BARKHAM BURROUGHS’ ENCYCLOPAEDIA
OF
ASTOUNDING FACTS
AND
USEFUL INFORMATION
1889
For Melba Conner
Universal Assistant and Treasure-House of Information to be
Consulted on Every Question That Arises in Everyday Life by
Young and Old Alike!
Including: 521 Recipes * 236 Remedies * 150 Themes for
Debate * How to Be Handsome * Mother Shipton’s Prophesy * The
Cure for Baldness * How to Distinguish Death * PLUS 20,000
Things Worth Knowing, and Much Much
More.
1. An imaginary tower, 1000 feet high. 2. Cathedral at
Cologne, 501 feet. 3. Pyramid of Cheops, 480 feet. 4.
Strasbourg Cathedral, 468 feet. 5. St. Peter’s, Rome,
457 feet. 6. Pyramid of Cephren, 454 feet. 7. St.
Paul’s, London, 365 feet. 8. Capitol at Washington, 287
feet. 9. Trinity Church, N.Y., 286 feet. 10. Bunker
Hill Monument, 221 feet. 11. St. Mark’s, Philadelphia,
150 feet.
HOW POOR BOYS BECOME SUCCESSFUL
MEN, 6
HOW TO WRITE A BUSINESS LETTER,
19
ELEMENTS OF SUCCESS IN
BUSINESS, 28
DETECTING COUNTERFEIT MONEY,
32
MULTUM IN PARVO. (110
MISCELLANEOUS ITEMS), 41
HOW TO DESTROY HOUSEHOLD PESTS,
73
ACCIDENTS AND INJURIES (236
ITEMS), 75
SUNDRY BRIEF ITEMS OF INTEREST,
95
PHYSICIAN’S DIGESTION TABLE,
95
HOW TO CHOOSE AND COOK GAME,
108
HOW TO MAKE ICE CREAMS, WATER
ICES AND JELLIES, 109
HOW TO SELECT AND COOK MEATS,
111
HOW TO BOIL, BAKE AND STEAM
PUDDINGS, 116
HOW TO PUT UP PICKLES
AND MAKE CATSUPS, 119
HOW TO ROAST, BROIL OR BOIL
POULTRY, 121
SAUCES FOR MEATS AND FISH,
121
HOW TO MAKE SOUPS AND BROTH,
123
20,000 THINGS WORTH KNOWING
(20,000 ITEMS),
130
How Poor Boys Become Successful Men.
You want some good advice. Rise early. Be abstemious. Be
frugal. Attend to your own business and never trust it to
another. Be not afraid to work, and diligently, too, with your
own hands. Treat every one with civility and respect. Good
manners insure success. Accomplish what you undertake. Decide,
then persevere. Diligence and industry overcome all
difficulties. Never be mean—rather give than take the odd
shilling. Never postpone till to-morrow what can be done
to-day. Never anticipate wealth from any source but labor.
Honesty is not only the best policy, but the only policy.
Commence at the first round and keep climbing. Make your word
as good as your bond. Seek knowledge to plan, enterprise to
execute, honesty to govern all. Never overtrade. Never give too
large credit. Time is money. Reckon the hours of the day as so
many dollars, the minutes as so many cents. Make few promises.
Keep your secrets. Live within your income. Sobriety above all
things. Luck is a word that does not apply to a successful man.
Not too much caution—slow but sure is the thing. The
highest monuments are built piece by piece. Step by step we
mount the pyramids. Be bold—be resolute when the clouds
gather, difficulties are surmounted by opposition.
Self-confidence, self-reliance is your capital. Your conscience
the best monitor. Never be over-sanguine, but do not underrate
your own abilities. Don’t be discouraged.
Ninety-nine may say no, the
hundredth, yes: take off your coat: roll up your sleeves,
don’t be afraid of manual labor! America is large enough for
all—strike out for the west. The best letter of
introduction is your own energy. Lean on yourself when you
walk. Keep good company. Keep out of politics unless you are
sure to win—you are never sure to win, so look out.
The
Art of Penmanship
How to Become a Handsome Writer.
The subject of the importance of good writing is as broad as
its use. Reaching out in every direction, and pervading every
corner of civilized society, from the humblest up to the
highest employments, it is a servant of man, second only in
importance to that of speech itself. In the world of business
its value is seen, from the simplest record or memorandum, up
to the parchment which conveys a kingdom. Without it, the
wheels of commerce could not move a single hour. At night it
has recorded the transactions of the Bank of England during the
day; of London; of the whole world.
Through the art of writing, the deeds of men live after
them, and we may surround ourselves with the companionship of
philosophers, scientists, historians, discoverers and poets;
and their discoveries, and reasonings and imaginings become
ours. In the amenities of social life, through the medium of
the pen, heart speaks to heart, though ocean rolls between.
Thoughts of tenderness and affection live when we are gone, and
words and deeds of kindness are not preserved by monuments
alone. What fountains of grief or joy have been opened in the
hearts of those who have read the records of the pen! The pen
has recorded the rapturous emotions of love reciprocated. The
pen has written the message of sadness which has covered life’s
pilgrimage with gloom. The pen has traced the record of noble
and useful lives, spent in humanity’s cause. The songs of the
poet, the beautiful tints of his imagination, the flights of
the orator in the realms of fancy, and the facts of history,
would all perish as the dew of morning, without this noble art
of writing.
As a means of livelihood, there is perhaps no other
department of education which affords such universal and
profitable employment, as writing. From the mere copyist, up to
the practical accountant, and onward into that department of
penmanship designated as a fine art, the remuneration is always
very ample, considering the time and effort required in its
acquisition.
Teachers, editors, farmers, doctors and all persons should
possess a practical and substantial knowledge of writing, and
should be ready with the pen. Business men must of course be
ready writers, and hence, in a treatise on business, designed
for the education and advancement of the youth of the country,
it seems eminently fitting to first make the way clear to a
plain, practical handwriting. Neatness and accuracy should
characterize the handwriting of every one. Botch-work and
bungling are inexcusable, as well in writing as in the
transaction of business. No person has a right to cause a tinge
of shame to their correspondent, by sending a letter addressed
in a stupid and awkward manner, nor to consume the time of
another in deciphering the illegible hooks and scrawls of a
message. Every one should have the ambition to write
respectably as well as to appear respectable on any
occasion.
MATERIALS USED IN WRITING.
Having a suitable desk or table, arranged with reference to
light, in order to learn to write, it is necessary to be
provided with proper materials. Writing materials
[pg 8] are so abundant and so cheap in
these times that no excuse is afforded for using an inferior
or worthless quality. The materials consist of Pens,
Ink and Paper.
PENS.
Steel pens are considered the best. Gold pens have the
advantage of always producing the same quality of writing,
while steel pens, new or old, produce finer or courser lines.
Notwithstanding this advantage in favor of the gold pen, steel
pens adhere to the paper, and produce a better line. The pen
should be adapted to the hand of the writer. Some persons
require a coarse pen, and some fine. Elastic pens in the hand
of one writer may produce the best results, while a less
flexible pen may suit the hand of others best. Pens are
manufactured of almost an infinite grade and quality, in order
to suit the requirements of all. About the only rule that can
be given in selecting pens, is to write a few lines, or a page,
with each of the pens on trial, and then compare the writing.
If it be shaded too heavily, select a less flexible pen, if the
hair lines are too delicate, select a coarser pen.
INK.
Black ink is always preferable. That which is free from
sediment and flows well, should be selected. Use an inkstand
with broad base as being less liable to upset. With persons in
learning to write it is perhaps best to have a quality of ink
which is perfectly black when put on the paper, in order that
they may see the results of their labor at once. Business men
and accountants prefer a fluid ink, however, which, although
not black at first, continues to grow black, and becomes a very
bright and durable black, notwithstanding the action of light
and heat. Avoid the use of fancy colored inks, especially the
more gaudy, such as blue, red or green, in writing all
documents which you desire to command attention and
respect.
PAPER.
There are almost as many grades of paper to be found in the
stationery stores, as there are of pens. For practicing
penmanship, nothing is more suitable than foolscap, which may
be easily sewed into book-form, with cover of some different
color, and thus serves every requirement. The paper should have
a medium surface, neither rough and coarse, or too fine and
glazed. Have a few extra sheets beside the writing book, for
the purpose of practicing the movement exercises and testing
the pens. Be provided at all times with a large-sized blotter,
and when writing, keep this under the hand. Do not attempt to
write with a single sheet of paper on a bare table or desk;
there should be many sheets of paper underneath, in order to
make an elastic surface.
STUDY WITH PRACTICE.
Aimless, indifferent, or careless practice, never made a
good writer, and never will. In order to succeed in this, as in
other things, there must be will and determination to succeed,
and then persevering and studious effort. Study the models
until their forms are fixed in the mind.
No one can execute that which he does not clearly conceive.
The artist must first see the picture on the white canvas,
before he can paint it, and the sculptor must be able to see in
the rough and uninviting stone, the outlines of the beautiful
image which he is to carve. In writing, a clear idea of the
formation of the different letters, and their various
proportions, must become familiar by proper study, examination
and analysis. Study precedes practice. It is, of course, not
necessary, nor even well, to undertake the mastery of all the
forms in writing, by study, until some have been executed. It
is best that each form should, as it is taken up, be first
measured and analyzed and then practiced at once.
It is the act which crowns the thought. After study, careful
and earnest practice can hardly fail to make a good writer of
any one. Some persons secure a good style of penmanship with
less labor than others, and attain to the elegant, and
beautiful formation. But it is only fair to presume that no
greater diversity of talent exists in this direction than in
the study of other things. All do not learn arithmetic or
history with like ease, but no one will assert that all who
will, may not learn arithmetic or history. And so, all who will
put forth the proper exertion in study and practice may learn
to write a good business style, while many of the number will
attain to the elegant. The conditions of practice in writing
are, Positions of the Body, Position of the Hand an Pen, and
Movement.
POSITION of the BODY.
Sitting squarely fronting the desk, with feet placed firmly
on the floor, and both arms on the desk, is, as a rule, the
best position for practice in writing, or correspondence. The
right side, may, however, be placed to the desk, with the right
arm, only, resting thereon, and some persons prefer this
position. Avoid crossing the feet, sitting on the edge of the
chair, or assuming any careless attitude. The body should be
erect, but slightly inclined forward, in order that the eye may
follow the pen closely. This position will never cause
curvature of the spine. The body should never be allowed to
settle down into a cramped and unhealthy position with the face
almost on the paper. By thus compressing the lungs and the
digestive organs they are soon injured, and if the stomach lose
its tone, the eyesight is impaired, there is such a close
sympathy between these organs of the body. The practice of
writing should be, and properly is, a healthful exercise, and
injurious effects result only from improper positions of the
body, at variance with good writing as well as good health.
When wearied by sitting and the effort at writing, lay aside
paper and pen, arise from the chair, and take exercise and rest
by walking about the room or in the open air. Then come back
refreshed, and vigorous, for the practice of writing.
In general, the light should fall on the paper from the left
side, thus enabling a writer to clearly see the ruled lines,
and render the labor of writing easier and more rapid. If one
writes left-handed, of course He will sit so as to get his
light from the right side, or over the right shoulder.
SHADING.
As a beautifier of the handwriting, by causing a diversity
of light and shade among the letters, shading has its value;
but in the practical handwriting for business purposes, it
should, as a rule, be classed with flourishing, and left out.
Requiring time and effort, to bring down the shades on letters,
business men, clerks and telegraph operators find a uniform and
regular style of writing, without shade, the best, even though
it may not be as artistic.
UNIFORMITY.
A most necessary element in all good penmanship is
uniformity. In the slope of the letters and words which form a
written page there must be no disagreement. With the letters
leaning about in various directions, writing is presented in
its most ridiculous phase. Uniformity in the size of letters,
throughout the written page; how greatly it conduces to
neatness and beauty. All letters resting on the line, and being
of uniform hight, adds another condition towards good
penmanship. This essential element of uniformity may be watched
and guarded closely and cultivated by any learner in his own
practice.
SLANT OF WRITING.
As said before, it matters not so much what angle of slant
is adopted in writing, provided it is made uniform, and all
letters are required to conform exactly to the same slant.
Writing which is nearest perpendicular is most legible, and
hence is preferable for business purposes. The printed page of
perpendicular type; how legible it is. But for ease in
execution, writing should slant. It follows then that writing
should be made as perpendicular as is consistent with ease of
execution. The slant of writing should not be less than sixty
degrees from the
horizontal.
POSITION of the BODY WHILE STANDING
The practical book-keeper finds it advantageous to do his
writing while standing; in fact, where large books are in use,
and entries are to be transferred from one to another, the work
of the book-keeper can hardly be performed otherwise than in a
standing position, free to move about his office. Cumbrous
books necessitate a different position at the desk, from that
of the correspondent, or the learner. Since large books must
lie squarely on the desk, the writer, in order to have the
proper position thereto, must place his left side to the desk.
The body thus has the same relative position, as if squarely
fronting the desk with the paper or book placed diagonally. In
other words, the writer, while engaged in writing in large,
heavy books, must adjust himself to the position of the books.
Should the correspondent or bill clerk perform his work while
standing, he would assume the same as the sitting
position—squarely fronting the desk.
LEGIBILITY.
Children, in learning to write, are apt to sacrifice all
other good qualities of beauty, regularity and grace, for the
quality of legibility, or plainness. With some older persons
this legibility is considered of very little consequence, and
is obscured by all manner of meaningless flourishes, in which
the writer takes pride. In the estimation of the business man,
writing is injured by shades and flourishes. The demand of this
practical time is a plain, regular style that can be written
rapidly, and read at a glance.
FINISH.
By a careless habit, which many persons allow themselves to
fall into, they omit to attend to the little things in writing.
Good penmanship consists in attention to small details, each
letter and word correctly formed, makes the beautiful page. By
inattention to the finish of one letter, or part of a letter of
a word, oftentimes the word is mistaken for another, and the
entire meaning changed. Particular attention should be devoted
to the finish of some of the small letters, such as the dotting
of the i, or crossing of the t. Blending the lines which form a
loop, often causes the letter to become a stem, similar to the
t or d, or an e to become an i. In many of the capital letters,
the want of attention to the finish of the letter converts it
into another or destroys its identity, such, for instance, as
the small cross on the capital F, which, if left off, makes the
letter a T. The W often becomes an M, or vice versa, and
the I a J. Mistakes in this regard are more the result of
carelessness and inattention than anything else. By careful
practice a person will acquire a settled habit of giving a
perfection to each letter and word, and then it is no longer a
task, but is performed naturally and almost involuntarily,
while the difference in the appearance of the written page, as
well as the exactness and certainty of the meaning conveyed,
may be incalculably great.
While practicing penmanship, or while endeavoring to correct
a careless habit in writing, the mind must be upon the work in
hand, and not be allowed to wander into fields of thought or
imagination; by thus confining the attention, any defect or
imperfection in the formation of letters may be soon mastered
or corrected.
POSITION OF THE HAND AND PEN
The right arm should rest on the muscles just below the
elbow, and wrist should be elevated so as to move free from
paper and desk. Turn the hand so that the wrist will be level,
or so that the back of the hand will face the ceiling. The
third and fourth fingers turned slightly underneath the hand
will form its support, and the pen, these fingers and the
muscles of the arm near the elbow form the only points of rest
or contact on desk or paper. The pen should point over the
shoulder, and should be so held that it may pass the root of
the nail on the second finger, and about opposite the knuckle
of the hand. An unnatural or cramped position of the hand, like
such a position of the body, is opposed to good writing, and
after many years of observation and study, all teachers concur
in the one position above described, as being the most natural,
easy and graceful for the writer, and as affording the most
freedom and strength of movement.
Avoid getting the hand in an awkward or tiresome position,
rolling it over to one side, or drawing the fore finger up into
a crooked shape. Hold the pen firmly but lightly, not with a
grip as if it were about to escape from service. Do not say, “I
can’t” hold the pen correctly. Habits are strong, but will may
be stronger, and if you hold the pen correctly in spite of old
habits, for a few lessons, all will then be easy, and the pen
will take its position at each writing exercise, with no effort
whatever. Everything being in readiness, and the proper
position assumed, the writer must now obtain complete control
of hand and pen, by practice in movement.
RAPIDITY.
One of the essentials of a practical business style of
writing must be rapidity of execution, in order to be of any
avail in the necessities and press of a business position. The
demand of the merchant is, that his clerk shall not only write
well, but with rapidity, and the volume of letters to be
answered, bills to be made out, or items to be entered on the
books of account, compel the clerk to move the pen with
dexterity and rapidity, as well as skill. While there is great
diversity among persons as to the rapidity as well as quality
of their penmanship, some being naturally more alert and active
than others, yet by securing the proper position of the hand,
arm and body, favorable to ease and freedom of execution, then
following this with careful practice in movement, until all the
varied motions necessary in writing are thoroughly mastered,
the person may, with suitable effort, acquire the quality of
rapidity in writing, gradually increasing the speed until the
desired rate is accomplished.
BEAUTY.
In the handwriting, as in other things, beauty is largely a
matter of taste and education. To the man of business, the most
beautiful handwriting is that which is written with ease, and
expresses plainly and neatly the thought of the writer. To the
professional or artistic taste, while such a hand may be
regarded as “a good business hand,” it would not be considered
as beautiful, because it conforms to no rule as to proportion,
shade, and spacing. In the practical art of writing, it is not
very unfair to measure its beauty largely by its
utility.
MOVEMENT.
Finger movement, or writing by the use of the fingers as the
motive power, is entirely inadequate to the requirements of
business. The fingers soon become tired, the hand becomes
cramped, the writing shows a labored effort, and lacks freedom
and ease so essential to good business penmanship. In the
office or counting-room, where the clerk or correspondent must
write from morning till night, the finger movement of course
cannot be used.
What is designated by writing teachers as the Whole Arm, or
Free Arm Movement, in which the arm is lifted free from the
desk and completes the letter with a dash or a swoop, is
necessary in ornamental penmanship and flourishing, but has no
place in a practical style of business writing. The man of
business would hardly stop, in the midst of his writing, to
raise the arm, and execute an “off-hand capital,” while
customers are waiting.
But adapted to the practical purposes of business is the
muscular movement, in which the arm moves freely on the
muscles below the elbow, and in cases of precise writing, or in
the more extended letters, such as f, is assisted by a slight
movement of the fingers. The third and fourth fingers may
remain stationary on the paper, and be moved from time to time,
or between words, where careful and accurate writing is
desired, but in more rapid, free and flowing penmanship, the
fingers should slide over the paper.
MOVEMENT EXERCISES.
Having everything in readiness, the student may begin his
practice on movement exercises, the object of which is to
obtain control of the pen and train the muscles. Circular
motion, as in the capital O, reversed as in the capital W,
vertical movement as in f, long s and capital J, and the
lateral motion as in small letters, must each be practiced in
order to be able to move the pen in any direction, up, down, or
sidewise.
The simplest exercise in movement. Try to follow around in
the same line as nearly as possible. Do not shade.
The same exercise, only with ovals drawn out and and slight
shade added to each down stroke.
Sides of ovals should be even, forming as nearly a straight
line as possible. Reverse the movement as in third form.
The following three exercises embrace the essential elements
in capital letters, and should at first be made large for
purposes of movement:
Capital O, down strokes parallel.
Capital stem. Down stroke a compound curve. Shade low.
Finish with a dash.
Capital loop. Curves parallel. First curve highest.
Having succeeded to some extent with these exercises, the
learner may next undertake the vertical movement. In order to
obtain the lateral movement, which enables one to write long
words without lifting the pen, and move easily and gracefully
across the page, exercises like the following should be
practiced:
Down strokes straight. Even and resting on line.
In all movement exercises the third and fourth fingers
should slide on the paper, and the finger movement should be
carefully avoided. The different movements having been
practiced, they may now be combined in various forms
Lateral and rolling movement combined. Vertical movement and
rolling movement combined.
Do not shade the circles. Lines should be parallel.
Movement exercises may be multiplied almost indefinitely by
studying the forms used in writing and their combinations.
Repeating many of the small letters, such as m, u, e, r, s, a,
d, h and c, also capitals D, J, P, etc., forms an excellent
exercise for the learner.
PRINCIPLES IN WRITING.
In order to enable the learner to examine, analyze and
criticise his writing, the following principles are given as
his standards of measurements and form. By combining them in
various ways the essential part of all letters in the alphabet
may be formed.
The principles must be first carefully studied, and
separated into the primary lines which compose them and the
form of each principle well understood. The student may then
form a scale like the one following, by
[pg 14] dividing the distance between
the blue lines on the paper into four equal spaces, with a
lightly ruled line. The letters of the small alphabet should
then be placed in the scale and the height
of each letter fixed in the mind.
Notice that the contracted letters, or those which occupy
only one space, as a, m, n, o, s, v, w and e, and that part of
d, g, h, q and y, found in the first space, are all well
rounded and developed. These letters and parts of letters,
found in the first space, form the essential part of all
writing, and therefore deserve especial care. Also notice that
the loop letters, above the line, such as b, f, h, k and l,
extend two and one-half spaces above the blue line, while the
loop below the line, such as g, f, j, q, y and z, extend one
and one-half spaces below the blue line, thus two and one-half
and one and one-half making the four spaces of the scale, and
the upper loops on one line will just meet the lower loops of
the line above, but never conflict, to the destruction of neat
body writing. Notice the type of the printer. The extensions
above the shorter letters are quite insignificant, and are only
used to save the letter from resembling some other letter of
the alphabet. They never conflict, and how legible they
are.
The Types. A Resemblance. An Absurdity.
Besides, to make long loops, requires more time, and more
power with the pen, while shorter loops are in every way easier
to acquire, quicker, and better. Telegraph operators, some of
whom are among our best business penmen, make all extended
letters very short, while accountants, and business men, favor
the style of short loops, well developed letters, and small
capitals.
In order to practice capital letters to advantage, as well
as to study them, collect in a group or family all those
letters which have some one form or principle as an essential
part. Take first the 6th principle, or oval, and we group the
letters as follows:
The excellence of an oval depends largely on its fullness
and roundness. No corners or flat
sides.
In the capital loop, or 8th principle, another oval may be
made within the large turn at the top, but for practical
purposes the letter is perhaps better without it, and may be
simplified even more, as in the N below.
FIGURES.
Make figures small, neat, and of form exact. Each figure
must show for itself, and cannot be known by those which
precede or follow it, as is the case with letters. The common
tendency is to make figures too large and coarse. Mind the
ovals in figures and have them full and round. The chief
excellence of the zero lies in its roundness; the 3, 5, 6 or 9,
without care in making the ovals, may degenerate into a
straight line, or simply a meaningless hook, which it would
hardly be safe to use in expressing sums of money, ordering
goods, or the transaction of other business.
COPIES FOR PRACTICE
Having proceeded thus far in the study and practice of
writing, and having obtained the proper control of the pen
through the movement exercises, all that is necessary now in
order to secure a good handwriting, is continued and
well-directed practice.
$1100.00 Chicago, Jan. 10./80.
Due Henry Harrington, on order, Eleven
Hundred Dollars in Merchandise, value rec’d
No. 43. Newton P. Kelley, Sr.
ORNAMENTAL PENMANSHIP
Charming and fascinating are the graceful and harmonious
curves produced, when, wielded by some trained and skillful
hand, the pen becomes an instrument of beauty. As by the power
of speech, men may pass from the common tone of conversation up
to the melodious strains of music, or may soar in flights of
oratory into the sublime, until the multitude is entranced; so
the capabilities of the pen are not limited to the common uses
of life, but may take on forms of beauty in elegant outlines of
bird, or landscape, or graceful swan or bounding stag.
Ornamental writing is not a practical art, and has no
connection whatever with the practical business of life. It is
in the realm of poetry. The imagery of graceful outlines must
first be seen by a poetic imagination. While the great masses
may acquire a good style of plain, practical penmanship, few
have the necessary conception of mind, combined with the skill
and dexterity of hand to become successful ornamental
penmen.
The ornamental pages which follow are given, not as models
for imitation or practice by the learner, but merely to show
the possibilities of the pen in the hand of a master, and as a
fitting closing to this, our chapter on penmanship.
To any one who may have an artistic quality of mind, and
delights in beautiful lines and harmonious curves, these pages
of ornamental penmanship will serve as models for practice and
imitation, and every attempt at such an exercise as the one on
this, or the following pages, will give greater strength and
freedom of movement, and better command of the pen, so that it
will conduce to an easy, flowing and elegant style of plain
business writing, while affording a most pleasant and
profitable employment in the cultivation of the taste.
Various beautiful designs or pictures may be made with the
pen, in the hands of one that possesses the skill of a penman
and the eye of an artist.
HOW TO WRITE A BUSINESS LETTER
Considering the vast amount of business transacted by
correspondence between the parties, Letter Writing seems only
second in importance to bookkeeping. The merchant of the
smaller cities or towns, perhaps in the far west, desires to
order articles of merchandise from the wholesale house in New
York or Boston. Possibly a remittance is to be sent. It may be
that an error has occurred and needs correction. Credit is to
be asked, references given, and a multitude of other matters
call for adjustment through correspondence. To write every
conceivable variety and shade of meaning, expressing the proper
thought in the most fitting and appropriate language, is indeed
a rare and valuable accomplishment. And when the proper
language takes on the graceful and businesslike air of the well
written letter, with its several parts harmoniously arranged,
it is a combination of brain and skill which can hardly be
overestimated.
This subject, therefore, naturally divides itself into two
parts: The Mechanical Structure, and the Literature
of a Letter. The former of these being the less difficult
will be first considered.
THE STRUCTURE OF A BUSINESS LETTER.
Consists in the arrangement of its several parts, with a
view to the most harmonious effect. Excellent penmanship is
very desirable, but not absolutely essential. The penmanship
may indeed be poor, but the arrangement of the several parts of
the letter, the neatness, and finish, may be such as to give it
an attractive appearance, while on the other hand, the letter
may be clothed in the most elegant penmanship, and yet the
construction be such as to stamp its author as a careless and
indifferent person, devoid of precision and order.
No one great thing, but many little things carefully
watched, and attentively practiced, make up the structure and
dress of a business letter, and give it a businesslike air. The
penmanship should be a neat, strong hand, very plain and
legible, and devoid of all flourish.
PAPER AND ENVELOPE.
The paper and envelopes used in business correspondence
should be of a good, durable quality, and a white color is
preferable. Cheap materials are not only unsatisfactory to the
writer, but may give the reader an unfavorable impression,
which would be an injury far exceeding the cost of the best
stationery for a life time. Persons form impressions from very
little things sometimes.
The size of a letter sheet in business correspondence should
be about 8×10 inches. This sheet affords a sufficient space for
a communication of ordinary length to be written on one side
only, which is essential in case the letter is copied in a
letter press. A sheet of paper, note size, (5×8) is oftentimes
used for brief communications of no special importance, and not
designed to be filed for future reference. Among professional
men the commercial note sheet is more extensively used, but
with business men the letter size is considered
preferable.
The envelope should correspond in size to that of the letter
sheet, and should be a trifle longer than one-half the length
of the sheet. Thus in a sheet eight by ten inches, one-half the
length of the sheet is five inches, and this requires the
length of the envelope to be about five and a quarter inches.
Its width is usually about three inches. Avoid the use of fancy
colored and fancy shaped paper and envelopes. These may not be
objectionable in social correspondence among ladies, but the
gravity of business affairs does not admit of such display.
THE HEADING.
Chas. A Roberts ; ; ;Wm. J. Dennis
Office of
ROBERT & DENNIS
DEALERS IN FANCY AND STAPLE GROCERIES,
320 Jefferson Street,
Burlington, Va.,______________ 18____
With most firms engaged in business it has become a custom
to have the business advertisement placed at the head of the
letter page, together with street, number and city. Thus
leaving only the date to be inserted to complete the
heading.
In case the heading of the letter is to be entirely written,
it should be placed so as to occupy the right hand half of the
first two lines at the top of the page. If, however, the letter
is to be a very brief one, occupying only three or four lines,
the heading may then be placed lower down on the sheet, so as
to bring the body of the letter about the center of the
sheet.
Writing from a large city the heading should contain the
street and number. Your correspondent, in directing his answer
will rely on the address given in the heading of your letter.
Never be guilty of the blunder committed by ignorant persons of
placing a part of the heading under the signature.
765 Market Street,
Philadelphia, June 10, 1882.
The second line of the heading should begin a little farther
to the right than the first line, as seen above.
If the writer has a box at the Post Office and wishes his
mail delivered there, he may head his letter, as on the
following page:
P.O. Box 3657,
New York, May 16, 1882.
Writing from the principal cities of the United States it is
not necessary to make the name of the state a part of the
heading, as that is supposed to be known and understood, but
with smaller cities the name of the state also, should be
given. Thus, there is a Quincy in Illinois, and also in
Massachusetts, and unless the state were mentioned a person
answering a letter from Quincy, would not know which state to
direct his reply to. In writing from an obscure town or
village, not only the state should be given, but the county as
well.
Ottawa, La Salle County, Ill.,
December 20, 1882.
The punctuation of the heading and other parts of the
letter, is of great importance in the estimation of cultivated
persons, and something which can be learned by a little
attention on the part of anyone, in examining the forms here
given.
MARGIN.
A margin three-quarters of an inch in width should be left,
on the side of the letter, as shown in the diagram. This is
convenient for any mark or memorandum which your correspondent
may desire to make concerning anything contained in the letter,
but its greater value lies in the open, airy, and cheerful
dress which it imparts to the letter. A margin too narrow
conveys the idea of stinginess, as if to economize paper, while
an irregular or zigzag margin conveys the idea of carelessness
or want of precision. On a sheet of note paper the margin may
be only one-half inch in width, thus making its width
proportionate to the size of the sheet.
ADDRESS.
On the next line below the heading, that is the third line
from the top of the sheet, and beginning at the left margin,
should be placed the Address, which consists of the name
of the person to whom the letter is written, together with his
titles, if any, and his place of residence or business. The
letter is not complete without all this, in the estimation of
the business man. It does not fully explain itself, if the
place of residence is not down as well as the name, and in
preserving a letter press copy, this is quite essential for
future reference.
Messrs. Samuel Bliss Co.
