or similar machine,
which loosens up the cotton by means of beaters. It
now starts on a continuous journey through successive
machines until it is made into yarn. The yarn is made
into a warp, and the warp interlaced with the filling
yarn to make cloth, and the cloth finished for the market.

Not every country is adapted for making cotton yarn,
for certain conditions are necessary to manufacture
good yarn. If the atmosphere is too warm or too dry,
the fibers will become brittle and will not twist well;
if too wet they collapse and stick. Lancashire County,
England, seems to have been fitted by nature for cotton
spinning. It has just the right climate, a moist temperature,
and copious water supply. There are hills
on the east of the valley, forming a water shed, and the
[Pg 124]
town lies in a basin covered with a bed of stiff clay, that
holds the water, allowing it to evaporate just fast enough
to keep the air in the moist condition needed to fit the
fibers for weaving. Countries that have not these conditions
are obliged to produce them by artificial means—humidifying,
etc.

PICKER ROOM

1. Hopper where the cotton from the bale is fed into Picker.
2. “Lap” showing how the cotton is prepared for the card.
3. Picker Machine (complete).

[Pg 125]

CHAPTER X

MANUFACTURE OF COTTON YARN

PICKER ROOM—SHOWING END VIEW OF PICKER

1. Lap of Cotton.

Picker Room. The first step in the conversion of
the bale of cotton into yarn consists in giving the cotton
fibers a thorough cleaning. This is accomplished
by feeding the cotton to a series of picker machines
called in order, bale breaker, cotton opener and automatic
feeder, breaker picker, intermediate picker, and
[Pg 126]
finisher picker. These machines pull to shreds the
matted locks and wads of cotton (as we find them
in the bale), beat out the dirt, stones, and seeds, and
finally leave the cotton in the form of batting upon
the cylinders; this batting passes from one machine to
another until it issues from the finisher picker as a
downy roll or lap.

(Sometimes the bale breaker is not used in the mill.)

CARD ROOM

1. Roving Can—receptacle to hold the sliver. After it is filled it is transferred to either
ribbon lap machine or drawing frame.
2. Cylinder of the card. The cotton is on this cylinder in the form of a web.

Carding Machine. When the lap of cotton leaves
the picker it goes to the carding machine, where it is
combed into parallel fibers by means of a revolving
cylinder covered with wire teeth called card clothing.
[Pg 127]
As the cotton is fed to the card in the form of a sheet or
lap from the picker, it is supposed to have been freed
from a considerable quantity of sand, seed, etc., but
there still remain nep, fine leaf, and short fibers, which
are removed during carding.

On leaving the card cylinder the lap has become a
gossamer-like web thirty-nine inches broad. This web
next passes through small “eyes,” which condense it
into a narrow band about an inch in width, known
as card sliver.

When a lap is delivered from the finisher picker, it
should weigh a given number of ounces per yard. The
method of ascertaining the weight is to make each lap
a standard number of yards in length and weigh each
lap. The machine can be regulated so as to give the
desired weight per yard.

Combing. When an extremely fine and strong yarn
is required, in addition to carding, the fibers are also
subjected to the process of “combing.” This may be
said to be merely a continuation of the carding process
to a more perfect degree. The chief object is to extract
all fibers below a certain required length, and cast them
aside as “waste.” This is done in order to secure the
very best fibers calculated to give the strongest and best
results in the spun yarn.

The process of combing follows carding. The card
delivers the cotton in the form of a sliver or strand,
while the combing machine requires the fibers to be
delivered to it in the form of sheets, nine to twelve
inches wide. This is done by taking a number of card
[Pg 128]
slivers and forming a lap of them by passing the sliver
through a sliver lap machine. The laps are passed
through the comber. This machine consists essentially
of a series of rollers, nippers, and rows of metal teeth.
By the action of these, the short fibers are separated
and combed out, and the long ones arranged in parallel
order in the form of a thin, silky strand, in which condition
it is sent to the drawing frames to be drawn
out. Of course it must be understood that a combing
machine is used by only a small percentage of cotton
spinners. For ordinary purposes a sufficiently good
quality can be made without a comber. As there is
from 15 to 35 per cent waste to this operation it may be
readily seen that it is costly, and limited entirely to the
production of the very best and finest yarns, such as
those intended for sewing or machine thread, fine
hosiery, lace curtains, underwear, imitation silks, and
fine grades of white goods. There are combing machines
that comb short staple cotton.

Drawing. The cans containing the slivers are taken
from the card or combing machine (as the case may
be) to the drawing frame. The object of this machine
is mainly to equalize the slivers, combining a number
of them together so as to distribute the fibers uniformly.
The condition of the fibers on leaving the card or comb
is such that a slight pull will lay them perfectly straight
or parallel, and this pull is given by the drawing frame
rollers. Of course the fibers coming from the comb are
parallel, but it is necessary to alternate them by the
drawing. The drawing frame is a machine consisting
of a number of sets of rollers, the front roller having a
greater speed than the rear ones.

[Pg 129]

COTTON COMB ROOM

1. The cotton in the form of a “lap” ready to pass through the comb.

[Pg 130]
The slivers, which are as nearly as possible the same
weight per yard, are combined together in the drawing
and emerge from the pair of front rollers as one sliver
weighing the same number of grains per yard as a single
sliver fed up at the back. This process is repeated two
or three times, according to requirements, the material
then being referred to as having passed through so
many “heads” of drawing. It is not unusual to pass
Indian and American cotton through three deliveries.

The object of all the processes thus far described has
been that of cleaning (in the picker), arranging the fibers
in a parallel position to each other, making uniform, and
drawing out the stock. In every case the stock delivered
from a machine is lighter than when fed into it, and contains
just twist enough to hold it together and prevent
its being stretched or strained when unwound from the
bobbin, and fed into the next machine. The minimum
amount of twist in roving is desirable for the reason
that it permits the stock to be drawn out more
easily and uniformly, the little twist that is put in the
roving by the slubber being practically eliminated
when it is passed through the rolls of the intermediate.
The same applies in the case of the roving passing from
the roving to the spinning frame.

Fly Frames. The process in the manufacture of
yarn after the cotton has passed through the drawing
frame consists of further attenuation of the sliver, but
as the cotton sliver has been drawn out as much as is
[Pg 131]
possible without breakage, a small amount of “twist”
is introduced to allow of the continued drawing out of
the sliver.

From the drawing frame, the drawing passes through
two, three, or four fly frames, according to the number
of yarn to be made. All these machines are identical
in principle and construction, and differ only in the
size of some of the working parts. They are the slubber,
intermediate, roving,—and fine or jack frame-fine,
and the function of each is to draw and twist.

ROVING DEPARTMENT

1. Slubber machine, showing sliver of cotton passing through the rolls and then given a
twist while it is wound on the bobbin.

Intermediate Frame. The function of the intermediate
frame is to receive the slightly twisted rove
from the slubber and add thereto a little more twist
[Pg 132]
and draft. The rove is taken from two bobbins to one
spindle in the machine, an arrangement which tends
to insure strength and uniformity. The principle of
the machine is in other respects the same as that of
the slubbing frame.

Roving Frame. The function of the roving frame
is to receive the twisted rove from the intermediate
and add more twist and draft, thereby further attenuating
the rove. As in the intermediate frame the rove is
generally taken from two bobbins for one spindle.

Fine or Jack Frame. This machine is used when
fine yarns have to be made. It is built on the same
principle as the preceding frames, the only difference
being that a finer rove is made from which finer numbers
of yarn can be spun. As in the slubber, intermediate,
and roving frames, the rove is taken from two bobbins
for one spindle.

Spinning. In the manufacture of single ply yarn
the final process is that of spinning, which consists in
drawing out the cotton roving to the required size, and
giving it the proper amount of twist necessary to make
the yarn of the required strength. While the spinning
frame is built on entirely different principles from the
roving, intermediate, or slubber frame, the object of each
machine is the same as that of the spinning frame. The
principal point of difference is the amount of twist
imparted to the cotton roving.

[Pg 133]

ROVING ROOM

1. A drawing frame showing the sliver of cotton passing through the machine.
2. A slubber showing the sliver passing through and wound on bobbins.
3. Roving machine showing the cotton passing from one bobbin through the roller to another.

[Pg 134]
The objects of the spinning process are:

1. Completion of the drawing out of the cotton roving
to the required size.

2. Insertion of the proper amount of twist to give
the thread produced strength.

Excessive speed causes defects in the yarn and undue
wear and tear on the machine.

There are two methods of spinning: ring spinning
and mule spinning. The mule spinning is the older
form. There are but few mule frames in operation in
this country.

Mule Spinning. The function of mule spinning is to
spin on the bare spindle, or upon the short paper tubes,
when such are required to form a base for the cop bottom.
The mule will spin any counts of yarn required, and is
especially adapted for yarn in which elasticity and
“cover” are essentials. Hosiery yarns are produced
on the ordinary cotton mule and are very soft spun.

The bobbins of roving are placed in a creel at the
back of the machine, the stands of roving being passed
through the rolls and drawn out in the same manner as
at the roving frame. The spindles are mounted on a
carriage which moves backward and forward in its
relation to the rolls, the distance roved being about five
feet. When the spindles are moving away from the
frame the stock is being delivered by the rolls, the
speed at which the spindles move away from the rolls
being just enough to keep the ends at a slight tension.
The twist is put in the yarn at the same time.

[Pg 135]

SPINNING ROOM. COTTON DEPARTMENT

1. Humidifier—an apparatus to give off moisture.
2. Spinning frames—showing the cotton as it comes from the roving frame and passes through the spinning frame.

[Pg 136]
When the spindles reach their greatest distance
from the rolls, the latter are automatically stopped and
the direction of the motion of the spindle carriage
reversed. The yarn is wound on the spindle while the
carriage is being moved back toward the rolls, the
motion of the rolls being stopped in the meanwhile,
the spindles revolving only fast enough to wind up
the thread that has been spun during the outward
move of the carriage.

The mule is a much more complicated machine than
the ring frame, its floor space is much greater, and more
skilled help is required for its operation. Under ordinary
conditions it is not practical to spin finer yarn
than No. 60s on a ring, while as high as No. 500s is said
to have been spun on a mule. The same number of
yarn can be spun on a mule with less twist than on the
ring. This is important in hosiery yarn.

Ring spinning is used for coarse numbers, and has
greater production and requires less labor than mule
spinning. Ring-spinning yarn is used for warp purposes.

Ring Spinning. The function of ring spinning is to
draw out the rove and spin it into yarn on a continuous
system. The yarn made is spun upon bobbins.

The ring spinning differs from mule spinning in having
the carriage replaced by a ring, from which the machine
takes its name. The ring is from one and one-half to
three inches in diameter, grooved inside and out, and
is connected with a flat steel wire shaped like the letter
D, called the “traveller.” Its office is to constitute a
drag upon the yarn, by means of which the latter is
wound upon a bobbin. Its size and weight depend on
the counts of yarns to be spun; coarse yarns demand
the largest ring and heaviest traveller.

[Pg 137]

MULE ROOM

1. Stocks from Finisher ready to be spun upon the mule.
2. Front Rollers with weight levers.
3. Clearers for Front Rollers.
4. Faller shafts containing Sickles.
5. Spindles.
6. Spun Yarn wound on cops.
7. Covers for carriage.
8. Body of carriage.
9. Drawing out band.
10. One of the wheels for the carriage.

[Pg 138]

CHAPTER XI

THREAD AND COTTON FINISHING

Thread. In general a twisted strand of cotton,
flax, wool, silk, etc., spun out to considerable length,
is called thread. In a specific sense, thread is a compound
cord consisting of two or more yarns firmly
united by twisting. Thread is used in some kinds
of weaving, but its principal use is for sewing, for
which purpose it is composed of either silk, cotton,
or flax. Thread made of silk is technically known as
sewing silk; that made of flax is known as linen thread;
while cotton thread intended for sewing is commonly
called spool cotton. These distinctions, while generally
observed by trade, are not always maintained by
the public.

The spool cotton of to-day is of a different grade
from that made before the sewing machine came into
general use. The early thread was but three cord, and
contained such a large number of knots, thin places,
etc., that it could not be worked satisfactorily on the
machines, so manufacturers were called upon to produce
a thread that would be of the same thickness in
every twist. This was effected by making the thread
of six cords instead of three, thereby producing a
smoother and more uniform strand.