Reading, Pa.
Gentlemen:
Or if the letter is written to a person living or doing
business in a large city, thus:
Mr. James M. Cummings
645 Broadway, New York.
Sir:
The names and residence should not be allowed to extend
further to the right than about the center of the sheet, thus
leaving an open space between this and the heading of your
letter. In case the names or place of residence should be so
long as to require it, they may be placed thus:
Messrs. Richards, Shaw, Fitch
& Winslow, Chicago.
Gentlemen:
The words Dear Sir or Gentlemen are sometimes
placed farther to the left, as in the above example, but most
business men in their correspondence place this complimentary
address with reference to the words above them, about
three-quarters of an inch farther to the right, as shown
below.
William D. Nelsen, Esq.,
177 Erie St., Boston,
Dear Sir:
The custom of placing the address beneath the body instead
of at the beginning of the letter, is not much in vogue in
business circles in this country, most business men preferring
to place the name and address at the head of the sheet, and
then write at it as if they were talking to the person himself.
When, however, the address is placed below the letter it should
occupy the same position as to the margin, etc., as if placed
at the beginning. The custom is borrowed from the English, and
its use is confined mostly to government officials and
professional men.
BODY OF THE LETTER.
This constitutes the written message. It should begin on the
same line with the words Dear Sir, or
[pg 22] leaving after these words a
small space. In case the place of residence or business is
not written in the address, then the complimentary address
of Dear Sir or Gentlemen will be placed on the
next line under the name, or fourth line from the top of the
sheet, and the letter will begin on the fifth line from the
top, thus:
Mr. Henry L. Dunham,
Dear Sir:
In answer to your esteemed favor
Sometimes for the sake of convenience, and the saving of
time and labor, the letter head has printed in the left corner,
above the address, a blank form of memorandum as follows:
| Referring to} yours of…..} | OR, | In reply to} your favor of…..,} |
|---|
and after this introduction the writer is able speedily to
get at the marrow of his letter, without acknowledging the
receipt of a former communication.
The body of the letter should be divided into as many
paragraphs as there are distinct subjects in the letter, or a
new paragraph should be commenced at every change of the
subject. The habit which some persons have of tacking one
subject to the end of another, and thus making a letter one
continuous paragraph of mixed up information, instructions and
requests, is extremely objectionable. It destroys the force of
what is said, instead of fixing each thought clearly on the
mind of the reader; it leaves him confused, and he reads a
second time and tries to get his ideas fixed and systematized,
or he throws aside the letter until he has more time in which
to study it and get the meaning clear.
If the letter is long and is really concerning only one
subject, then it may properly be divided into paragraphs by
separating the different divisions of the subject, and giving a
paragraph to each. These should be arranged in their logical
order. Wherever the letter is to contain numerous paragraphs to
avoid omitting any of the items, it is best to jot them down on
a slip of paper, then embody them in the letter in their
natural order.
The first word of each paragraph should be indented, or
moved in from the margin, usually about the width of the
margin. Thus if the margin is three-fourths of an inch in
width, the paragraph should begin three-fourths of an inch from
the margin. Some writers, however, prefer to commence the first
word of the paragraph an inch from the margin, and it is really
not so essential what the distance is, as that it should be
uniform, and all the paragraphs begin alike. A little attention
is necessary here. In ordering goods make each article a
separate paragraph.
COMPLIMENTARY CLOSING AND SIGNATURE.
The complimentary closing consists of such words as Yours
truly, Respectfully, etc., and should be placed on
the next line beneath the last one occupied by the body of the
letter, commencing a little to the right of the middle. The
signature should be placed underneath the words of respect, and
begin still a little farther to the right. Thus the conclusion
of the letter will correspond in position and arrangement with
the heading.
Yours truly,
John Maynard.
The language of the complimentary closing should be governed
by the relation between the parties, and should correspond with
the complimentary address. The first letter between strangers
should commence with Sir and end with the word
Respectfully. After the exchange of a few letters and a
sort of business acquaintance may be said to exist between the
correspondents,then Dear Sir, and Yours truly,
may properly be introduced. A little more cordial would be such
a conclusion as the following:
Yours very truly,
Rinold, Constable & Co.
The man of business is apt, however, to have one stereotyped
beginning and ending to all his letters, and seldom stops to
discriminate between strangers and old customers in this
respect. Often the conclusion may be connected to the closing
paragraph with perfect grace and ease thus:
Hoping to receive the goods without delay,
I remain,
Respectfully,
Henry P. Bowen.
In the signature of a letter, especial care should be
exercised. Bear in mind that names of persons are not governed
by the rules of spelling, and words which precede or follow,
proper names will not aid us in deciphering them if they are
poorly written.
A Model Business Letter
146 S. Tenth Street,
Cincinnati, March 11, 1884,
Messrs. Arnold, Constable & Co.,
Broadway & 19th Sts, New York.
Gentlemen: Inclosed please find
New York Exchange in settlement of your
Invoice of the 1st inst. less Cash discount.
Amount of Invoice, $325.80
Cash discount 5% 16.29
———
Draft inclosed $309.51
The goods have been received, and are
very satisfactory in both quality and price.
You may expect another order soon.
Yours truly,
James Z. Wilson Co.
The young person who would learn to write a good business
letter, should, with pen, ink and suitable paper, sit down and
practice faithfully after the above model. Write and re-write
it a dozen times or more, until your letter resembles it
closely. Then take any of the models for letters given near the
close of this chapter, and with this matter, write a letter
which will conform with the foregoing model in appearance and
dress. Write the same matter over again, and improve it in its
defects. Criticise each line and word. See that no words or
letters are omitted, and that the punctuation is according to
the models in this book. Eliminate all ungainly letters,
shorten the loops, see that each letter rests on the line, and
that, withal your page is clean and regular.
The person who will thus devote a little earnest study and
practice, may early acquire the valuable accomplishment of
writing a pleasing business letter, so far as the mechanical
structure goes.
ADDRESSING THE ENVELOPE.
After the letter is finished, and while it yet lies open
before you, the Envelope should be addressed. As before stated,
the directions on the envelope must conform to the address at
the beginning of the letter, hence the necessity for addressing
the envelope before the letter is folded.
The first line of the address of the envelope should consist
of the name of the person or firm to whom the letter is
written, together with any appropriate titles, and should be
written across or a little below the middle of the envelope,
but never above it, beginning
[pg 24] the left edge. The space
between this first line and the bottom of the envelope
should be about equally divided among the other lines, each
of which begins still farther to the right than the one
above, thus:
Messrs. Arnold, Constable & Co.,
Cor. Broadway & 19th Sts.,
New York City.
When writing to a person in a large city the number and
street should be a part of the address, and may be placed as in
the above form, or in the left hand lower corner as
follows:
Lewis H. Taylor, Esq.,
Chicago,
118 Wabash Ave. Ill.
In case the letter is addressed in care of any one this
should be placed in the lower left corner. If a letter of
introduction, the words Introducing Mr. John Smith, or
similar words, should be placed in this corner.
Letters addressed to small towns or villages should bear the
name of the county as follows:
Mr. Henry D. Chambers,
Washington,
Porter County,
Ala.
Or the name of the county may be placed in the lower left
corner. The Post Office box number is usually placed in the
lower left corner.
FOLDING A LETTER.
Having written an excellent letter, and faultlessly
addressed the envelope, all may be easily stamped as
unbusiness-like, and spoiled, by improperly performing so
simple a part as the folding. Remember that excellent rule
that, whatever is worth doing should be well done.
With the letter sheet lying before you, turn the bottom edge
up so that it lies along with the top edge, thus making a fold
in the middle, which press down with the thumb nail or with a
paper folder. Then fold the right edge over so that it falls
two-thirds the distance across the sheet, and press down the
edge. Next fold the left edge of the sheet over to the right,
breaking the fold at the edge of the part folded over just
before.
In case a check, note, draft, bill or currency is to be sent
by letter, it should be placed on the upper half of the sheet
as it lies open, and then the letter should be folded the same
as if it were not there. This will fold the paper or document
in the letter so that it will be difficult to extract it while
being transmitted in the mails, and so that it will not be
dropped or lost in opening the letter.
The letter is now folded so that it will be of equal
thickness in every part of the envelope. Insert the last broken
or folded edge in the envelope first, with
[pg 25] original edges of the sheet
at the end of the envelope which the stamp is on; when taken
from the envelope the letter will then be proper side
up.
THE LITERATURE OF A LETTER.
To be able to compose a letter requires more ability than to
give it the proper arrangement and mechanical dress. A mind
well stored with useful knowledge as well as command of
language, is necessary in writing a letter on general subjects.
The strictly business letter requires a thorough understanding
of the facts concerning which the letter is written, and these
facts to be set forth in plain and unmistakable language. All
display of rhetoric or flourish of words is entirely out of
place in the sober, practical letter of business. The proper
use of capital letters, punctuation, and correct spelling are
essential to the well written letter, and with a little care
and striving may be easily acquired.
ARRANGEMENT OF ITEMS.
As stated before, each item or subject in a letter should be
embraced in a separate paragraph. These should be arranged in
the order in which they would naturally come, either in point
of time, importance, or as regards policy. Never begin a letter
abruptly with a complaint, but rather bring in all unpleasant
subjects toward the close. If an answer to a letter of inquiry,
take up the questions as they are asked, indicate first what
the question is, and then state clearly the answer. The first
paragraph should acknowledge the receipt of the communication
now to be answered, giving date and indicating its nature and
contents, thus:
Your letter of the 10th instant concerning damaged goods
is received, etc.
The closing paragraph usually begins with such words as
Hoping, Trusting, Awaiting, Thanking, or similar
expressions, and is complimentary in its tone and designed as a
courtesy.
BREVITY.
Business letters should be brief and to the point. The best
letter states clearly all the facts in the fewest words.
Brevity is not inconsistent with a long letter, as so much may
need to be said as to require a long letter, but all
repetitions, lengthy statements and multiplication of words
should be avoided. Use short sentences, and make every word
mean something. Short sentences are more forcible, and more
easily understood or remembered, than long drawn out
utterances.
STYLE.
Style refers to the tone, air, or manner of expression.
Dignity and strength should characterize the style of the
business letter. No ornament of expression or eloquence of
language is necessary or appropriate in a correspondence
between business men. Come to your meaning at once. State the
facts. Let every sentence bristle with points.
The successful business man must possess energy, decision,
and force, and these qualities should be conspicuous in his
correspondence in order to command respect. Never use loose or
slang expressions. The business man should be a
gentleman. Indulge in no display of superior knowledge
or education, but temper each paragraph with respect and
deference to others. The learner who would aspire to write a
good letter, should, after having finished his attempt, go over
each sentence carefully and wherever the pronoun I occurs,
modify the expression so as to leave this out.
ORDERING GOODS.
In ordering goods of any kind, care should be used to state
very explicitly the color, size, quality, and quantity of the
articles desired. If manufactured goods, the name of the
manufacturer, or his trade mark or brand should be given. Also
state when you desire the goods shipped and in what way. If by
freight or express, state what Freight line or Express
Company.
SENDING MONEY BY LETTER.
Paper currency should seldom be trusted to pass through the
mails, as the liability to loss is too great. Better send draft
or P. O. money order, and in every case the amount of the
remittance should be stated in the letter, and also whether by
draft or otherwise sent. The letter may become important
evidence in regard to payment at some future time.
INSTRUCTIONS.
In giving instructions to agents, manufacturers and others,
let each order occupy a separate paragraph. State in
unmistakable language the instructions desired to be conveyed.
If possible a diagram or plan should be enclosed in the letter.
Cautions and complaints, if any, should be clearly set forth in
paragraphs near the close of the letter.
A DUNNING LETTER.
State when the debt was contracted, its amount, the fact of
it having been long past due, the necessity for immediate
payment, and any other facts depending on
[pg 26] the peculiarities of the
case, which it may seem best to make use of, such as
promises to pay, which have not been met; the inconvenience
as well as injury and distrust caused by such
irregularities, etc.
LETTERS OF INTRODUCTION.
Be just and truthful, avoiding any stereotyped form in
letters of introduction. Never give a letter of introduction
unless you have entire confidence in the person to whom it is
given; it may reflect on your character or be used against you.
Be very guarded that no expressions may be construed into a
letter of credit, thus making the writer liable for payment.
Use no unfounded statements or assertions, over-estimating your
friend, as these may prove untrue.
Willing to extend a favor to a friend by giving a letter of
introduction, do not be guilty of introducing him to any one in
whom he may not place confidence, as he might be a loser by
such.
Form of a Letter Ordering Goods.
128 Jackson Street,
RICHMOND, VA., May 24, 18——.
Messrs. JONES & SMITH,
867 Market St., Philadelphia.
Gentlemen: Please ship me by Fast Freight
as soon as possible the following goods:
3 hhds. N. O. Molasses.
1 bbl. Granulated Sugar.
5 chests English Breakfast Tea.
2 sacks Mocha Coffee, wanted not ground.
5 boxes Colgate’s Toilet Soap.
I will remit the amount of the invoice
immediately upon the receipt of the goods.
Yours respectfully,
JAMES C. ADAMS.
Ordering Goods and Enclosing Price.
RICHMOND, IND., Dec. 29, 18——.
Messrs. MARSHALL FIELD & Co.,
Chicago, Ill.
Gentlemen: Please forward me by American
Express at once
1 Lancaster Spread, 3.50
12 yds. Gingham, small check. (15c.) 1.80
3 doz. Napkins ($3.00), 9.00
————
$14.30
For which I inclose P.O. Money order.
Hoping to receive the goods without delay, I
am,
Respectfully,
WILLIAM L. MILLER.
Desiring to Open an Account.
DAYTON, OHIO, Oct. 12, 18——.
Messrs. HOLMES & WILSON,
Detroit, Mich.
Gentlemen: Having recently established
myself in the retail Hardware trade in this city, with fair
prospects of success, and being in need of new goods from time
to time, would like to open an account with your highly
respectable house.
My capital is small, but I have the satisfaction
of knowing that what little I possess is the fruit of my own
industry and saving. I can refer you to the well known firm of
Smith, Day & Co., of this city, as to my character and
standing.
Should my reference prove satisfactory, please
forward me at once by U.S. Express,
2 Butchers’ Bow Saws
1/2 doz. Mortise Locks, with Porcelain Knobs.
2 kegs 8d Nails,
and charge to my account.
Hoping that my order may receive your usual
prompt attention, I am,
Yours respectfully,
HENRY M. BARROWS.
Letter of Credit.
LEXINGTON, KY., June 25, 18——.
Messrs. DODGE, MANOR & DEVOE,
New York City.
Gentlemen: Please allow the bearer of
this, Mr. James Curtis, a credit for such goods as he may
select, not exceeding One Thousand dollars, and if he does not
pay for them, I will.
Please notify me in case he buys, of the amount,
and when due, and if the account is not settled promptly
according to agreement, write me at once.
Yours truly,
HIRAM DUNCAN.
Inclosing an Invoice.
125 Lake Street,
CHICAGO, Nov. 15, 18——.
SAMUEL D. PRENTICE, Esq.,
Vevay, Ind.
Dear Sir: Inclosed please find invoice of
goods amounting to $218.60, shipped you this day by the B.
& O. Express, as per your order of the 11th inst.
Hoping that the goods may prove satisfactory, and
that we may be favored with further orders, we remain,
Yours truly,
SIBLEY, DUDLEY & CO.
Letter of Introduction.
168 Olive Street,
ST. LOUIS, June 4, 18——.
HENRY M. BLISS, Esq.,
Boston.
Dear Sir: This will introduce to you the
bearer, Mr. William P. Hainline, of this city who visits
Boston, for the purpose of engaging in the Hat, Cap and Fur
trade.
He is a young man of energy and ability, and
withal, a gentlemen in every sense.
Any assistance you may render him by way of
introduction to your leading merchants or otherwise, in
establishing his new enterprise will be duly appreciated by
both himself and
Yours truly,
JAMES W. BROOKING.
Inclosing Remittance.
MILWAUKEE, WIS., Feb. 18, 18——.
Messrs. ARNOLD, CONSTABLE & Co.,
New York.
Gentlemen: The goods ordered of you on the
3d inst. have been received and are entirely satisfactory in
both reality and price.
Enclosed please find New York exchange for
$816.23, the amount of your bill.
Thanking you for your promptness in filling my
order, I am,
Yours respectfully,
HENRY GOODFELLOW.
Inclosing Draft for Acceptance.
NEW YORK, Aug. 8, 18——.
Messrs. WEBSTER & DUNN,
Cairo, Ill.
Gentlemen: Inclosed we hand you Draft at
30 days for acceptance for $928.15, the amount of balance due
from you to us to the present date. We shall feel obliged by
your accepting the same, and returning it by due course of
mail.
Awaiting further favors, we are,
Very truly yours,
DODGE, HOLMES & CO.
Inclosing a Statement of Account.
CHICAGO, March 1, 18——.
Messrs. CHASE & HOWARD,
South Bend, Ind.
Gentlemen: Inclosed please find a
statement of your account for the past three months, which we
believe you will find correct.
We shall feel obliged by your examining the same
at your earliest convenience, and shall be happy to receive
your check for the amount or instructions to draw on you in the
ordinary course.
We are, gentlemen,
Yours truly,
J.V. FARWELL & CO.
A Dunning Letter.
DENVER, COL., June 30, 18——.
JAMES C. ADAMS, Esq.,
Great Bend, Kansas.
Dear Sir: Allow me to remind you that your
account with me has been standing for several months
unsettled.
I should not even now have called your attention
to it, were it not that in a few days I must meet a heavy bill,
and must rely in part on your account to furnish me the
means.
I would, therefore, esteem it a great favor if
you would let me have either the whole, or at least the greater
part of your account in the course of a week or ten days.
Thanking you for past favors, I remain, Sir,
Yours truly,
A.R. MORGAN.
An Application for a Situation in Business.
Paste the Advertisement at the head of the sheet, and
write as follows:
124 Fayette Street,
SYRACUSE, N. Y., Sept. 17, 18——
JOURNAL OFFICE,
City.
Dear Sir: In reply to the above
advertisement I would respectfully offer my services.
I am 19 years of age, have a good education, and
have had some experience in business, having assisted my father
in his grocery store. I am not afraid of work, and never allow
myself to be idle when there is work to be done. I can refer
you as to my character, to Mr. J.H. Trout, president of the Gas
Company, who has known me all my life.
In reference to salary, I leave that with you,
but feel certain that I could earn five dollars per week for
you.
Hoping to have the pleasure of an interview, I
remain,
Respectfully,
HENRY OTIS.
Asking Permission to Refer to a Person.
SYRACUSE, N. Y., Sept. 17, 18——.
J.H. TROUT, Esq.,
Dear Sir:
I beg to inform you that in applying for a
situation this morning, advertised in the Journal, I
took the liberty of using your name as a reference. The length
of time I have been honored with your acquaintance, and the
words of encouragement which you have given me heretofore, lead
me to hope you would speak favorably in this instance, adding
this to the numerous obligations already conferred upon
Your obedient servant,
HENRY OTIS.
Inquiring as to Business Prospects.
NEWARK, OHIO, June 15, 18——.
Mr. J.D. SHAYLOR,
Denver, Col.
My Dear Sir: As I told you a year ago, I
have been thinking seriously of disposing of my small business
here and locating in some live and promising city out west,
where I can grow up with the country as you are doing.
Will you have the kindness to sit down and write
me at your convenience, full information in regard to the
prospects of business, price of rents, cost of living, etc., in
your city, and any other information, especially in regard to
the hardware trade.
If you will thus kindly give me the facts on
which I can base a calculation, and all is favorable, I will
probably visit Denver this fall, and eventually become your
neighbor.
Yours very truly,
J.O. GOODRICH.
Letter of Recommendation.
GRAND HAVEN, Mich., May 17,
18——.
To WHOM IT MAY CONCERN:
Mr. Henry McPherson, who is now leaving our
employ, has been in our office for the past two years, during
which time he has faithfully attended to his duties, proving
himself to be industrious and thoroughly reliable. He is a good
penman, correct accountant, and acquainted with
correspondence.
We shall at any time cheerfully respond to all
applications we may have regarding his character and abilities,
and wish him every success.
Yours truly,
WOOD & HILL.
Notice of Dissolution of a Partnership.
DAVENPORT, IA., Dec. 10, 18——.
JAS. L. BINGHAM & CO.,
Cedar Rapids, Ia.
Gentlemen: On the 1st of January next the
partnership for the past ten years existing between Geo. H.
Clark and Henry Webster, wholesale grocers in this City, will
expire by limitation of the contract.
The firm takes this opportunity to thank its
customers and friends for their generous patronage and support,
whereby the business of the house grew to such large
proportions.
After the first of January the business will be
carried on at the old stand, Nos. 76 and 78 Main St., by Henry
Webster and Cyrus D. Bradford, under the firm name of Webster
& Bradford. We are, gentlemen,
Your obedient servants,
CLARK & WEBSTER.
Recommending a Successor in Business.
CINCINNATI, OHIO, Dec. 15, 18——.
TO THE PUBLIC:
It is with some feeling of regret that we
announce our retirement from the business on the beginning of
the new year. Our stock and premises will then be transferred
to Messrs. Franklin and Warren, whom we cheerfully present to
your notice, and feel it our duty to recommend them for a
continuance of that liberal confidence and patronage which you
have bestowed on us during the past twenty years.
Both these young gentlemen have been clerks of
ours for several years past, and are in every way efficient and
capable to continue the business.
We are
Respectfully,
JOHNSON & FOX
ELEMENTS OF SUCCESS IN BUSINESS
In order to succeed in business life, it is necessary to
cultivate and develop certain qualities and traits of
character. These are a portion of the capital of the successful
man, and a more essential portion than money or goods.
COUNSEL AND ADVICE
HONESTY.
“Sharp practice” may bring a temporary gain but in the long
run of life that man will be far ahead who deals squarely and
honestly at all times. A thoroughly honest clerk will command a
higher salary than one of equivocal habits, while the merchant
who has a reputation for honesty and truthfulness in regard to
the quality and value of his goods, will on this account he
favored with a considerable custom. The business man whose
“word is as good as his bond” can in any emergency, control
large amounts of capital, the use of which brings him a rich
return, while the man who sells his neighbor’s good opinion for
a temporary gain, will find that he has discounted his future
success, but taking an advantage at the cost of ten tines its
value.
INDUSTRY.
No other quality can take the place of this, and no talents
of mind, however excellent, will bring success without labor;
persistent systematic labor. The young man who expects to find
some royal road to success with little or no effort, or who
imagines that his mental abilities will compensate for a lack
of application, cheats and ruins himself. Horace Greeley
probably never said a grander thing than this: “The saddest
hour in any man’s career is that wherein he, for the first
time, fancies there is an easier was of gaining a dollar than
by squarely earning it.” and Horace Greeley was himself an
example of success through industry.
It is not genius, but the great mass of average people, who
work, that make the successes in life. Some toil with
the brain, and others toil with the hand, but
[pg 29] all must toil. Industry
applies to hours in business and out of business. It means
not only to perform all required work promptly, but to
occupy spare moments usefully, not to idle evenings, and to
rise early in the morning.
An
employee
should not confine himself to his mere obligatory duties.
He should be ready to work sometimes over hours or in
other departments if it is desired of him. Willingness to
work is one of the finest qualities in a character,
and will compensate for many other deficiencies.
MEMORY.
This faculty, always so useful, is pre-eminently so to the
business man. It must be both retentive and quick. By proper
training this faculty may be so cultivated that names, dates
and events to a surprising number may be readily recalled. The
ability to greet a customer by calling him by name is
considered very valuable in any class of business. It makes a
very agreeable impression when a man who has not seen us but
once or twice, and who is not expecting us, meets us promptly
as we enter his store, with, “Why, Mr. ——, how do
you do? Glad to see you. When did you leave Newark?” We feel as
if we had occupied that man’s thoughts since we saw him before.
He appreciates us, and we feel like patronizing him. Whereas,
on the other hand to meet a customer with a blank, inquiring
expression, and greet him with, “Your face is familiar, but I
can’t recall your name.” is unpleasant and tends to drive away
custom. Every hotel keeper knows the value of this greeting of
customers. Facts, figures and dates are very necessary to
remember in business, and these often form the basis of a
business transaction or venture by which large profits are
made. Superior ability in remembering prices and their
fluctuations has been the secret of more than one brilliant
success.
Desultory reading injures the memory, while close
application to a subject, recalling the various points therein,
tends greatly to improve this faculty. The clerk or employe in
receiving instructions from his principal should endeavor to
impress every point clearly on his mind, and retain them there
until they are carried out in action. Carelessness and
forgetfulness often causes the discharge of otherwise worthy
and competent young persons, as employers do not like to repeat
their orders.
PROMPTNESS.
A very essential element in the character of the business
man is promptness. Filling all engagements at exactly the
appointed time, answering letters or forwarding goods with
promptness, the man of business finds that much more can be
accomplished and with far greater accuracy, than by a loose
system of putting off till to-morrow, or according to
convenience. Not only so, but competition in business is such
that the merchant or tradesman who does not deal with
promptness can hardly expect to hold his custom. Young men
starting out in the world should form the resolution of doing
everything on time. Better to be ahead in the performance of
duties than behind. This promptness then acts as a stimulant in
itself, and is oftentimes the means of winning success in an
enterprise.
A thing that is worth the doing, ought to be done quickly
when the time is ripe for it. A prompt man or woman is valued,
as he respects his word and has due regard for the convenience
of others.
EXECUTIVE ABILITY.
Wavering, timid and uncertain, the man without executive
ability never achieves distinction in active life. Intelligence
to decide on any measure, firmness in adhering to the decision,
and force of will in carrying it out, constitute executive
ability, and are as essential to the business man as his stock
in trade.
The timid man never makes up his mind until after the
opportunity is past, or decides, then recalls his decision, and
feels incapable of promptly estimating all the facts in the
case. This weakness is oftentimes natural, but more frequently
it is a bad habit which should be broken up.
Rashness is to decide and act without taking the trouble to
weigh intelligently the facts in the case. This is inexcusable
folly, and always brings serious trouble sooner or later.
Through executive ability the labor or services of one man
may be made to produce largely, or without proper direction
such services may be almost worthless; and in the case of many
employes under one executive head, the results of this combined
labor may be great success, or where executive ability is
wanting, a great failure.
The successful farmer, merchant, manufacturer, banker, and
professional man must have this combination of ability,
firmness, and will
power.
PERSEVERANCE.
Those who put their minds on their work, whatever kind that
may be, and persist in its thorough execution; who get
interested in something for their own advancement, that they
may become more capable as men and women of sense and tact;
such persons have a lively appreciation of the fact that
success is never more certain to be gained by any other
course.
These people have a just pride in learning the best methods
of giving expression to the faculties and powers they possess,
and which they desire to make the most of. It is incumbent that
they do all in their power for their own and other people’s
good. Feeling this, an ever present incentive keeps them
employed, and they are never idle.
If one does not succeed from persisting in doing the best he
knows how, he may conclude that the ministry of failure is
better for him than any worldly success would be.
CIVILITY.
Good behavior is an essential element of our civilization.
It should be displayed every day through courteous acts and
becoming manners.
Politeness is said to be the poetry of conduct; and like
poetry, it has many qualities. Let not your politeness he too
florid, but of that gentle kind which indicates a refined
nature.
In his relations with others, one should never forget his
good breeding. It is a general regard for the feelings of
others that springs from the absence of all selfishness. No one
should behave in the presence of others as though his own
wishes were bound to be gratified or his will to control.
In the more active sphere of business, as in the larger
localities where there is close competition, the small merchant
frequently outstrips his more powerful rival by one element of
success, which may be added to any stock without cost, but
cannot be withheld without loss. That element is civility. A
kind and obliging manner carries with it an indescribable
charm. It must not be a manner that indicates a mean,
groveling, timeserving spirit, but a plain, open, and agreeable
demeanor that seems to desire to oblige for the pleasure of
doing so, and not for the sake of squeezing an extra penny out
of a customer’s purse.
INTEGRITY.
The sole reliance of a business man should be in the
integrity of his transactions, and in the civility of his
demeanor. He should make it the interest and the pleasure of a
customer to come to his office or store. If he does this, he
will form the very best “connections,” and so long as he
continues this system of business, they will never desert
him.
No real business man will take advantage of a customer’s
ignorance, nor equivocate nor misrepresent. If he sells goods,
he will have but one price and a small profit. He will ere long
find all the most profitable customers—the cash
ones—or they will find him.
If such a man is ever deceived in business transactions, he
will never attempt to save himself by putting the deception
upon others; but submit to the loss, and be more cautious in
future. In his business relations, he will stick to those whom
he finds strictly just in their transactions, and shun all
others even at a temporary disadvantage.
The word of a business man should be worth all that it
expresses and promises, and all engagements should be met with
punctilious concern. An indifferent or false policy in business
is a serious mistake. It is fatal to grasp an advantage at ten
times its cost; and there is nothing to compensate for the loss
of a neighbor’s confidence or good will.
The long-established customs and forms of business, which in
these times are assumed to be legitimate, already have within
them enough of the elements of peculiarity, commonly termed
“tricks of trade,” or, in the sense of any particular business,
“tricks of the trade.” Therefore it does not behoove any active
man to make gratuitous additions of a peculiar nature to the
law of business. On the contrary, all should strive to render
business transactions less peculiar than they are.
ECONOMY.
One may rest in the assurance that industry and economy will
be sure to tell in the end. If in early life these habits
become confirmed, no doubt can exist as to the ultimate triumph
of the merchant in attaining a competency.
There should be no antagonism between economy and a generous
business policy. Narrow selfishness is to be avoided in the use
of money or means. In buying goods, one should not take
advantage of another’s necessities to beat him down to a figure
which leaves him little or no profit, perhaps a loss, because
he must [pg 31] have money. This is against
manhood and is a ruinous policy, because it tends to
picayunishness and chicanery. A sacred regard for the
principles of justice forms the basis of every transaction,
and regulates the conduct of the upright man of
business.
If economy is wealth, it is not so because of a niggardly
and parsimonious policy. Perhaps the simplest, fewest and best
rules for economical business are these, by observance of which
a noted merchant amassed a large fortune: 1. Obtain the
earliest and fullest information possible in regard to the
matter in hand. 2. Act rapidly and promptly upon it. 3. Keep
your intentions and means secret. 4. Secure the best
employees you can obtain, and reward them liberally.
Proprietors of institutions will early discover that order,
and neatness, are necessary as economical agents in prosecuting
a successful business. And the youth who would grow up to
become well-to-do, to gain complete success, to be a valuable
member and assume a position in society, should take pains to
acquire habits of cleanliness, of order, and of business.
To this effect each one may early learn the simple rules of
health and good order by paying reasonable attention to those
so-called minor details, which pertain to the well-being of the
person, and which must be faithfully observed in order to avoid
failure and win success.
A person, young or old, in or out of business, may keep a
memorandum-book in his pocket, in which he notes every
particular relative to appointments, addresses, and petty cash
matters. An accurate account of personal expenses should be
kept, which should be balanced each week. By this means each
individual will be more careful and economical in his
expenditures, and generally live within his income. He must be
reasonable in spending, or his memorandum or record-book, if it
be honestly kept, will stand to his discredit.
A well-kept memorandum-book is often very useful, as it is
very convenient, and sometimes serves to settle a troublesome
query, arising in other minds, by which the possessor is
absolved from the prejudice of doubt. Young people who expect
to labor with their hands for what they have of this world’s
goods, or rise by their own efforts, should by all means
acquire habits of economy, learn to save, form correct habits,
and no time will be required overcoming these. So surely as
they do this, so surely will they be in a situation to ask no
special favors. Every man wants to learn to look out for
himself and rely upon himself. Every man needs to feel that he
is the peer of every other man, and he cannot do it if he is
penniless. Money is power, and those who have it exert a wider
influence than the destitute. Hence it should be the ambition
of all young men to acquire it, as well as to store their minds
with useful knowledge.
GETTING A SITUATION.
In seeking a situation, it is always best to appear in
person if practicable. A business man who requires the services
of a salesman or clerk, a bookkeeper, stenographer, or some one
to remain in his employ a considerable time, usually prefers to
see an applicant and have a few words with him about the work
that is to be done.
If an application has to be made by letter, it should be
done in the handwriting of the applicant. It may be brief, and
should include references.
It is best for a young man to learn a trade. In this country
the trades offer more stable means of subsistence than do other
departments of active life. His knowledge of a trade will form
no bar to any effort he may afterward make to rise to a higher
or more congenial calling.
When a position has been obtained by an applicant, he should
at once proceed to render himself indispensable to his employer
by following up the details of his work in a conscientious and
agreeable manner. Thus he will gain confidence and grow in
favor with men who are quick to recognize merit, and who
respond to that which contributes to the success of a
meritorious man.
There is always room in every business for an honest,
hard-worker. It will not do to presume otherwise; nor should
one sit down to grumble or concoct mischief. The most perilous
hour of one’s life is when he is tempted to despond. He who
loses, his courage loses all. There are men in the world who
would rather work than be idle at the same price. Imitate them.
Success is not far off. An honorable and happy life is before
you. Lay hold of it.
DETECTING COUNTERFEIT MONEY
The desire to accumulate property is one of the noblest that
nature has implanted in man, and it is through the successful
results of this desire, we are enabled to point with unerring
certainty to the disembarking line, which so surely
characterizes the advanced educated, refined and civilized man
from that of the wild savage, whose highest desire is to slay
and rob his fellow men, and proudly exhibit their scalps, or
the plunder he has acquired, as evidence of his cunning or
courage.
It is through this inborn desire to accumulate that man is
willing to labor, toil, suffer, and forego present
gratifications for the hope of future greater satisfactions;
that has resulted in the building and equiping the mighty ships
of commerce, whose white, spreading canvas dots every sea where
commerce may be known, or where the interests of God’s
creatures may best be served. It is through this desire,
coupled with unremitting toil, that we owe everything of
permanent enjoyment, of enlightenment and of prosperity. The
millions of dollars of paper money which is handled every day
as the natural fruit of toil and saving through the many and
diversified transactions in the vast, illimitable and ever
rapidly developing field of commerce, is but the representative
of ownership of property.
If this representative is what it purports on its face to
be, each and every one who receives it in exchange for services
or commodities, owns not merely a piece of paper, with designs,
words and promises printed or engraved thereon, but an interest
or an undivided whole in a farm, a block of buildings or a
store well stocked with merchandise, which, in his estimation,
at least, is more desirable to him than the labor or commodity
for which he has voluntarily made the exchange; but, if on the
contrary, it is other than what it purports on its face to be,
he finds that he is the owner of a piece of paper whose value
is nil.
There is, at the present writing, 1884, nearly eight hundred
million dollars of paper currency in the United States,
consisting of greenbacks and national currency, a great portion
of which is in actual circulation, and it has been estimated by
eminent authorities, who occupy positions of trust in the
various departments through which the financial machinery of
this vast sea of paper money is daily circulated, that there is
in circulation nearly one-fifth of this amount in counterfeit
money, or about one hundred and sixty million dollars; and not
one dollar of this counterfeit money owes its circulation to
any excellence of the work in its manufacture, but wholly to
the general ignorance of those who handle it, as to what is
required to constitute a genuine bill. The time will come when
the United States will redeem all of its issue of paper money,
when those who are holding any of this counterfeit money will
have to stand the loss to the extent of the sum in their
possession. To all of those who are willing to take a small
portion of their time each day for a few weeks in learning just
what it takes to constitute a genuine bill, there need be no
necessity of ever losing anything by counterfeiters, as it is
impossible for them to make bills which will in any way
approach the beauty and exactness of the genuine ones. There is
not at the present time, nor has there ever been in the past,
nor will there ever be in the future, a counterfeit bill made
that cannot be detected at sight; and the positive knowledge of
how to know at all times when a bill is genuine and when not is
within the reach of all those who may have the privilege of
reading the following information or infallible
[pg 33] rules with a genuine desire
to be
benefitted thereby.
DEVICES AND FRAUDS.
Various devices are resorted to by a numerous gang or body
of persons, to get on in the world without turning their
attention to legitimate and useful employments. This class
includes many that are not engaged in the practice of
counterfeiting and putting forth bad money, but who make
themselves felt in various ways through vain tricks and
schemes, which are, to all intents and purposes, frauds.
Business men are generally apt at detecting and turning off
petty schemes, but they find it best to have the means with
which they may deal successfully as against regular swindlers,
forgers and counterfeiters.
COUNTERFEIT AND GENUINE WORK.
DETECTING COUNTERFEIT MONEY
As indicated above, counterfeit notes are issued and put
into the channels of circulation in abundance every year by
those engaged in the practice of counterfeiting. These notes
are often such good imitations of the genuine that it is quite
difficult to discern the difference.
That he may protect himself, each business man should have
some definite knowledge of a genuine bank-note.
The engraving of a genuine bank note, in most all of its
parts, is done by machinery, and it is more exact and perfect.
On the contrary, most all parts of counterfeit notes are done
by hand.
Counterfeiters cannot afford to purchase machinery, such as
is used for the production of genuine notes. The cost of such
machinery is between $100,000, and $150,000, and if it were in
wrong hands it would be always liable to seizure and
confiscation.
In order to prevent the forgery of bank-notes, a great deal
of ingenuity and art has been expended on their production. The
principal features of the manufacture are described as a
peculiar kind of paper and water mark; an elaborate design,
printed with a peculiar kind of ink, and certain private marks,
known only by the bank officials.
The work of counterfeiters can never equal that of the
makers of genuine notes, whose skill and facilities for
producing the highest grade of work known to the art, are the
best that the world affords.
Unless one is somewhat learned as to the quality of
engraving, that he may be able to distinguish a fine specimen
of the art when he sees it, he is likely to become a victim of
the counterfeiter’s operations.
LATHE WORK.
When the genuineness of a bank-note is doubted, the Lathe
Work on the note should first be closely scrutinized. The
several letters of denomination, circles, ovals, and shadings
between and around the letters in the words, etc., are composed
of numberless extremely fine lines—inclusive of lines
straight, curved and network. These are all regular and
unbroken, never running into each other, and may be traced
throughout with a magnifying glass.
Without the skill or machinery, by which the genuine is
produced, the same quality of work cannot be done. Therefore,
in a counterfeit, the lines are imperfect, giving the paper a
dull or hazy aspect, that may be all the better appreciated by
comparing it with the genuine. The lines in the counterfeit
will be found now and then irregular in size, and broken: not
uniform in course, sometimes heavy, sometimes light: no two
stamps or dies on the same note being exactly alike.
The fine, uniform, shade-lines, with which the letters on
the genuine are embellished, are wrought by a machine that
cannot be reproduced by counterfeiters, nor used for other than
legitimate purposes, by authority.
GEOMETRICAL LATHE.
The fine line is the characteristic of the various and
beautiful figures which are seen on a genuine note. This line
is produced by what is called the Geometrical Lathe. The
patterns made by the geometrical lathe are of every variety of
form. They are not engraved directly upon the bank-note plate,
but on pieces of soft steel plate, which are afterwards
hardened. The impressions are then transferred to a soft steel
roller, which, in its turn, is also hardened, and the
impressions remain there, in relief. This roller is then
capable of transferring the same designs to the bank-note plate
by means of the transfer press.
In counterfeit engraving, the design is made directly upon
the plate, and not by transfer, as in the production
[pg 34] of plates for genuine notes.
The essential difference between the two methods of
production is, the counterfeit is made by hand, and is
inexact and imperfect, while the genuine is made on
geometrical principles, and is therefore exact, artistic and
beautiful.
In all the government issues the geometric lathe work is
liberally used. This should be studied carefully, as it
constitutes the chief test of genuineness.
Fine lines, of unerring exactness, never broken, are seen on
the genuine medallion heads, or shields, upon which the
designation of the note is sometimes stamped. This nicety
cannot be given by hand, or with the use of imperfect
machinery. By close scrutiny the lines will be found to break
off in the pattern, or appear forked, irregular in size, and
not well defined throughout.
On most counterfeits the vignettes are not well engraved,
and the portraits have a dull appearance; the letters are
usually wanting in clearness; the printing is sometimes faulty,
by which some features of the note are obscured.
RULING ENGINE WORK.
In Ruling Engine Work, as it is called, the fine line is
present, also. The engraving is produced and transferred in the
same way as the geometrical lathe work. In this they are
parallel and not in circles. Those which constitute the shading
of letters are so fine that they form a perfectly even gray
shade. They may be printed so that the shading will appear
darker, but the aspect will be uniform. The spaces between
lines are exact, whether the lines be horizontal or diagonal.
The lines are also made crooked or wave-like, not absolutely
parallel. Ruling engine work is generally used for shading of
names of banks, and also for the names of town, state, etc.
VIGNETTES.
While lathe work and that of the ruling engine are
invariably machine work, and therefore cannot be successfully
reproduced by counterfeiters, the Vignettes are chiefly the
work of the hands. In all genuine work they are made by first
class artists, who are well paid for their services, and who
therefore have no incentive to exercise their skill for
illegitimate purposes.
Sometimes water and sky are done with the ruling engine, and
when they are, no counterfeiter can successfully imitate them.
Fine vignettes are seldom seen on counterfeit notes. If the
lathe and ruling engine work be genuine, an ordinary vignette
cannot make a note counterfeit, and if that be counterfeit, no
vignette can make the note genuine.
The vignettes on genuine notes are executed by men at the
head of their vocation, and are very life-like and beautiful.
Counterfeit vignettes usually have a sunken and lifeless
appearance. Genuine vignettes, as seen upon government issues,
consist of out-door scenes, portraits, historical pictures, and
allegorical figures. They are all exceedingly beautiful, and it
is not likely that such work will ever be successfully
imitated.
SOLID PRINT.
The lettering, or solid print, in genuine work is done by a
first-class artist, who makes that kind of work his exclusive
concern. The name of the engraving company is always engraved
with great pains and is very accurate. It will be seen on the
upper and lower margin of the note. This, in counterfeits, is
not quite uniform or even. The words “one dollar,” as on the
one dollar greenbacks, are to be considered as a sample of
solid print.
BANK-NOTE PAPER.
Bank-notes are printed upon paper composed of linen, the
qualify of which is not always the same, and it varies in
thickness. Therefore, the paper is not always a sure test, but
it is important. The manufacture of this paper is a profound
secret, as carefully kept as the combinations to the great
vaults where the government’s millions lie awaiting further
river and harbor bills. It is made only at the Dalton mill,
which dates back almost to colonial days. What its combinations
are nobody knows except those intimately connected with its
manufacture. The secret of the paper-making is jealously
guarded, as is also the paper itself. From the moment it is
made until it gets into the treasury vaults it is carefully
guarded. It goes there in small iron safes, the sheets
carefully counted, and all precautions against its loss being
taken both by the government officials and by the express
companies which carry
it.
COUNTERFEIT SIGNATURES.
Sometimes genuine notes are stolen before they are signed;
then the only thing about them made counterfeit is the
signatures. Those who are familiar with the signatures of the
officers of the bank where notes are purloined, may not be lead
into error, as such signatures usually appear more or less
cramped or unsteady; but there is no sure protection against a
counterfeit of this kind for those who do not have special
knowledge of the signatures.
UNITED STATES TREASURY BUILDING, WASHINGTON, D.C.
ALTERED BANK-NOTES.
Bank-notes are altered in two ways, namely: raising the
denomination, and changing the name of a broken to that of a
responsible bank.
First, in altering a note, it is scraped until thin: then
figures of larger denomination are pasted over. A pasted note
may be detected by holding it up to the light, when the pasted
parts will appear darker, as they are thicker.
Second, the denomination of a note is raised by taking out a
low one with an acid, and printing in a higher one with a
counterfeit stamp. The ink used in genuine bank-note printing
is a peculiar kind, and not easily to be obtained by
counterfeiters: therefore, their printing will not appear as
clear and bright as that of the government, which is done with
ink of the finest quality. If the ink is black, it gives a
clear and glossy impression, without any of that smutty
appearance, as is sometimes seen in counterfeit bank-notes. It
is almost impossible to imitate the green ink that is used by
the government, and it is nearly as difficult to imitate the
red and other colors. Counterfeit inks look dull and muddy,
while genuine inks have a glossy appearance.
In the case of a note altered by the use of acid, it may be
noticed that the acid, by spreading more than was intended by
the counterfeiter, has injured parts of other letters, and the
paper will appear more or less stained by the acid.
COMPARING AND EXAMINING NOTES.
A counterfeit should be compared with one that is genuine,
in order to familiarize one’s self with the distinguishing
features which have already been indicated.
It is best to acquire the habit of giving each note as
received a searching glance, turning it over to see the back,
and if there be any defect, it will probably catch the eye. If
there be the least suspicion, a critical
[pg 36] examination of all its parts
should be made.
In case of doubt, the lathe work should be carefully
examined, and it may be compared with a perfectly good bill;
then examine the shading around the letters, and search for any
sign of alteration in the title or denomination of the note. If
there are any medallion heads or shields, notice the lines; if
there is any red letter work, designed to appear on both sides,
look at the character of the work on the face, then turn the
note and examine the back. If the printing is not exactly alike
on both sides, but varies in any part the note is counterfeit.
Then observe the vignettes and portraits, to see whether their
style and perfection compare well with the work on genuine
notes. Then examine the solid print and engravers’ names, as
well as the printing, ink, and paper. By such thorough
examination, one can hardly be at a loss to determine the
status of the note.
Good magnifying glasses are necessary, in most instances, to
bring out the fine lines on bank-notes. Sometimes a microscope
of great power is required to discern the genuine line.
PIECING, ETC.
Counterfeiters sometimes make ten bills of nine by what is
termed piecing. Thus, a counterfeit note is cut into ten pieces
by the counterfeiter, and these pieces are used in piecing nine
genuine bills, from each of which a piece has been cut. The
nine genuine pieces, thus obtained, are then pasted together,
and with the tenth counterfeit piece added, make a tenth bill,
which is the gain.
Piecing bank-bills is not a very successful practice. One
who possesses such information as here given, can readily
detect the difference between the counterfeit and the genuine.
This difference is, however, made less apparent by the
counterfeiter, who defaces the counterfeit part, so as to give
the note a worn appearance. Counterfeiting is rendered very
difficult in consequence of the remarkable excellence of the
work on the government and national currency, as also from the
difficulty of imitating the green. But this currency, if
successfully imitated by counterfeiters, will repay large
outlay and care, as the greenbacks pass anywhere in the nation,
and a counterfeit may be carried to other states or sections as
it becomes known in any particular locality. National bank
currency may be counterfeited by preparing a plate, and then
with simple change in the name of the bank the counterfeit can
be adapted to the various towns where banks are located. This
much is written, not to lessen the value of or confidence in
the issues of the government, but to admonish the public
against the dangers of a false security.
HOW TO ADVERTISE
EMBRACING RULES, SUGGESTIONS, AND PRACTICAL HINTS ON THIS
IMPORTANT SUBJECT.
Volumes might be written on the necessity of, and the
various methods employed for, advertising. Many prosperous men
owe their success in life to judicious and liberal advertising.
In this age of strong competition in the various avenues of
trade, he who does not advertise his wares will probably be
outdone by a more ambitious dealer, with perhaps a poorer
article, who advertises liberally. People go where they are
invited, and the merchant who advertises freely, places his
store and windows in attractive order, and leaves the door
open, will do far more business than he who does not cater to
the public, is indifferent about appearances, gruff, and
complaining of hard times.
Horace Greeley laid it down as a rule that a merchant should
advertise equal to his rent. This, like all good rules, ought
to have exceptions. An old and well established business would
not require so much, while a new enterprise would require more
than this amount expended judiciously in advertising. The
merchant should decide at the beginning of the year about, what
amount he may expend in advertising during the year, and then
endeavor to place that amount in the best possible manner
before the public.
An advertiser should not be discouraged too soon. Returns
are often slow and inadequate. Time is required to familiarize
the public with a new article or new name. Some men have given
up in despair, when just on the eve of reaping a harvest of
success by this means. Many of the most prosperous and wealthy
business men in this country have at times been driven hard to
meet their advertising bills, but they knew that this was their
most productive outlay, and by persistently continuing it they
weathered the storm.
NEWSPAPER ADVERTISING.
Select the newspaper which circulates among the class of
persons desired to reach. Do not advertise a special article or
business designed for a limited class of customers, in a
general newspaper. Almost all trades and occupations in these
latter days have their special journals, and these afford the
best means of reaching that class of persons. The purpose of
the advertiser then should be to discover, first, the character
of a paper’s circulation, and second, the extent of its
circulation. On these two essentials may then be based an
estimate of its value as an advertising medium. The character
of a paper’s circulation is easily determined by the quality of
the reading matter which the paper contains, and the general
tone imparted to it by its conductors. The extent of a paper’s
circulation bears chiefly on the rates of advertising, which,
other things being equal, should have a direct ratio to it. The
extent of circulation is a matter of almost constant
misrepresentation on the part of publishers or their
agents.
As a rule, the most prominent and costly part of the paper
is the best. In country weeklies the “local items,” or next to
them, is preferable. In city journals containing a large amount
of reading matter, a well displayed advertisement on the
outside pages is perhaps the best for most classes of
business.
Place the advertisement before the public at the proper
time, just when people are beginning to feel the need of such
as the article advertised, as furs, when winter sets in. An
advertisement may, however, profitably be kept before the
public constantly, and increased or diminished as occasion
requires.
CIRCULARS.
There are many well established firms who will not advertise
in the newspapers at all. They believe that the same amount of
money spent in circulars, catalogues, etc., sent direct to the
persons whom they desire to reach, pays better than newspaper
advertising. This is more direct, and affords the advertiser
the opportunity of setting forth his claims more fully.
Circulars, cards, catalogues, etc., also afford a means for the
display of taste in their typographical arrangement and
appearance, and often times this has as much to do in making an
impression on the person who receives it, as the reading matter
contained therein. The printed circular goes out to the public
as the representative of the house; it should, therefore, in
order to command attention and respect, have about it, an air
of appropriateness and attraction. Such a circular will perhaps
be carefully preserved for years, while another which was of
not enough importance, apparently, to the proprietor or firm
issuing it, to command their taste and skill, will soon be
thrown aside as of no importance to the person receiving
it.
Several circulars must often be sent in order to command the
attention and secure the custom of a person. Where circulars
referring to the same article are repeatedly sent out, the
attention of the person who receives them is likely to be
arrested at last, and his response may be made in the form of
an order.
Perhaps thereafter he becomes a constant customer, buying
himself, and recommending his friends to do likewise.
CHARTS, CALENDARS, ETC.
An important idea in advertising is to enlist the services
of others, by making it to their interest to advertise your
business. This is often done by sending out charts, calendars,
etc., containing useful information, together with the
advertisement. These, when properly arranged and prepared in an
attractive manner, will be placed in a conspicuous place in the
store, office, or home of the person receiving them. Railway,
insurance, and other corporations have vied with each other in
the elegance and attractiveness of their charts, etc., until
they have gone into the fine arts, and spared no expense to
captivate the public.
LETTERS.
More effectual than circulars, and nearest a personal
interview, is a personal letter. As an advertisement the letter
impresses itself upon the mind of the person receiving it, in
an unusual way. A prominent firm employed clerks, and had
written several thousand letters, at many times the cost of
printed circulars, which they mailed throughout the country,
calling especial attention to their line of goods. Even the two
cent postage stamp, and the envelope being sealed, impresses
the person receiving it with the thought that it is of
importance, and one of the largest dry goods houses in Chicago,
when issuing any circular which they regard as special, seal
the envelope and place a two cent stamp thereon. They consider
that this gives their circulars a preference over ordinary
printed matter. Certain it is, that the public accept
advertisements largely at the value and importance attached to
them by their owners.
DRUMMERS AND AGENTS.
Personal effort exceeds all other means of advertising, and
competition in many branches of business has become so strong
in these times, and the facilities for travel so excellent,
that large numbers of solicitors and agents traverse the
country. Good personal address, a thorough understanding of the
business, a knowledge of human nature, together with social
qualities, constitute a good drummer.
HOW TO WRITE AN ADVERTISEMENT.
Before writing an advertisement, one should always place
before his mind what is the most important thing to impress
upon the public. If he is advertising an article of established
trade, it is the name and location of the house selling it
which must be the more prominent, or at least equally so with
any other part; but if he be introducing some new article, or
seeking to extend the sale of something little known or rare,
these items are of far less importance, and the name of the
article itself should be more prominent. The advertisement
should be so constructed as to claim the attention of the
reader, and retain that attention until he has read it through.
“Excite but never satisfy,” is the principle pursued by many
successful advertisers.
The advertisement should never contain anything repugnant to
refined taste, and nothing grotesque or ridiculous. The most
meaning should be condensed into the fewest possible words. The
wording should often be changed, and an attractive typography
should be used. It is well to choose an attractive heading,
followed by fairly spaced paragraphs, with appropriate
sub-heads.
HOW TO BE HANDSOME
Where is the woman who would not be beautiful? If such there
be—but no, she does not exist. From that memorable day
when the Queen of Sheba made a formal call on the late lamented
King Solomon until the recent advent of the Jersey Lily, the
power of beauty has controlled the fate of dynasties and the
lives of men. How to be beautiful, and consequently powerful,
is a question of far greater importance to the feminine mind
than predestination or any other abstract subject. If women are
to govern, control, manage, influence and retain the adoration
of husbands, fathers, brothers, lovers or even cousins, they
must look their prettiest at all times.
All women cannot have good features, but they can look well,
and it is possible to a great extent to correct deformity and
develop much of the figure. The first step to good looks is
good health, and the first element of health is cleanliness.
Keep clean—wash freely, bathe regularly. All the skin
wants is leave to act, and it takes care of itself. In the
matter of baths we do not strongly advocate a plunge in
ice-cold water; it takes a woman with clear grit and a strong
constitution to endure it. If a hot bath be used, let it come
before retiring, as there is less danger of taking cold
afterwards; and, besides, the body is weakened by the ablution
and needs immediate rest. It is well to use a flesh-brush, and
afterwards rinse off the soap-suds by briskly rubbing the body
with a pair of coarse toilet gloves. The most important part of
a bath is the drying. Every part of the body should be rubbed
to a glowing redness, using a coarse crash towel at the finish.
If sufficient friction can not be given, a small amount of bay
rum applied with the palm of the hand will be found
efficacious. Ladies who have ample leisure and who lead
methodical lives, take a plunge or sponge bath three times a
week, and a vapor or sun bath every day. To facilitate this
very beneficial practice, a south or east apartment is
desirable. The lady denudes herself, takes a seat near the
window, and takes in the warm rays of the sun. The effect is
both beneficial and delightful. If, however, she be of a
restless disposition, she may dance, instead of basking, in the
sunlight. Or, if she be not fond of dancing, she may improve
the shining hours by taking down her hair and brushing it,
using sulphur water, pulverized borax dissolved in alcohol, or
some similar dressing. It would be surprising to many ladies to
see her carefully wiping the separate locks on a clean, white
towel until the dust of the previous day is entirely removed.
With such care it is not necessary to wash the head, and the
hair under this treatment is invariably good.
One of the most useful articles of the toilet is a bottle of
ammonia, and any lady who has once learned its value will never
be without it. A few drops in the water takes the place of the
usual amount of soap, and cleans out the pores of the skin as
well as a bleach will do. Wash the face with a flesh-brush, and
rub the lips well to tone their color. It is well to bathe the
eyes before putting in the spirits, and if it is desirable to
increase their brightness, this may be done by dashing soapsuds
into them. Always rub the eyes, in washing, toward the nose. If
the eyebrows are inclined to spread irregularly, pinch the
hairs together where thickest. If they show a tendency to meet,
this contact may be avoided by pulling out the hairs every
morning before the toilet.
The dash of Orientalism in costume and lace now turns a
lady’s attention to her eyelashes, which are worthless if not
long and drooping. Indeed, so prevalent is the desire for this
beautiful feature that hair-dressers and ladies’ artists have
scores of customers under treatment for invigorating their
stunted eyelashes and eyebrows. To obtain these fringed
curtains, anoint the roots with a balsam made of two drachms of
nitric oxid of mercury mixed with one of leaf lard. After an
application wash the roots with a camel’s hair brush dipped in
warm milk. Tiny scissors are used, with which the lashes are
carefully but slightly trimmed every other day. When obtained,
refrain from rubbing or even touching the lids with the
finger-nails. There is more beauty in a pair of well-kept
eyebrows and full, sweeping eyelashes than people are aware of,
and a very inattractive and lusterless eye assumes new beauty
when it looks out from beneath elongated fringes. Many ladies
have a habit of rubbing the corners of their eyes to remove the
dust that will frequently accumulate there. Unless this
operation is done with little friction it will be found that
the growth of hair is very spare, and in that case it will
become necessary to pencil the barren corners. Instead of
putting cologne water on the handkerchief, which has come to be
considered a vulgarism among ladies of correct tastes, the
perfume is spent on the eyebrows and lobes of the ears.
If commenced in youth, thick lips may be reduced by
compression, and thin linear ones are easily modified by
suction. This draws the blood to the surfaces, and produces at
first a temporary and, later, a permanent inflation. It is a
mistaken belief that biting the lips reddens them. The skin of
the lips is very thin, rendering them extremely susceptible to
organic derangement, and if the atmosphere does not cause chaps
or parchment, the result of such harsh treatment will develop
into swelling or the formation of scars. Above all things, keep
a sweet breath.
Everybody can not have beautiful hands, but there is no
plausible reason for their being ill kept. Red hands may be
overcome by soaking the feet in hot water as often as possible.
If the skin is hard and dry, use tar or oat-meal soap, saturate
them with glycerine, and wear gloves in bed. Never bathe them
in hot water, and wash no oftener than is necessary. There are
dozens of women with soft, white hands who do not put them in
water once a month. Rubber gloves are worn in making the
toilet, and they are cared for by an ointment of glycerine and
rubbed dry with chamois-skin or cotton flannel. The same
treatment is not unfrequently applied to the face with the most
successful results. If such methods are used, it would be just
as well to keep the knowledge of it from the gentlemen. We know
of one beautiful lady who has not washed her face for three
years, yet it is always clean, rosy, sweet and kissable. With
some of her other secrets she gave it to her lover for safe
keeping. Unfortunately, it proved to be her last gift to that
gentleman, who declared in a subsequent note that “I can not
reconcile my heart and my manhood to a woman who can get along
without washing her
face.”
SOME OF THE SECRETS OF BEAUTY.
There is as much a “fashion” in complexion as there is in
bonnets or boots. Sometimes nature is the mode, sometimes art.
Just now the latter is in the ascendant, though, as a rule,
only in that inferior phase which has not reached the
“concealment of art”—the point where extremes meet and
the perfection of artifice presents all the appearance of
artlessness. No one of an observant turn of mind, who is
accustomed to the sight of English maids and matrons, can deny
that making-up, as at present practiced, partakes of the
amateurish element. Impossible reds and whites grow still more
impossibly red and white from week to week under the unskilled
hands of the wearer of “false colors,” who does not like to ask
for advice on so delicate a subject, for, even were she willing
to confess to the practice, the imputation of experience
conveyed in the asking for counsel might be badly received, and
would scarcely be in good taste.
The prevalent and increasing short-sightedness of our times
is, perhaps, partly the cause of the excessive use of rouge and
powder. The wielder of the powder puff sees herself afar off,
as it were. She knows that she cannot judge of the effect of
her complexion with her face almost touching its reflection in
the glass, and, standing about a yard off, she naturally
accentuates her roses and lilies in a way that looks very
pleasing to her, but is rather startling to any one with longer
sight. Nor can she tone down her rouge with the powdered hair
that softened the artificial coloring of her grandmother when
she had her day. Powder is only occasionally worn with evening
dress, and it is by daylight that those dreadful bluish reds
and whites look their worst.
On the other hand, there are some women so clever at making
up their faces that one feels almost inclined to condone the
practice in admiration of the result. These are the small
minority, and are likely to remain so, for their secret is of a
kind unlikely to be shared. The closest inspection of these
cleverly managed complexions reveals no trace of art.