[Pg 139]
Manufacturing Processes. The raw cotton for the
manufacture of thread must be of long staple. If the
fiber is short the thread made of it will be weak, and
hence unsuited for the purposes required of it. Ordinary
cotton is not adapted to the manufacture of the
better grades of spool cotton on account of the shortness
of its fiber. Egyptian and Sea Island cotton are
used because they have a much longer fiber and are
softer in texture. The raw cotton comes to the factory
packed in great bales, and is usually stored away for
some months before it is used. The first step in the
conversion of the bale of cotton into thread consists
in giving the fiber a thorough cleaning. This is accomplished
by feeding it to a series of pickers which pull the
matted locks and wads to shreds, beat out the dirt
and seeds, and roll the cotton in the form of batting
upon cylinders until it issues from the finisher lap
machines as a downy roll or lap.

The lap of cotton then goes to the carding rooms,
where it is combed into parallel fibers by means of a
revolving cylinder covered with fine wire teeth, sometimes
90,000 of them to the square foot. On leaving
the carding machines the lap has become a gossamer-like
web thirty-nine inches broad. This web is next passed
through a small “eye” which condenses it into a narrow
band about an inch in width, known as the sliver.
By this time the fiber has been so drawn out that one
yard of the original lap has become 360 yards of the
sliver. The sliver now looks almost perfect, but if it
were spun it would not make good thread. It is necessary
[Pg 140]
to lay every fiber as nearly parallel as possible,
so that there will be an equal number of fibers in the
strand per inch. Besides this, the remaining dirt and
short fibers must be removed and the knots and kinks
in the fibers straightened out. To accomplish these
objects the cotton must be “combed.” First, the
slivers are passed through several sets of rollers, each
set moving faster than the preceding, so that the strands
are drawn out fine and thin. In this condition the
cotton passes to a doubling frame, and from thence to
the lapping frame, a device combining six laps into one
and drawing the whole out into one fine, delicate, ropy
lap.

WARP ROOM

1. Beam on which the warp is wound.
2. Warp.
3. Creel.
4. Spools in the creel.

[Pg 141]
The comber now takes the lap and combs out all the
impurities and short fibers, at a sacrifice of about one-fifth
of the material; next, it combines six of these
fluffy combed rolls of fiber into one. A number of
these rolls are then drawn out by another machine
twelve times as long as they were before and twisted
together on a slubbing frame. This last drawing reduces
the roll to about the thickness of zephyr yarn.
After being further doubled and twisted, the yarn, or
roll, is ready for the mule spinner, which accomplishes
by means of hundreds of spindles and wheels what the
housewife once did with her spinning wheel. The
mule, however, does the work of more than 1,000 hand
spinners and takes up much less space. On this
machine 900 spindles take the yarn from 1,800 bobbins,
and by means of accelerating rollers and a carriage
draw out and twist it to the proper fineness for the size
of thread wanted. Having passed through the complex
processes of cleansing, combing, drawing, and
spinning, the cotton is now in the form of yarn of various
sizes, and the real work of thread making, which is a
distinct art from yarn making, begins.

The thread-making process is briefly as follows:
The yarn is doubled and twisted; then three of such
yarns are twisted together, which give the six-fold
combination for six-cord thread. For a three-cord
thread three yarns are twisted together. After the
twisting is completed the thread is reeled into skeins
having a continuous length of 4,000 to 12,000 yards,
according to the size, and is then sent to the examining
[Pg 142]
department where it is rigidly inspected. Every strand
is looked over, and any found to be defective are laid
aside, so that when the thread is put on the market it
shall be as perfect as care and skill can make it.

At this stage of the work the skeins of thread are
of the pale cream color common to all unbleached
cotton goods, and are technically known as “in the
gray.” They therefore have to be bleached pure
white or dyed in fast colors. The skeins, whether
intended for white or colored thread, are first placed in
large, steam-tight iron tanks and boiled. Here the
thread remains subjected to a furious boiling for six
or seven hours; when removed it is perfectly clean, but
still retains the brownish gray color of unbleached
cotton. It then goes into a bath of chloride of lime
and is bleached as white as snow. The skeins are next
drawn through an acid solution to neutralize the chloride.
Another boiling, another bleaching, a bath of
soapsuds, and the final rinsing, complete the cleansing
and whitening process. Those skeins intended for
colored threads are taken to the dyeing room and
placed in tanks filled with suitably prepared dyeing
solutions.

[Pg 143]

TWISTING ROOM

1. Humidifier.
2. Twister machine.
3. Boxes containing spools of cotton, ready to be put in creel and form warp.

[Pg 144]
From the bleaching and dyeing departments the
skeins of thread go back to the mill to be wound on the
bobbins, and from the bobbins finally on the small
wooden spools. The automatic winding machines can
be regulated to wind any given number of yards. The
small spools are fastened on pivots, the thread from
the bobbins fastened on the spools, and the machines
set in motion. At the required number of yards
the spools stop revolving. The ordinary spool of
cotton thread contains 200 yards, and when this has
been wound on, the thread is cut with a knife by an
attendant, who also cuts the little nick in the rim of
the spool and fastens therein the end of the thread.
Thread mills commonly print their own labels, and
these are affixed to the spools by special machinery
with remarkable rapidity. From the labeling machine
the spools go to an inspector, who examines each one
for imperfections, and any that are found faulty are
discarded. When packed in pasteboard boxes or in
cabinets the thread is ready for market.

Thread Numbers. Spool cotton for ordinary use is
made in sizes ranging from No. 8 coarse to No. 200
fine. In cotton yarn numbering, the fineness of the
spun strand is denoted by the number of hanks, each
containing 840 yards, which are required to weigh
one pound, as illustrated in the following table:

The early manufactured thread was three cord, and
took its number from the size of the yarn from which
it was made. No. 60 yarn made No. 60 thread, though
in point of fact the actual caliber of No. 60 thread
would equal No. 20 yarn, being three No. 60 strands
[Pg 145]
combined together. When the sewing machine came
into the market as the great consumer of thread, spool
cotton had to be made a smoother and more even
product than had previously been necessary for hand
needles. This was accomplished by using six strands
instead of three, the yarns being twice as fine. As thread
numbers were already established, they were not altered
for the new article, and consequently at the present time
No. 60 six-cord, for example, and No. 60 three-cord
are identical in size, though in reality No. 60 six-cord
is formed of No. 120 yarns. It is relatively smoother,
more even, and stronger than the three-cord grade.
All sizes of six-cord threads are made of six strands, each
of the latter being twice as fine as the number of the
thread as designated by the label. Three-cord spool
cotton is made of three strands of yarn, each of the
same number as the thread.

Sizing. In textile manufacturing, sizing is the
process of strengthening warp yarns by coating them
with a preparation of starch, flour, etc., in order that
they may withstand the weaving process without
chafing or breaking. The operation of sizing is also
often resorted to in finishing certain classes of cotton
and linen fabrics, which are sized or dressed with various
mixtures in order to create an appearance of weight
and strength where these qualities do not exist, or, if
present, only in a small degree. The object in sizing
warp yarn before weaving is to enable that process to
be performed with the minimum of threads breaking.
Judicious sizing adds to the strength of the yarn by
[Pg 146]
filling up the spaces between the fibers, and by binding
the loose ends on the outside of the thread to the main
part. In order to accomplish this a number of ingredients
are used in the size preparation, as no single
material used alone gives satisfactory results. The
filling up of the minute spaces in the yarns and the
adhesion of the fibers produce a smooth thread with
sufficient hardness to resist the continual chafing of the
shuttles, reeds, and harnesses during the process of weaving.
Flour and starch in a liquid state are used for this
purpose, but owing to the liability to mildew, flour is
not so much used as starch. Both of these materials,
however, make the yarn brittle, and other ingredients
are combined with them to overcome the brittleness.
For a softener on heavy weight goods nothing has been
found superior to good beef tallow. On light-weight
goods the softener giving the most general satisfaction
is paraffin.

When properly made the size preparation is a smooth
mass of uniform consistence, free from lumps of any
kind, and from all sediment and odor. Starch—the
principal material which gives body to any size—requires
the most careful treatment. It is first mixed
with cold water into a smooth, creamy milk, which is
slowly poured into the necessary quantity of boiling
water until a clear, uniform paste is formed. Then the
softeners are added, such as soaps, oils, and animal
fats; next a small amount of gelatine or glue is stirred
in and some form of preservative, usually chloride of
zinc or salicylic acid. The mass is then thoroughly
[Pg 147]
stirred in tilted jacketed kettles with mechanical stirrers.
The size may be applied to the yarn either hot or cold.
When applied hot it penetrates into the interior, filling
up every space between the fibers, binding all together,
and forming a hard coating on the surface of the thread.
A thorough washing or steaming serves to remove all
the size from the woven fabric.

FINISHING ROOM

Cotton Finishing. Cotton fabrics, like other textiles,
after leaving the loom must be subjected to various
finishing processes so as to bring them into commercial
condition. On piece-dyed goods part of the finishing
is done before and part after the dyeing process. Each
class of fabrics has definite finishing processes. In
some cases weighting materials are added to the fabric
[Pg 148]
so as to hide more or less its actual construction. Cotton
fabrics just from the loom present a soft and open
structure, more so than other textiles. Therefore it
is necessary to use proper finishing materials and processes
which will fill up the openings or interstices
as produced in the fabric by the interlacing of warp
and filling, and at the same time give to the fabric a
certain amount of stiffness. Of course this finish will
disappear during wear or washing, it having been imparted
to the fabric to bring the latter into a salable
condition.

Cotton fabrics after weaving may be subjected to
the following sub-processes of finishing:

Inspecting, Burling and Trimming, Bleaching, Washing,
Scutching, Drying.

After the cloth leaves the loom it is brushed; then it
passes over to the inspection table in an upward receding
direction, so that the eye of the operator can readily
detect imperfections. The ends of two or more
pieces as coming from the loom are sewed into a string
for convenient handling in the bleaching.

Bleaching. The object of bleaching is to free the
cotton from its natural color. The ancient method of
bleaching by exposure to the action of the sun’s rays
and frequent wetting has been superseded by a more
complicated process involving the use of various chemicals.
Pieces of cloth are tacked together (sewed) to
form one continuous piece of from three to one thousand
yards in length. The cloth is next passed over hot
cylinders or a row of small gas jets to remove all the
[Pg 149]
fine, loose down from the surface. The goods are then
washed and allowed to remain in a wet condition for a
few hours, after which they are passed through milk of
lime under heavy pressure, followed by rinsing in clear
water. The goods are next “scoured” in water acidulated
with hydrochloric acid, and boiled in a solution
of soda, then washed as before in clear water. Next
they are chlorined by being laid in a stone cistern containing
a solution of chloride of lime and allowed to remain
a few hours. This operation requires great care in
the preparation of the chloride of lime, for if the smallest
particle of undissolved bleaching powder is allowed
to come in contact with and remain upon the cloth it
is liable to produce holes. The goods are then boiled
for four or five hours in a solution of carbonate of soda,
after which they are washed. They are again chlorined
as before and washed. The long strips are finally
scoured in hydrochloric acid, washed, and well squeezed
between metal rollers covered with cloth. After squeezing
and drying, the cloth, if required for printing, needs
no further operation, but if intended to be marketed
in a white state, it must be finished, that is, starched or
calendered.

Starching. The starch is applied to the cloth by
means of rollers which dip into a vat containing the
solution, while other rollers remove the excess. Sometimes
the cloth is artificially weighted with fine clay or
gypsum, the object being to render the cloth solid in
appearance.

Calendering. The cloth is now put through the
[Pg 150]
calendering machine, the object of which is to give a
perfectly smooth and even surface, and sometimes a
superficial glaze; the common domestic smoothing iron
may be regarded as a form of a calendering utensil.
The cloth is first passed between the cylinders of a
machine two, three, or four times, according to the finish
desired. The calender finishes may be classed as dull,
luster, glazed, watered or moire, and embossed. The
calender always flattens and imparts a luster to the
cloth passed through it. With considerable pressure
between smooth rollers a soft, silky luster is given by
equal flattening of all the threads. By passing two folds
of the cloth at the same time between the rollers the
threads of one make an impression upon the other, and
give a wiry appearance. The iron rollers are sometimes
made hollow for the purpose of admitting steam
or gas in order to give a glaze finish. Embossing is
produced by passing the cloth under heated metal rollers
upon which are engraved suitable patterns, the effect
of which is the reproduction of the pattern upon the
surface of the cloth.