Notwithstanding the reticence of these skilled artists, an
occasional burst of confidence has revealed a few of their
means of accomplishing the great end of looking pretty. “Do you
often do that?” said one of those clever ones, a matron of 37,
who looked like a girl of 19, to a friend who was vigorously
rubbing her cheeks with a course towel after a plentiful
application of cold water.
“Yes, every time I come in from a walk, ride or drive.
Why?”
“Well, no wonder you look older than you are. You are simply
wearing your face out!”
“But I must wash?”
“Certainly, but not like that. Take a leaf out of my book;
never wash you face just before going out into the fresh air,
or just after coming in. Nothing is more injurious to the skin.
Come to the glass. Do you notice a drawn look about your eyes
and a general streakiness in the cheeks? That is the result of
your violent assault upon your complexion just now. You look at
this moment ten years older than you did twenty minutes ago in
the park.”
“Well, I really do. I look old enough to be your mother; but
then, you are wonderful. You always look so young and
fresh!”
“Because I never treat my poor face so badly as you do
yours. I use rain-water, and if I cannot get that, I have the
water filtered. When I dress for dinner I always wash my face
with milk, adding just enough hot water to make it pleasant to
use. A very soft sponge and very fine towel take the place of
your terrible huckaback arrangement.”
Two or three years ago a lady of Oriental parentage on her
father’s side spent a season in London society. Her complexion
was brown, relieved by yellow, her features large and
irregular, but redeemed by a pair of lovely and expressive
eyes. So perfect was her taste in dress that she always
attracted admiration wherever she went. Dressed in rich dark
brown or dullest crimsons or russets, so that no one ever
noticed much what she wore, she so managed that suggestions and
hints—no more—of brilliant amber or
pomegranate scarlet should appear just where they
imparted brilliancy to her deep coloring, and abstract the
yellow from her skin. A knot of old gold satin under the rim of
her bonnet, another at her throat, and others in among the lace
at her wrists, brightened up the otherwise subdued tinting of
her costume, so that it always looked as though it had been
designed expressly for her by some great colorist. Here rouge
was unnecessary. The surroundings were arranged to suit the
complexion, instead of the complexion to suit the surroundings.
There can be no doubt as to which is the method which best
becomes the gentlewoman.
In addition to the disagreeable sensation of making-up, it
must be remembered that the use of some of the white powders
eventually destroys the texture of the skin, rendering it rough
and coarse. Rimmel, the celebrated perfumer, in his “Book of
Perfumes,” says that rouge, being composed of cochineal and
saffron, is harmless, but that white cosmetics consist
occasionally of deleterious substances which may injure the
health. He advises actors and actresses to choose cosmetics,
especially the white, with the greatest care, and women of the
world, who wish to preserve the freshness of their complexion,
to observe the following recipe: Open air, rest, exercise and
cold water.
In another part of this pleasant book the author says that
schonada, a cosmetic used among the Arabs, is quite
innocuous and at the same time effectual. “This cream, which
consists of sublimated benzoin, acts upon the skin as a slight
stimulant, and imparts perfectly natural colors during some
hours without occasioning the inconveniences with which
European cosmetics may justly be reproached.” It is a
well-known fact that bismuth, a white powder containing sugar
of lead, injures the nerve-centers when constantly employed,
and occasionally causes paralysis itself.
In getting up the eyes, nothing is injurious that is not
dropped into them. The use of kohl or kohol is
quite harmless, and, it must be confessed, very effective when
applied—as the famous recipe for salad dressing enjoins
with regard to the vinegar—by the hand of a miser. Modern
Egyptian ladies make their kohol of the smoke produced
by burning almonds. A small bag holding the bottle of
kuhol, and a pin, with a rounded point with which to
apply it, form part of the toilet paraphernalia of all the
beauties of Cairo, who make the immense mistake of getting up
their eyes in an exactly similar manner, thus trying to reduce
the endless variety of nature to one common pattern, a mistake
that may be accounted for by the fact that the Arabs believe
kohol to be a sovereign specific against ophthalmia.
Their English sisters often make the same mistake without the
same excuse. A hairpin steeped in lampblack is the usual method
of darkening the eyes in England, retribution following sooner
or later in the shape of a total loss of the eyelashes. Eau de
Cologne is occasionally dropped into the eyes, with the effect
of making them brighter. The operation is painful, and it is
said that half a dozen drops of whisky and the same quantity of
Eau de Cologne, eaten on a lump of sugar, is quite as
effective.
HIGH-HEELED BOOTS.
A lady looks infinitely taller and slimmer in a long dress
than she does in a short costume, and there is always a way of
showing the feet, if desired, by making the front quite short,
which gives, indeed, a more youthful appearance to a train
dress. The greatest attention must, of course, be paid to the
feet with these short dresses, and I may here at once state
that high heels are absolutely forbidden by fashion. Doctors,
are you content? Only on cheap shoes and boots are they now
made, and are only worn by common people. A good bootmaker will
not make high heels now, even if paid double price to do so.
Ladies—that is, real ladies—now wear flat-soled
shoes and boots, a la Cinderella. For morning walking,
boots or high Moliere shoes are worn.
If you wear boots you may wear any stockings you like, for
no one sees them. But if you wear shoes you must adapt your
stockings to your dress. Floss silk, Scotch thread, and even
cotton stockings are worn for walking, silk stockings have
returned into exclusively evening wear. Day stockings should be
of the same color as the dress, but they may be shaded, or
stripped, or dotted, just as you please. White stockings are
absolutely forbidden for day wear—no one wears
them—no one dares wear them under fashion’s
interdiction.
HOW TO APPEAR GRACEFUL IN WALKING.
The whole secret of standing and walking erect consists in
keeping the chin well away from the breast. This throws the
head upward and backward, and the shoulders will naturally
settle backward and in their true position. Those who stoop in
walking generally look downward. The proper way is to look
straight ahead, upon the same level with your eyes, or if you
are inclined to stoop, until that tendency is overcome, look
rather above than below the level. Mountaineers are said to be
as “straight as an arrow,” and the reason is because they are
obliged to look upward so much. It is simply impossible to
stoop in walking if you will heed and practice this rule. You
will notice that all round-shouldered persons carry the chin
near the breast and pointed downward. Take warning in time, and
heed grandmother’s advice, for a bad habit is more easily
prevented than cured. The habit of stooping when one walks or
stands is a bad habit and especially hard to cure.
MULTUM IN PARVO
HISTORY OF THE BIBLES OF THE WORLD.
The Bibles of the world are the koran of the Mohammedans,
the tripitaka of the Buddhists, the five kings of the Chinese,
the three vedas of the Hindoos, the zendavesta of the Parsees
and the scriptures of the Christians. The koran, says the
Chicago Times, is the most recent, dating from the seventh
century after Christ. It is a compound of quotations from both
the Old and the New Testaments and from the talmud. The
tripitaka contain sublime morals and pure aspirations. Their
author lived and died in the sixth century before Christ.
The sacred writings of the Chinese are called the five
kings, the word “king” meaning web of cloth. From this it is
presumed that they were originally written on five rolls of
cloth. They contain wise sayings from the sages on the duties
of life, but they can not be traced further back than the
eleventh century before our era. The vedas are the most ancient
books in the language of the Hindoos, but they do not,
according to late commentators, antedate the twelfth before the
Christian era. The zendaveata of the Parsees, next to our
Bible, is reckoned among scholars as being the greatest and
most learned of the sacred writings. Zoroaster, whose sayings
it contains, lived and worked in the twelfth century before
Christ. Moses lived and wrote the pentateuch 1,500 years before
the birth of Jesus, therefore that portion of our Bible is at
least 300 years older than the most ancient of other sacred
writings. The eddas, a semi-sacred work of the Scandinavians,
was first given to the world in the fourteen century A.D.
PRECIOUS STONES.
ARRANGED ACCORDING TO COLOR AND IN ORDER OF HARDINESS.
Limpid.—Diamond, Sapphire, Topaz,
Rock-Crystal.
Blue.—Sapphire, Topaz, Indicolite, Turquoise,
Spinel, Aquamarine, Kaynite.
Green.—Oriental Emerald, Chrysoberyl, Amazon
Stone, Malachite, Emerald, Chrysoprase, Chrysolite.
Yellow.—Diamond, Topaz, Fire-Opal.
Red.—Sapphire-Ruby, Spinel-Ruby, Rubellite,
Garnet, Brazilian-Topaz, Hyacinth, Carnelian.
Violet.—Oriental-Amethyst, Amethyst.
Black and Brown.—Diamond, Tourmaline, Hyacinth,
Garnet.
HOW TO MEASURE CORN IN THE CRIB.
Rule: 1st. Measure the length, breadth and height of the
crib inside the rail; multiply them together and divide by two,
the result is the number of bushels of shelled corn.
2d. Level the corn so that it is of equal depth throughout,
multiply the length, breath and depth together, and this
product by four, and cut off one figure to the right of the
product; the other will represent the number of bushels of
shelled corn.
3d. Multiply length by height, and then by width, add two
ciphers to the result and divide by 124; this gives the number
of bushels of ear
corn.
HOME DRESSMAKING.
The art of dressmaking in America has been of late years so
simplified that almost anyone with a reasonable degree of
executive ability can manufacture a fashionable costume by
using an approved pattern and following the directions printed
upon it, selecting a new pattern for each distinct style; while
in Europe many ladies adhere to the old plan of cutting one
model and using it for everything, trusting to personal skill
or luck to gain the desired formation. However, some useful
hints are given which are well worth offering after the paper
pattern has been chosen.
The best dressmakers here and abroad use silk for lining,
but nothing is so durable or preserves the material as well as
a firm slate twill. This is sold double width and should be
laid out thus folded: place the pattern upon it with the upper
part towards the cut end, the selvedge for the fronts. The side
pieces for the back will most probably be got out of the width,
while the top of the back will fit in the intersect of the
front. A yard of good stuff may be often saved by laying the
pattern out and well considering how one part cuts into
another. Prick the outline on to the lining; these marks serve
as a guide for the tacking.
In forming the front side plaits be careful and do not allow
a fold or crease to be apparent on the bodice beyond where the
stitching commences. To avoid this, before beginning stick a
pin through what is to be the top of the plait. The head will
be on the right side, and holding the point, one can begin
pinning the seam without touching the upper part of the bodice.
To ascertain the size of the buttonholes put a piece of card
beneath the button to be used and cut it an eighth of an inch
on either side beyond. Having turned down the piece in front on
the buttonhole side run a thread a sixteenth of an inch from
the extreme edge, and again another the width of the card.
Begin to cut the first buttonhole at the bottom of the bodice;
and continue at equal distances. The other side of the bodice
is left wide enough to come well under the buttonholes. The
buttonholes must be laid upon it and a pin put through the
center of each to mark where the button is to be placed. In
sewing on the buttons put the stiches in horizontally; if
perpendicularly they are likely to pucker that side of the
bodice so much that it will be quite drawn up, and the buttons
will not match the buttonholes.
A WOMAN’S SKIRTS.
Observe the extra fatigue which is insured to every woman in
merely carrying a tray upstairs, from the skirts of the dress.
Ask any young women who are studying to pass examinations
whether they do not find loose clothes a sine qua non
while poring over their books, and then realize the harm we are
doing ourselves and the race by habitually lowering our powers
of life and energy in such a manner. As a matter of fact it is
doubtful whether any persons have ever been found who would say
that their stays were at all tight; and, indeed, by a muscular
contraction they can apparently prove that they are not so by
moving them about on themselves, and thus probably believe what
they say. That they are in error all the same they can easily
assure themselves by first measuring round the waist outside
the stays; then take them off, let them measure while they take
a deep breath, with the tape merely laid on the body as if
measuring for the quantity of braid to go round a dress, and
mark the result. The injury done by stays is so entirely
internal that it is not strange that the maladies caused by
wearing them should be attributed to every reason under the sun
except the true one, which is, briefly, that all the internal
organs, being by them displaced, are doing their work
imperfectly and under the least advantageous conditions: and
are, therefore, exactly in the state most favorable to the
development of disease, whether hereditary or
otherwise.—Macmillan’s Magazine.
TO MAKE THE SLEEVES.
As to sleeves. Measure from the shoulder to the elbow and
again from elbow to the wrist. Lay these measurements on any
sleeve patterns you may have, and lengthen and shorten
accordingly. The sleeve is cut in two pieces, the top of the
arm and the under part, which is about an inch narrower than
the outside. In joining the two together, if the sleeve is at
all tight, the upper part is slightly fulled to the lower at
the elbow. The sleeve is sewn to the armhole with no cordings
now, and the front seam should be about two inches in front of
the bodice.
Bodices are now worn very tight-fitting, and the French
stretch the material well on the cross before beginning to cut
out, and in cutting allow the lining to be slightly pulled, so
that when on, the outside stretches to it and insures a better
fit. An experienced eye can tell a French-cut bodice at once,
the front side pieces being always on the cross. In dress
cutting and fitting, as in everything else, there are failures
and discouragements, but practice overrules these little
matters, and “trying again” brings a sure reward in
success.
A sensible suggestion is made in regard to the finish in
necks of dresses for morning wear. Plain colors have rather a
stiff appearance, tulle or crepe lisse frilling are expensive
and frail, so it is a good idea to purchase a few yards of
really good washing lace, about an inch and a half in depth;
quill or plait and cut into suitable lengths to tack around the
necks of dresses. This can be easily removed and cleaned when
soiled. A piece of soft black Spanish lace, folded loosely
around the throat close to the frillings, but below it, looks
very pretty; or you may get three yards of scarf lace, trim the
ends with frillings, place it around the neck, leaving nearly
all the length in the right hand, the end lying upon the left
shoulder being about half a yard long. Wind the larger piece
twice around the throat, in loose, soft folds, and festoon the
other yard and a half, and fasten with brooch or flower at the
side.—Philadelphia Times.
DISCOVERY OF GOLD IN CALIFORNIA.
It was on the 19th day of January, 1848, that James W.
Marshall, while engaged in digging a race for a saw-mill at
Coloma, about thirty-five miles eastward from Sutter’s Fort,
found some pieces of yellow metal, which he and the half-dozen
men working with him at the mill supposed to be gold. He felt
confident that he had made a discovery of great importance, but
he knew nothing of either chemistry or gold-mining, so he could
not prove the nature of the metal nor tell how to obtain it in
paying quantities. Every morning he went down to the race to
look for the bits of metal; but the other men at the mill
thought Marshall was very wild in his ideas, and they continued
their labors in building the mill, and in sowing wheat and
planting vegetables. The swift current of the mill-race washed
away a considerable body of earthy matter, leaving the coarse
particles of gold behind; so Marshall’s collection of specimens
continued to accumulate, and his associates began to think
there might be something in his gold mines after all. About the
middle of February, a Mr. Bennett, one of the party employed at
the mill, went to San Francisco for the purpose of learning
whether this metal was precious, and there he was introduced to
Isaac Humphrey, who had washed for gold in Georgia. The
experienced miner saw at a glance that
[pg 43] he had the true stuff before
him, and, after a few inquiries, he was satisfied that the
diggings must be rich. He made immediate preparation to
visit the mill, and tried to persuade some of his friends to
go with him; but they thought it would be only a waste of
time and money, so he went with Bennett for his sole
companion.
He arrived at Coloma on the 7th of March, and found the work
at the mill going on as if no gold existed in the neighborhood.
The next day he took a pan and spade, and washed some of the
dirt in the bottom of the mill-race in places where Marshall
had found his specimens, and, in a few hours, Humphrey declared
that these mines were far richer than any in Georgia. He now
made a rocker and went to work washing gold industriously, and
every day yielded to him an ounce or two of metal. The men at
the mill made rockers for themselves, and all were soon busy in
search of the yellow metal. Everything else was abandoned; the
rumor of the discovery spread slowly. In the middle of March
Pearson B. Reading, the owner of a large ranch at the head of
the Sacramento valley, happened to visit Sutter’s Fort, and
hearing of the mining at Coloma, he went thither to see it. He
said that if similarity of formation could be taken as a proof,
there must be gold mines near his ranch; so, after observing
the method of washing, he posted off, and in a few weeks he was
at work on the bars of Clear Creek, nearly two hundred miles
northwestward from Coloma. A few days after Reading had left,
John Bidwell, now representative of the northern district of
the State in the lower House of Congress, came to Coloma, and
the result of his visit was that, in less than a month, he had
a party of Indians from his ranch washing gold on the bars of
Feather River, twenty-five miles northwestward from Coloma.
Thus the mines were opened at far distant points.
The first printed notice of the discovery of gold was given
in the California newspaper published in San Francisco on the
10th of March. On the 29th of May the same paper, announcing
that its publication would be suspended, says: “The whole
country, from San Francisco to Los Angeles, and from the
seashore to the base of the Sierra Nevada, resound the sordid
cry of gold! gold! gold! while the field is left half
planted, the house half built and everything neglected but the
manufacture of pick and shovels, and the means of
transportation to the spot where one man obtained one hundred
and twenty-eight dollars’ worth of the real stuff in one day’s
washing; and the average for all concerned, is twenty dollars
per diem. The first to commence quartz mining in California
were Capt. Win. Jackson and Mr. Eliason, both Virginians, and
the first machine used was a Chilian mill.
The Reid Mine, in North Carolina, was the first gold mine
discovered and worked in the United States, and the only one in
North America from which, up to 1825, gold was sent to the
Mint.
HOW TO MAKE ARTIFICIAL GOLD.
The following oroid or imitation gold is sometimes sold for
the genuine article which it closely resembles. Pure copper,
100 parts by weight, is melted in a crucible, and then 6 parts
of magnesia, 3.6 of sal-ammoniac, 1.8 of quicklime and 9. of
tartar are added separately and gradually in the form of
powder. The whole is then stirred for about half an hour, and
17 parts of zinc or tin in small grains are thrown in and
thoroughly mixed. The
crucible is now covered and the mixture kept melted for
half an hour longer, when it is skimmed and poured out.
Any imitation of gold may be detected by its weight, which
is not one-half of what it should be, and by its dissolving in
nitric acid while pure gold is untouched.
HOW TO TELL ANY PERSON’S AGE.
There is a good deal of amusement in the following magical
table of figures. It will enable you to tell how old the young
ladies are. Just hand this table to a young lady, and request
her to tell you in which column or columns her age is
contained, and add together the figures at the top of the
columns in which her age is found, and you have the great
secret. Thus, suppose her age to be 17, you will find that
number in the first and fifth columns; add the first figures of
these two columns.
Here is the magic table:
1 2 4 8 16 32
3 3 5
9 17 33
5 6 6 10 18 34
7 7 7 11 19 35
9 10 12 12 20 36
11 11 13 13 21 37
13 14 14 14 22 38
15 15 15 15 23 39
17 18 20 24 24 40
19 19 21 25 25 41
21 22 22 26 26 42
23 23 23 27 27 43
25 26 28 28 28 44
27 27 29 29 29 45
29 30 30 30 30 46
31 31 31 31 31 47
33 34 36 40 48 48
35 35 37 41 49 49
37 38 38 42 50 50
39 39 39 43 51 51
41 42 44 44 52 52
43 43 45 45 53 53
45 46 46 46 54 54
47 47 47 47 55 55
49 50 52 56 56 56
51 51 53 57 57 57
53 54 54 58 58 58
55 55 55 59 59 59
57 58 60 60 60 60
59 59 61 61 61 61
61 62 62 62 62 62
63 63 63 63 63 63
WHAT THE WHITE HOUSE COSTS.
Salary of President, $50,000; additional appropriations are
about $75,000. A total of $125,000. The President has the
following corps of assistants: Private Secretary, $3,250;
Assistant Private Secretary, $2,250; Stenographer, $1,800; five
Messengers, $1,200 each, $6,000; Steward—; two
Doorkeepers, $1,200 each, $2,400; two Ushers, $1,200, $1,400,
$2,600; Night Usher, $1,200; Watchman, $900, and a few other
minor clerks and telegraph operators.
SUNDRIES.—Incidental expenses, $8,000; White House
repairs—carpets and refurnishing, $12,500; fuel, $2,500;
green-house, $4,000; gas, matches and stable, $15,000.
These amounts, with others of minor importance, consume the
entire appropriations.
BUSINESS LAW.
Ignorance of the law excuses no one. It is a fraud to
conceal a fraud. The law compels no one to do impossibilities.
An agreement without consideration is void. Signatures made
with a lead pencil are good in law. A receipt for money paid is
not legally conclusive. The acts of one partner bind all the
others. Contracts made on Sunday cannot be enforced. A contract
made with a minor is void. A contract made with a lunatic is
void. Principals are responsible for the acts of their
agents.
Agents are responsible to their principals for errors. Each
individual in a partnership is responsible for the whole amount
of the debts of the firm. A note given by a minor is void.
Notes bear interest only when so stated. It is legally
necessary to say on a note “for value received.” A note drawn
on Sunday is void. A note obtained by fraud, or from a person
in a state of intoxication, cannot be collected. If a note be
lost or stolen, it does not release the maker; he must pay it.
An endorser of a note is exempt from liability if not served
with notice of its dishonor within twenty-four hours of its
non-payment.
ITEMS WORTH REMEMBERING.
A sun bath is of more worth than much warming by the
fire.
Books exposed to the atmosphere keep in better condition
than if confined in a book-case. Pictures are both for use and
ornament. They serve to recall pleasant memories and scenes;
they harmonize with the furnishing of the rooms. If they serve
neither of these purposes they are worse than useless; they
only help fill space which would look better empty, or gather
dust and make work to keep them clean.
A room filled with quantities of trifling ornaments has the
look of a bazaar and displays neither good taste nor good
sense. Artistic excellence aims to have all the furnishings of
a high order of workmanship combined with simplicity, while
good sense understands the folly of dusting a lot of
rubbish.
A poor book had best be burned to give place to a better, or
even to an empty shelf, for the fire destroys its poison, and
puts it out of the way of doing harm.
Better economize in the purchasing of furniture or carpets
than scrimp in buying good books or papers.
Our sitting-rooms need never be empty of guests or our
libraries of society if the company of good books is admitted
to them.
REMARKABLE CALCULATIONS REGARDING THE SUN.
The sun’s average distance from the earth is about
91,500,000 miles. Since the orbit of the earth is elliptical,
and the sun is situated at one of its foci, the earth is nearly
3,000,000 miles further from the sun in aphelion than in
perihelion. As we attempt to locate the heavenly bodies in
space, we are immediately startled by the enormous figures
employed. The first number, 91,500,000 miles, is far beyond our
grasp. Let us try to comprehend it. If there were air to convey
a sound from the sun to the earth, and a noise could be made
loud enough to pass that distance it would require over
fourteen years for it to come to us. Suppose a railroad could
be built to the sun. An express train traveling day and night
at the rate of thirty miles an hour, would require 341 years to
reach its destination. Ten generations would be born and would
die; the young men would become gray haired, and their
great-grandchildren would forget the story of the beginning of
that wonderful journey, and could find it only in history, as
we now read of Queen Elizabeth or of Shakespeare; the eleventh
generation would see the solar depot at the end of the route.
Yet this enormous distance of 91,500,000 miles is used as the
unit for expressing celestial distances—as the foot-rule
for measuring space; and astronomers speak of so many times the
sun’s distance as we speak of so many feet or inches.
SIGNS OF STORMS APPROACHING.—A ring around the
sun or moon stands for an approaching storm, its near or
distant approach being indicated by its larger or smaller
circumference. When the sun rises brightly and immediately
afterward becomes veiled with clouds, the farmer distrusts the
day. Rains which begin early in the morning often stop by nine
in place of “eleven,” the hour specified in the old saw, “If it
rains before seven.”
On a still, quiet day, with scarcely the least wind afloat,
the ranchman or farmer can tell the direction of impending
storm by cattle sniffing the air in the direction whence it is
coming. Lack of dew in summer is a rain sign. Sharp white
frosts in autumn and winter precede damp weather, and we will
stake our reputation as a prophet that three successive white
frosts are an infallible sign of rain. Spiders do not spin
their webs out of doors before rain. Previous to rain flies
sting sharper, bees remain in their hives or fly but short
distances, and almost all animals appear uneasy.
HOW TO DISTINGUISH GOOD MEAT FROM BAD MEAT.
1st. It is neither of a pale pink color nor of a deep purple
tint, for the former is a sign of disease, and the latter
indicates that the animal has not been slaughtered, but has
died with the blood in it, or has suffered from acute
fever.
2d. It has a marked appearance from the ramifications of
little veins of fat among the muscles.
3d. It should be firm and elastic to the touch and should
scarcely moisten the fingers—bad meat being wet and
sodden and flabby with the fat looking like jelly or wet
parchment.
4th. It should have little or no odor, and the odor should
not be disagreeable, for diseased meat has a sickly cadaverous
smell, and sometimes a smell of physic. This is very
discoverable when the meat is chopped up and drenched with warm
water.
5th. It should not shrink or waste much in cooking.
6th. It should not run to water or become very wet on
standing for a day or two, but should, on the contrary, dry
upon the surface.
7th. When dried at a temperature of 212 deg., or
thereabouts, it should not lose more than from 70 to 74 per
cent. of its weight, whereas bad meat will often lose as much
as 80 per cent. The juice of the flesh is alkaline or neutral
to test paper.
RAILROADS IN FINLAND.
People who think of Finland as a sub-arctic country of bleak
and forbidding aspect maybe surprised to hear that several
railroads have already made a large part of the region
accessible. A new line, 160 miles long, has just been opened to
the heart of the country in the midst of great forests and
perhaps the most wonderful lake region in the world. Sportsmen
are now within less than a day’s journey from St. Petersburg of
central Finland, where there is the best of hunting and fishing
and twenty hours of sunlight every summer day. The most unique
of railroads, however, is still the little line in Norway,
north of the arctic circle, carrying the product of far
northern mines to the sea, and famous as the only railroad that
has yet invaded the polar regions.
COMPARATIVE SIZE OF THE ARK AND THE GREAT EASTERN.
The following comparison between the size of Noah’s ark and
the Great Eastern, both being considered in point of tonnage,
after the old law for calculating the tonnage of a vessel,
exhibits a remarkable similarity. The cubit of the Bible,
according to Sir Isaac Newton, is 20-1/2 inches,
[pg 45] or, to be exact, 20.625
inches. Bishop Wilkins makes the cubit 20.88 inches.
According to Newton the dimensions of the ark were: Length
between perpendiculars, 515.62 feet; breadth, 84.94 feet;
depth, 51.56 feet; keel, or length for tonnage, 464.08 feet.
Tonnage, according to old law, 18,231 58-94. The
measurements of the ark, according to Wilkins’ calculations
were: Length, 54700 feet; breadth, 91.16 feet; depth, 54.70
feet; keel, 492.31 feet. Tonnage, 21,761. Notice how
surprisingly near the Great Eastern came to being
constructed after the same plan: Length, 680 feet; breadth,
83 feet; depth, 60 feet; keel, 630 feet. Tonnage,
23,092.
FINGER NAILS AS AN INDICATION OF CHARACTER.
A white mark on the nail bespeaks misfortune.
Pale or lead-colored nails indicate melancholy people.
Broad nails indicate a gentle, timid, and bashful
nature.
Lovers of knowledge and liberal sentiments have round
nails.
People with narrow nails are ambitious and quarrelsome.
Small nails indicate littleness of mind, obstinacy and
conceit.
Choleric, martial men, delighting in war, have red and
spotted nails.
Nails growing into the flesh at the points or sides indicate
luxurious tastes.
People with very pale nails are subject to much infirmity of
the flesh and persecution by neighbors and friends.
DANGERS OF CELLULOID.
A curious accident, which happened recently in Paris, points
out a possible danger in the wearing of combs and bracelets of
celluloid. A little girl sat down before the fire to prepare
her lessons. Her hair was kept back by a semi-circle comb of
celluloid. As her head was bent forward to the fire this became
warm, and suddenly burst into flames. The child’s hair was
partly burned off, and the skin of the head was so injured that
several months after, though the burn was healed, the cicatrix
formed a white patch on which no hair would grow. The burning
point of celluloid is about 180 degrees, and the comb worn by
the girl had attained that heat as it was held before the
fire.
ODD FACTS ABOUT SHOES.
Grecian shoes were peculiar in reaching to the middle of the
legs.
The present fashion of shoes was introduced into England in
1633.
In the ninth and tenth centuries the greatest princes of
Europe wore wooden shoes.
Slippers were in use before Shakespeare’s time, and were
originally made “rights” and “lefts.”
Shoes among the Jews were made of leather, linen, rush or
wood; soldiers’ shoes were sometimes made of brass or iron.
In the reign of William Rufus of England, in the eleventh
century, a great beau, “Robert, the Horned,” used shoes with
sharp points, stuffed with tow, and twisted like rams’
horns.
The Romans made use of two kinds of shoes—the solea,
or sandal, which covered the sole of the foot, and was worn at
home and in company, and the calceus, which covered the whole
foot and was always worn with the toga when a person went
abroad.
In the reign of Richard II., shoes were of such absurd
length as to require to be supported by being tied to the knees
with chains, sometimes of gold and silver. In 1463 the English
parliament took the matter in hand and passed an act forbidding
shoes with spikes more than two inches in length being worn and
manufactured.
TABLE SHOWING THE AVERAGE VELOCITIES OF VARIOUS
BODIES.
A man walks 3 miles per hour or 4 feet per
second.
A horse trots 7 miles per hour or 10 feet per second.
A horse runs 20 miles per hour or 29 feet per second.
Steamboat runs 20 miles per hour or 26 feet per second.
Sailing vessel runs 10 miles per hour or 14 feet per
second.
Rapid rivers flow 3 miles per hour or 4 feet per second.
A moderate wind blows 7 miles per hour or 10 feet per
second.
A storm moves 36 miles per hour or 52 feet per second.
A hurricane moves 80 miles per hour or 117 feet per
second.
A rifle ball 1000 miles per hour or 1466 feet per
second.
Sound 743 miles per hour or 1142 feet per second.
Light, 192,000 miles per second.
Electricity, 288,000 miles per second.
QUANTITY OF OIL REQUIRED FOR DIFFERENT COLORS.
Heath & Miligan quote the following figures. They are
color manufacturers:
100 parts (weight) White Lead require 12 parts of
oil.
100 parts (weight) Zinc White require 14 parts of oil.
100 parts (weight) Green Chrome require 15 parts of oil.
100 parts (weight) Chrome Yellow require 19 parts of oil.
100 parts (weight) Vermilion require 25 parts of oil.
100 parts (weight) Light Red require 31 parts of oil.
100 parts (weight) Madder Lake require 62 parts of oil.
100 parts (weight) Yellow Ochre require 66 parts of oil.
100 parts (weight) Light Ochre require 72 parts of oil.
100 parts (weight) Camels Brown require 75 parts of oil.
100 parts (weight) Brown Manganese require 87 parts of
oil.
100 parts (weight) Terre Verte require 100 parts of oil.
100 parts (weight) Parisian Blue require 106 parts of
oil.
100 parts (weight) Burnt Terreverte require 112 parts of
oil.
100 parts (weight) Berlin Blue require 112 parts of oil.
100 parts (weight) Ivory Black require 112 parts of oil.
100 parts (weight) Cobalt require 125 parts of oil.
100 parts (weight) Florentine Brown require 150 parts of
oil.
100 parts (weight) Burnt Terra Sienna require 181 parts of
oil.
100 parts (weight) Raw Terra Sienna require 140 parts of
oil.
According to this table, a hundred parts of the quick drying
white lead are ground with 12 parts of oil, and on the other
hand slow drying ivory black requires 112 parts of oil.
PAINTING.
1 gallon Priming Color will cover 50 superficial
yards.
1 gallon White Zinc will cover 50 superficial yards.
1 gallon White Paint will cover 44 superficial yards.
1 gallon Lead Color will cover 50 superficial yards.
1 gallon Black Paint will cover 50 superficial yards.
1 gallon Stone Color will cover 44 superficial yards.
1 gallon Yellow Paint will cover 44 superficial yards.
1 gallon Blue Color will cover 45 superficial yards.
1 gallon Green Paint will cover 45 superficial yards.
1 gallon Bright Emerald Green will cover 25 superficial
yards.
1 gallon Bronze Green will cover 45 superficial yards.
One pound of paint will cover about four superficial yards
the first coat, and about six yards each additional coat.
RAPID PROCESS OF MARKING GOODS AT ANY DESIRED PER CENT.
PROFIT.
Retail merchants, in buying goods by wholesale, buy a great
many articles by the dozen, such as boots and shoes, hats and
caps, and notions of various kinds; now the merchant, in
buying, for instance, a dozen hats, knows exactly what one of
these hats will retail for in the market where
[pg 46] he deals; and unless he is a
good accountant, it will often take him some time to
determine whether he can afford to purchase the dozen hats
and make a living profit by selling them by the single hat;
and in buying his goods by auction, as the merchant often
does, he has not time to make the calculation before the
goods are bid off. He therefore loses the chance of making
good bargains by being afraid to bid at random, or if he
bids, and the goods are cried off, he may have made a poor
bargain by bidding thus at a venture. It then becomes a
useful and practical problem to determine instantly what per
cent. he would gain if he retailed the hat at a certain
price, to tell what an article should retail for to make a
profit of 20 per cent.
Rule.—Divide what the articles cost per dozen by
10. which is done by removing the decimal point one place to
the left.
For instance, if hats cost $17.50 per dozen, remove the
decimal point one place to the left, making $1.75, what they
should be sold for apiece to gain 20 per cent, on the cost. If
they cost $31.00 per dozen, they should be sold at $3.10
apiece, etc.
THE SEVEN WONDERS OF THE WORLD.
Pyramids of Egypt.
Tower, Walls and Terrace Hanging Gardens of Babylon.
Statue of Jupiter Olympus, on the Capitoline Hill, at
Rome.
Temple of Diana, at Ephesus.
Pharos, or watch-tower, at Alexandria, Egypt.
Colossus of Rhodes, a statue 105 feet high; overthrown by an
earthquake 224 B.C.
Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, a Grecian-Persian city in Asia
Minor.
HEAT AND COLD.
Degrees of heat above zero at which substances
melt:—Wrought iron, 3,980 degrees; cast iron, 3,479;
platinum, 3,080; gold, 2,590; copper, 2,548; steel, 2,500;
glass, 2,377; brass, 1,900; silver, 1,250; antimony, 951; zinc,
740; lead, 594; tin, 421; arsenic, 365; sulphur, 226; beeswax,
151; gutta percha, 145; tallow, 97; lard, 95; pitch, 91; ice,
33. Degrees of heat above zero at which substances
boil:—Ether, 98 degrees; alcohol, 173; water, 212;
petroleum, 306; linseed oil, 640; blood heat, 98; eggs hatch,
104.
QUANTITY OF SEED TO AN ACRE.
Wheat, 1-1/2 to 2 bu.; rye, 1-1/2 to 2 bu.; oats, 3 bu.;
barley, 2 bu.; buckwheat, 1/2 bu.; corn, broadcast, 4 bu.;
corn, in drills, 2 to 3 bu.; corn, in hills, 4 to 8 qts.; broom
corn, 1/2 bu.; potatoes, 10 to 15 bu.; rutabagas, 3/4 lbs.;
millet, 1/4 bu.; clover, white, 4 qts.; clover, red, 8 qts.;
timothy, 6 qts.; orchard grass, 2 qts.; red top, 1 to 2 pks.:
blue grass, 2 bu,; mixed lawn grass, 1/2 bu.; tobacco, 2
ozs.
SOLUBLE GLASS FOR FLOORS.
Instead of the old-fashioned method of using wax for
polishing floors, etc., soluble glass is now employed to great
advantage. For this purpose the floor is first well cleaned,
and then the cracks well filled up with a cement of water-glass
and powdered chalk or gypsum. Afterward, a water-glass of
60° to 65°, of the thickness of syrup, is applied by
means of a stiff brush. Any desired color may be imparted to
the floor in a second coat of the water-glass, and additional
coats are to be given until the requisite polish is obtained. A
still higher finish may be given by pummicing off the last
layer, and then putting on a coating of oil.
DURABILITY OF A HORSE.
A horse will travel 400 yards in 4-1/2 minutes at a walk,
400 yards in 2 minutes at a trot, and 400 yards in minute at a
gallop. The usual work of a horse is taken at 22,500 lbs.
raised 1 foot per minute, for 8 hours per day. A horse will
carry 250 lbs. 25 miles per day of 8 hours. An average
draught-horse will draw 1600 lbs. 23 miles per day on a level
road, weight of wagon included. The average weight of a horse
is 1000 lbs.; his strength is equal to that of 5 men. In a
horse mill moving at 3 feet per second, track 25 feet diameter,
he exerts with the machine the power of 4-1/2 horses. The
greatest amount a horse can pull in a horizontal line is 900
lbs.; but he can only do this momentarily, in continued
exertion, probably half of this is the limit. He attains his
growth in 5 years, will live 25, average 16 years. A horse will
live 25 days on water, without solid food, 17 days without
eating or drinking, but only 5 days on solid food, without
drinking.
A cart drawn by horses over an ordinary road will travel 1.1
miles per hour of trip. A 4-horse team will haul from 25 to 30
cubic feet of lime stone at each load. The time expended in
loading, unloading, etc., including delavs, averages 35 minutes
per trip. The cost of loading and unloading a cart, using a
horse cram at the quarry, and unloading by hand, when labor is
$1.25 per day, and a horse 75 cents, is 25 cents per
perch—24.75 cubic feet. The work done by an animal is
greatest when the velocity with which he moves is 1/8 of the
greatest with which he can move when not impeded, and the force
then exerted .45 of the utmost force the animal can exert at a
dead pull.
COMPARATIVE COST OF FREIGHT BY WATER AND RAIL.
It has been proved by actual test that a single tow-boat can
transport at one trip from the Ohio to New Orleans 29,000 tons
of coal, loaded in barges. Estimating in this way the boat and
its tow, worked by a few men, carries as much freight to its
destination as 3,000 cars and 100 locomotives, manned by 600
men, could transport.
HINTS TO YOUNG HOUSEWIVES.
Glycerine does not agree with a dry skin.
If you use powder always wash it off before going to
bed.
When you give your cellar its spring cleaning, add a little
copperas water and salt to the whitewash.
A little ammonia and borax in the water when washing
blankets keeps them soft and prevents shrinkage.
Sprinkling salt on the top and at the bottom of garden walls
is said to keep snails from climbing up or down.
For relief from heartburn or dyspepsia, drink a little cold
water in which has been dissolved a teaspoonful of salt.
For hoarseness, beat a fresh egg and thicken it with fine
white sugar. Eat of it freely and the hoarseness will soon be
relieved.
If quilts are folded or rolled tightly after washing, then
beaten with a rolling pin or potato masher, it lightens up the
cotton and makes them seem soft and new.
Chemists say that it takes more than twice as much sugar to
sweeten preserves, sauce, etc., if put in when they begin to
cook as it does to sweeten after the fruit is cooked.
Tar may be removed from the hands by rubbing with the
outside of fresh, orange or lemon peel and drying immediately.
The volatile oils dissolve the tar so that it can be rubbed
off.
Moths or any summer flying insects may be enticed to
destruction by a bright tin pan half filled with kerosene set
in a dark corner of the room. Attracted by the bright pan, the
moth will meet his death in the kerosene.
It may be worth knowing that water in which three or four
onions have been boiled, applied with a gilding brush to the
frames of pictures and chimney glasses, will prevent flies from
lighting on them and will not injure the frames.
SUPERSTITIONS REGARDING BABIES.
It is believed by many that if a child cries at its birth
and lifts up only one hand, it is born to command. It is
thought very unlucky not to weigh the baby before it is
dressed. When first dressed the clothes should not be put on
over the head, but drawn on over the feet, for luck. When first
taken from the room in which it was born it must be carried up
stairs before going down, so that it will rise in the world. In
any case it must be carried up stairs or up the street, the
first time it is taken out. It is also considered in England
and Scotland unlucky to cut the baby’s nails or hair before it
is twelve months old. The saying:
Born on Monday, fair in the face;
Born on Tuesday, full of God’s grace;
Born on Wednesday, the best to be had;
Born on Thursday, merry and glad;
Born on Friday, worthily given;
Born on Saturday, work hard for a living;
Born on Sunday, shall never know want,
is known with various changes all over the Christian world;
one deviation from the original makes Friday’s child “free in
giving.” Thursday has one very lucky hour just before
sunrise.
The child that is born on the Sabbath day
Is bonny and good and gay,
While
He who is born on New Year’s morn
Will have his own way as sure as you’re born.
And
He who is born on Easter morn
Shall never know care, or want, or harm.
SECRET ART OF CATCHING FISH.
Put the oil of rhodium on the bait, when fishing with a
hook, and you will always succeed.
TO CATCH FISH.
Take the juice of smallage or lovage, and mix with any kind
of bait. As long as there remain any kind of fish within yards
of your hook, you will find yourself busy pulling them out.
CERTAIN CURE FOR DRUNKENNESS.
Take of sulphate of iron 5 grains, magnesia 10 grains,
peppermint water 11 drachms, spirits of nutmeg 1 drachm.
Administer this twice a day. It acts as a tonic and stimulant
and so partially supplies the place of the accustomed liquor,
and prevents that absolute physical and moral prostration that
follows a sudden breaking off from the use of stimulating
drinks.
LADIES’ STAMPING POWDER.
For use in stamping any desired pattern upon goods for
needle work, embroidery, etc. Draw pattern upon heavy paper,
and perforate with small holes all the lines with some sharp
instrument, dust the powder through, remove the pattern and
pass a warm iron over the fabric, when the pattern will become
fixed. Any desired color can be used, such as Prussian blue,
chrome green, yellow, vermilion, etc. Fine white rosin, 2
ounces; gum sandarach, 4 ounces; color, 2 ounces. Powder very
fine, mix, and pass through a sieve.
SALARIES OF THE UNITED STATES OFFICERS, PER ANNUM.
President, Vice-President and Cabinet.—President,
$50,000; Vice-President, $8,000; Cabinet Officers, $8,000
each.
United States Senators.—$5,000, with mileage.
Congress.—Members of Congress, $5,000, with
mileage.
Supreme Court.—Chief Justice, $10,500; Associate
Justices, $10,000.
Circuit Courts.—Justices of Circuit Courts,
$6,000.
Heads of Departments.—Supt. of Bureau of Engraving and
Printing, $4,500; Public Printer, $4,500; Supt. of Census,
$5,000; Supt. of Naval Observatory, $5,000; Supt. of the Signal
Service, $4,000; Director of Geological Surveys, $6,000;
Director of the Mint, $4,500; Commissioner of General Land
Office, $4,000; Commissioner of Pensions, $3,600; Commissioner
of Agriculture, $3,000; Commissioner of Indian Affairs, $3,000;
Commissioner of Education $3,000; Commander of Marine Corps,
$3,500; Supt. of Coast and Geodetic Survey, $6,000.
United States Treasury.—Treasurer, $6,000; Register of
Treasury, $4,000; Commissioner of Customs, $4,000.
Internal Revenue Agencies.—Supervising Agents, $12 per
day; 34 other agents, per day, $6 to $8.
Postoffice Department, Washington.—Three Assistant
Postmaster-Generals, $3,500; Chief Clerk, $2,200.
Postmasters.—Postmasters are divided into four
classes. First class, $3,000 to $4,000 (excepting New York
City, which is $8,000); second class, $2,000 to $3,000; third
class, $1,000 to $2,000; fourth class, less than $1,000. The
first three classes are appointed by the President, and
confirmed by the Senate; those of fourth class are appointed by
the Postmaster-General.
Diplomatic appointments.—Ministers to Germany, Great
Britain, France and Russia, $17,500; Ministers to Brazil,
China, Austria-Hungary, Italy, Mexico, Japan and Spain,
$12,000; Ministers to Chili, Peru and Central Amer., $10,000;
Ministers to Argentine Confederation, Hawaiian Islands,
Belgium, Hayti, Columbia, Netherlands, Sweden, Turkey and
Venezuela, $7,500; Ministers to Switzerland, Denmark, Paraguay,
Bolivia and Portugal, $5,000; Minister to Liberia, $4,000.
Army Officers.—General, $13,500; Lieut.-General,
$11,000; Major-General, $7,500; Brigadier-General, $5,500;
Colonel, $3,500; Lieutenant-Colonel, $3,000; Major, $2,500;
Captain, mounted, $2,000; Captain, not mounted, $1,800;
Regimental Adjutant, $1,800; Regimental Quartermaster, $1,800;
1st Lieutenant, mounted, $1,600; 1st Lieutenant, not mounted,
$1,500; 2d Lieutenant, mounted, $1,500; 2d Lieutenant, not
mounted, $1,400; Chaplain, $1,500.
Navy Officers.—Admiral, $13,000; Vice-Admiral, $9,000;
Rear-Admirals, $6,000; Commodores, $5,000; Captains, $45,000;
Commanders, $3,500; Lieut.-Commanders, $2,800; Lieutenants,
$2,400; Masters, $1,800; Ensigns, $1,200; Midshipmen, $1,000;
Cadet Midshipmen, $500; Mates, $900; Medical and Pay Directors
and Medical and Pay Inspectors and Chief Engineers, $4,400;
Fleet Surgeons, Fleet Paymasters and Fleet Engineers, $4,400;
Surgeons and Paymasters, $2,800; Chaplains,
$2,500.
CHRONOLOGY OF IMPORTANT EVENTS.
| BEFORE CHRIST. | |
|---|---|
| The Deluge | 2348 |
| Babylon built | 2247 |
| Birth of Abraham | 1993 |
| Death of Joseph | 1635 |
| Moses born | 1571 |
| Athens founded | 1556 |
| The Pyramids built | 1250 |
| Solomon’s Temple finished | 1004 |
| Rome founded | 753 |
| Jerusalem destroyed | 587 |
| Babylon taken by Jews | 538 |
| Death of Socrates | 400 |
| Rome taken by the Gauls | 835 |
| Paper invented in China | 170 |
| Carthage destroyed | 146 |
| Caesar landed in Britain | 55 |
| Caesar killed | 44 |
| Birth of Christ | 0 |
| AFTER CHRIST. | |
| Death of Augustus | 14 |
| Pilate, governor of Judea | 27 |
| Jesus Christ crucified | 33 |
| Claudius visited Britain | 43 |
| St. Paul put to death | 67 |
| Death of Josephus | 93 |
| Jerusalem rebuilt | 131 |
| The Romans destroyed 580,000 Jews and banished the rest from Judea | 135 |
| The Bible in Gothic | 373 |
| Horseshoes made of iron | 481 |
| Latin tongue ceased to be spoken | 580 |
| Pens made of quills | 635 |
| Organs used | 660 |
| Glass in England | 663 |
| Bank of Venice established | 1157 |
| Glass windows first used for lights | 1180 |
| Mariner’s compass used | 1200 |
| Coal dug for fuel | 1234 |
| Chimneys first put to houses | 1236 |
| Spectacles invented by an Italian | 1240 |
| The first English House of Commons | 1258 |
| Tallow candles for lights | 1200 |
| Paper made from linen | 1302 |
| Gunpowder invented | 1340 |
| Woolen cloth made in England | 1341 |
| Printing invented | 1436 |
| The first almanac | 1470 |
| America discovered | 1492 |
| First book printed in England | 1507 |
| Luther began to preach | 1517 |
| Interest fixed at ten per cent. in England | 1547 |
| Telescopes invented | 1549 |
| First coach made in England | 1564 |
| Clocks first made in England | 1568 |
| Bank of England incorporated | 1594 |
| Shakespeare died | 1616 |
| Circulation of the blood discovered | 1619 |
| Barometer invented | 1623 |
| First newspaper | 1629 |
| Death of Galileo | 1643 |
| Steam engine invented | 1649 |
| Great fire in London | 1666 |
| Cotton planted in the United States | 1759 |
| Commencement of the American war | 1775 |
| Declaration of American Independence | 1776 |
| Recognition of American Independence | 1782 |
| Bank of England suspended cash payment | 1791 |
| Napoleon I. crowned emperor | 1804 |
| Death of Napoleon | 1820 |
| Telegraph invented by Morse | 1832 |
| First daguerreotype in France | 1839 |
| Beginning of the American civil war | 1861 |
| End of the American civil war | 1865 |
| Abraham Lincoln died | 1865 |
| Great Chicago Fire | 1871 |
| Jas. A. Garfield died | 1881 |
INTERESTING FACTS ABOUT OUR BODIES.
The weight of the male infant at birth is 7 lbs.
avoirdupois; that of the female is not quite 6-1/2 lbs. The
maximum weight (140-1/2 lbs.) of the male is attained at the
age of 40; that of the female (nearly 124 lbs.) is not attained
until 50; from which ages they decline afterward, the male to
127-1/4 lbs., the female to 100 lbs., nearly a stone. The
full-grown adult is 20 times as heavy as a new-born infant. In
the first year he triples his weight, afterwards the growth
proceeds in geometrical progression, so that if 50 infants in
their first year weigh 1,000 lbs., they will in the second
weigh 1,210 lbs.; in the third 1,331: in the fourth 1464 lbs.;
the term remaining very constant up to the ages of 11-12 in
females, and 12-13 in males, where it must be nearly doubled;
afterwards it may be continued, and will be found very nearly
correct up to the age of 18 or 19, when the growth proceeds
very slowly. At an equality of age the male is generally
heavier than the female. Towards the age of 12 years only an
individual of each sex has the same weight. The male attains
the maximum weight at about the age of 40, and he begins to
lose it very sensibly toward 60. At 80 he loses about 13.2328
lbs., and the stature is diminished 2.756 inches. Females
attain their maximum weight at about 50. The mean weight of a
mature man is 104 lbs., and of an average woman 94 lbs. In old
age they lose about 12 or 14 lbs. Men weigh most at 40, women
at 50, and begin to lose weight at 60. The mean weight of both
sexes in old age is that which they had at 19.
When the male and female have assumed their complete
development they weigh almost exactly 20 times as much as at
birth, while the stature is about 3-1/2 times greater. Children
lose weight during the first three days after birth; at the age
of a week they sensibly increase; after one year they triple
their weight; then they require six years to double their
weight, and 13 to quadruple it.
It has been computed that nearly two years’ sickness is
experienced by every person before he is 70 years old, and
therefore that 10 days per annum is the average sickness of
human life. Till 40 it is but half, and after 50 it rapidly
increases. The mixed and fanciful diet of man is considered the
cause of numerous diseases from which animals are exempt. Many
diseases have abated with changes of diet, and others are
virulent in particular countries, arising from
peculiarities.
Human Longevity.—Of 100,000 male and female children,
in the first month they are reduced to 90,396, or nearly a
tenth. In the second, to 87,936. In the third, to 86,175. In
the fourth, to 84,720. In the fifth, to 83,571. In the sixth,
to 82,526, and at the end of the first year to 77,528, the
deaths being 2 to 9. The next four years reduce the 77,528 to
62,448, indicating 37,552 deaths before the completion of the
fifth year.
At 25 years the 100,000 are half, or 49,995; at 52,
one-third. At 58-1/2, a fourth, or 25,000; at 67, a fifth; at
76, a tenth; at 81, a twentieth, or 5,000; and ten attain 100.
Children die in large proportions because their diseases cannot
be explained, and because the organs are not habituated to the
functions of life. The mean of life varies in
[pg 49] different countries from 40
to 45. A generation from father to son is about 30 years; of
men in general five-sixths die before 70, and
fifteen-sixteenths before 80. After 80 it is rather
endurance than enjoyment. The nerves are blunted, the senses
fail, the muscles are rigid, the softer tubes become hard,
the memory fails, the brain ossifies, the affections are
buried, and hope ceases. The remaining one-sixteenth die at
80; except a one-thirty-third, at 90. The remainder die from
inability to live, at or before 100.
About the age of 36 the lean man usually becomes fatter and
the fat man leaner. Again, between the years of 43 and 50 his
appetite fails, his complexion fades, and his tongue is apt to
be furred on the least exertion of body or mind. At this period
his muscles become flabby, his joints weak; his spirits droop,
and his sleep is imperfect and unrefreshing. After suffering
under these complaints a year, or perhaps two, he starts afresh
with renewed vigor, and goes on to 61 or 62, when a similar
change takes place, but with aggravated symptoms. When these
grand periods have been successively passed, the gravity of
incumbent years is more strongly marked, and he begins to boast
of his age.
In Russia, much more than in any other country, instances of
longevity are numerous, if true. In the report of the Holy
Synod, in 1827, during the year 1825, and only among the Greek
religion, 848 men had reached upward of 100 years of age; 32
had passed their 120th year, 4 from 130 to 135. Out of 606,818
men who died in 1826, 2,765 were above 90; 1,432 above 95, and
848 above 100 years of age. Among this last number 88 were
above 115; 24 more than 120; 7 above 125, and one 130. Riley
asserts that Arabs in the Desert live 200 years.
On the average, men have their first-born at 30 and women at
28. The greatest number of deliveries take place between 25 and
35. The greatest number of deliveries take place in the winter
months, and in February, and the smallest in July, i.e.,
to February, as 4 to 5 in towns and 3 to 4 in the country. The
night births are to the day as 5 to 4.
Human Strength.—In Schulze’s experiments on human
strength, he found that men of five feet, weighing 126 lbs.,
could lift vertically 156 lbs. 8 inches; 217 lbs. 1.2 inches.
Others, 6.1 feet, weighing 183 lbs., 156 lbs. 13 inches, and
217 lbs. 6 inches; others 6 feet 3 inches, weighing 158 lbs.,
156 lbs. 16 inches, and 217 lbs. 9 inches. By a great variety
of experiments he determined the mean human strength at 30
lbs., with a velocity of 2.5 feet per second; or it is equal to
the raising half a hogshead 10 feet in a minute.
RULES FOR SPELLING.
“Words ending in e drop that letter before the
termination able, as in move, movable; unless ending in
ce or ge, when it is retained, as in change,
changeable, etc.
Words of one syllable, ending in a consonant, with a single
vowel before it, double the consonants in derivatives; as,
ship, shipping, etc. But if ending in a consonant with a double
vowel before it, they do not double the consonant in
derivatives; as, troop, trooper, etc.
Words of more than one syllable, ending in a consonant
preceded by a single vowel, and accented on the last syllable,
double that consonant in derivatives; as, commit, committed;
but except chagrin, chagrined.
All words of one syllable ending in l, with a single
vowel before it, have ll at the close; as mill, sell.
All words of one syllable ending in l, with a double
vowel before it, have only one l at the close; as mail,
sail.
The words foretell, distill, instill and fulfill, retain the
ll of their primitives. Derivatives of dull, skill, will
and full also retain the ll when the accent falls on
these words; as dullness, skillfull, willfull, fullness.
Words of more than one syllable ending in l have only
one l at the close; as delightful, faithful; unless the
accent falls on the last syllable; as befall, etc.
Words ending in l, double the letter in the
termination ly.
Participles ending in ing, from verbs ending in
e, lose the final e; as have, having; make,
making, etc; but verbs ending in ee retain both; as see,
seeing. The word dye, to color, however, must retain the
e before ing. All verbs ending in ly, and
nouns ending in ment, retain the e final of the
primitives; as brave, bravely; refine, refinement; except words
ending in dge; as, acknowledge, acknowledgment.
Nouns ending in y, preceded by a vowel, form their
plural by adding s; as money, moneys; but if y is
preceded by a consonant, it is changed to ies in the
plural; as bounty, bounties.
Compound words whose primitives end in y, change the
y into i; as beauty, beautiful.
THE USE OF CAPITALS.
Every entire sentence should begin with a capital.
Proper names, and adjectives derived from these, should
begin with a capital.
All appellations of the Deity should begin with a capital.
Official and honorary titles should begin with a capital.
Every line of poetry should begin with a capital.
Titles of books and the heads of their chapters and
divisions are printed in capitals.
The pronoun I and the exclamation O are always capitals.
The days of the week and the months of the year begin with
capitals.
Every quotation should begin with a capital letter.
Names of religious denominations begin with capitals.
In preparing accounts each item should begin with a
capital.
Any word of very special importance may begin with a
capital.
TWENTY CHOICE COURSE DINNER MENUS.
1. Rice Soup, Baked Pike, Mashed Potatoes, Roast of Beef,
Stewed Corn, Chicken Fricassee, Celery Salad, Compote of
Oranges, Plain Custard, Cheese, Wafers, Coffee.
2. Mutton Soup, Fried Oysters, Stewed Potatoes, Boiled Corn
Beef, Cabbage, Turnips, Roast Pheasants, Onion Salad, Apple
Pie, White Custard, Bent’s Water Crackers, Cheese, Coffee.
3. Oyster Soup, Roast Mutton, Baked Potatoes, Breaded Veal
Cutlets, Tomato Sauce, Baked Celery, Cabbage Salad, Apple
Custard, Sponge Cake, Cheese, Coffee.
4. Macaroni Soup, Boiled Chicken, with Oysters, Mutton
Chops, Creamed Potatoes, Stewed Tomatoes, Pickled Beets,
Peaches and Rice, Plain Cake, Cheese, Coffee.
5. Tapioca Soup, Boiled Halibut, Duchesse Potatoes, Roast
Beef Tongue, Canned Peas, Baked Macaroni, with Gravy, Fried
Sweet Potatoes, Beet Salad, Cornstarch Pudding, Jelly Tarts,
Cheese, Wafers, Coffee.
6. Vegetable Soup, Boiled Trout, Oyster Sauce, Roast Veal,
with Dressing, Boiled Potatoes, Stewed Tomatoes, Corn, Egg
Salad, Snow Cream, Peach Pie, Sultana Biscuit, Cheese,
Coffee.
7. Potato Soup, Oyster Patties, Whipped Potatoes, Roast
Mutton, with Spinach, Beets, Fried Parsnips, Egg
[pg 50] Sauce, Celery Salad, Boiled
Custard, Lemon Tarts, White Cake, Cheese, Coffee.
8. Veal Soup, Boiled Shad, Caper Sauce, Porterhouse Steak,
with Mushrooms, Pigeon Pie, Mashed Potatoes, Pickles, Rice
Sponge Cakes, Cheese, Canned Apricots with Cream, Coffee.
9. Giblet Soup, Scalloped Clams, Potato Cakes, Lamb Chops,
Canned Beans, Tomatoes, Sweet Potatoes, Salmon Salad, Charlotte
Rasse, Apricot Tarts, Cheese, Coffee.
10. Vermicelli Soup, Fried Small Fish, Mashed Potatoes,
Roast Beef, Minced Cabbage, Chicken Croquettes, Beet Salad,
Stewed Pears, Plain Sponge Cake, Cheese, Coffee.
11. Oxtail Soup, Fricasseed Chicken with Oysters, Breaded
Mutton Chops, Turnips, Duchesse Potatoes, Chow-chow Salad,
Chocolate Pudding, Nut Cake, Cheese, Coffee.
12. Barley Soup, Boiled Trout, Creamed Potatoes, Roast Loin
of Veal, Stewed Mushrooms, Broiled Chicken, Lettuce Salad, Fig
Pudding, Wafers, Cheese, Coffee.
13. Noodle Soup, Salmon, with Oyster Sauce, Fried Potatoes,
Glazed Beef, Boiled Spinach, Parsnips, with Cream Sauce,
Celery, Plain Rice Pudding, with Custard Sauce, Current Cake,
Cheese, Coffee.
14. Lobster Soup, Baked Ribs of Beef, with Browned Potatoes,
Boiled Duck, with Onion Sauce, Turnips, Stewed Tomatoes,
Lettuce, Delmonico Pudding, Cheese, Sliced Oranges, Wafers,
Coffee.
15. Chicken Broth, Baked Whitefish, Boiled Potatoes, Canned
Peas, Mutton Chops, Tomatoes, Beets, Celery Salad, Apple
Trifle, Lady Fingers, Cheese. Coffee.
10. Sago Soup, Boiled Leg of Mutton, Caper Sauce, Stewed
Potatoes, Canned Corn, Scalloped Oysters, with Cream Sauce,
Celery and Lettuce Salad, Marmalade Fritters, Apple Custard,
Cheese Cakes, Coffee.