Mercerizing. This is a process of treating cotton
yarn or fabrics with caustic soda and sulphuric acid
whereby they are made stronger and heavier, and
given a silky luster and feel. The luster produced upon
cotton is due to two causes, the change in the structure
of the fiber, and the removing of the outer skin of the
fiber. The swelling of the fiber makes it rounder, so that
the rays of light as they fall upon the surface are reflected
instead of being absorbed. The quality and degree of
[Pg 151]
luster of mercerized cotton fabrics depends largely
upon the grade of cotton used. The long-staple Egyptian
and Sea Island cotton, so twisted as to leave the
fibers as nearly loose and parallel as possible, show the
best results. If the yarn is singed the result is a further
improvement. Yarns and fabrics constructed of the
ordinary grades of cotton cannot be mercerized to
advantage. The cost of producing high-grade mercerized
yarn is about three times that of an unmercerized
yarn of the same count, spun from the commoner
qualities of cotton.

Mercerized yarn is employed in almost every conceivable
manner, not only in the manufacture of half-silk
and half-wool fabrics, and in lustrous all-cotton
tissues, but also in the production of figures and
stripes of cotton goods having non-lustrous grounds.
Mercerized yarn used in connection with silk is difficult
to detect except by an expert eye.

Characteristics of a good piece of Cotton Cloth.
A perfect cotton fiber has little convolutions in it
which give the strong twist and spring to a good
thread. In this respect the Sea Island cotton is the
best. There are five things requisite for cotton cloth
to be good, viz.:

1. The cloth must be made of good fiber, that is
ripe and long.

2. The fiber must be carefully prepared. All the
processes must be well performed—for the very fine
thread fiber must be combed to remove poor fiber.
The combing, however, is not always done.

[Pg 152]
3. The warp and woof threads must be in good proportion.

4. The cloth must be soft, so that it will not crease
easily.

5. It must be carefully bleached—the chemicals
used must not be strong.

[Pg 153]

CHAPTER XII

KNITTING

The art and process of forming fabrics by looping
a single thread, either by hand with slender wires
or by means of a machine provided with hooked
needles, is called knitting. Crocheting is an analogous
art, but differs from knitting in the fact that the separate
loops are thrown off and finished by hand successively,
whereas in knitting the whole series of loops
which go to form one length or round are retained on
one or more needles, while a new series is being formed
on a separate needle. Netting is performed by knotting
threads into meshes that cannot be unraveled,
while knitting can be unraveled and the same thread
applied to any other use. Knitting is really carried on
without making knots; thus, the destruction of one
loop threatens the destruction of the whole web, unless
the meshes are reunited.

The principle of knitting is quite distinct from that of
weaving. In the weaving of cloth the yarns of one
system cross those of another system at right angles,
thus producing a solid, firm texture. The great elasticity
of any kind of texture produced by knitting is the chief
feature that distinguishes hosiery from woven stuffs.
The nature of the loop formed by the knitting needle
[Pg 154]
favors elongation and contraction without marring in
the least the general structure of the goods. Builders
of weavers’ looms have at times endeavored to secure
this elastic effect by certain manipulations of the mechanism
of the loom, but as yet nothing approaching the product
of the knitter has been made. The elastic feature
of a knitted texture renders it peculiarly adapted for all
classes and kinds of undergarments, for it not only fits
the body snugly, but expands more readily than any
other fabric of similar weight.

Knitting Machines. There are various machines
for knitting. The circular knitting machine produces
a circular web of various degrees of fineness, and in
sizes ranging from a child’s stocking to a man’s No. 50
undershirt. The circular fabric made in this manner
has to be cut up and joined together by some method
to make a complete garment. The knitting frame for
producing fashioned goods makes a flat strip, narrowing
and widening it at certain places so as to conform to the
shape of the foot, leg, or body. These strips then have
to be joined by sewing or knitting to form a garment.
Fashioning machines are indispensable for knitting the
Niantic and French foot, and also for the production
of stripes, fancy openwork, and lace hosiery.

[Pg 155]

KNITTING MACHINE FOR HOSIERY

[Pg 156]
All plain machines of any class produce only plain
knitted fabrics, while ribbed machines make only ribbed
fabrics. Still, many garments in their make-up include
both kinds of knitting; therefore, many machines produce
only certain parts of particular garments. In the case
of half-hose there is frequently a ribbed top, or in
underwear a ribbed cuff, and these may be made either
of circular web or full fashioned. In each case the
ribbed portion is first knit and then transferred to a
plain machine, and being placed upon the needles is
worked on to the rest of the garment. In some instances
the heel is made by the machine working the
leg, though there are numerous knitters specially
designed for turning out only this particular part.

Among other knitting machines in modern use are the
drawers machine; machines for hose and half-hose with
apparatus for making the instep, finishing off the toe,
splicing or thickening the heels, etc.; machines for producing
the bottoms or soles of hose separately, and also
the instep separately; circular stocking machines for
producing a tubular web afterwards cut into suitable
lengths for all varieties of hose; circular sleeve machines,
circular body machines, as well as circular web
machines for making both body and sleeves of undershirts,
jerseys, sweaters, etc. Special machines are
also made for knitting both plain and ribbed plaited
goods, that is, with both sides wool while the center is
of cotton, or with a silk or worsted face on one side and
the back of an inferior yarn. In the form of auxiliary
appliances are produced many kinds of stitching machines;
circular latch-needle machines for plain ribbed,
mock seam, and striped goods; steam presses; hose
rolling machines; hose cutting and welting machines,
and many other accessories to hosiery manufacture.

KNITTING MACHINE FOR UNDERWEAR

At present fully one-third of the knit underwear
used in this country is of the ribbed description. It
[Pg 157]
is made in all the materials that the older flat goods are
composed of, including silk, silk mixtures, linen, wool,
lisle, and cotton. Rib work is ordinarily stronger and
[Pg 158]
more lasting than plain. It is also invaluable for
many purposes on account of its tendency to contract
and expand in the direction of the circumference without
altering its length. This feature makes it indispensable
for tops to socks and wrist work for shirts,
mittens, gloves, etc., and for the production of heavy
garments such as cardigans and sweaters. The expense
of knitting rib work is higher than plain knitting, owing
to the fact that the machines cannot turn out so great
a quantity within a given time.

The formation of the rib in knitted goods is unique
in its principle. The effect is produced by reversing
the stitch. In place of making the stitch work appear
entirely upon one side of the fabric, as in plain work,
the needles are so arranged that every alternate row,
or two rows alternately, are reversed, thus making
both sides alike. Plain work is done with a single
bank of needles, while rib work requires two banks,
the function of the second one being to pull and loop
the yarn in an opposite direction, thus producing a
thicker and more elastic web.

Double work in knitting consists merely in running
two threads where one is commonly used. The work
is done readily and with but little extra cost for labor.
Coarser and heavier needles are required, also a wider
gauge for the needle cylinder. Fancy effects in double
work are produced by running two colors instead of
one. The tendency is for one thread to twine about
the other, thus making attractive double-and-twist
work. Lumbermen’s socks and like goods are often
[Pg 159]
knitted on this plan, though for the most part double
work is for the heels, toes, and soles of ordinary hose.

Stripe Knitting. The process of striping knitted
fabrics is accomplished automatically by a system of
changing the yarns when delivered by the feeds. Circular
machines knitting a tubular web cannot be utilized
for this purpose, hence the work is done on
fashioning or stocking frames. It has only been within
recent years that makers of knitting machinery have
been able to offer machines on which more than one
kind of yarn could be knit at one time. There are now
in use, however, machines that will readily knit several
colors of yarn at the same time.

Knitting Cotton. A variety of loosely twisted, four-ply
cotton yarn, dyed in various plain and mixed colors,
employed for knitting hosiery, tidies, mats, etc., by
hand. It is numbered from 8, coarse, to 20, fine, and
commonly put up sixteen balls in a box, each box
containing two pounds, manufacturer’s weight.

Knitting Silk. A loosely twisted silk thread of
domestic manufacture employed for knitting mittens,
stockings, and other articles by hand. It is also much
used for crochet work. Knitting silk is put up in the
form of balls, each containing one-half ounce of thread.
It is made in but two sizes, No. 300, coarse, and No.
500, fine; each ball of the former number contains 150
yards of silk; of the latter 250 yards. No. 500 is manufactured
only in white, cream, and black; the No. 300 is
fast dyed in a great variety of colors.

Hosiery Manufacture. According to the particular
[Pg 160]
method by which socks and stockings are made, of
whatever kind, quality, or material, they are classed
as cut goods, seamless, or full fashioned. Of the three
methods of manufacturing the first named is the least
expensive. Cut goods are made of round webbing
knitted on what is called a circular knitting machine.
The web has the appearance of a long roll of cloth
about the width of a sock or stocking when pressed
flat. The first operation consists in cutting off pieces
the length of the stocking desired, these lengths,
of course, being the same (unshaped) from end to
end. The shaping of the leg is effected either by cutting
out enough of the stocking from the calf to the
heel to allow part to be sewn up and shaped to fit the
ankle, or by shrinking. In the heeling room where
the pieces next go, the cutters are furnished with
gauges or patterns that indicate just where to make a
slit for the insertion of the heel, generally of a different
color. When the heel is sewn in, the stocking begins
to assume its rightful shape. The toe is now put on
and the stocking is practically finished. In the case
of socks the final operation consists in attaching the
ribbed top, which tends to draw the upper part of the
leg together, thus causing it to assume a better shape.
The final work includes scouring, dyeing, and shaping.
The cost of making cut goods is less by a few cents per
dozen than when knit seamless. While some very
creditable hose are produced in this way, yet the existence
of the heavy seam is an objection which confines
them to the poorest class of trade. Cut goods are
[Pg 161]
made in all sizes and kinds for men, women, and
children.

Seamless hose are made on a specially constructed
machine which produces the entire stocking, but leaves
the toe piece to be joined together by a looping attachment.
On half-hose the leg is made the same size
down to the ankle, but on ladies’ hose the stocking is
shaped somewhat in the machine. Seamless hose are
not, strictly speaking, entirely seamless, inasmuch as
all stockings made on a circular knitting machine must
have a seam somewhere. There must be a beginning
and an ending. In the case of the stocking the ending
is at the toe, and the opening left can only be closed with
a seam. In some mills this opening is automatically
stitched together on special machines; in others, girls
do it by hand with needle and thread. Neither by
machine nor handwork can the opening be closed with
exactly the same stitch as that made by the needles of
the power knitter. However, the seam is of small proportions,
and when the goods are scoured, pressed, and
finished the presence of the seam is a minor item, as it
neither incommodes the wearer nor mars the appearance
of the stocking. Seamless goods are made in a great
variety of qualities, ranging from cotton half-hose at
fifty cents per dozen to the fine worsted stockings at
$6.00 per dozen. A notable and very commendable
feature of seamless hose is the socket-like shape of the
heel, which fits that portion of the foot as though really
fitted to it. As far as comfort and fit are concerned,
the manufacture of seamless hosiery has now reached
[Pg 162]
such a degree of perfection as to bring it second only to
the full-fashioned variety.

Full-fashioned hose are produced by means of complicated
and expensive knitting frames, which automatically
drop the requisite number of stitches at the ankle so as
gradually to narrow the web down and give the stocking
the natural shape of the leg. The toe is produced in the
same way, and the shaping of heel and gusset is brought
about in like manner. Hence, the goods are called full-fashioned,
because so fashioned as to conform to the proportions
of the leg and foot. Hose and underwear made
by this method are knit in flat strips and then seamed
either by hand or machine. Generally special machines
are used, which take up and complete the selvedges,
thus avoiding objectionable seams with raw edges.

The knitting frames used for making full-fashioned
goods are large, intricate, expensive, and slow in operation;
they are difficult to keep in order and require
skilful operators. The largest ones knit from fourteen
to eighteen stockings at once, using as many as four
threads of different colors in the production of patterns.
The first operation consists in knitting the leg down to
the foot; then the legs are transferred by expert workmen
to another frame which knits the foot. Next they
go to another department where, with the aid of a
special looping machine, the heels and toes are stitched
together. Then the stockings or socks are handed over
to expert women operators, who seam up the legs on a
machine especially adapted for the purpose. After
being sorted they are taken to be dyed, boarded, stitched,
[Pg 163]
dried, and finally subjected to heat and pressure to
give them a finished appearance. It usually requires
two weeks from the time the manufacturing operations
begin, for a stocking to emerge from the factory in
a finished form. Full-fashioned hose are made in all
shades and grades of silk and cotton, in lisle thread,
and in all kinds of cashmere, merino, and woolen goods.
They are likewise knitted plain, ribbed, and with fancy
stripes and embroidery effects. In the United States
there are numerous important plants engaged in the
production of full-fashioned goods, while large quantities
are annually imported from Germany and France.