17. Vegetable Soup, Broiled Shad, Lyonnaise Potatoes, Pork
Chops, with Sage Dressing, Parsnip Fritters, Macaroni and
Gravy, Cauliflower Salad, Rhubarb Tarts, Silver Cake, Cheese,
Coffee.
18. Chicken Soup, with Rice, Codfish, Boiled, with Cream
Sauce, Roast Veal, Tomatoes, Oyster Salad, Boiled Potatoes,
Asparagus, Orange Jelly, White Cake, Cheese, Coffee.
19. Macaroni Soup, Fried Shad, Tomato Sauce, Roast Mutton,
Mashed Potatoes, Boiled Tongue, with Mayonnaise Dressing, Fried
Parsnips, Canned Beans, Lemon Puffs, Cheese Cakes, Fruit,
Coffee.
20. Scotch Broth, Baked Halibut, Boiled Potatoes, Breaded
Mutton Chops, Tomato Sauce, Spinach, Bean Salad, Asparagus and
Eggs, Peach Batter Pudding, with Sauce, Wafers, Cheese,
Coffee.
TERMS USED IN MEDICINE.
Anthelmintics are medicines which have the power of
destroying or expelling worms from the intestinal canal.
Antiscorbutics are medicines which prevent or cure the
scurvy.
Antispasmodics are medicines given to relieve spasm, or
irregular and painful action of the muscles or muscular fibers,
as in Epilepsy, St. Vitus’ Dance, etc.
Aromatics are medicines which have, a grateful smell and
agreeable pungent taste.
Astringents are those remedies which, when applied to the
body, render the solids dense and firmer.
Carminatives are those medicines which dispel flatulency of
the stomach and bowels.
Cathartics are medicines which accelerate the action of the
bowels, or increase the discharge by stool.
Demulcents are medicines suited to prevent the action of
acrid and stimulating matters upon the mucous membranes of the
throat, lungs, etc.
Diaphoretics are medicines that promote or cause perspirable
discharge by the skin.
Diuretics are medicines which increase the flow of urine by
their action upon the kidneys.
Emetics are those medicines which produce vomiting.
Emmenagogues are medicines which promote the menstrual
discharge.
Emollients are those remedies which, when applied to the
solids of the body, render them soft and flexible.
Errhines are substances which, when applied to the lining
membrane of the nostrils, occasion a discharge of mucous
fluid.
Epispastices are those which cause blisters when applied to
the surface.
Escharotics are substances used to destroy a portion of the
surface of the body, forming sloughs.
Expectorants are medicines capable of facilitating the
excretion of mucous from the chest.
Narcotics are those substances having the property of
diminishing the action of the nervous and vascular systems, and
of inducing sleep.
Rubefacients are remedies which excite the vessels of the
skin and increase its heat and redness.
Sedatives are medicines which have the power of allaying the
actions of the systems generally, or of lessening the exercise
of some particular function.
Sialagogues are medicines which increase the flow of the
saliva.
Stimulants are medicines capable of exciting the vital
energy, whether as exerted in sensation or motion.
Tonics are those medicines which increase the tone or
healthy action, or strength of the living system.
RULES FOR THE PRESERVATION OF HEALTH.
Pure atmospheric air is composed of nitrogen, oxygen and a
very small proportion of carbonic acid gas. Air once breathed
has lost the chief part of its oxygen, and acquired a
proportionate increase of carbonic acid gas. Therefore, health
requires that we breathe the same air once only.
The solid part of our bodies is continually wasting and
requires to be repaired by fresh substances. Therefore, food,
which is to repair the loss, should be taken with due regard to
the exercise and waste of the body.
The fluid part of our bodies also wastes constantly; there
is but one fluid in animals, which is water. Therefore, water
only is necessary, and no artifice can produce a better
drink.
The fluid of our bodies is to the solid in proportion as
nine to one. Therefore, a like proportion should prevail in the
total amount of food taken.
Light exercises an important influence upon the growth and
vigor of animals and plants. Therefore, our dwellings should
freely admit the sun’s rays.
Decomposing animal and vegetable substances yield various
noxious gases, which enter the lungs and corrupt the blood.
Therefore, all impurities should be kept away from our abodes,
and every precaution be observed to secure a pure
atmosphere.
Warmth is essential to all the bodily functions. Therefore,
an equal bodily temperature should be maintained by exercise,
by clothing or by fire.
Exercise warms, invigorates and purifies the body; clothing
preserves the warmth the body generates; fire imparts warmth
externally. Therefore, to obtain and preserve warmth, exercise
and clothing are preferable to fire.
Fire consumes the oxygen of the air, and produces noxious
gases. Therefore, the air is less pure in the presence of
candles, gas or coal fire, than otherwise, and the
deterioration should be repaired by increased ventilation. The
skin is a highly-organized membrane, full of minute pores,
cells, blood-vessels, and nerves; it imbibes moisture or throws
it off according to the state of the atmosphere or the
temperature of the body. It also “breathes,” like the lungs
(though less actively). All the internal organs sympathize with
the skin. Therefore, it should be repeatedly cleansed.
Late hours and anxious pursuits exhaust the nervous system
and produce disease and premature death. Therefore, the hours
of labor and study should be short.
Mental and bodily exercise are equally essential to the
general health and happiness. Therefore, labor and study should
succeed each other.
Man will live most happily upon simple solids and fluids, of
which a sufficient but temperate quantity should be taken.
Therefore, over-indulgence in strong drinks, tobacco, snuff,
opium, and all mere indulgences, should be avoided.
Sudden alternations of heat and cold are dangerous
(especially to the young and the aged). Therefore, clothing, in
quantity and quality, should be adapted to the alternations of
night and day, and of the seasons. And therefore, also,
drinking cold water when the body is hot, and hot tea and soups
when cold are productive of many evils.
Never visit a sick person (especially if the complaint be of
a contagious nature) with an empty stomach, as this disposes
the system more readily to receive the contagion. And in
attending a sick person, place yourself where the air passes
from the door or window to the bed of the diseased; not between
the diseased person and any fire that is in the room, as the
heat of the fire will draw the infectious vapor in that
direction.
MOTHER SHIPTON’S PROPHECY .—The lines known as
“Mother Shipton’s Prophecy” were first published in England in
1485, before the discovery of America, and, of course, before
any of the discoveries and inventions mentioned therein. All
the events predicted have come to pass except that in the last
two lines.
Carriages without horses shall go,
And accidents fill the world with woe
Around the world thoughts shall fly
In the twinkling of an eye.
Waters shall yet more wonders do,
Now strange, yet shall be true.
The world upside down shall be,
And gold be found at root of tree.
Through hills man shall ride,
And no horse nor ass be at his side.
Under water man shall walk,
Shall ride, shall sleep, shall talk.
In the air men shall be seen
In white, in black, in green.
Iron in the water shall float,
As easy as a wooden boat.
Gold shall be found ‘mid stone,
In a land that’s now unknown.
Fire and water shall wonders do,
England shall at last admit a Jew.
And this world to an end shall come
In eighteen hundred and eighty-one.
CAPTAIN KIDD, a notorious American pirate, was born
about 1650. In 1696 he was entrusted by the British Government
with the command of a privateer, and sailed from New York, for
the purpose of suppressing the numerous pirates then infesting
the seas. He went to the East Indies, where he began a career
of piracy, and returned to New York in 1698 with a large amount
of booty. He was soon after arrested, sent to England for
trial, and executed in 1701.
VALUE OF OLD AMERICAN COINS.—1793—Half
cent, 75 cents; one cent, $2. 1794—Half cent, 20 cents,
one cent, 10 cents; five cents, $1.25; fifty cents, $3; one
dollar, $10. 1795—Half cent, 5 cents; one cent, 5 cents;
five cents, 25 cents; fifty cents, 55 cents; one dollar, $1.25.
1796—Half cent, $5; one cent, 10 cents; five cents $1;
ten cents, 50 cents; twenty-five cents, $1; fifty cents, $10;
one dollar, $1.50. 1797—Half cent, 5 cents; one cent, 5
cents; five cents, 50 cents; ten cents, $1; fifty cents, $10;
one dollar, $1.50. 1798—One cent, 5 cents; ten cents, $1;
one dollar, $1.50. 1799—One cent, $5; one dollar, $1.60.
1800—Half cent, 5 cents; one cent, 3 cents; five cents,
25 cents;
ten cents, $1; one dollar, $1.10. 1801—One cent, 3
cents; five cents, $1; ten cents, $1; fifty cents, $2; one
dollar, $1.25. 1802—Half cent, 50 cents; one cent, 2
cents; ten cents, $1; fifty cents, $2; one dollar, $1.25.
1803—Half cent, 2 cents; one cent, 2 cents; five cents,
$10;
ten cents, $1; one dollar, $1.10. 1804—Half cent, 2
cents; one cent, $2; five cents, 75 cents; ten cents, $2;
twenty-five cents, 75 cents; one dollar, $100. 1805—Half
cent, 2 cents; one cent, 3 cents; five cents, $1.50; ten cents,
25 cents. 1806—Half cent, 2 cents; one cent, 3 cents.
1807—Half cent, 2 cents; one cent, 3 cents; ten cents, 25
cents. 1808—Half cent, 2 cents; one cent, 5 cents.
1809—Half cent, 1 cent; one cent, 25 cents; ten cents, 50
cents. 1810—Half cent, 5 cents; one cent, 5 cents.
1811—Half cent, 25 cents; one cent, 10 cents; ten cents,
50 cents. 1812—One cent, 2 cents. 1813—One cent, 5
cents. 1815—Fifty cents, $5. 1821—One cent, 5
cents. 1822—Ten cents, $1. 1823—One cent, 5 cents;
twenty-five cents, $10. 1824—Twenty-five cents, 40 cents.
1825—Half cent, 2 cents. 1826—Half cent, 2 cents;
one cent, 50 cents. 1827—One cent, 3 cents; twenty-five
cents, $10. 1828—Half cent, 1 cent; twenty-five cents, 30
cents. 1829—Half cent, 2 cents. 1830—Half cent, 2
cents. 1832-’33-’34—Half cent, 2 cents. 1835—Half
cent, 1 cent. 1836—Fifty cents, $3; one dollar, $3.
1838—Ten cents, 25 cents. 1839—One dollar, $10.
1846 —Five cents, 50 cents. 1849-’50—Half cent, 5
cents. 1851—Half cent, 1 cent; twenty-five cents, 30
cents; one dollar, $10.90. 1852—Twenty-five cents, 30
cents; fifty cents, $2; one dollar, $10. 1853—Half cent,
1 cent; twenty cents (with no arrows), $2.50; one dollar,
$1.25. 1854—Half cent, 2 cents; one dollar, $2.
1855-’57—Half cent, 5 cents; one dollar, $1.50.
1856—Half cent, 5 cents; one dollar. $1.50.
1858—One dollar, $10. 1863-‘4-‘5—Three cents, 95
cents. 1866—Half cent, 6 cents; three cents, 25 cents;
five cents, 10 cents; twenty-five cents, 30 cents.
1867—Three cents, 25 cents; five cents, 10 cents.
1868-‘9—Three cents, 25 cents. 1870—Three cents, 15
cents. 1871—Two cents, 10 cents; three cents, 25 cents.
1873—Two cents, 50 cents; three cents. 50 cents.
1877-‘8—Twenty cents, $1.50. These prices are for good
ordinary coins without holes. Fine specimens are worth
more.
LEANING TOWER OF PISA.—The leaning tower of
Pisa was commenced in 1152, and was not finished till the
fourteenth century. The cathedral to which this belongs was
erected to celebrate a triumph of the Pisans in the harbor of
Palermo in 1063, when allied with the Normans to drive the
Saracens out of Sicily. It is a circular building, one hundred
feet in diameter and 179 feet in extreme height, and has fine
mosaic pavements, elaborately carved columns, and numerous
bas-reliefs. The building is of white marble. The tower is
divided into eight stories, each having an outside gallery of
seven feet projection, and the topmost story overhangs the base
about sixteen feet, though, as the center of gravity is still
ten feet within the base, the building is perfectly safe. It
has been supposed that this inclination was intentional, but
the opinion that the foundation has sunk is no doubt correct.
It is most likely that the defective foundation became
perceptible before the tower had reached one-half its height,
as at that elevation the unequal length of the columns exhibits
an endeavor to restore the perpendicular, and at about the same
place the walls are strengthened with iron bars.
What causes the water to flow out of an artesian
well?—The theoretical explanation of the phenomenon is
easily understood. The secondary and tertiary geological
formations often present the appearance of immense basins, the
boundary or rim of the basin having been formed by an upheaval
of adjacent strata. In these formations it often happens that a
porous stratum, consisting of sand, sandstone, chalk or other
calcareous matter, is included between two impermeable layers
of clay, so as to form a flat
porous U tube, continuous from side to side of the valley,
the outcrop on the surrounding hills forming the mouth of the
tube. The rain filtering down through the porous layer to
the bottom of the basin forms there a subterranean pool,
which, with the liquid or semi-liquid column pressing upon
it, constitutes a sort of huge natural hydrostatic
bellows. Sometimes the pressure on the superincumbent
crust is so great as to cause an upheaval or disturbance
of the valley. It is obvious, then, that when a hole is
bored down through the upper impermeable layer to the
surface of the lake, the water will be forced up by the
natural law of water seeking its level to a height above
the surface of the valley, greater or less, according to
the elevation of the level in the feeding column, thus
forming a natural mountain on precisely the same principle
as that of most artificial fountains, where the water
supply comes from a considerable height above the jet.
HOW MANY CUBIC FEET THERE ARE IN A TON OF
COAL.—There is a difference between a ton of hard
coal and one of soft coal. For that matter, coal from different
mines, whether hard or soft, differs in weight, and
consequently in cubic measure, according to quality. Then there
is a difference according to size. To illustrate, careful
measurements have been made of Wilkes-barre anthracite, a fine
quality of hard coal, with the following results:
| Size of coal | Cubic-feet in ton of 2,240 lbs. | Cubic feet in ton of 2,000 lbs. |
| Lump | 33.2 | 28.8 |
| Broken | 33.9 | 30.3 |
| Egg | 34.5 | 30.8 |
| Stone | 34.8 | 31.1 |
| Chestnut | 35.7 | 31.9 |
| Pea | 36.7 | 32.8 |
For soft coal the following measures may be taken as nearly
correct; it is simply impossible to determine any exact rule,
even for bituminous coal of the same district: Briar Hill coal,
44.8 cubic feet per ton of 2,240 pounds; Pittsburgh, 47.8;
Wilmington, Ill., 47; Indiana block coal, 42 to 43 cubic
feet.
The dimensions of the great wall of China and of what it is
built.—It runs from a point on the Gulf of Liantung, an
arm of the Gulf of Pechili in Northeastern China, westerly to
the Yellow River; thence makes a great bend to the south for
nearly 100 miles, and then runs to the northwest for several
hundred miles to the Desert of Gobi. Its length is variously
estimated to be from 1,250 to 1,500 miles. For the most of this
distance it runs through a mountainous country, keeping on the
ridges, and winding over many of the highest peaks. In some
places it is only a formidable rampart, but most of the way it
is composed of lofty walls of masonry and concrete, or impacted
lime and clay, from 12 to 16 feet in thickness, and from 15 to
30 or 35 feet in height. The top of this wall is paved for
hundreds of miles, and crowned with crenallated battlements,
and towers 30 to 40 feet high. In numerous places the wall
climbs such steep declivities that its top ascends from height
to height in flights of granite steps. An army could march on
the top of the wall for weeks and even months, moving in some
places ten men abreast.
Limits of Natural Vision.—This question is too
indefinite for a specific answer. The limits of vision vary
with elevation, conditions of the atmosphere, intensity of
illumination, and other modifying elements in different cases.
In a clear day an object one foot above a level plain may be
seen at the distance of 1.31 miles; one ten feet high, 4.15
miles; one twenty feet high, 5.86 miles; one 100 feet high,
13.1 miles; one a mile high, as the top of a mountain, 95.23
miles. This allows seven inches (or, to be exact, 6.99 inches)
for the curvature of the earth, and assumes that the size and
illumination of the object are sufficient to produce an image.
Five miles may be taken as the extreme limit at which a man is
visible on a flat plain to an observer on the same level.
THE NIAGARA SUSPENSION BRIDGE.—For seven miles
below the falls, Niagara river flows through a gorge varying in
width from 200 to 400 yards. Two miles below the falls the
river is but 350 feet wide, and it is here that the great
suspension bridge, constructed in 1855 by Mr. Roebling, crosses
the gorge, 245 feet above the water. The length of the span,
from tower to tower, is 821 feet, and the total length of the
bridge is 2,220 feet. The length of the span, which is capable
of sustaining a strain of 10,000 tons, is 821 feet from tower
to tower, and the total length of the bridge is 2,220 feet. It
is used both for railway and wagon traffic, the wagon-road and
foot-way being directly under the railway bed. There is another
suspension bridge across the Niagara river at a distance of
only about fifty rods from the falls, on the American side.
This is only for carriages and foot travel. It was finished in
1869. It is 1,190 feet long from cliff to cliff, 1,268 feet
from tower to tower, and 190 feet above the river, which at
this point is a little over 900 feet in width.
THE SPEED OF SOUND.—It has been ascertained
that a full human voice, speaking in the open air, calm, can be
heard at a distance of 400 feet; in an observable breeze a
powerful human voice with the wind is audible at a distance of
15,840 feet; the report of a musket, 16,000 feet; a drum,
10,560 feet; music, a strong brass band, 15,840 feet; very
heavy cannonading, 575,000 feet, or 90 miles. In the Arctic
regions conversation has been maintained over water a distance
of 6,766 feet. In gases the velocity of sound increases with
the temperature; in air this increase is about two feet per
second for each degree centigrade. The velocity of sound in
oxygen gas at zero C. is 1,040 feet; in carbonic acid, 858
feet; in hydrogen, 4,164 feet. In 1827 Colladon and Sturm
determined experimentally the velocity of sound in fresh water;
the experiment was made in the Lake of Geneva, and it was found
to be 4,174 feet per second at a temperature of 15 degrees C.
[pg 53] The velocity of sound in
alcohol at 20 degrees C. is 4,218 feet; in ether at zero,
3,801; in sea water at 20 degrees C., 4,768. By direct
measurements, carefully made, by observing at night the
interval which elapses between the flash and report of a
cannon at a known distance, the velocity of sound has been
about 1,090 per second at the temperature of freezing
water.
DESCRIPTION OF THE YELLOWSTONE PARK.—The
Yellowstone National Park extends sixty-five miles north and
south, and fifty-five miles east and west, comprising 3,575
square miles, and is all 6,000 feet or more above sea-level.
Yellowstone Lake, twenty miles by fifteen, has an altitude of
7,788 feet. The mountain ranges which hem in the valleys on
every side rise to the height of 10,000 to 12,000 feet, and are
always covered with snow. This great park contains the most
striking of all the mountains, gorges, falls, rivers and lakes
in the whole Yellowstone region. The springs on Gardiner’s
River cover an area of about one square mile, and three or four
square miles thereabout are occupied by the remains of springs
which have ceased to flow. The natural basins into which these
springs flow are from four to six feet in diameter and from one
to four feet in depth. The principal ones are located upon
terraces midway up the sides of the mountain. The banks of the
Yellowstone River abound with ravines and canons, which are
carved out of the heart of the mountains through the hardest of
rocks. The most remarkable of these is the canon of Tower Creek
and Column Mountain. The latter, which extends along the
eastern bank of the river for upward of two miles, is said to
resemble the Giant’s Causeway. The canon of Tower Creek is
about ten miles in length and is so deep and gloomy that it is
called “The Devil’s Den.” Where Tower Creek ends the Grand
Canon begins. It is twenty miles in length, impassable
throughout, and inaccessible at the water’s edge, except at a
few points. Its rugged edges are from 200 to 500 yards apart,
and its depth is so profound that no sound ever reaches the ear
from the bottom. The Grand Canon contains a great multitude of
hot springs of sulphur, sulphate of copper, alum, etc. In the
number and magnitude of its hot springs and geysers, the
Yellowstone Park surpasses all the rest of the world. There are
probably fifty geysers that throw a column of water to the
height of from 50 to 200 feet, and it is stated that there are
not fewer than 5,000 springs; there are two kinds, those
depositing lime and those depositing silica. The temperature of
the calcareous springs is from 160 to 170 degrees, while that
of the others rises to 200 or more. The principal collections
are the upper and lower geyser basins of the Madison River, and
the calcareous springs on Gardiner’s River. The great falls are
marvels to which adventurous travelers have gone only to return
and report that they are parts of the wonders of this new
American wonderland.
DESIGNATIONS OF GROUPS OF ANIMALS.—The
ingenuity of the sportsman is, perhaps, no better illustrated
than by the use he puts the English language to in designating
particular groups of animals. The following is a list of the
terms which have been applied to the various classes:
A covey of patridges, A nide of pheasants, A wisp of snipe,
A flight of doves or swallows, A muster of peacocks, A siege of
herons, A building of rooks, A brood of grouse, A plump of wild
fowl, A stand of plovers, A watch of nightingales, A clattering
of choughs, A flock of geese, A herd or bunch of cattle, A bevy
of quails, A cast of hawks, A trip of dottrell, A swarm of
bees, A school of whales, A shoal of herrings, A herd of swine,
A skulk of foxes, A pack of wolves, A drove of oxen, A sounder
of hogs, A troop of monkeys, A pride of lions, A sleuth of
bears, A gang of elk.
THE BUNKER HILL MONUMENT.—The monument is a
square shaft, built of Quincy granite, 221 feet high, 31 feet
square at the base and 15 at the top. Its foundations are
inclosed 12 feet under ground. Inside the shaft is a round,
hollow cone, 7 feet wide at the bottom and 4 feet 2 inches at
the top, encircled by a winding staircase of 224 stone steps,
which leads to a chamber immediately under the apex, 11 feet in
diameter. The chamber has four windows, which afford a wide
view of the surrounding country, and contains two cannons,
named respectively Hancock and Adams, which were used in many
engagements during the war. The corner-stone of the monument
was laid on the fiftieth anniversary of the battle, June 17,
1825, by Lafayette, who was then visiting America, when Webster
pronounced the oration. The monument was completed, and June
17, 1843, was dedicated, Webster again delivering the
oration.
THE SEVEN WISE MEN OF GREECE.—The names
generally given are Solon, Chilo, Pittacus, Bias, Periander (in
place of whom some give Epimenides), Cleobulus, and Thales.
They were the authors of the celebrated mottoes inscribed in
later days in the Delphian Temple. These mottoes were as
follows:
“Know thyself.”—Solon.
“Consider the end.”—Chilo.
“Know thy opportunity.”—Pittacus.
“Most men are bad.”—Bias.
“Nothing is impossible to
industry.”—Periander.
“Avoid excesses.”—Cleobulus.
“Suretyship is the precursor of
ruin.”—Thales.
FIRST STEAMBOAT ON THE MISSISSIPPI.—Nicholas J.
Roosevelt was the first to take a steamboat down the great
river. His boat was built at Pittsburgh, in the year 1811,
under an arrangement with Fulton and Livingston, from Fulton’s
plans. It was called the “New Orleans,” was about 200 tons
burden, and was propelled by a stern-wheel, assisted, when the
wind was favorable, by sails carried on two masts. The hull was
138 feet long, 30 feet beam, and the cost of the whole,
including engines, was about $40,000. The builder, with his
family, an engineer, a pilot, and six “deck hands,” left
Pittsburgh in October, 1811, reaching Louisville in about
seventy hours (steaming about ten miles an hour), and New
Orleans in fourteen days, steaming from Natchez.
THE EXPLORATIONS OF FREMONT.—- Among the
earliest efforts of Fremont, after he had tried and been
sickened by the sea, were his experiences as a surveyor and
engineer on railroad lines from Charleston to Augusta, Ga., and
Charleston to Cincinnati. Then he accompanied an army
detachment on a military reconnoissance of the mountainous
Cherokee country in Georgia, North Carolina and Tennessee, made
in the depth of winter. In 1838-9 he accompanied M. Nicollet in
explorations of the country between the Missouri and the
British line, and his first detail of any importance, after he
had been commissioned by President Van Buren, was to make an
examination of the river Des Moines, then on the Western
frontier. In 1841 he projected his first trans-continental
expedition, and left Washington May 2, 1842, and accomplished
the object of his trip, examined the South Pass, explored the
Wind River mountains, ascended in August, the highest peak of
that range, now known as Fremont’s Peak, and returned, after an
absence of four months. His report of the expedition attracted
great attention in the United States and abroad. Fremont began
to plan another and a second expedition. He determined to
extend his explorations across the continent; and in May, 1843,
commenced his journey with thirty-nine men, and September 6,
after traveling over 1,700 miles, arrived at the Great Salt
Lake; there made some important discoveries, and then pushed
[pg 54] the upper Columbia, down
whose valley he proceeded to Fort Vancouver, near its mouth.
On Nov. 10, he set out to return East, selecting a
southeasterly course, leading from the lower part of the
Columbia to the upper Colorado, through an almost unknown
region, crossed by high and rugged mountains. He and his
party suffered incredible hardships in crossing from the
Great Basin to Sutter’s Fort on the Sacramento; started from
there March 24, proceeded southward, skirted the western
base of the Sierra Nevada, crossed that range through a gap,
entered the Great Basin; again visited the Great Salt Lake,
from which they returned through the South Pass to Kansas,
in July, 1844, after an absence of fourteen months. In the
spring of 1845 Fremont set out on a third expedition to
explore the Great Basin and the maritime region of Oregon
and California; spent the summer examining the headwaters of
the rivers whose springs are in the grand divide of the
continent; in October camped on the shores of the Great Salt
Lake: proceeded to explore the Sierra Nevada, which he again
crossed in the dead of winter; made his way into the Valley
of the San Joaquin; obtained permission, at Monterey, from
the Mexican authorities there, to proceed with his
expedition, which permission was almost immediately revoked,
and Fremont peremptorily ordered to leave the country
without delay, but he refused, and a collision was imminent,
but was averted, and Fremont proceeded toward San Joaquin.
Near Tlamath Lake, Fremont met, May 9, 1846, a party in
search of him, with dispatches from Washington, ordering him
to watch over the interests of the United States in
California, as there was reason to believe that province
would be transferred to Great Britain. He at once returned
to California; General Castro was already marching against
our settlements; the settlers rose in arms, flocked to
Fremont’s camp, and, with him as leader, in less than a
month, all Northern California was freed from Mexican
authority; and on July 4 Fremont was elected Governor of
California by the American settlers. Later came the conflict
between Commodore Stockton and General Kearney; and Fremont
resigned his commission as Lieutenant-Colonel, to which he
had been promoted. In October, 1848, he started across the
continent on a fourth expedition, outfitted at his own
expense, to find a practicable route to California. In
attempting to cross the great Sierra, covered with snow, his
guide lost his way, and the party encountered horrible
suffering from cold and hunger, a portion of them being
driven to cannibalism; he lost all his animals (he had 120
mules when he started), and one-third of his men (he had
thirty-three) perished, and he had to retrace his steps to
Santa Fe. He again set out, with thirty men, and, after a
long search, discovered a secure route, which led to the
Sacramento, where he arrived in the spring of 1840. He led a
fifth expedition across the continent in 1853, at his own
expense, and found passes through the mountains in the line
of latitude 38 deg., 39 min., and reached California after
enduring great hardships; for fifty days his party lived on
horse-flesh, and for forty-eight hours at a time without
food of any kind. These are the barest outlines of five
expeditions of which many volumes have been written, but
will hint at Fremont’s work in the West which entitled him
to the name of the “Pathfinder.”
CHINESE PROVERBS.—The Chinese are indeed
remarkably fond of proverbs. They not only employ them in
conversation—and even to a greater degree than the
Spaniards, who are noted among Europeans for the number and
excellence of their proverbial sayings—but they have a
practice of adorning their reception rooms with these
sententious bits of wisdom, inscribed on decorated scrolls or
embroidered on rich crapes and brocades. They carve them on
door-posts and pillars, and emblazon them on the walls and
ceilings in gilt letters. The following are a few specimens of
this sort of literature: As a sneer at the use of unnecessary
force to crush a contemptible enemy, they say: “He rides a
fierce dog to catch a lame rabbit.” Similar to this is another,
“To use a battle-ax to cut off a hen’s head.” They say of
wicked associates: “To cherish a bad man is like nourishing a
tiger; if not well-fed he will devour you.” Here are several
others mingling wit with wisdom: “To instigate a villain to do
wrong is like teaching a monkey to climb trees;” “To catch fish
and throw away the net,” which recalls our saying, “Using the
cat’s paw to pull the chestnuts out of the fire;” “To climb a
tree to catch a fish” is to talk much to no purpose; “A
superficial scholar is a sheep dressed in a tiger’s skin;” “A
cuckoo in a magpie’s nest,” equivalent to saying, “he is
enjoying another’s labor without compensation;” “If the blind
lead the blind they will both fall into the pit;” “A fair wind
raises no storm;” “Vast chasms can be filled, but the heart of
man is never satisfied;” “The body may be healed, but the mind
is incurable;” “He seeks the ass, and lo! he sits upon him;”
“He who looks at the sun is dazzled; he who hears the thunder
is deafened.” i. e., do not come too near the powerful;
“Prevention is better than cure;” “Wine and good dinners make
abundance of friends, but in adversity not one of them is to be
found.” “Let every man sweep the snow from before his own door,
and not trouble himself about the frost on his neighbor’s
tiles.” The following one is a gem of moral wisdom: “Only
correct yourself on the same principle that you correct others,
and excuse others on the same principles on which you excuse
yourself.” “Better not be, than be nothing.” “One thread does
not make a rope; one swallow does not make a summer.”
“Sensuality is the chief of sins, filial duty the best of
acts.” “The horse’s back is not so safe us the
buffalo’s”—the former is used by the politician, the
latter by the farmer. “Too much lenity multiplies crime.” “If
you love your son give him plenty of the rod; if you hate him
cram him with dainties.” “He is my teacher who tells me my
faults, he my enemy who speaks my virtues.” Having a wholesome
dread of litigation, they say of one who goes to law, “He sues
a flea to catch a bite.” Their equivalent for our “coming out
at the little end of the horn” is, “The farther the rat creeps
up (or into) the cow’s horn, the narrower it grows.” The truth
of their saying that “The fame of good deeds does not leave a
man’s door, but his evil acts are known a thousand miles off,”
is illustrated in our own daily papers every morning. Finally,
we close this list with a Chinese proverb which should be
inscribed on the lintel of every door in Christendom: “The
happy-hearted man carries joy for all the household.”