Finishing Process. When socks and stockings are
taken off of the knitting machines they present an unfinished
appearance, being loose, puckered, dirty, and
generally shapeless. Scouring, dyeing, shaping, and
pressing serve to improve their looks, and these finishing
operations constitute a distinct branch of the industry.
While still in a moist state the hose are shaped.
This is effected by the use of forming-boards made of
wood and about one-half of an inch in thickness. The
sock or stocking is carefully stretched over the “form”
while damp, and then placed in a heated chamber and
allowed to dry. The goods assume the shape of the
wooden “form,” and will always hold it if the work
has been carefully and thoroughly done. After they
have been taken from the drying chamber and the
boards removed the hose are pressed between heavy
metal plates or rollers, looked over for defects, and
when boxed or bundled are ready for market.

[Pg 164]

CHAPTER XIII

LACE

Lace. Lace is the name applied to an ornamental
open work of threads of flax, cotton, silk, gold, or
silver, and occasionally of mohair or aloe fiber. The
latter are used by the peasants of Italy and Spain.

Lace consists of two parts, the ground and the
flower. The threads may be looped, plaited, or twisted
in one of three ways. First, with a needle, when the
work is known as “needlepoint lace.” Second, when
bobbins, pins, and a pillow or cushion are used; this
is called “pillow lace.” Third, by machinery, when
imitations of both point and pillow lace patterns are
produced.

Special patterns for these laces date from the beginning
of the sixteenth century. The early productions
of the art had some analogy to weaving; the
patterns were stiff and geometrical, sometimes cut out
of linen or separately sewed and applied to the meshed
surface, but more frequently they were darned in, the
stitches being counted in, as in tapestry. This kind
was known as darned netting. With the development
of the renaissance of art, free flowing patterns and
figure subjects were introduced and worked in.

Whether of needlepoint or pillow make, both the
[Pg 165]
ornament and the ground are produced by the lace
maker. Needlepoint is made by first stitching the net
with thread along the outline of a pattern drawn on
paper or parchment, thus producing a skeleton thread
pattern. This threadwork serves as a foundation for the
different figures which are formed in the lace.

Bobbin or pillow lace more nearly resembles weaving.
The threads are fixed upon a circular or square pillow,
placed variously to suit the methods of manufacture
in vogue in different countries. The object of using the
pillow is to prevent too much handling of the lace.
One end of each thread is fastened to the cushion with
a pin, the main supply of thread being twined around
a small bobbin of wood, bone, or ivory. The threads
are twisted and plaited together by the lace maker, who
throws the bobbins over and under each other. The
operation is fairly simple, since children of eight or nine
years of age can be trained to it successfully. It demands,
however, considerable dexterity with the fingers.

The design for pillow lace must of course be adapted
to the technical requirements of the process, and cannot
therefore be the same as one for needlepoint, which
has a better appearance and greater strength than
pillow lace. For this reason it was in former times
generally preferred for wear on occasions of state. On
the other hand, pillow lace has the quality of charming
suppleness, and for use in mantillas, veils, and fichus
it is better than needlepoint, lending itself with delicate
softness and graceful flexibility as a covering to the
head and shoulders of women.

[Pg 166]

LACE TERMS DEFINED

[Pg 173]

CHAPTER XIV

COTTON FABRICS[16]

Albatross. Cotton albatross cloth is a fabric made
in imitation of a worsted fabric of the same name.
It has a fleecy surface. The name is taken from the
bird whose downy breast the finish of the fabric resembles.
The warp is usually 28s cotton, the filling 36s
cotton. It is a plain weave. Filling and warp count
48 picks per inch. The goods are finished by being
burled, sheared, washed, singed, dyed, rinsed, dried, and
pressed, care being taken not to press too hard. Sometimes
singeing is omitted. Albatross cloth is generally
in white, black, or solid colors. It is not often printed.
It is light in weight, and is used for dress goods.

Awning. A cotton cloth used as a cover to shelter
from sun rays.

Batiste. Batiste is of French origin, and is a light,
transparent cloth, made from a fine quality of combed
cotton yarn. There is a gradual variation in quality
ranging from a comparatively coarse to a very fine
fabric. The variety of qualities will suggest some
idea of the utility of the fabric. Its uses are even more
varied than are the qualities. The finer grades are
[Pg 174]
used for dress goods and all kinds of lingerie for summer
wear, etc., while the cheaper grades are used for linings
in washable and unwashable shirt waists. Batiste is
woven in the gray, that is, with yarn direct from the
spinning frame, with the exception that the warp yarn
is well sized, in order to stand better the strain to
which it is subjected during the weaving process.

Bourrette. A light weight, single cloth fabric, with
two-ply cotton warp and wool or a combination of cotton
and shoddy filling, made with the plain weave and in
appearance a semi-rough-faced woolen fabric with fancy
effects in twist scattered about it. It is used principally
for ladies’ fall suitings.

Bedford Cord. This is one of the most popular types
of fabrics, the distinguishing effect being a line or cord
running lengthwise of the cloth, the cord being more
or less prominent. The cloth is made of cotton, or
sometimes of worsted. The face effect of the Bedford
cord is generally plain. Occasionally twill-faced cords
are used. The cords vary in width from about one
twentieth to one quarter of an inch. To get extra
weight without altering the appearance of the face,
extra warp yarns, termed wadding ends, are inserted
between the face weave and the filling, floating at the
back of the rib. When these wadding ends are coarse,
they give a pronounced rounded appearance to the cord.
They run from 88 to 156 picks to an inch.

Buckram. Buckram is derived from Bokhara. It
may be described as a coarse, glue-sized fabric, and is
made of cotton, hemp, linen, or cotton and hair (coarse)
[Pg 175]
yarns, usually from 10s to 25s. Made of a double cloth
warp, 22s cotton, 34 picks to the inch, for the face or
top fabric 1/12’s[17]; weight from loom 2.22 ozs. per yard.
Bottom fabric 1/12’s cotton; filling 1/16’s cotton; 12 picks
to the inch. Weight per yard, 1.8 ounces. These fabrics
depend a great deal on the finishing. The men’s wear
requires less sizing on account of the hair it contains.
The goods are piece dyed. Buckram is used principally
for stiffening garments, and to give them shape or form.
It is placed between the lining and the surface cloth
of the garment in particular parts, such as the lapels,
etc. It is used in the millinery trade, and is made
into hats. Millinery buckram is sized two or three times.

Calico takes its name from Calicut, a city in India,
where cloth was first printed. The majority of inexpensive
cotton fabrics are constructed on the one up,
one down system, or plain weave. Calico is no exception
to this rule. The printed designs on calicoes may
be somewhat elaborate or they may be simple geometrical
figures. In order, however, to comply with the
true principles of art, such fabrics as calicoes should
have but simple geometrical figures for their ornamental
features. New styles and combinations of colors
are produced every month and faster and lighter color
printed each season. Most of the designs for calicoes
and cotton cloth printing are made in Paris. At present
the steam styles are most prominent; they are the fastest
and lightest to be obtained. Calico is a printed cloth,
[Pg 176]
the printing being done by a printing machine which
has a rotating impression cylinder on which the design
has been stamped or cut out. The cloth in passing
through the machine comes in contact with the impression
cylinder. The cylinder revolving in a color trough
takes up the color and leaves the impression of the
design on the cloth. Calicoes may be seen in almost
any color. The printing machine is capable of printing
several colors in one design. Calicoes, however, are
usually in two colors, that is, one color for ground and
the other for figure. The ground color in most cases is
effected by dyeing the cloth in some solid color. After
the cloth is dyed the design is printed on it. The cloth,
after it comes from the loom, is singed and bleached,
then sheared and brushed to take away all the lint, and
then sent to the dye house. The first process there
is to boil it, after which it is immersed in the dye tub.
Calicoes are usually given what may be termed a “cheap
cotton dye.” By “cheap cotton dye” is meant that
the colors are not fast, but will run or fade when subjected
to water. After the fabric is dyed, it is given to
the printer, who ornaments the face of the cloth with
some geometrical design; then it is practically ready
for the merchant. After printing, the cloth is dried and
steamed to fix the color, afterwards soaped, washed,
finished, and folded. The printing machine turns out
about 400 to 800 fifty-yard pieces a day. Calico is
used for inexpensive dresses, shirtwaists, wrappers, etc.

Cambric. Cambric is a heavy, glazed cotton fabric
with a smooth finish. It was first made in Cambrai,
[Pg 177]
France. It has a plain weave and a width of thirty-six
inches. Cambrics are dyed in a jig machine. After
dyeing they are run through a mangle containing
the sizing substance, then dried, dampened, and run
through a calender machine. The glossy effect is obtained
in this last finishing process. Cambric is used
for shirtwaists, dress goods, etc. The finer grades are
made from hard twisted cotton of good quality.

Canvas. This is a term applied to heavy, plain
weave cloths made with ply cotton yarn. They are
used for mail bags, covering for boats, etc.

Chambray. Chambray is a staple fabric of many
years standing, being next in rank among cotton goods
after the better grade of gingham. Chambray is a
light-weight single cloth fabric that is always woven
with a plain weave, and always has a white selvedge.
In effect it is a cloth having but one color in the warp,
and woven with a white filling, this combination producing
a solid color effect, the white filling reducing
any harshness of warp color in the cloth. It is composed
of one warp and one filling, either all cotton,
cotton and silk, or all silk. It is twenty-seven to thirty
inches in width and single 30s cotton warp to single
60s silk, the count of yarn being governed by the
weight per yard desired. The weight per finished yard
is two to three and one-half ounces. Good colors for
the warp are navy blue, dark brown, lavender, black,
nile green, etc. When made of cotton warp and filling
the fabric receives a regular gingham finish. The loom
width can be restored by tentering or running the
[Pg 178]
goods over a machine fitted underneath with a series
of coils of steam pipe. The top of this machine is
fitted with an endless chain with a row of steel needles
standing erect upon its face. Chains are adjusted
to the width desired, and as the machine runs, both
selvedges are caught by the needles and the cloth
stretched to the required width.

Cheese Cloth. This is a thin cotton fabric of light
weight and low counts of yarn, which ranks among the
cheapest in cotton goods. It is used for innumerable
purposes. The bleached fabric is used for wrapping
cheese and butter after they are pressed. It is also
much in demand for bunting for festival occasions,
light curtains, masquerade dresses, etc. When used
for bunting, draperies, and the like it is usually in colors,
red, blue, cream, and yellow seeming to have the greatest
demand. The weave is one and one or plain weave.

Chiné. Sometimes applied to glacé silk, or cotton
two-toned effects. The name is French, meaning woven
so as to have a mottled effect.

Chintz. Printed cotton cloth, with large, many-colored
designs, used for furniture covering. The
Hindoo wears it as a body covering. Chintz is the
Hindoo word meaning variegated.

Cotton Flannel. Napped cotton flannel. Made first
for trade in Canton, China.

Crash. A plain fabric for outing suits, towels, etc.

Crêpe. A fine, thin fabric of open texture made of
cotton.

Crepon. Large designs in figured crêpe. The name
[Pg 179]
applies to the crispiness of the finish and is from the
French word crêper, to make crisp.

Cretonne. Heavy cotton cloth printed in large
designs, for drapery and furniture use. Cretonne was a
Frenchman who first made the cloth.

Crinoline. Crinoline is a fabric composed of cotton
warp, horsehair filling, or all cotton yarns. It is sold
in varying widths, and is used by tailors and dress-makers
in stiffening clothing. It is a cheap cloth of
low texture and simple construction, the distinguishing
feature being the stiff finish with either a dull or highly
glazed face on the cloth.

Damask. A cloth of silk and cotton, silk and linen,
silk and wool, or all linen in flowered or geometrical
designs for drapery or table covering. The weaves
used are mostly twills and sateens. It takes its name
from Damascus, where it was first made.

Denim. This is a strong fabric usually made with a
two up and one down twill. It is used for overalls, furniture
covering, and floor covering.

Diaper. A figured cotton or linen fabric, which gets
its name from the Greek diapron, meaning figured. It
is generally of good quality as it is subject to excessive
washing.

Dimity. A light-weight cotton fabric, the distinguishing
feature of which is the cords or ribs running
warpwise through the cloth, and produced by doubling
the warp threads in either heddle or reed in sufficient
quantity to form the rib desired. The name is from a
Greek word meaning two-threaded. Dimity is a ladies’
[Pg 180]
summer dress fabric, and is made of regular cotton
yarn, from 1/60’s to the finest counts in both warp and
filling. It is made in both white and colors, solid
white being used in the most expensive grades. Colors
are often printed upon the face of the fabric after it
has been woven in the white.

Domet. This cloth is napped similar to a cotton
flannel. It is used for shirts, pajamas, etc., and made
with bright colored stripes and check patterns. The
name is from domestic, home made.