MASON AND DIXON’S LINE.—Mason and Dixon’s line
is the concurrent State line of Maryland and Pennsylvania. It
is named after two eminent astronomers and
mathematicians,
Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon, who were sent out from
England to run it. They completed the survey between 1703 and
1707, excepting thirty-six miles surveyed in 1782 by Colonel
Alex. McLean and Joseph Neville. It is in the latitude of 39
deg. 43 min. 26.3 sec.
GREAT FIRES OF HISTORY.—The loss of life and
property in the willful destruction by fire and sword of the
principal cities of ancient history—Nineveh, Babylon,
Persepolis, Carthage, Palmyra, and many others—is largely
a matter of conjecture. The following is a memorandum of the
chief conflagrations of the current era:
In 64, A. D., during the reign of Nero, a terrible fire
raged in Rome for eight days, destroying ten of the fourteen
wards. The loss of life and destruction of property is not
known.
A. D., Jerusalem was taken by the Romans and a large part of
it given to the torch, entailing an enormous destruction of
life and property.
In 1106 Venice, then a city of immense opulence, was almost,
wholly consumed by a fire, originating in accident or
incendiarism.
In 1212 the greater part of London was burned.
In 1606 what is known as the Great Fire of London raged in
the city from September 2 to 6, consuming 13,200 houses, with
St. Paul’s Church, 86 parish churches, 6 chapels, the Guild
Hall, the Royal Exchange, the Custom House, 52 companies halls,
many hospitals, libraries and other public edifices. The total
destruction of property was estimated at $53,652,500. Six lives
were lost, and 436 acres burnt over.
In 1679 a fire in Boston burned all the warehouses, eighty
dwellings, and vessels in the dock-yards; loss estimated at
$1,000,000.
In 1700 a large part of Edinburgh was burned; loss unknown.
In 1728 Copenhagen was nearly destroyed; 1,650 houses
burned.
In 1736 a fire in St. Petersburg burned 2,000 houses.
In 1729 a fire in Constantinople destroyed 12,000 houses,
and 7,000 people perished. The same city suffered a
conflagration in 1745, lasting five days; and in 1750 a series
of three appalling fires: one in January, consuming 10,000
houses; another in April destroying property to the value of
$5,000,000, according to one historian, and according to
another, $15,000,000; and in the latter part of the year
another, sweeping fully 10,000 houses more out of existence. It
seemed as if Constantinople was doomed to utter
annihilation.
In 1751 a fire in Stockholm destroyed 1,000 houses and
another fire in the same city in 1759 burned 250 houses with a
loss of $2,420,000.
In 1752 a fire in Moscow swept away 18,000 houses, involving
an immense loss.
In 1758 Christiania suffered a loss of $1,250,000 by
conflagration. In 1760 the Portsmouth (England) dock yards were
burned, with a loss of $2,000,000.
In 1764 a fire in Konigsburg, Prussia, consumed the public
buildings, with a loss of $3,000,000; and in 1769 the city was
almost totally destroyed.
In 1763 a fire in Smyrna destroyed 2,600 houses, with a loss
of $1,000,000; in 1772 a fire in the same city carried off
3,000 dwellings and 3,000 to 4,000 shops, entailing a loss of
$20,000,000; and in 1796 there were 4,000 shops, mosques,
magazines, etc., burned.
In 1776, six days after the British seized the city, a fire
swept off all the west side of New York city, from Broadway to
the river.
In 1771 a fire in Constantinople burned 2,500 houses;
another in 1778 burned 2,000 houses; in 1782 there were 600
houses burned in February, 7,000 in June, and on August 12
during a conflagration that lasted three days, 10,000 houses,
50 mosques, and 100 corn-mills, with a loss of 100 lives. Two
years later a fire, on March 13, destroyed two-thirds of Pera,
the loveliest suburb of Constantinople, and on August 5 a fire
in the main city, lasting twenty-six hours, burned 10,000
houses. In this same fire-scourged city, in 1791, between March
and July, there were 32,000 houses burned, and about as many
more in 1795; and in 1799 Pera was again swept with fire, with
a loss of 13,000 houses, including many buildings of great
magnificence.
In 1784 a fire and explosion in the dock yards, Brest,
caused a loss of $5,000,000.
But the greatest destruction of life and property by
conflagration, of which the world has anything like accurate
records, must be looked for within the current century. Of
these the following is a partial list of instances in which the
loss of property amounted to $3,000,000 and upward:
| Dates— | Cities | Property destroyed. |
|---|---|---|
| 1802— | Liverpool | $5,000,000 |
| 1803— | Bombay | 3,000,600 |
| 1805— | St. Thomas | 30,000,000 |
| 1808— | Spanish Town | 7,500,000 |
| 1812— | Moscow, burned five days; 30,800 houses destroyed | 150,000,000 |
| 1816— | Constantinople, 12,000 dwellings, 3,000 shops | —— |
| 1820— | Savannah | 4,000,000 |
| 1822— | Canton nearly destroyed | —— |
| 1828— | Havana, 350 houses | —— |
| 1835— | New York (“Great Fire”) | 15,000,000 |
| 1837— | St. Johns, N. B. | 5,000,000 |
| 1838— | Charleston, 1,158 buildings | 3,000,000 |
| 1841— | Smyrna, 12,000 houses | —— |
| 1842— | Hamburg, 4,219 buildings, 100 lives lost | 35,000,000 |
| 1845— | New York, 35 persons killed | 7,500,000 |
| 1845— | Pittsburgh, 1,100 buildings | 10,000,000 |
| 1845— | Quebec, May 28, 1,650 dwellings | 3,750,000 |
| 1845— | Quebec, June 28, 1,300 dwellings | —— |
| 1846— | St. Johns, Newfoundland | 5,000,000 |
| 1848— | Constantinople, 2,500 buildings | 15,000,000 |
| 1848— | Albany, N. Y., 600 houses | 3,000,000 |
| 1849— | St. Louis | 3,000,000 |
| 1851— | St. Louis, 2,500 buildings | 11,000,000 |
| 1851— | St. Louis, 500 buildings | 3,000,000 |
| 1851— | San Francisco, May 4 and 5, many lives lost | 10,000,000 |
| 1851— | San Francisco, June | 3,000,000 |
| 1852— | Montreal, 1,200 buildings | 5,000,000 |
| 1861— | Mendoza destroyed by earthquake and fire, 10,000 lives lost | —— |
| 1862— | St. Petersburg | 5,000,000 |
| 1802— | Troy, N. Y., nearly destroyed | —— |
| 1862— | Valparaiso almost destroyed | —— |
| 1864— | Novgorod, immense destruction of property | —— |
| 1865— | Constantinople, 2,800 buildings burned | —— |
| 1806— | Yokohama, nearly destroyed | —— |
| 1865— | Carlstadt, Sweden, all consumed but Bishop’s residence, hospital and jail; 10 lives lost | —— |
| 1866— | Portland, Me., half the city | 11,000,000 |
| 1866— | Quebec, 2,500 dwellings, 17 churches | —— |
| 1870— | Constantinople, Pera, suburb | 26,000,000 |
| 1871— | Chicago—250 lives lost, 17,430 buildings burned, on 2,124 acres | 192,000,000 |
| 1871— | Paris, fired by the Commune | 160,000,000 |
| 1872— | Boston | 75,000.000 |
| 1873— | Yeddo, 10,000 houses | —— |
| 1877— | Pittsburgh, caused by riot | 3,260,000 |
| 1877— | St. Johns, N. B., 1,650 dwellings, 18 lives lost | 12,500,000 |
From the above it appears that the five greatest fires on
record, reckoned by destruction of property, are:
| Chicago fire, of Oct. 8 and 9, 1871 | $192,000,000 |
| Paris fires, of May, 1871 | 160,000,000 |
| Moscow fire, of Sept. 14-19, 1812 | 150,000,000 |
| Boston fire, Nov. 9-10, 1872 | 75,000.000 |
| London fire, Sept. 2-6, 1666 | 53,652,500 |
| Hamburg fire, May 5-7, 1842 | 35,000,000 |
Taking into account, with the fires of Paris and Chicago,
the great Wisconsin and Michigan forest fires of 1871, in which
it is estimated that 1,000 human beings perished and property
to the amount of over $3,000,000 was consumed, it is plain that
in the annals of conflagrations that year stands forth in
gloomy pre-eminence.
WEALTH OF THE UNITED STATES PER CAPITA.—The
following statistics represent the amount of taxable property,
real and personal, in each State and Territory, and also the
amount per capita:
| Total: | Per capita. | |
| Maine: | $235,978,716: | $362.09 |
| New Hampshire: | 164,755,181: | 474.81 |
| Vermont: | 86,806,755: | 261.24 |
| Massachusetts: | 1,584,756,802: | 888.77 |
| Rhode Island: | 252,536,673: | 913.23 |
| Connecticut: | 327,177,385: | 525.41 |
| New Jersey: | 572,518,361: | 506.06 |
| New York: | 2,651,940,000: | 521.74 |
| Pennsylvania: | 1,683,459,016: | 393.08 |
| Delaware: | 59,951,643: | 408.92 |
| Maryland: | 497,307,675: | 533.07 |
| District of Columbia: | 99,401,787: | 845.08 |
| Virginia: | 308,455,135: | 203.92 |
| West Virginia: | 139,622,705: | 225.75 |
| North Carolina: | 156,100,202: | 111.52 |
| South Carolina: | 153,560,135: | 154.24 |
| Georgia: | 239,472,599: | 155.82 |
| Florida: | 30,938,309: | 114.80 |
| Alabama: | 122,867,228: | 97.32 |
| Mississippi: | 110,628,129: | 97.76 |
| Louisiana: | 100,162,439: | 170.39 |
| Texas: | 320,364,515: | 201.26 |
| Arkansas: | 80,409,364: | 176.71 |
| Kentucky: | 350,563,971: | 212.63 |
| Tennessee: | 211,778,538: | 137.30 |
| Ohio: | 1,534,360,508: | 479.77 |
| Indiana: | 727,815,131: | 367.89 |
| Illinois: | 786,616,394: | 255.24 |
| Michigan: | 517,666,359: | 316.23 |
| Wisconsin: | 438,971,751: | 333.69 |
| Iowa: | 398,671,251: | 245.39 |
| Minnesota: | 258,028,687: | 330.48 |
| Missouri: | 432,795,801: | 245.72 |
| Kansas: | 160,891,689: | 161.52 |
| Nebraska: | 90,585,782: | 200.23 |
| Colorado: | 74,471,693: | 383.22 |
| Nevada: | 29,291,459: | 470.40 |
| Oregon: | 52,522,084: | 300.52 |
| California: | 584,578,036: | 676.05 |
| Arizona.: | 9,270,214: | 229.23 |
| Dakota: | 20,321,530: | 150.33 |
| Idaho: | 6,440,876: | 197.51 |
| Montana: | 18,609,802: | 475.23 |
| New Mexico: | 11,362,406: | 95.04 |
| Utah: | 24,775,279: | 172.09 |
| Washington: | 23,810,603: | 316.98 |
| Wyoming: | 13,621,829: | 655.24 |
| Total: | $16,902,993,543: | 337.00 |
TABLE FOR MEASURING AN ACRE.—To measure an acre
in rectangular form is a simple question in arithmetic. One has
only to divide the total number of square yards in an acre,
4,840, by the number of yards in the known side or breadth to
find the unknown side in yards. By this process it appears that
a rectangular strip of ground—
5 yards wide by 968 yards long is 1
acre.
10 yards wide by 484 yards long is 1 acre.
20 yards wide by 242 yards long is 1 acre.
40 yards wide by 121 yards long is 1 acre.
80 yards wide by 60-1/2 yards long is 1 acre.
70 yards wide by 69-1/2 yards long is 1 acre.
60 yards wide by 80-3/8 yards long is 1 acre.
THE LANGUAGE OF GEMS.—The language of the
various precious stones is as follows:
Moss Agate—Health, prosperity and long
life.
Amethyst—Prevents violent passions.
Bloodstone—Courage, wisdom and firmness in
affection.
Chrysolite—Frees from evil passions and sadness.
Emerald—Insures true love, discovers false.
Diamonds—Innocence, faith and virgin purity,
friends.
Garnet—Constancy and fidelity in every engagement.
Opal—Sharpens the sight and faith of the
possessor.
Pearl—Purity; gives clearness to physical and mental
sight.
Ruby—Corrects evils resulting from mistaken
friendship.
Sapphire—Repentance; frees from enchantment.
Sardonyx—Insures conjugal felicity.
Topaz—Fidelity and friendship; prevents bad
dreams.
Turquoise—Insures prosperity in love.
GREAT SALT LAKE AND THE DEAD SEA.—Great Salt
Lake is a shallow body of water, its average depth being but a
little more than three feet, while in many parts it is much
less. The water is transparent, but excessively salt; it
contains about 22 per cent of common salt, slightly mixed with
other salts, and forming one of the purest and most
concentrated brines in the world. Its specific gravity is 1.17.
The water is so buoyant that a man may float in it at full
length upon his back, having his head and neck, his legs to the
knee, and both arms to the elbow, entirely out of water. If he
assumes a sitting posture, with his arms extended, his
shoulders will rise above the water. Swimming, however, is
difficult as the lower limbs tend to rise above the surface,
and the brine is so strong that to swallow even a very little
of it will cause strangulation. The waters of the Dead Sea, on
the other hand, are nearly black, and contain much sulphur and
bitumen, as well as salt. It is also very deep, varying from
thirteen feet near the south end of the lake to more than 1,300
feet in the northern part. Its buoyancy is quite equal to that
of Great Salt Lake, for travelers say that a man can float
prone upon the surface for hours without danger of sinking, and
in a sitting position is held breast-high above the water.
SOME FAMOUS WAR SONGS.—The slavery war
developed several Union song-writers whose stirring verses have
kept on singing themselves since the close of that great
struggle. Two among them are best remembered nowadays, both men
who wrote the words and composed the music to their own verses.
Chicago lays claim to one, Dr. George F. Root, and Boston to
the other, Henry C. Work. The song “Marching Through Georgia,”
as every one knows, was written in memory of Sherman’s famous
march from Atlanta to the sea, and words and music were the
composition of Henry C. Work, who died not many months ago (in
1884). The first stanza is as follows:
Bring the good old bugle, boys, we’ll sing
another song—
Sing it with spirit that will start the world
along—
Sing it as we used to sing it, fifty thousand strong,
While we were marching through Georgia.
Chorus—
“Hurrah! hurrah! we bring the jubilee!
Hurrah! hurrah! the flag that makes you free!”
So we sang the chorus from Atlanta to the sea,
While we were marching through Georgia.
Among the other songs of Work the following are best known:
“Kingdom Coming,” or “Say, Darkey, Hab You Seen de Massa?”
“Babylon is Fallen,” “Grafted into
[pg 57] Army” and “Corporal
Schnapps.” This record would be incomplete were we to fail
to mention some of the many ringing songs of George F. Root,
songs which have made the name of Root famous in thousands
upon thousands of households in the West. Some of these
songs are: “Battle Cry of Freedom,” “Tramp, Tramp, Tramp,”
“On, on, on, the Boys Came Marching,” “Just Before the
Battle, Mother,” “Just After the Battle,” “Lay Me Down and
Save the Flag,” “Stand Up for Uncle Sam, My Boys.” The well
known song, “Wrap the Flag Around Me, Boys,” was composed by
R. Stewart Taylor, and “When Johnny Cones Marching Home” by
Louis Lambert.
THE COST OF ROYALTY IN ENGLAND.—Her
Majesty:
| Privy purse: | £60,000 |
| Salaries of household: | 131,260 |
| Expenses of household: | 172,500 |
| Royal bounty, etc.: | 13,200 |
| Unappropriated: | 8,040 |
| £385,000 | |
| Prince of Wales: | 40,000 |
| Princess of Wales: | 10,000 |
| Crown Princess of Prussia: | 8,000 |
| Duke of Edinburgh: | 25,000 |
| Princess Christian of Schleswig-Holstein: | 6,000 |
| Princess Louise (Marchioness of Lome): | 6,000 |
| Duke of Connaught: | 25,000 |
| Duke of Albany: | 25,000 |
| Duchess of Cambridge: | 6,000 |
| Duchess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz: | 3,000 |
| Duke of Cambridge: | 12,000 |
| Duchess of Teck: | 5,000 |
SOME GREAT RIVERS.—From Haswell’s little work
for engineers and mechanics the following figures are taken,
showing the lengths of the largest rivers on the various
continents:
| Name: | Miles. |
| EUROPE. | |
| Volga, Russia: | 2,500 |
| Danube: | 1,800 |
| Rhine: | 840 |
| Vistula: | 700 |
| ASIA. | |
| Yeneisy and Selenga: | 3,580 |
| Kiang: | 3,290 |
| Hoang Ho: | 3,040 |
| Amoor: | 2,500 |
| Euphrates: | 1,900 |
| Ganges: | 1,850 |
| Tigris: | 1,160 |
| AFRICA. | |
| Nile: | 3,240 |
| Niger: | 2,400 |
| Gambia: | 1,000 |
| SOUTH AMERICA. | |
| Amazon and Beni: | 4,000 |
| Platte: | 2,700 |
| Rio Madeira: | 2,300 |
| Rio Negro: | 1,650 |
| Orinoco: | 1,600 |
| Uruguay: | 1,100 |
| Magdalena: | 900 |
| NORTH AMERICA. | |
| Mississippi and Missouri: | 4,300 |
| Mackenzie: | 2,800 |
| Rio Bravo: | 2,300 |
| Arkansas: | 2,070 |
| Red River: | 1,520 |
| Ohio and Alleghany: | 1,480 |
| St. Lawrence: | 1,450 |
The figures as to the length of the Nile are estimated. The
Amazon, with its tributaries (including the Rio Negro and
Madeira), drains an area of 2,330,000 square miles; the
Mississippi and Missouri, 1,726,000 square miles; the Yeneisy
(or Yenisei, as it is often written) drains about 1,000,000
square miles; the Volga, about 500,000. In this group of great
rivers the St. Lawrence is the most remarkable. It constitutes
by far the largest body of fresh water in the world. Including
the lakes and streams, which it comprises in its widest
acceptation, the St. Lawrence covers about 73,000 square miles;
the aggregate, it is estimated, represents not less than 9,000
solid miles—a mass of water which would have taken upward
of forty years to pour over Niagara at the computed rate of
1,000,000 cubic feet in a second. As the entire basin of this
water system falls short of 300,000 square miles, the surface
of the land is only three times that of the water.
HOW THE UNITED STATES GOT ITS LANDS.—The United
States bought Louisiana, the vast region between the
Mississippi River, the eastern and northern boundary of Texas
(then belonging to Spain), and the dividing ridge of the Rocky
Mountains, together with what is now Oregon, Washington
Territory, and the western parts of Montana and Idaho, from
France for $11,250,000. This was in 1803. Before the principal,
interest, and claims of one sort and another assumed by the
United States were settled, the total cost of this “Louisiana
purchase,” comprising, according to French construction and our
understanding, 1,171,931 square miles, swelled to $23,500,000,
or almost $25 per section—a fact not stated in
cyclopedias and school histories, and therefore not generally
understood. Spain still held Florida and claimed a part of what
we understood to be included in the Louisiana purchase—a
strip up to north latitude 31—and disputed our boundary
along the south and west, and even claimed Oregon. We bought
Florida and all the disputed land east of the Mississippi and
her claim to Oregon, and settled our southwestern boundary
dispute for the sum of $6,500,000. Texas smilingly proposed
annexation to the United States, and this great government was
“taken in” December 29, 1845, Texas keeping her public lands
and giving us all her State debts and a three-year war (costing
us $66,000,000) with Mexico, who claimed her for a runaway from
Mexican jurisdiction. This was a bargain that out-yankeed the
Yankees, but the South insisted on it and the North submitted.
After conquering all the territory now embraced in New Mexico,
a part of Colorado, Arizona, Utah, Nevada and California, we
paid Mexico $25,000,000 for it—$15,000,000 for the
greater part of it and $10,000,000 for another slice, known as
the “Gadsden purchase.” In 1867 we bought Alaska from Russia
for $7,200,000. All the several amounts above named were paid
long ago. As for all the rest of our landed possessions, we
took them with us when we cut loose from mother Britain’s apron
string, but did not get a clear title until we had fought ten
years for it—first in the Revolutionary War, costing us
in killed 7,343 reported—besides the unreported
killed—and over 15,000 wounded, and $135,193,103 in
money; afterward in the War of 1812-15, costing us in killed
1,877, in wounded 3,737, in money $107,159,003. We have paid
everybody but the Indians, the only real owners, and, thanks to
gunpowder, sword, bayonet, bad whisky, small-pox, cholera and
other weapons of civilization, there are not many of them left
to complain. Besides all the beads, earrings, blankets, pots,
kettles, brass buttons, etc., given them for land titles in the
olden times, we paid them, or the Indian agents, in one way and
another, in the ninety years from 1791 to 1881, inclusive,
$193,672,697.31, to say nothing of the thousands of lives
sacrificed and many millions spent in Indian wars, from the war
of King Philip to the last fight with the Apaches.
ILLUSTRIOUS MEN AND WOMEN.—It is not likely
that any two persons would agree as to who are entitled to the
first fifty places on the roll of great men and great women.
Using “great” in the sense of eminence in their professions, of
great military commanders the following are among the chief:
Sesostris, the Egyptian conqueror, who is represented as having
subdued all Asia to the Oxus and the Ganges, Ethiopia, and a
part of Europe; Cyrus the Great; Alexander the Great; Hannibal;
Che-Hwanti, who reduced all the kingdoms of China and
Indo-China to one empire, and constructed the Great Wall;
Cæsar; Genghis Khan, the Tartar chief, who overran all
Asia and a [pg 58] part of Europe; Napoleon
Bonaparte; Ulysses S. Grant, and General Von Moltke. Among
the most illustrious benefactors of mankind, as statesmen,
lawgivers and patriots, stand Moses, David, Solon, Numa
Pompilius, Zoroaster, Confucius, Justinian, Charlemagne,
Cromwell, Washington and Lincoln. Eminent among the
philosophers, rhetoricians and logicians stand Socrates,
Plato, Aristotle, Seneca, the two Catos, and Lord Bacon;
among orators, Pericles, Demosthenes, Cicero, Mirabeau,
Burke, Webster and Clay; among poets, Homer, Virgil, Dante,
Milton, and Shakespeare; among painters and sculptors,
Phidias, Parrhasius, Zenxis, Praxiteles, Scopas, Michael
Angelo, Raphael and Rubens; among philanthropists, John
Howard; among inventors, Archimedes, Watt, Fulton,
Arkwright, Whitney and Morse; among astronomers, Copernicus,
Galileo, Tycho Brahe, Newton, La Place and the elder
Herschel. Here are sixty names of distinguished men, and yet
the great religious leaders, excepting Moses and Zoroaster,
have not been named. Among these stand Siddhartha or Buddha,
Mahomet, Martin Luther, John Knox and John Wesley. Then the
great explorers and geographers of the world have not been
noticed, among whom Herodotus, Strabo, Pliny, Vasco de Gama,
Columbus and Humboldt barely lead the van.
Of eminent women there are Seling, wife of the Emperor
Hwang-ti, B. C. 2637, who taught her people the art of
silk-raising and weaving; Semiramis, the Assyrian Queen;
Deborah, the heroic warrior prophetess of the Israelites; Queen
Esther, who, with the counsel of her cousin, Mordecai, not only
saved the Jews from extermination, but lifted them from a
condition of slavery into prosperity and power; Dido, the
founder of Carthage; Sappho, the eminent Grecian poetess;
Hypatia, the eloquent philosopher; Mary, the mother of Christ;
Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra; the mother of St. Augustine;
Elizabeth of Hungary; Queen Elizabeth of England; Queen
Isabella of Spain; the Empress Maria Theresa; Margaret the
Great of Denmark; Catherine the Great of Russia, Queen
Victoria; Florence Nightingale; Mme. de Stael: Mrs. Fry, the
philanthropist; among authoresses, Mrs. Hemans, Mrs. Sigourney,
Mrs. Browning, “George Sand,” “George Eliot,” and Mrs. Stowe;
and among artists, Rosa Bonheur, and our own Harriet
Hosmer.
THE SUEZ CANAL.—The Suez Canal was begun in
1,858 and was formally opened in November, 1869. Its cost,
including harbors, is estimated at $100,000,000. Its length is
100 miles, 75 of which were excavated; its width is generally
325 feet at the surface, and 75 feet at the bottom, and its
depth 26 feet. The workmen employed were chiefly natives, and
many were drafted by the Khedive. The number of laborers is
estimated at 30,000. The British government virtually controls
the canal as it owns most of the stock.
SENDING VESSELS OVER NIAGARA FALLS.—There have
been three such instances. The first was in 1827. Some men got
an old ship—the Michigan—which had been used on
lake Erie, and had been pronounced unseaworthy. For mere
wantonness they put aboard a bear, a fox, a buffalo, a dog and
some geese and sent it over the cataract. The bear jumped from
the vessel before it reached the rapids, swam toward the shore,
and was rescued by some humane persons. The geese went over the
falls, and came to the shore below alive, and, therefore,
became objects of great interest, and were sold at high prices
to visitors at the Falls. The dog, fox, and buffalo were not
heard of or seen again. Another condemned vessel, the Detroit,
that had belonged to Commodore Perry’s victorious fleet, was
started over the cataract in the winter of 1841, but grounded
about midway in the rapids, and lay there till knocked to
pieces by the ice. A somewhat more picturesque instance was the
sending over the Canada side of a ship on fire. This occurred
in 1837. The vessel was the Caroline, which had been run in the
interest of the insurgents in the Canadian rebellion. It was
captured by Colonel McNabb, an officer of the Canada militia,
and by his orders it was set on fire then cut loose from its
moorings. All in flames, it went glaring and hissing down the
rapids and over the precipice, and smothered its ruddy blaze in
the boiling chasm below. Thia was witnessed by large crowds on
both sides of the falls, and was described as a most
magnificent sight. Of course there was no one on board the
vessel.
OLD TIME WAGES IN ENGLAND.—The following rates
of daily wages “determined” by the Justices of Somerset, in
1685, answer this question very fairly. Somerset; being one of
the average shires of England. The orthography is conformed to
original record:
| s. | d. | |
|---|---|---|
| Mowers per diem, findeing themselves | 1 | 2 |
| Mowers at meate and drinke | 0 | 7 |
| Men makeing hay per diem, findeing themselves | 0 | 10 |
| Men at meate and drinke | 0 | 6 |
| Women makeing hay | 0 | 7 |
| Women at meate and drinke | 0 | 4 |
| Men reapeing corne per diem, findeing themselves | 1 | 2 |
| Men reapinge corne at meate and drinke | 0 | 8 |
| Moweing an acre of grasse, findeing themselves | 1 | 2 |
| Moweing an acre of grasse to hay | 1 | 6 |
| Moweing an acre of barley | 1 | 1 |
| Reapeinge and bindeinge an acre of wheate | 3 | 0 |
| Cuttinge and bindeinge an acre of beanes and hookinge | 2 | 0 |
The shilling is about 24 cents and the penny 2 cents.
DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE SIGNERS.—The
following is the list of names appended to that famous
document, with the colony which each represented in
Congress:
New Hampshire—Josiah Bartlett; William Whipple,
Matthew Thornton.
Massachusetts—John Hancock, John Adams, Samuel Adams,
Robert Treat Paine.
Rhode Island—Elbridge Gerry, Stephen Hopkins, William
Ellery.
Connecticut—Roger Sherman, Samuel Huntington, William
Williams, Oliver Wolcott.
New York—William Floyd, Philip Livingston, Francis
Lewis, Lewis Morris.
New Jersey—Richard Hockton, John Witherspoon, Francis
Hopkinson, John Hart, Abraham Clark.
Pennsylvania—Robert Morris, Benjamin Rush, Benjamin
Franklin, John Morton, George Clymer, James Smith, George
Taylor, James Wilson, George Ross.
Delaware—Caesar Rodney, George Reed, Thomas
McKean.
Maryland—Samuel Chase, Thomas Stone, William Paca,
Charles Carroll, of Carrollton.
Virginia—George Wythe, Richard Henry Lee, Thomas
Jefferson, Benjamin Harrison, Thomas Nelson, Jr., Francis
Lightfoot Lee, Carter Braxton.
North Carolina—William Hooper, Joseph Hewes, John
Penn.
South Carolina—Edward Rutledge, Thomas Heyward, Jr.,
Thomas Lynch, Jr., Arthur Middleton.
Georgia—Button Gwinntet, Lyman Hall, George
Walton.
LIFE OF ETHAN ALLEN.—Colonel Ethan Allan was
captured in an attack upon Montreal, September 25, 1775. He was
sent as prisoner to Great Britain, ostensibly for trial, but in
a few months was sent back to America, and
[pg 59] in prison ships and jails at
Halifax and New York till May 3, 1778, when he was
exchanged. During most of his captivity he was treated as a
felon and kept heavily ironed, but during 1777 was allowed
restricted liberty on parole. After his exchange he again
offered his services to the patriot army, but because of
trouble in Vermont was put in command of the militia in that
State. The British authorities were at that time making
especial efforts to secure the allegiance of the Vermonters,
and it was owing to Allen’s skillful negotiations that the
question was kept open until the theater of war was changed,
thus keeping the colony on the American side, but avoiding
the attacks from the British that would certainly have
followed an open avowal of their political preferences.
Allen died at Burlington, Vt., February 13, 1789.