Duck. Duck is a heavy single cloth fabric made of
coarse two-ply yarn and of a plain weave. It derives
its name from its resemblance to a duck’s skin. It is of
a lighter weight than canvas. In finishing duck is taken
from the loom and washed and sized, then dried and
pressed. If a fancy solid color is desired the goods are
dyed in the piece after the first washing. Duck is used
in the manufacture of sails, tents, car curtains, and for
any purpose requiring a good water-tight fabric, which
will withstand rough usage. Duck has a stiff hard feel,
and excellent wearing qualities. The lighter weights
are used for ladies’ shirtwaist suits, men’s white trousers,
etc.

Drill. A cotton fabric of medium weight generally
made with the two up and one down twill. It is extensively
used for shoe linings.

Eolienne is the name applied to a fine dress fabric
characterized by having the filling of a much coarser
count than the warp, thus producing a corded effect
across the breadth of the goods. This class of goods
[Pg 181]
is made up of a raw silk warp and either cotton or
worsted filling, with the warp ends per inch greatly
in excess of picks per inch. The goods are made
up in gray, then dyed in the piece in any color the
trade desires. The darker shades find most favor
for fall and winter use, while the lighter shades are
preferred for summer wear. The width is from twenty-seven
to fifty inches, and the price per yard varies
from 85 cents to $1.25.

Etamine. An etamine is a thin, glossy fabric used
principally for women’s dress goods. Being a common
and popular material for summer wear, it is usually
made as a piece-dyed fabric. A good reason for making
it piece-dyed is that this method is much cheaper than
if the yarn is dyed previous to the weaving. Etamines
were originally made with worsted yarns, which of course
are more expensive; however, if a good quality of cotton
is used, there is little difference in appearance between
worsted and cotton etamine. The difference is chiefly
in the wearing quality, worsted being more durable.
The principal characteristic of an etamine is a crisp,
glossy, and open structure.

Flannelette is a narrow, light-weight fabric composed
of all cotton yarn, the filling being soft spun to permit
of the raising of a very slight nap on the back of the
goods. The cloth is woven with bleached yarn (warp
and filling), the color effects being afterwards printed
upon the face of the goods by the printing machine.
Flannelette is made with simple one or two colored stripe
patterns, either black and white or indigo blue and
[Pg 182]
white, and in imitation of a Jacquard pattern. The
finished fabrics are sold by the retailer at from eight
cents to twelve and one-half cents per yard, are
twenty-seven inches wide, and are used very extensively
in the manufacture of ladies’ wrappers, kimonos, etc.,
for house wear.

Fustian. A corded fabric made on the order of corduroy
and used in England for trouserings, etc. First
made at Fustat, a town on the Nile, near Cairo. Velveteen
and cordings in the lower, coarser grades were sometimes
called Fustian.

Galatea Cloth. Galatea cloth has been somewhat
in demand in recent years by women requiring serviceable
and neat-appearing cotton fabrics at a medium
price. It is usually finished twenty-seven inches wide
and retails at fourteen cents to twenty cents per yard.
It is shown in plain colors as well as in figures, and in
dotted and striped designs on white and colored grounds.
The patterns are obtained by printing. Some manufacturers
have found that they can take a standard type
of fabric and extend its use by varying the process of
finishing. The base of the cloth—that is, the fabric
previous to dyeing or printing or bleaching—is nothing
more than an ordinary 5-end warp sateen of fair quality.

Gauze. A veiling net, made in Gaza in Palestine.

Gingham. Gingham is a single cloth composed entirely
of cotton, and always woven with a plain weave.
It is yarn-dyed in stripes or checks and was originally of
Indian make. It is the most widely known fabric on the
market and is made in various grades, having from fifty
[Pg 183]
to seventy-six ends per inch in the reed, and of 1/26’s to
1/40’s cotton yarns in both warp and filling. It is a wash
fabric, made in both check and plaid patterns into which
an almost unlimited variety of color combinations are
introduced. Ginghams are made with from two colors,
warp and filling, to eight colors in warp and six in filling.
Ginghams are used most commonly in the manufacture
of ladies’ and children’s summer dresses and aprons.

Italian Cloth is a light, glossy fabric made from
cotton and worsted, cotton and wool, cotton and mohair,
and all cotton. It is used for linings for the heavier
styles of ladies’ dresses, also for underskirts, fancy
pillow backs, etc. The cloth is woven in the gray
undyed yarns. In the finer grades the warp is sized
so as to facilitate the weaving process.

Jaconet. A thin cotton fabric, heavier than cambric.
If properly made one side is glazed. Derived from the
French word jaconas.

Khaki. Twilled cotton cloth of a brown dust color,
first used for men’s clothing in India. The word khaki
is Indian for earth, or dust-colored.

Lawn. Lawn is a light-weight single cloth wash
fabric, weighing from one and one fourth to two and one
fourth ounces per yard, and in widths from thirty-six
to forty inches finished. It is composed of all cotton
yarns (bleached) from 1/40’s to 1/100’s, and is always woven
with a plain weave, one up, one down. The name is
from Laon, a place near Rheims, France, where lawn
was extensively made. Plain lawn is made of solid white
or bleached yarn in both warp and filling. The fancier
[Pg 184]
grades, or those having color effects, are produced by
printing vines, floral stripes, small flowers, etc., in bright
colors in scattered effects on the face of the goods. The
patterns are always printed, never woven. Lawn,
when finished, should have a soft, smooth feel. Therefore
the finishing process includes brushing, very light
starching or sizing, then calendering or pressing. Lawns
have to be handled carefully in the bleaching process,
starched with an ordinary starch mangle (the sizing containing
a little blueing), finished on the Stenter machine,
and dried with hot air. Lawns are often tinted light
shades of blue, pink, cream, pearl, green, and other
light tints, with the direct colors added to the starch.
It is used principally in the manufacture of ladies’ and
children’s summer dresses, sash curtains, etc.

Lingerie. This relates to all sorts of ladies’ and
children’s undergarments, such as skirts, underskirts,
infants’ short dresses, chemises, night robes, drawers,
corset covers, etc.

Linon is a fine, closely woven plain fabric, well
known for its excellent wearing and washing qualities.
It is made from combed cotton yarns of long-stapled
stocks to resemble as closely as possible fine linen fabrics.
The cloth structure is firmly made in the loom.

Long Cloth is a fine cotton fabric of superior quality,
made with a fine grade of cotton yarn of medium twist.
Originally the fabric was manufactured in England,
and subsequently imitated in the United States. The
fabric is used for infants’ long dresses, from which it
derives its name, and for lingerie. Long cloth to some
[Pg 185]
extent resembles batiste, fine muslins, India linen, and
cambric. It is distinguished from these fabrics by the
closeness of its weave, and when finished the fabric
possesses a whiter appearance, due to the closeness of
the weave and the soft twist of the yarn. It is not used
as a dress fabric, chiefly because of its finished appearance,
which is similar in all respects to fabrics which we
have been accustomed to see used solely for lingerie,
nightgowns, etc.

Madras is a light-weight single cloth fabric, composed
of all cotton or cotton and silk, and has excellent wearing
qualities. It was at first a light-colored checked or
striped plain-faced cotton-silk fabric, made in Madras,
India, for sailors’ head-dress. It is twenty-seven inches
wide, and is made of varying grades, weighing from
two to three ounces per yard, and is used at all seasons
of the year. It is used by ladies for summer skirts,
shirtwaists, suits, etc., and by men in shirts. It is
known by the white and colored narrow-stripe warp
effects, and is made of cotton yarns ranging from 1/26 to
1/80 warp and filling, and from 50 to 100 or more ends
per inch. The utility of madras for nearly all classes of
people permits the greatest scope in creating both harmonious
and contrasting color and weave combinations.

The colors most in demand in this fabric are rich and
delicate shades of blue, rose, green, linen, tan, lavender,
and bright red; for prominent hair-line effects black,
navy blue, dark green, royal blue, and cherry red.
Good fast color is necessary as it is a wash fabric. If
inferior colors are used, they will surely spread during
[Pg 186]
the finishing processes, and will cause a clouded stripe
where a distinct one was intended.

Moreen. Heavy mohair, cotton, or silk and cotton
cloth, with worsted or moire face. The making of
moreen is interesting. The undyed cloth is placed in
a trough in as many layers as will take the finish. This
finish is imparted to the cloth by placing between the
layers sheets of manila paper; the contents of the trough
are then saturated with water; a heavy weighted roller is
then passed over the wetted paper and cloth, the movement
of the roller giving the cloth a watered face. It
can then be dyed and refinished. The design or marking
of moreen is different on every piece. Moreen was at
first made for upholstery and drapery use. It was
found to give a rustling sound similar to silk, so was
taken up for underskirts. The name is from the
French moire, meaning watering.

Mull. A soft cotton muslin of fine quality, made
first in India, later in Switzerland. The name in Hindoo
is mal, meaning soft, pliable.

Mummy. A plain weave of flax or linen yarn. Originally
the winding cloth of the Egyptian mummified
dead.

Muslin. A fine cotton cloth of plain weave originally
made in Mosul, a city on the banks of the Tigris, in Asia.

Nainsook. Nainsook is a light cotton fabric utilized
for various purposes, such as infants’ clothes, women’s
dress goods, lingerie, half curtains, etc. The striped
and plaid nainsook are used for the same purposes.
When the fabric is required for lingerie and infants’
[Pg 187]
clothes the English fabric is selected because of its
softness. When intended for dress or curtain fabric,
the French-finished fabric is chosen. The latter finish
consists of slightly stiffening and calendering the cloth.
The fabric may be distinguished from fine lawns, fine
batiste, and fine cambric by the fact that it has not
as firm construction or as much body, and the finish
is not as smooth or as stiff, but inclines to softness,
as the fabric has not the body to retain the finishing
material.

Organdie. An organdie may be defined as a fine,
translucent muslin used exclusively for dress goods.
The fabric is made in a variety of qualities as regards the
counts of yarn used, and in a variety of widths ranging
from eighteen to sixty inches. The plain organdie is
popular in pure white, although considerable quantities
are dyed in the solid colors, pale blue, pink, etc., while
the figured organdies are usually bleached pure white,
then printed with small floral designs. The printed
design is in from two to four colors, and in delicate shades
in conformity with the material. Organdie considered
in relation to cost as wearing material is rather
expensive. The reason for this is that it has a finish
peculiar to itself, so that when washed it does not
have the same appearance as before. It loses its crisp
feeling altogether.

Osnaburg. A coarse cloth of flax and tow, made in
America of cotton, in checks or plaids, and used for
furniture covering and mattress making. The town
of Osnaburg, in Germany, made the fabric first.

[Pg 188]
Percale. Percale is a closely woven fabric made
with a good quality of cotton yarn. The finer qualities
are used for handkerchiefs, aprons, etc., and when
used for these purposes are not printed, but bleached
after the fabric comes from the loom. Percale is chiefly
used for dress fabrics, and when used for this purpose is
generally printed on one side with geometrical figures,
generally black, although other colors may be seen.
The fabric is bleached before it is subjected to the
printing operations.

Percaline. Percaline is a highly finished and dressed
percale. The first process to which the cloth is subjected
is to boil it off, that is, to soak it in boiling water so as
to relieve it from foreign matter that it may have gathered
during the weaving, and at the same time to prepare it
for dyeing. After dyeing it is sized to stiffen it, and
also to increase the gloss on the cloth. After sizing it
is ready for the calender. In order to give it the highest
gloss the cloth is doubled lengthwise or the pieces are
put together back to back, and as it passes through the
rolls it is wet by steam, the rolls being well heated and
tightly set together. Percaline is used chiefly for
feminine wearing apparel, principally for linings, petticoats,
etc. These purposes require that the cloth shall
be solid color, the darker colors being preferred, as blue,
green, and black. Sometimes it is seen in lighter shades
of brown and tan. The most attention is given to the
finishing process.

Piqué. Piqué is a heavy cotton material woven in
corded or figured effects. The goods are used for such
[Pg 189]
purposes as ladies’ tailor-made suits, vestings, shirt
fronts, cravats, bedspreads, and the like. It was
originally woven in diamond-shaped designs to imitate
quilting. The name is French for quilting. The
plainest and most common fabrics of piqué are those in
which the pattern consists of straight cords extending
across the cloth in the direction of the weft. In the
construction of these fabrics, both a face and back warp
are required, and the cords are produced by all the back
warp threads being raised at intervals of six, eight, or
more picks over two or more picks of the face cloth,
which has a tendency to draw down on the surface of the
fabric. The goods are always woven white and no colors
are ever used. The face warp threads are generally
finer than the back warp threads, and are in the proportion
of two threads for the face and one thread for the
back. On the heavier and better grades of piqué coarse
picks called wadding are used to increase the weight,
and also to give more prominence to the cord effect.
They are introduced between the face and back cloths.
In the lightest and cheapest grades neither any wadding
nor back picks are used. In this case the back warp
threads float on the back of the fabric except when raising
over the face picks to form the cord. In the figured
piqué the binding of the back warp threads into the
face cloth is not done in straight lines as in plain piqué,
but the binding points are introduced so as to form
figures. These fabrics are woven in the white, and
the figures are purely the result of binding the face
and back cloths together.

[Pg 190]
Poplin. Poplin or popeline is a name given to a
class of goods distinguished by a rib or cord effect running
width way of the piece. It referred originally to a fabric
having a silk warp and a figure of wool filling heavier
than the warp. At the present time it refers more to a
ribbed fabric than to one made from any particular
combination of materials. Cotton poplin is usually
made with a plain weave, the rep effect being obtained
either by using a fine warp as compared with the filling,
or a large number of ends as compared with picks per
inch on both. Irish poplin is a light-weight variety of
poplin, sometimes called single poplin, and is celebrated
for its uniformly fine and excellent wearing qualities.
It is principally made in Dublin.

Plumetis. Sheer cotton or woolen cloth having
raised dots or figures in relief on plain ground. The
design shows a feathery effect, as in embroidery tambour.
The name is French for this kind of embroidery,
and is derived from plume, French for feather.

Rep. A fabric having a surface of a cord-like
appearance. The name is probably corrupted from
rib. It is used in making shirtwaists and skirts.

Sateen. Twilled cotton cloth of light weight, finished
to imitate silk satin. There are two kinds, viz., warp
sateen and filling sateen.

Scrim. Open mesh weave of cotton or linen for curtains
and linings. The name is from scrimp, referring
to economy in weaving.

Silesia is a light-weight single cloth fabric, having
a rather high texture, and weighing about three ounces
[Pg 191]
per yard. It is composed of all cotton yarn, and is
used principally as a lining for ladies’ and men’s clothing.
Silesia is woven of yarn in the gray state, and is
dyed in the piece in such colors as black, dark blue,
brown, drab, slate, steel, etc. An important feature is
the highly glazed or polished face of the goods, which
is due to the action of the heated roller in the calendering
machine upon the sizing.

Souffle. The largest designs of crepon show a raised
or puffed appearance. Souffle is from the French and
means puffed.

Swiss. From Switzerland, where the plain Swiss net
and figured cambric is a specialty in the St. Gall district.

Tape. Tape is a narrow fabric composed either of
cotton or linen yarns in warp and filling, and usually
made with a point or broken twill weave, the break in
the weave occurring in the center of the tape, and the
twill lines running in a right- and left-hand direction.
It is used as a trimming in the manufacture of clothing,
also as a binding in innumerable cases, and is sold by
the roll, each roll containing a certain number of yards.
It is made of all bleached and of regular yarns about
1/26’s to
1/30’s and
1/40’s cotton.

Tarletan. An open mesh of coarse cotton, used
mostly in fruit packing, sometimes for dress and drapery.
The name is from tarlantanna, Milanese for coarse
weave of linen and wool.

Terry Cloth or Turkish Toweling is a cotton pile
fabric. It is woven in such a way as to permit the
[Pg 192]
forming of a series of loops on each side of the cloth
in regular order. After leaving the loom each piece
is laid separately in the bleaching kier. Then the goods
are dried on a tenter frame, given a light starching to
add weight, run through a rubber rolled mangle and
again dried on a tenter frame. This cloth is used in the
manufacture of towels, Turkish bath robes, etc. Turkish
toweling is the original terry. The name is from the
French tirer, to draw or pull.

Zephyr Gingham is the finest grade of gingham made
and is a light-weight cotton fabric, composed of 1/40’s to
1/60’s cotton warp and filling yarns. It is woven with
either the plain weave or a small all-over dobby effect.
It is made in attractive patterns by using good fast
colors in warp and filling, and as a cloth has excellent
wearing qualities.

[Pg 193]

CHAPTER XV

FLAX

Flax. Flax or linen occupies the first position in
the group of stem fibers,[18] being not only the oldest, but
next to cotton the most important vegetable spinning
material known. Its value is increased by the fact
that the flax plant readily adapts itself to various conditions
of soil and climate, and in consequence has
gained access to northerly districts and cool highlands.
Although flax has lost some of its importance from the
successful competition of cotton, nevertheless it still
forms one of the chief articles of an industry which
merits all the care bestowed on its cultivation and
proves highly profitable.

The Physical Structure of Flax. Flax, when seen
under the microscope, looks like a long, cylindrical tube
of uniform thickness, with lumina so small as to be
visible only as straight black lines lengthwise of the
fiber, and frequently exhibits small transverse cracks.
It is never twisted like cotton fiber. Its color varies
from pale yellow to steel gray or greenish tints. The
[Pg 194]
difference in color is due chiefly to the process of
“retting.” Its average length is about twenty inches,
and its tensile strength is superior to that of cotton.
It will absorb moisture, 12 per cent being the
standard allowance made.

Flax is used for making linen thread and cloth, yarn,
twist, string fabric, and lace. In its composition it is
almost purely an unlignified cellulose, and its specific
gravity is 1.5.

Flax is a better conductor of heat than cotton, hence
linen goods always feel colder than cotton goods.

Russia produces more than one-half the world’s
supply of flax, but that from Belgium and Ireland is of
the best quality. Italy, France, Holland, and Egypt
are other important producers. The plant is an annual,
of delicate structure, and is gathered just before it is
ripe, the proper time being indicated by the changing
of the color from green to brown. At the time of
gathering the whole plant is uprooted, dried on the
ground, and finally rippled with iron combs, to separate
the stalks from the leaves, lateral shoots, and seeds.

The best fiber amounts to about 75 per cent of the
stalk. To separate this valuable commercial product
from the woody matter the stalks are first subjected to
a process termed retting, which is steeping them in
water until they are quite soft. Then follow the
mechanical processes to further the production of the
fiber and free it from all useless matter.

These are as follows:

1. Crushing or Beating. This consists of breaking
[Pg 195]
the woody matter with the aid of mallets or in stamping
mills.

2. Breaking. This is passing the stalks through a
series of horizontal rollers to break further the woody
matter and at the same time separate the greater part
of it from the fiber.

3. Scutching. The object of this process is to remove
completely the woody matter, and it is done by
means of rapidly revolving wooden arms or blades,
which beat the firmly held flax until it is sufficiently
cleaned and separated.

4. Hackling. The scutched flax is drawn through
iron combs which still further open the fiber. Fineness
of fiber depends upon the number of times it is hackled,
each time with a finer and finer instrument, which
secures the different degrees of subdivision. Then the
fibers are sorted and classified as to length and quality
and laid in parallel forms ready for spinning and manufacture
into linen.

PULLING FLAX IN MINNESOTA

[Pg 196]
Bleaching. Linen is bleached in the form of yarn,
thread, and cloth. This is a difficult and long process
owing to the large amount of natural impurities present
in flax fiber, and the difficulty of removing or dissolving
them. Bleaching is now done as a rule by chemical
processes, and when chemicals are used great care
must be taken about their strength and about the time
the cloth is allowed to remain in them. In olden times
sour buttermilk was applied to linen and rubbed in, and
then bleaching was finished out of doors by sun and rain.
“Unbleached” linen is treated in the same way as
bleached, only the process is not carried to such an
extent. In Ireland, famous for its bleaching, chemicals
are used in the earlier stages of this process, and then
fine linens are spread out on the grass to improve their
color, and to purge them completely of any chemicals
used. After bleaching, linen is washed, dried, starched,
and put through heavy machines to give it a glossy
finish, and it is then made up in pieces for sale.

Characteristics of Good Linen. Linen is noted for
its smoothness of texture, its brilliancy—which laundering
increases—its wearing qualities, and its exquisite
freshness. The celebrated Irish linen is the most valuable
staple in the market, and on account of its fineness
and strength, and particularly its bright color, it attains
an unapproachable excellence because the best processes
are used throughout the entire manufacture. Linen
is less elastic and pliable than cotton and bleaches and
dyes readily.

Flax from all countries is woven into table linen,
[Pg 197]
though very fine linen must have carefully prepared
fiber. Linen should be soft, yielding, and elastic, with
almost a leathery feel. Fineness of linen does not always
determine good wearing qualities.

Good linen ranges in price from 75 cents to $3.00.
Irish linen has a good bleach. French and Belgian
linens, while fine in thread, are not as serviceable as
Irish linen. Germany makes a good wearing linen, but
not a large variety of patterns. Scotch linens are now
used more than other kinds.

STACKS OF FLAX IN BELGIUM
Copyright by Underwood & Underwood, N. Y.

Sources of Flax

Russia,
Holland,
Belgium,
Germany,
Ireland,
Canada,
U. S. (for seed only).

[Pg 198]

Sources of Manufactured Linens

Scotland,
Ireland,
Germany,
Austria,
Belgium,
France,
Russia,
United States.

MANUFACTURED LINENS

Damasks and Napkins

Scotland,
Ireland,
Germany,
Belgium.

Towelings

Scotland,
Ireland,
Germany,
United States,
Russia.

Glass Checks

Ireland.

Canvas

Scotland,
Ireland.

Handkerchief Lawns, Cambrics, and Laces

Ireland,
Germany,
France.

Towels

Germany,
Scotland,
Ireland,
Austria,
U. S. (union).

Linen Sheetings

Ireland,
Belgium,
France,
Scotland.

Blouse or Dress Linens

Ireland,
Scotland.

Bleached Waist Linens

Ireland,
France,
Belgium.

Fancy Linens, Doylies, etc.

Germany,
France,
Japan,
Madeira Islands,
Island of Teneriffe.

[Pg 199]

CHAPTER XVI

HEMP

LOADING HEMP IN MANILA

Hemp is a fiber that is obtained from the hemp plant.
It grows principally in Russia, Poland, France, Italy,
Asia, India, the Philippines, Japan, and some parts of
the United States—Kentucky, Missouri, Tennessee,
Ohio, Indiana, and New York. The original country
of the hemp plant was doubtless Asia, probably that
[Pg 200]
part near the Caspian Sea. The preparatory treatment
is similar to that for the flax plant, except that
most of the work is done by machinery. Considered
chemically, in addition to cellulose, hemp fiber contains
a considerable amount of woody matter, differing
in this respect from cotton. Its properties are
color (pearl gray, with green or yellow tints), fineness
(which depends upon the quality of the hemp;
it is usually bought as fine as flax), and tensile
strength (which is considerable and greater than that
of flax). Its best qualities are its slight luster and
its ability to resist to a great extent the tendency
to rot under water. Owing to the fact that it is
difficult to bleach, it is used chiefly in making string,
cord, ropes, etc.

Sisal Hemp. Sisal hemp is a variety that grows
extensively in Central America and the West Indies.
The plant, the agava rigida, is similar to what is known
in this country as the century plant. The fiber is
found in the leaves which closely surround the stalks.
The common hemp on the other hand is found closely
surrounding the woody part of the stem. The fiber
of Sisal hemp is obtained by scraping away the fleshy
part of the leaves with large wooden knives or by
machines.

Manila Hemp. Manila hemp is obtained in the
Philippines. The plant belongs to the banana family
and grows as large as a small tree. The hemp is obtained
from the leaf stalks which appear to form the
trunk of the tree. The fiber is larger, not so stiff, but
[Pg 201]
stronger than Sisal hemp. The fiber of Russian hemp
is the strongest; that of Italian hemp the finest.

FIELD OF SISAL HEMP

Jute. Jute is the name given to the fibers found in
certain plants which grow principally in India, and the
East Indian Islands. The common jute comes principally
from the province of Bengal, India, where it was
first known to science in 1725. The term jute was
first applied to the fiber by Dr. Rosburgh in 1795. The
plant is cut just about the time when it appears
in full flower. The stalks are then bundled and retted
by steeping in pools of stagnant water.

Jute occupies third position in importance of vegetable
fibers in the manufacturing scale, being inferior
to cotton and flax. Hemp is stronger than jute. Jute
becomes weak when exposed to dampness.

It is extensively used for mixing with silk, cotton,
flax, hemp, and woolen fabrics. The coarse varieties
[Pg 202]
are made into coarse fabrics—sacks, packing cloth,
etc., while the finer varieties, in which the undesirable
quality of growing darker with age is less apparent, are
used for making carpets, curtains, and heavy plushes,
for which they are very suitable.

[Pg 203]

CHAPTER XVII

SILK

Silk. The silk of commerce is obtained from the
cocoons of several species of insects. These insects
resemble strongly the ordinary caterpillars. At a certain
period of its existence the silkworm gives off a
secretion of jelly-like substance. This hardens on
exposure to the air as the worm forces it out and winds
it about its body.

MOTH, SILKWORM, AND COCOONS

It takes about three days for the worm to form the
cocoon. After the cocoon has been formed the silkworm
passes from the form of a caterpillar into a
moth which cuts an opening through the cocoon and
flies away. It is very important that the moth should
not be allowed to escape from the cocoon; the mere
[Pg 204]
breaking of the cocoon greatly decreases the value of
the thread. The cocoon is preserved by killing the
chrysalis by heat.

There are a great many varieties of caterpillars, but
few of them secrete a sufficient quantity of silk to render
them of commercial value. The principal species is the
mulberry silkworm which produces most of the silk
in commerce. It is cultivated and fed on mulberry
leaves. There are other varieties of silkworms that are
not capable of being cultivated and are called wild silkworms.
The silk produced by the wild worms of China
and India is called “tussah” (or “tussur”). The
silk is inferior to that produced by the cultivated worms
and is used for making pile fabrics, such as velvet,
plush, etc.

The color of the cocoons varies greatly. Most of
the European cocoons are bright yellow, though some are
white. The Eastern cocoons, on the other hand, are
mostly white, while a few are yellow. The wild silks
are for the most part écru color, though some are pale
green. The color, except in the wild silks, is derived
from the gum which is secreted by the worm, and with
which the fibers are stuck together. This gum comprises
from 15 to 30 per cent of the weight and is
removed by boiling in soap and water before the silk
is dyed. All silks except the wild silks, after the gum
is removed, are from white to cream in color. The
tussah, or wild silks, remain an écru color.

REELING RAW SILK

The greatest care has to be exercised throughout in
the care of the moths, eggs, worms, and cocoons—this
[Pg 205]
being the succession of changes. That is, the moth
lays eggs which are collected and kept cool till the
proper season for incubation. They are then kept warm
during the time occupied in hatching, sometimes about
the person of the raiser. After a time these eggs hatch
out worms, tiny things hardly larger than the head of
a pin. After the worms are hatched they require constant
care and feeding with chopped mulberry leaves
till they reach maturity. They are then about three
inches in length, and spin their cocoons from a fiber
and gum which they secrete. When the cocoons are
spun the worms become chrysalises inside of them.
The cocoons are then collected and the chrysalises
[Pg 206]
killed, generally by heat, before they can again become
moths.

Raw Silk. The cocoons are next sent to the reelers
or filatures. A number of cocoons, greater or less,
according to the size of thread desired, are placed in a
basin of hot water, which softens the gum. After the
outside fibers are removed so that the ends run free,
the ends are collected through a guide and are wound
upon a reel. As the silk cools and dries, the gum
hardens, sticking the fibers from the different cocoons
together in one smooth thread varying in size according
to the number of cocoons used. After the silk
has been reeled and dried it is twisted into hanks
and sent to America and other countries as raw silk.

Most of the raw silk of commerce is produced in
China, Japan, and Italy. It is also produced to a large
extent in Italy, Turkey, and Greece, also France and
Portugal. The cultivation of silk is not only carried
on by private firms, but is encouraged by the government
to the extent of granting money to the manufacturers.

Various attempts have been made to raise silkworms
in the United States. All have failed on account of the
high price of labor necessary to feed the worms.

Throwing. The manufacture in the United States
begins with raw silk. We import our raw silk chiefly
from Italy, China, and Japan. It is handled here first
by the “throwster,” who winds it from the skein and
makes various kinds of thread for different purposes.

Raw silk wound on spools in a single thread, and
[Pg 207]
called singles is often used to make warps (that is, the
threads running lengthwise of a piece of cloth) for
piece-dyed goods, or cloth which is woven with the
gum in the silk, and afterward boiled out and dyed.
Singles are also sometimes used for filling (that is, cross
threads) in very thin fabrics.

Silk yarn that is used for weaving is divided into two
kinds, “tram” and “organzine.” Tram silk is made
by twisting two or more loosely twisted threads. It is
heavier than organzine and is used for filling. Organzine
silk is produced by uniting a number of strongly
twisted threads. It is used for warp. Crêpe yarn is
used in making crêpe, chiffon, and for other purposes.
It is very hard twisted thread, generally tram, from
forty to eighty turns per inch.

Embroidery silk is made by winding the raw silk,
putting a large number of ends together, giving them
a slack twist, then doubling and twisting in the reverse
direction with a slack twist.

Sewing silk is made by winding and doubling the
raw product, then twisting into tram, giving it a slack
twist, doubling and twisting in the reverse direction
under tension. Machine twist is similar, but three ply.

The principal fabrics made of silk are: silk, satin,
plush, chenille, crêpe, crepon, gauze, damask, brocade,
pongee, and ribbons. Silk thread and cord are also
extensively used. The United States is among the
leaders in the manufacture of silk fabrics.

Silk Waste. When the cocoons are softened for reeling
a certain portion of the silk is found to consist of
[Pg 208]
waste and broken threads. The tangled silk on the
outside of the cocoon is called floss. The residue after
reeling, and other wastes in reeling, are known as frisonnets.
Floss silk is not used for weaving. It is a slack
twisted tram, generally composed of a large number of
threads of singles.

Spun Silk. There is another class of threads made
from waste silk by spinning and known as spun silk.
Waste silks include the pierced cocoons, that is, those
from which the moth has come out by making the hole
and breaking the fibers in one end of the cocoon; the
waste made in the filatures in producing raw or reeled
silk, chiefly the outside fiber of the cocoon and the inside
next the chrysalis; and also the waste made in manufacture.
The waste silk is ungummed; that is, the gum
is removed from the fibers by boiling with soap, by
macerating or retting, or by chemical reagents.

After the gum is removed from the cocoons, they are
opened and combed, most of the chrysalis shell being
removed. The remainder, with other foreign matter, is
picked out by hand from the combed silk. The silk is
put through a number of drawing frames to get the
fibers even on the roving frames, where it first takes
the form of thread, then on the spinning frames,
where it is twisted. If it is to be used as singles,
the manufacture ends here. In two- or three-ply
yarns, the singles are doubled, twisted again, singed
by running through a gas flame, cleaned by friction,
controlled, that is, the knots and lumps taken out, and
then reeled into skeins for dyeing or put on spools.

[Pg 209]
Spun Numbers. There are two methods in general
use for numbering spun silk. In the French system,
the number is based on the singles, by the meters per
kilogram; two and three cord yarns have one-half,
one-third, etc., the length the numbers indicate.
Thus—

No. 100 singles has 100,000 meters per kilogram.
No. 2-100 has 50,000 meters per kilogram.
No. 3-100 has 33,333 meters per kilogram.

The other system which is more generally used in this
country, is the English system. The hank is 840 yards,
and the number of hanks in one pound avoirdupois is
the count of the yarn. It is based on the finished yarn,
and singles, two or three cord yarns of the same number
all have the same yards per pound. Thus—

No. 50 singles has 42,000 yards per pound.
No. 50-2 has 42,000 yards per pound.
No. 50-3 has 42,000 yards per pound.

Dyeing Yarns. Generally speaking there are two
large classes into which silk goods may be divided,
those in which the threads are colored before weaving
and called yarn-dyed goods, and those dyed or printed
after weaving and called piece-dyed or printed goods.
In dyeing yarns, the silk is first ungummed and cleaned
by boiling in soap and water, then washed in cold
water. If the thread is to be weighted, as is frequently
done, tin salts, iron, or other heavy material is deposited
on the fiber. If carried far, this is injurious, making
the silk tender and weak. Sometimes there is more
weighting than silk. Yarns are usually dyed in hot
[Pg 210]
liquors, aniline colors being the ones in most common
use to-day, though other dyes are used for special purposes.
Some yarns are dyed in the gum, and some
with a part of the gum left in. After dyeing, they are
washed in cold water, dried, and wound on spools.

Silk Dyeing. Silk occupies in several respects an
intermediate position between the animal and vegetable
fibers. Like wool, it is a highly nitrogenous
body, but contains no sulphur. It readily takes up
many of the colors which can be worked upon vegetable
fiber by the aid of the mordants. This is particularly
the case with reference to a large number of aniline
colors, which require merely to be dissolved and mixed
with perfectly clear water in the dye vessel. The great
attraction of silk for these colors simplifies silk dyeing
exceedingly. The sad colors, on the other hand, and
especially black, are in many cases exceedingly complex,
the main object of the dyer being not so much to
color the silk as to increase its weight.

Dyeing black on silk is unquestionably the most
important branch of silk dyeing, and it has probably
received more attention than any other branch, in consequence
of which it has been brought to a high degree
of perfection. Blacks on silks are produced both from
natural and artificial coloring matters, the former having,
so far, retained their pre-eminence despite the
recent discoveries of chemists. For various reasons
coal-tar colors have never proved successful in dyeing
black on silk. Since the discovery of America, logwood
blacks have formed the staple of the black-silk dyer,
[Pg 211]
who has carried their production to a high degree of
excellence. But unfortunately, besides aiming at a high
state of perfection in the actual dyeing operation, the
black-silk dyer has also aimed at increasing the weight
of the dyed silk, so that nowadays it is possible for him
to receive ten pounds of raw silk and to send out
fifty pounds of black silk, the extra forty pounds
being additions made in the process of dyeing.

WINDING SILK ON SWIFTS

Logwood black-silk dyeing consists essentially of
alternate dippings in separate baths with the mordant
and dyestuffs suitable for producing the required color
and weight. The number of dippings and the length
[Pg 212]
of time taken in each operation depend on the intensity
of the black wanted and the amount of weighting
which is desired. The chief substances used for weighting
are lead salts, catechu, iron, and nut-galls, with soap
and oil to soften in some degree the harshness of the
fabric which these minerals cause. As the details of
the operations are practically the same for all kinds of
logwood blacks (raven, jet, crape, dead black, etc.),
the method for producing one will suffice for all. The
process involves several distinct operations, as follows:

1. The Boiling Off. This is the removal of the gum
and natural coloring matter in the silk. It is accomplished
by boiling the skeins of silk in water and good
olive oil soap for about one hour. This dissolves the
gum and leaves the fiber clean and glossy.

2. Mordanting. This is done in a bath of nitrate
of iron, in which the skeins of silk are allowed to remain
one hour. The silk gains some in weight in this operation
by absorbing a quantity of the iron in the bath.
After having been dipped in the first bath three or four
times, it is ready for the soap and iron bath, in which
it is repeatedly immersed, the operation causing a
deposit of iron-soap on the fiber which adds to its
weight, but at the same time does not lessen its flexibility
and softness. Eight dippings in the iron and soap
bath increase the weight of the silk about 100 per cent.

3. Blue Bottoming. The next operation is to dye
the silk blue, which is done by immersing it in a solution
of potash. In this it is worked for half an hour,
when it acquires a deep blue color. It is then taken
[Pg 213]
out, and after rinsing is ready for the “weighting”
operations.

4. “Weighting” Bath. A catechu bath is now prepared,
in which the silk is entered and worked for an
hour, and then allowed to steep over night. The
result is that the blue on the silk is decomposed, and
the goods by absorbing the tannin in the catechu increase
in weight from 35 to 40 per cent. This bath is
the most important one in the dyeing of “weighted”
black silks, as the dyer can regulate the strength of the
bath by the addition of tin crystals so as to increase
the weight of the silk to an astonishing degree. The
proportion of tin crystals used is regulated by the number
of iron baths that have previously been given the
silk; if two baths of iron have been given, 5 per cent
of tin crystals are used; if four baths, 10 per cent, and
so on. The action of these chemicals is somewhat complex.
All that is known is that by reason of some peculiar
quality possessed by silk it is enabled to combine
with iron and tin, and that exposure to the air after the
baths fixes these chemicals permanently upon the fibers,
thus increasing their weight to almost any desired extent.
Silk, according to its quality and weight, will
take up of these substances from 50 to 200 per cent
without creating much suspicion. Instances have been
known in which silk has been increased nine times its
own weight. All the operations thus far have had for
their object the weighting of the silk, although the
blueing and the catechu baths have some influence
on the finished result. After these come the dyeing
[Pg 214]
operations proper, two in number, mordanting and
dyeing.

5. Mordanting. A bath of iron liquor heated to
130 degrees F. is provided. The silk is entered, worked
well for one hour, then wrung out and hung up to “age”
for two hours, after which it is ready for the logwood
dye.

6. Dyeing. A bath of logwood liquor is prepared to
which is added 10 per cent of fustic, and the solution is
brought to a temperature of 150 degrees F. In this the
silk is entered and worked for an hour, then taken out
and wrung dry. Sometimes the black does not come
up full enough, and in such cases the bath is repeated.

7. The final operation has for its object the restoration
of the luster and suppleness of the silk, which has
to some extent deteriorated from the many operations
through which it has passed. The brightening and
softening of the fiber are effected by immersing the silk
in a bath of olive oil in the form of an emulsion. In
this the silk is worked until it is thoroughly impregnated
with the oil, when it is taken out and wrung dry, after
which it is ready for the loom. Practically the same
process is followed in piece dyeing, though only inferior
grades of silk are dyed in the web.

Colored Silks. This class of silks is generally purer
than black and sad-colored silks. It is not nearly so
easy to weight the former as the latter, for the reason
that there are but few substances capable of giving
weight which do not interfere with the effect of light
colored dyes. The weighting agents most generally
[Pg 215]
used are sugar and acetate of lead. The weighting by
sugar is done after the silk is dyed. A solution is made
of pure lump sugar by placing it in a large copper pan
with water and heating until dissolved. In this bath
the silk is thoroughly saturated, and then dried and
finished; or, the dipping process may be repeated
several times if desired. One dipping will weight the
silk about 12 per cent, two about 20 per cent, and three
about 30 per cent. In a solution of acetate of lead, each
dipping will weight the silk about 8 per cent, and these
may be repeated as often as it is wished. In this case
the weighting is generally done on the undyed, boiled-off
silk, although it may be done on the dyed silk if the
color is such as will stand the acid.

Mixed Silk Fabrics. Until lately silk was invariably
dyed in the state of yarn. When the silk was to be
woven into mixed fabrics, such as satin, gloria, etc.,
it was impossible to dye both fibers exactly the same
shade. Formerly such fabrics were woven with the
cotton and silk yarns dyed separately, care being taken
to match them as closely as possible. The weaving of
dyed yarns of different fibers is open to the objection
that when the fabric comes to be finished there is a
wide difference in the color, no matter how closely they
may have matched in the beginning.

Ribbons. Ribbons are woven several pieces in one
loom, with a separate shuttle for each piece. The
shuttle is carried through the shed or warp by a rack
and pinion, instead of being thrown through as in broad
goods; otherwise the weaving is the same.

[Pg 216]
Velvets. Velvets and other pile fabrics are woven
in two pieces, one over the other, with the pile threads
woven back and forth between them. A knife travels
between the two pieces cutting the pile threads so as to
leave the ends standing up straight. Velvets used to
be woven over wires and cut by hand, but this method
is practically obsolete.

Piece Dyeing. If the goods are woven with the
gum still in the silk, it must be taken out afterward,
and the goods either dyed in the piece or prepared for
printing.

Printing. The most primitive method of printing
is by the use of stencils. It is the method employed
by the Japanese and Chinese. Next came block printing,
which is still extensively used in Europe. The
pattern is raised in felt on wooden blocks, the color
taken up from pads, one block for each color. The
results are good, but the work is very slow. Most silk
goods are to-day machine printed. The design is engraved
or etched on copper cylinders, one cylinder for
each color; the color thickened with gum is supplied
by rolls running against the cylinders, and the surplus
is scraped off by a knife blade, leaving only that in the
engraving which is taken up by the cloth. After printing,
the cloth is steamed to set the colors, and then
washed in order to remove the gum used to thicken the
colors for printing.

[Pg 217]

JACQUARD SILK LOOM

[Pg 218]
Finishing. All silk goods, whether yarn dyed or
piece dyed or printed, are given some kind of finish;
sometimes it is no more than is necessary to smooth out
the wrinkles. There are many finishing processes by
which goods may be treated. They are run through gas
flames to singe off loose fiber, and over steam cylinders to
dry and straighten them, over a great variety of sizing
machines to stiffen them with starch or glue. There
are calenders or heavy rolls to smooth and iron them,
steam presses of great power to press them out, breaking
and rubbing machines to soften them, and tentering
machines to stretch them to uniform width. There
are also moireing or watering, embossing, and various
other machines for special purposes.

Waterproofing. One of the worst difficulties with
which the manufacturer of piece-dyed and printed silk
goods has to contend is the ease with which they become
spotted with water, and for a number of years
many people have tried to prevent this by various
processes. There are no less than two hundred such
processes patented. None of them have met with much
success, as they injured the feel or strength of the goods.
After goods are finished they are carefully inspected
for imperfections, measured, and wrapped in paper and
packed in cases for shipment. The complexity and
number of processes for treating silk goods may be
realized when we know that a piece-dyed or printed
fabric is handled its entire length between fifty and one
hundred times after it comes from the loom, sometimes
even more.

[Pg 219]

CHAPTER XVIII

PRINCIPAL SILK FABRICS

Alma. Cloth, double twilled from left to right
diagonally, first made in black only as a mourning
fabric. The name is from the Egyptian, as applied to
a mourner or a singer at a funeral.

Barège. Sheer stuff of silk and wool for veiling,
named from the town of Barèges, in France.

Bengaline. An imitation of an old silk fabric made
for many centuries in Bengal, India, whence the
name. The weave is similar to that of ordinary rep
or poplin, being a simple round-corded effect. The
cord is produced by using a heavy soft-spun woolen
weft which is so closely covered by the silk warp threads
that it is not exposed when examined from the wrong
side. The same weave is also found in all-silk goods,
under the designation of all-silk bengaline. When
cheapened by the use of a cotton weft in place of wool
the fabric is known as cotton bengaline, although the
cotton is in the filling only.

Berber. Satin-faced fabric of light-weight cloth. It
came into favor about the time of the defeat of the
Berbers by General Gordon in his campaign against the
Mahdi in North Africa.

Brocade. Raised figures on a plain ground.

[Pg 220]
Brocatel. A kind of brocade used for draperies and
upholstery; usually raised wool figures on a silk ground.

Bombazine. Silk warp, wool weft, fine twilled cloth;
originally made in black only for mourning. It is used
largely for mourning hat bands. The root of the name
is bombyx, the Latin for silkworm.

Chenille. Cloth of a fuzzy or fluffy face; woven of
cotton, silk, or wool; used sometimes for dress goods;
more generally for curtains and table covers. Chenille
is the French word for caterpillar, which the single
thread of the cloth resembles.

Chiffon. A thin, transparent silk muslin. Although
one of the thinnest and gauziest of modern silk fabrics,
it is relatively strong considering its lightness. To
convey an idea of the fineness of the thread used in
its manufacture, it is stated that one pound of it will
extend a distance of eight miles. In the process of
finishing the fabric receives a dressing of pure “size.”
There are two styles of finish, called respectively the
demi- or half size and the full size. Chiffon finished by
full sizing is comparatively stiff; while the demi-finish
produces a softer and lighter texture. It is dyed in a
great variety of colors, and sometimes is printed in delicate
patterns. It is especially adapted for home and
evening wear, and is used for neck and sleeve trimming,
drapery over silk foundations, fancy work, and
millinery.

China Silk. A term applied to plain woven silks
manufactured in China. The term China silk has been
adopted in the United States in recent years for a class
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of machine-woven silks made in imitation of the hand-loom
product. These imitations are narrow in width
and lack the soft, lustrous quality of Eastern fabrics,
and are also free from the uneven threads. China
silks are distinguished by their irregular threads, caused
by some of the threads being heavier than others, and
their extreme softness.

The warp and filling are identical in size and color,
and being woven evenly produce a beautiful natural
luster. It is generally plain color, although the figured
goods are printed in much the same manner as calico.
It is used for gowns, waists, underclothing, etc. It
launders as well as white cotton.

Crêpe. A thin, gauzy fabric, woven in loose even
threads of silk, heavily sized or gummed, crimped or
crêped in the dyeing. Crêpe was first used in black
only as a badge of mourning. It is now an accepted
dress fabric, made in colors and white and of many
materials. The name signifies to crimp or crêpe with a
hot iron.

Crêpe de Chine. A soft, lustrous silk crêpe, the
surface of which is smoother than that of the ordinary
varieties. It is woven as a plain weave with
part of the warp threads right twisted and the rest
left twisted. It is dyed almost any color and figured or
printed.

Eolienne. Sheer cloth of silk, silk and wool, or silk
and cotton, woven in fine card effect. The name comes
from the Greek Æolus, god of the winds.

Foulard. Plain silk cloth, sold as dress goods; originally
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made for handkerchiefs only. The name is French
for silk handkerchief.

Glacé. Plain, lustrous silk, yarn dyed, with warp
of one color, and weft of another. The name is applied
to all fabrics having two tones. Glacé is French for
icy, having an icy appearance.

India Silk. A name applied to the plain woven silks
manufactured in India on the primitive hand looms.
The warp and weft are woven evenly and produce a
beautiful natural luster. It is similar to China and
Japanese silk. In fact most of these fabrics come
from China and Japan, India silk being almost unknown
in this country as so little of it is exported. The durability
of these silks is about the same, and there is little
difference in the prices.

Japanese Silk. A term applied to the plain woven
silk manufactured in Japan. The warp and filling of
this fabric are identical in size and color, and being
woven evenly produce a beautiful natural luster. The
weave is smooth and soft in quality. It is dyed in plain
colors. The figured goods are printed in much the
same way as calico. It is used for waists, gowns, and
fancy underwear.

Jersey Cloth. Silk jersey cloth is popular at present.
It is a knitted silk fabric, not woven, and is generally
dyed in plain colors. It is expensive and is used for
women’s dresses, wraps, and silk gloves.

Meteor. Crêpe de meteor was originally a trade
name for crêpe de chine, but now applied to a fabric
which is distinguishable from crêpe de chine.

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Moire. Moire is a waved or watered effect produced
upon the surface of various kinds of textile fabrics,
especially on grosgrain silk and woolen moreen. This
watered effect is produced by the use of engraved rollers
and high pressure on carded material. The object of
developing upon woven textiles the effect known as
moire is the production of a peculiar luster resulting
from the divergent reflection of the light rays on the
material, a divergence brought about by compressing
and flattening the warp and filling threads in places,
and so producing a surface the different parts of which
reflect the light differently. The moire effect may be
obtained on silk, worsted, or cotton fabrics, though it is
impossible to develop it on other than a grained or fine
corded weave. The pressure applied to the material
being uneven, the grained surface is flattened in the
parts desired. In the Middle Ages moire was held in
high esteem, and continues to enjoy that distinction
down to the present day. It is used for women’s
dresses, capes, and for facings, trimmings, etc.

Mozambique. Grenadines, with large colored flower
designs in relief.

Organzine. Silk fabric, made with warp and filling
of the same size. Organzine is the name given the
twisted silk thread in Italy, where it is made.

Panne. This name is applied to a range of satin-faced
velvet or silk fabrics which show a high luster
produced by pressure. The word panne is the French
for plush.

Peau de Soie. Literally, skin of silk. A variety of
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heavy, soft-finished, plain-colored dress silk, woven
with a pattern of fine close ribs extending weftwise of
the fabric. An eight-shaft satin with one point added
to the original spots on the right or left, imparting to the
fabric a somewhat grainy appearance. The best grades
of peau de soie present the same appearance on both
sides, being reversible. The lower grades are finished
on one side only.

Plush. Long piled fabric of the velvet order.
Peluché, the origin of the name, is French for shaggy.

Pongee. Said to be a corruption of Chinese punchi,
signifying home made or home woven. Another suggestion
is that the word is a corruption of pun-shih, a
native or wild silk. A soft, unbleached, washable silk,
woven from the cocoons of the wild silkworm, which
feeds on the leaves of the scrub oak. Immense quantities
in a raw state are annually shipped from China to
this country and Europe, where they are bleached,
dyed, and ornamented with various styles of designs.
The name is also applied to a variety of dress goods
woven with a wild silk warp and a fine worsted weft.

Popeline. A French name. The French fabric is
said to have been first introduced during the early part
of the sixteenth century at Avignon, then a papal
diocese, and to have been so called in compliment to the
reigning pope. A fabric constructed with a silk warp
and a filling of wool heavier than the silk which gives it
a corded surface. Poplin manufacture was introduced
into Ireland in 1693 by a colony of fugitive French
Huguenots. The industry concentrated at Dublin,
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where it has since remained. The Irish product has
been celebrated for its uniformly fine quality. It is
always woven on hand looms, which accounts for the
high price it commands in English and American markets.
The wool used is a fine grade of Cape or Australian,
which is the most suitable in texture and length
of fiber. The silk is unweighted Chinese organzine.
The result is a rich, handsome fabric resembling whole
silk goods in appearance, but inferior to them in durability
and produced at a much less cost. It is used for
ladies’ waists, wraps, and gowns.