BURIAL CUSTOMS.—Among the early Christians the
dead were buried with the face upward and the feet toward the
east, in token of the resurrection at the coming again of the
Sun of Righteousness. It cannot be said, however, that the
custom was first used by the Christians. It was in practice
among early pagan nations also, and is regarded as a survival
of the ideas of the fire-worshipers. The sun, which was the
impersonation of deity to many primitive races, had his home in
their mythology in the east, and out of respect for him the
dead were placed facing this quarter, among certain tribes
always in a sitting posture. It may also be remarked that among
other races the position was reversed, the dead body being
placed with its feet toward the west, because the region of
sunset was the home of the departed spirits.
THE SURRENDER OF LEE TO GRANT.—The surrender of
General Lee was made at the house of a farmer named McLean, in
Appomattox village, that house having been selected by General
Lee himself at General Grant’s request for the interview.
General Grant went thither, and was met by General Lee on the
threshold. The two went into the parlor of the house, a small
room, containing little furnishing but a table and several
chairs. About twenty Union officers besides General Grant were
present, among them the members of the General’s staff. The
only Confederate officer with General Lee was Colonel Marshall,
who acted as his secretary. General Lee, as well as his aid,
was in full uniform, and wore a burnished sword which was given
him by the State of Virginia; General Grant was in plain
uniform, without a sword. After a brief conversation, relative
to the meeting of the two generals while soldiers in Mexico,
General Lee adverted at once to the object of the interview by
asking on what terms the surrender of his army would be
received. General Grant replied that officers and men must
become prisoners of war, giving up of course all munitions,
weapons and supplies, but that a parole would be accepted.
General Lee then requested that the terms should be put in
writing, that he might sign them. General Badeau says that
while General Grant was writing the conditions of surrender he
chanced to look up and his eye caught the glitter of General
Lee’s sword, and that this sight induced him to insert the
provision that the “officers should be allowed to retain their
side-arms, horses and personal property.” This historian thinks
that General Lee fully expected to give up his sword, and that
General Grant omitted this from the terms of surrender out of
consideration for the feelings of a soldier. Badeau says that
General Lee was evidently much touched by the clemency of his
adversary in this regard. The Confederate chief now wrote his
acceptance of the terms offered and signed them. lie further
requested that the cavalry and artillery soldiers might be
allowed to retain their horses as well as the officers, to
which General Grant consented, and asked that a supply train
left at Danville might be allowed to pass on, as his soldiers
were without food. The reply of General Grant to this was an
order that 25,000 rations should be immediately issued from the
commissariat of the National army to the Army of Northern
Virginia. The formal papers were now drawn up and signed, and
the interview which ended one of the greatest wars of modern
times was over.
COLORED POPULATION AT EACH CENSUS.—The
following will show the white and colored population of the
United States, from 1790 to 1880, inclusive:
| —— Colored —— | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Year | White. | Free. | Slaves. |
| 1790 | 3,172,006 | 59,527 | 697,681 |
| 1800 | 4,306,446 | 108,435 | 893,002 |
| 1810 | 5,862,073 | 186,446 | 1,191,362 |
| 1820 | 7,862,166 | 223,634 | 1,538,022 |
| 1830 | 10,538,378 | 319,599 | 2,009,043 |
| 1840 | 14,195,805 | 386,293 | 2,487,355 |
| 1850 | 19,553,068 | 434,495 | 3,204,313 |
| 1860 | 26,922,537 | 488,070 | 3,953,760 |
| 1870 | 33,589,377 | 4,880,009 | None. |
| 1880 | 43,402,970 | 6,580,973 | None. |
ARCTIC EXPLORATIONS.—From 1496 to 1857 there
were 134 voyages and land journeys undertaken by governments
and explorers of Europe and America to investigate the unknown
region around the North Pole. Of these, sixty-three went to the
northwest, twenty-nine via Behring Straits, and the rest to the
northeast or due north. Since 1857 there have been the notable
expeditions of Dr. Hayes, of Captain Hall, those of
Nordenskjold, and others sent by Germany, Russia and Denmark;
three voyages made by James Lament, of the Royal Geographical
Society, England, at his own expense; the expeditions of Sir
George Nares, of Leigh Smith, and that of the ill-fated
Jeannette; the search expeditions of the Tigress, the Juniata,
and those sent to rescue Lieutenant Greely; further, all the
expeditions fitted out under the auspices of the Polar
Commission—in which the Greely expedition was
included—and a number of minor voyages, making a sum
total of some sixty exploring journeys in these twenty-seven
years.
THE BATTLE OF WATERLOO.—The battle of Waterloo
was fought June 18, 1815, between the allied British,
Netherland and German troops under Wellington and the French
under Napoleon. On June 16 Napoleon had attacked the Prussians
under Blucher at Ligny and forced them to retreat toward Wavre,
and Marshal Noy at the same time attacked the British and Dutch
forces at Quatre Bras, but was forced to retire after an
engagement of five hours. Napoleon’s object, however, which was
to prevent a union of the Prussians with Wellington’s main
army, was partially gained. The latter commander, having
learned the next morning of Blucher’s repulse, moved on to
Waterloo expecting that the Prussian commander, according to
previous arrangement, would join him there as speedily as
possible. On June 17 Napoleon also moved toward Waterloo with
the main body of his army, having directed Marshal Grouchy with
34,000 men and ninety-six guns to pursue Blucher’s command
toward Wavre. Both armies bivouacked on the field of Waterloo,
and the next morning Napoleon, confident that Grouchy would
prevent the arrival of the Prussians, delayed attack until the
ground should become dry, a heavy shower having fallen on the
day previous. The forces under Wellington occupied a
semi-circular ridge a mile and a half in length, and the French
were on an opposite ridge, the two being separated by a valley
about 500 yards wide. The plan of Napoleon was to turn the
allied left, force it back upon center, and gain possession of
the enemy’s line of retreat. To draw off Wellington’s attention
to his right, French troops were sent about 11 o’clock to
attack the chateau of Houguemont, which the English had
fortified. After a [pg 60] more than two hours this was
still in the possession of its defenders. About 1 o’clock a
Prussian corps under Bulow was seen approaching on the
French right, and Napoleon, finding it necessary to send
10,000 men to check their advance, was obliged to change the
plan of battle. He therefore ordered a fierce attack upon
the allied center. Wellington massed his troops there, and
the battle was obstinately maintained for five hours, with
varying success to the participants, both commanders hourly
expecting re-enforcements. Wellington was waiting for
Blucher and Napoleon for Grouchy. The French at last were
gaining ground; the allied troops in the center were
wavering under Ney’s impetuous onslaughts, General Durutte
had forced back the left, and Bulow’s troops on the right
had been forced to yield the position they had taken. Now,
however, there were rumors that Blucher’s army was
approaching and the allies again rallied. At 7 o’clock
Napoleon, despairing of the approach of Grouchy, determined
to decide the day by a charge of the Old Guard, which had
been held in reserve. At this stage the advance of Prussian
horse on the allied left forced back General Durutte’s
troops, and the Old Guard formed in squares to cover this
retreat. Ney’s division surrounded, made a gallant
struggle—their brave leader still unwounded, though
five horses had been shot under him, heading them on foot,
sword in hand—but were forced to give way. The Old
Guard held their ground against overwhelming numbers.
Finally, when five squares were broken, the Emperor gave the
order to “fall back.” The cry “The Guard is repulsed” spread
consternation through the French army and threatened to turn
retreat into precipitate flight. Napoleon, seeing this,
reformed the Guard in order to give a rallying point for the
fugitives. Failing in this, he declared that he would die
within the square, but Marshal Soult hurried him away. The
heroic band, surrounded, was bidden to surrender. “The Old
Guard dies, but never surrenders” is the reply popularly
attributed to General Cambronne, and with the cry of “Vive
l’Empereur!” the remnant of the Guard made a last charge
upon the enemy and perished almost to a man. The forces of
Blucher being now upon the field, the rout of the French was
complete, and the Prussians pursued the fleeing troops,
capturing guns and men. There is no doubt that the failure
of Grouchy to come upon the field caused Napoleon to lose
his last great battle. It was subsequently asserted that
this marshal was bribed, but there seems to be no real
foundation for so base a charge. The trouble was that he had
been ordered by Napoleon to follow the Prussians toward
Wavre and thought it necessary to follow the strict letter
of his instructions. Before he reached the village the main
body of the Prussian force was on its way to Waterloo, but
one division had been left there to occupy his attention.
Engaged in skirmishing with this, he paid no attention to
the advice of his subordinate generals who, hearing the
terrible cannonading at Waterloo, besought him to go to the
aid of the army there. Napoleon believing that he was either
holding back Blucher’s forces or was hotly pursuing them,
did not recall him to the main army, and the decisive battle
was lost. Grouchy was summoned before a council of war, but
the court declared itself incompetent to decide his case,
and nothing further came of it.
OUR NATIONAL CEMETERIES.—National Cemeteries
for soldiers and sailors may be said to have originated in
1850, the army appropriation bill of that year appropriating
money for a cemetery near the City of Mexico, for the interment
of the remains of soldiers who fell in the Mexican War. The
remains of Federal soldiers and sailors who fell in the war for
the Union have been buried in seventy-eight cemeteries
exclusive of those interred elsewhere, a far greater
number.
In the subjoined list are given the names and locations of
the National Cemeteries with the number therein buried, known
and unknown. We have no means of knowing what cemeteries also
contain the bodies of Southern soldiers:
| Known | Unknown | |
|---|---|---|
| Cypress Hill, N. Y. | 3,675 | 70 |
| Woodlawn, Elmira, N. Y. | 3,096 | —— |
| Beverly, N. J. | 142 | 7 |
| Finn’s Point, N.J. | —— | 2,644 |
| Gettysburg, Pa. | 1,967 | 1,608 |
| Philadelphia, Pa. | 1,880 | 28 |
| Annapolis, Md. | 2,289 | 197 |
| Antietam, Md. | 2,853 | 1,811 |
| London Park, Baltimore, Md. | 1,627 | 168 |
| Laurel, Baltimore, Md. | 232 | 6 |
| Soldiers’ Home, D. C. | 5,313 | 288 |
| Battle, D. C. | 13 | —— |
| Grafton, W. Va. | 634 | 620 |
| Arlington, Va. | 11,911 | 4,349 |
| Alexandria, Va. | 3,434 | 124 |
| Ball’s Bluff, Va. | 1 | 24 |
| Cold Harbor, Va. | 672 | 1,281 |
| City Point, Va. | 3,779 | 1,374 |
| Culpepper, Va. | 454 | 910 |
| Danville, Va. | 1,171 | 155 |
| Fredericksburg, Va. | 2,487 | 12,770 |
| Fort Harrison, Va. | 239 | 575 |
| Glendale, Va. | 233 | 961 |
| Hampton, Va. | 4,808 | 494 |
| Poplar Grove, Va. | 2,197 | 3,993 |
| Richmond, Va. | 841 | 5,700 |
| Seven Pines, Va. | 150 | 1,208 |
| Staunton, Va. | 233 | 520 |
| Winchester, Va. | 2,094 | 2,301 |
| Yorktown, Va. | 748 | 1,434 |
| Newbern, N. C. | 2,174 | 1,077 |
| Raleigh, N. C. | 625 | 553 |
| Salisbury, N. C. | 94 | 12,032 |
| Wilmington, N. C. | 710 | 1,398 |
| Beaufort, S. C. | 4,748 | 4,493 |
| Florence, S. C. | 199 | 2,799 |
| Andersonville, Ga. | 12,878 | 959 |
| Marietta, Ga. | 7,182 | 2,963 |
| Barrancas, Fla. | 791 | 657 |
| Mobile, Ala. | 751 | 112 |
| Corinth, Miss. | 1,788 | 3,920 |
| Natchez, Miss. | 308 | 2,780 |
| Vicksburg, Miss. | 3,896 | 12,704 |
| Alexandria, La. | 534 | 772 |
| Baton Rouge, La. | 2,468 | 495 |
| Chalmette, La. | 6,833 | 5,075 |
| Port Hudson, La. | 590 | 3,218 |
| Brownsville, Texas | 1,409 | 1,379 |
| San Antonio, Texas | 307 | 167 |
| Fayetteville, Ark. | 431 | 781 |
| Fort Smith, Ark. | 706 | 1,152 |
| Little Rock, Ark. | 3,260 | 2,337 |
| Chattanooga, Tenn. | 7,993 | 4,903 |
| Fort Donelson, Tenn. | 158 | 511 |
| Knoxville, Tenn. | 2,089 | 1,040 |
| Memphis, Tenn. | 5,150 | 8,817 |
| Nashville, Tenn. | 11,824 | 4,692 |
| Pittsburg Landing, Tenn. | 1,229 | 2,361 |
| Stone River, Tenn. | 3,820 | 2,314 |
| Camp Nelson, Ky. | 2,477 | 1,165 |
| Cave Hill, Louisville, Ky. | 3,342 | 583 |
| Danville, Ky. | 346 | 12 |
| Lebanon, Ky. | 591 | 277 |
| Lexington, Ky. | 824 | 105 |
| Logan’s, Ky. | 345 | 366 |
| Crown Hill, Indianapolis, Ind. | 686 | 36 |
| New Albany, Ind. | 2,138 | 676 |
| Camp Butler, Ill. | 1,007 | 355 |
| Mound City, Ill. | 2,505 | 2,721 |
| Rock Island, Ill. | 280 | 9 |
| Jefferson Barracks, Mo. | 8,569 | 2,906 |
| Jefferson City, Mo. | 348 | 412 |
| Springfield, Mo. | 845 | 713 |
| Fort Leavenworth, Kas. | 821 | 913 |
| Fort Scott, Kas. | 388 | 161 |
| Keokuk, Iowa | 610 | 21 |
| Fort Gibson, I. T. | 212 | 2,212 |
| Fort McPherson, Neb. | 149 | 291 |
| City of Mexico, Mexico | 254 | 750 |
THE CATACOMBS OF PARIS.—The so-called catacombs
of Paris were never catacombs in the ancient sense of the word,
and were not devoted to purposes of sepulture until 1784. In
that year the Council of State issued a decree for clearing the
Cemetery of the Innocents, and for removing its contents, as
well as those of other graveyards, into the quarries which had
existed from the earlier times under the city of Paris and
completely undermined the southern part of the city. Engineers
and workmen were sent to examine the quarries and to prop up
their roofs lest the weight of buildings above should break
them in. April 7, 1786, the consecration of the catacombs was
performed with great solemnity, and the work of removal from
the cemeteries was immediately begun. This work was all
performed by night; the bones were brought in funeral cars,
covered with a pall, and followed by priests chanting the
service of the dead, and when they reached the catacombs the
bones were shot down the shaft. As the cemeteries were cleared
by order of the government, their contents were removed to this
place of general deposit, and these catacombs further served as
convenient receptacles for those who perished in the
revolution. At first the bones were heaped up without any kind
of order except that those from each cemetery were kept
separate, but in 1810 a regular system of arranging them was
commenced, and the skulls and bones were built up along the
wall. From the main entrance to the catacombs, which is near
the barriers d’Enfer, a flight of ninety steps descends, at
whose foot galleries are seen branching in various directions.
Some yards distant is a vestibule of octagonal form, which
opens into a long gallery lined with bones from floor to roof.
The arm, leg and thigh bones are in front, closely and
regularly piled, and their uniformity is relieved by three rows
of skulls at equal distances. Behind these are thrown the
smaller bones. This gallery conducts to several rooms
resembling chapels, lined with bones variously arranged. One is
called the “Tomb of the Revolution.” another the “Tomb of
Victims,” the latter containing the relics of those who
perished in the early period of the revolution and in the
“Massacre of September.” It is estimated that the remains of
3,000,000 human beings lie in this receptacle. Admission to
these catacombs has for years been strictly forbidden on
account of the unsafe condition of the roof. They are said to
comprise an extent of about 3,250,000 square yards.
HISTORY OF THE TELEPHONE.—The principle of the
telephone, that sounds could be conveyed to a distance by a
distended wire, was demonstrated by Robert Hook in 1667, but no
practical application was made of the discovery until 1821,
when Professor Wheatstone exhibited his “Enchanted Lyre,” in
which the sounds of a music-box were conveyed from a cellar to
upper rooms. The first true discoverer of the speaking
telephone, however, was Johaun Philipp Reis, a German scientist
and professor in the institute at Friedrichsdorf. April 25,
1861, Reis exhibited his telephone at Frankfort. This contained
all the essential features of the modern telephone, but as its
commercial value was not at all comprehended, little attention
was paid to it. Reis, after trying in vain to arouse the
interest of scientists in his discovery, died in 1874, without
having reaped any advantage from it, and there is no doubt that
his death was hastened by the distress of mind caused by his
continual rebuffs. Meanwhile, the idea was being worked into
more practical shape by other persons, Professor Elisha Gray
and Professor A.G. Bell, and later by Edison. There is little
doubt that Professor Gray’s successful experiments considerably
antedated those of the others, but Professor Bell was the first
to perfect his patent. February 12, 1877, Bell’s articulating
telephone was tested by experiments at Boston and Salem, Mass.,
and was found to convey sounds distinctly from one place to the
other, a distance of eighteen miles. This telephone was
exhibited widely in this country and in Europe during that
year, and telephone companies were established to bring it into
general use. Edison’s carbon “loud-speaking” telephone was
brought out in 1878. It is not worth while to go into details
of the suits on the subject of priority of invention. The
examiner of patents at Washington, July 21, 1883, decided that
Professor Bell was the first inventor, because he was the first
to complete his invention and secure a full patent. Since 1878
there have been many improvements in the different parts of the
telephone, rendering it now nearly perfect in its working.
SECESSION AND READMISSION OF REBEL STATES.—
| Seceded. | Readmitted. | |
|---|---|---|
| South Carolina | Dec. 20,1860 | June 11, 1868. |
| Mississippi | Jan. 9, 1861 | Feb. 3, 1870. |
| Alabama | Jan. 11, 1861 | June 11, 1868. |
| Florida | Jan. 11, 1861 | June 11, 1868. |
| Georgia | Jan. 19, 1861 | April 20, 1870. |
| Louisiana | Jan. 26, 1861 | June 11, 1868. |
| Texas | Feb. 1, 1861 | Mar. 15, 1870. |
| Virginia | April 16, 1861 | Jan. 15, 1870. |
| Arkansas | May 6, 1861 | June 20, 1868. |
| North Carolina | May 21, 1861 | June 11, 1868. |
| Tennessee | June 24, 1861 | July, 1866. |
THE EARTHQUAKE OF 1811-12.—The earthquake
shocks felt on the shores of the Lower Mississippi in the years
1811-12 are recorded as among the most remarkable phenomena of
their kind. Similar instances where earth disturbances have
prevailed, severely and continuously, far from the vicinity of
a volcano, are very rare indeed. In this instance, over an
extent of country stretching for 300 miles southward from the
mouth of the Ohio river, the ground rose and sank in great
undulations, and lakes were formed and again drained. The
shocks were attended by loud explosions, great
fissures—generally traveling from northeast to southwest,
and sometimes more than half a mile in length—were opened
in the earth, and from these openings mud and water were thrown
often to the tops of the highest trees. Islands in the
Mississippi were sunk, the current of the river was driven back
by the rising of its bed, and overflowed the adjacent lands.
More than half of New Madrid county was permanently submerged.
The inhabitants noticed that these earth movements were
sometimes vertical and sometimes horizontal, the former being
by far the most serious in their effects. These disturbances
ceased March 26, 1812, simultaneously with the great earthquake
which destroyed the city of Caracas, South America.
THE DARK DAYS IN NEW ENGLAND.—On May 19, 1780,
there was a remarkable darkening of the sky and atmosphere over
a large part of New England, which caused
[pg 62] much alarm among those who
witnessed it. The darkness began between ten and eleven
o’clock on the day named, and continued in some places
through the entire day, and was followed by an unusually
intense degree of blackness during the ensuing night. This
phenomenon extended from the northeastern part of New
England westward as far as Albany, and southward to the
coast of New Jersey. The most intense and prolonged
darkness, however, was confined to Massachusetts, especially
to the eastern half of the State. It came up from the
southwest, and overhung the country like a pall. It was
necessary to light candles in all the houses, and thousands
of good people, believing that the end of all things
terrestrial had come, betook themselves to religious
devotions. One incident of the occasion has been woven into
verse with excellent effect by the poet Whittier. The
Connecticut Legislature was in session on that day, and as
the darkness came on and grew more and more dense, the
members became terrified, and thought that the day of
judgment had come; so a motion was made to adjourn. At this,
a Mr. Davenport arose and said: “Mr. Speaker, it is either
the day of judgment, or it is not. If it is not, there is no
need of adjourning. If it is, I desire to be found doing my
duty. I move that candles be brought and that we proceed to
business.” Mr. Davenport’s suggestion was taken, candles
were brought in, and business went on as usual. As to the
explanation of this phenomenon, scientists have been much
puzzled. It was plain from the falling of the barometer that
the air was surcharged with heavy vapor. The darkness then,
it might be said, was only the result of a dense fog, but
the question of the cause of so remarkable a fog was still
unanswered. Omitting this unascertained primary cause, then,
Professor Williams, of Harvard College, who subsequently
made a thorough investigation of the matter, gave it as his
opinion that this unprecedented quantity of vapor had
gathered in the air in layers so as to cut off the rays of
light, by repeated refraction, in a remarkable degree. He
thought that the specific gravity of this vapor must have
been the same as that of the air, which caused it to be held
so long in suspension in the atmosphere. In this case the
extent of the darkness would coincide with the area of the
vapor, and it would continue until a change in the gravity
of the air caused the vapors to ascend or descend. In some
places when the darkness cleared it was as if the vapor was
lifted and borne away by the wind like a dark pall, and in
others, after a period of intense darkness the atmosphere
gradually lightened again. In our day, a phenomenon of this
kind would be thoroughly investigated to its most remote
possible cause; but then owing to the sparse settlement of
the country and the difficulties of travel, the
investigation of distant causes could not be made. Large
fires may have prevailed that spring in the forests of
Western New York and Pennsylvania—a region then an
absolute wilderness—the smoke of which was borne
through the upper regions of the atmosphere, to fall when it
came to a locality of less buoyant air, down to the lower
strata. We say these fires may have recently preceded this
day, and served as its sufficient cause, but we have only
presumptive evidence that they did occur. Had Professor
Williams entertained a supposition of the previous existence
of such fires, he had then no means of verifying it, and
long before the advent of railroads and telegraphs, or even
of stage lines, the scientific theories of the dark day had
passed from the general memory.
A SHORT HISTORY OF THE LIBERTY BELL.—In 1751
the Pennsylvania Assembly authorized a committee to procure a
bell for their State House. November 1st of that year an order
was sent to London for “a good bell of about 2,000 pounds
weight.” To this order were added the following directions:
“Let the bell be cast by the best workmen and examined
carefully before it is shipped, with the following words well
shaped in large letters around it, viz.: ‘By order of the
Assembly of the Province of Pennsylvania, for the State House,
in the city of Philadelphia, 1752.’ And underneath, ‘Proclaim
Liberty Through All the Land Unto All the Inhabitants
Thereof.—Levit. xxv. 10.'” In due time, in the following
year, the bell reached Philadelphia, but when it was hung,
early in 1753, as it was being first rung to test the sound, it
cracked without any apparent reason, and it was necessary to
have it recast. It was at first thought to be necessary to send
it back to England for the purpose, but some “ingenious
workmen” in Philadelphia wished to do the casting and were
allowed to do so. In the first week of June, 1753, the bell was
again hung in the belfry of the State House. On July 4, 1776,
it was known throughout the city that the final decision on the
question of declaring the colonies independent of Great Britain
was to be made by the Continental Congress, in session at the
State House. Accordingly the old bellman had been stationed in
the belfry on that morning, with orders to ring the bell when a
boy waiting at the door of the State House below should signal
to him that the bill for independence had been passed. Hour
after hour the old man stood at his post. At last, at 2
o’clock, when he had about concluded that the question would
not be decided on that day at least, the watchman heard a shout
from below, and looking down saw the boy at the door clapping
his hands and calling at the top of his voice: “Ring! ring!”
And he did ring, the story goes, for two whole hours, being so
filled with excitement and enthusiasm that he could not stop.
When the British threatened Philadelphia, in 1777, the precious
bell was taken down and removed to the town of Bethlehem for
safety. In 1778 it was returned to the State House and a new
steeple built for it. Several years after it cracked, for some
unknown reason, under a stroke of the clapper, and its tone was
thus destroyed. An attempt was made to restore its tone by
sawing the crack wider, but without success. This bell was sent
to New Orleans during the winter to be exhibited in the World’s
Fair there. The Pullman Company gave one of their handsomest
cars for the transit. It was in the charge of three custodians
appointed by the Mayor of Philadelphia, who did not leave it
night or day, and guarded it as fully as possible against
accident. A pilot engine preceded the train carrying the bell
over the entire route. It left Philadelphia Jan. 24, 1885, and
returned in June.
THE ANTARCTIC POLAR REGIONS.—The climate of the
southern polar regions is much more severe than that at the
north pole, the icefields extending in degrees nearer the
equator from the south than from the north. Within the arctic
circle there are tribes of men living on the borders of the icy
ocean on both the east and west hemispheres, but within the
antarctic all is one dreary, uninhabitable waste. In the
extreme north the reindeer and the musk-ox are found in
numbers, but not a single land quadruped exists beyond 50
degrees of southern latitude. Flowers are seen in summer by the
arctic navigator as far as 78 degrees north, but no plant of
any description, not even a moss or a lichen, has been observed
beyond Cockburn Island, in 64 degrees 12 minutes south
latitude. In Spitzbergen, 79 degrees north, vegetation ascends
the mountain slopes to a height of 3,000 feet, but on every
land within or near the antarctic circle the snow-line descends
to the water’s edge. The highest latitude ever reached at the
south is 78 degrees 10 minutes, while in the north navigators
have penetrated to 84 degrees. The reason for this remarkable
difference is the predominance of
[pg 63] large tracts of land in the
northern regions, while in the south is a vast expanse of
ocean. In the north continental masses form an almost
continuous belt around the icy sea, while in the southern
hemisphere the continents taper down into a broad extent of
frigid waters. In the north the plains of Siberia and of the
Hudson’s Bay territories, warmed by the sunbeams of summer,
become at that season centers of radiating heat, while the
antarctic lands, of small extent, isolated in the midst of a
polar ocean and chilled by cold sea winds, act at every
season as refrigerators of the atmosphere. Further in the
north the cold currents of the polar sea, having but two
openings of any estent through which they can convey drift
ice, have their chilly influence confined to comparatively
narrow limits, but the cold currents of the antarctic seas
have scope to branch out freely on all sides and carry their
ice even into temperate waters. Finally, at the northern
hemisphere, the Gulf Stream conveys warmth even to the
shores of Spitzbergen and Nova Zembla, while on the opposite
regions of the globe no traces of warm currents have been
observed beyond 55 degrees of south latitude.
THE LANGUAGE USED BY CHRIST.—The language used
by Christ was the Aramaic, the dialect of Northern Syria. The
Israelites were much in contact with Aramæan populations,
and some words from that tongue became incorporated into the
Hebrew at a very early date. At the time of Hezekiah, Aramaic
had become the official language of both Judea and Assyria:
that is, the language spoken at the courts. After the fall of
Samaria the Hebrew inhabitants of Northern Israel were largely
carried into captivity, and their place was taken by colonists
from Syria, who probably spoke Aramaic as their mother tongue.
The fall of the Jewish Kingdom hastened the decay of Hebrew as
a spoken language—not that the captives forgot their own
language, as is generally assumed, but after the return to
Judea the Jews found themselves, a people few in number, among
a large number of surrounding populations using the Aramaic
tongue. When the latest books of the Old Testament were
written, Hebrew, though still the language of literature, had
been supplanted by Aramaic as the language of common life. From
that time on the former tongue was the exclusive property of
scholars, and has no history save that of a merely literary
language.
HOW ANCIENT TEMPLES AND PYRAMIDS WERE
BUILT.—This is beyond modern conjecture, so imperfect
is our understanding of the extent of the mechanical knowledge
of the ancients. Their appliances are believed to have been of
the simplest order, and their implements exceedingly crude, and
yet they were able to convey these enormous blocks of stones
for vast distances, over routes most difficult, and having
accomplished this, to raise them to great height, and fit them
in place without the aid of either cement or mortar to cover up
the errors of the stonecutter. How all this was done is one of
the enigmas of modern science. It has been generally believed
that inclined planes of earth were used to enable the workmen
to raise the huge stones to their places, the earth being
cleared away afterward. But it is possible that the ancients
had a more extended knowledge of mechanical powers than we
usually give them credit for, and that they made use of
machinery very like that employed by moderns for lifting great
weights. Large cavities are found in some of the stones in the
pyramids, which may have been worn by the foot of a derrick
turning in them. That there were enormous numbers of men
employed in the building of these ancient structures is well
known; these results of their great aggregated strength we see,
but they left no record of the means by which this strength was
focused and brought most effectually to bear on their mighty
tasks.
THE FIRST ATLANTIC CABLE.—As early as 1842
Professor Morse declared a submarine cable connection between
America and Europe to be among the possibilities, but no
attempt toward this great achievement was made until 1854, when
Cyrus Field established a company, which secured the right of
landing cables in Newfoundland for fifty years. In 1858
soundings between Ireland and Newfoundland were completed,
showing a maximum depth of 4,400 meters. Having succeeded in
laying a cable between Nova Scotia and Newfoundland, Mr. Field
secured the co-operation of English capitalists in his
enterprise. The laying of the cable was begun August 7, 1857,
from the port of Valencia, Ireland, but on the third day it
broke, and the expedition had to return. Early in the following
year another attempt was made. The cable was laid from both
ends at the same time, was joined in mid-ocean, but in lowering
it was broken. Again, in the same year, the attempt was made,
and this time connection was successfully made. The first
message over the line was sent August 7, 1858. The insulation
of this cable, however, was defective, and by September 4th had
quite failed. Some time was now spent in experiments, conducted
by scientists, to secure a more perfect cable. A new company
was formed, and in 1865 the work again began. The Great Eastern
was employed to lay the cable, but when it was partly laid
serious defects in the line were discovered and in repairing
these it broke. The apparatus for recovering the wire proving
insufficient the vessel returned to England. A new company,
called the Anglo-American, was formed in 1865, and again the
Great Eastern was equipped for the enterprise. The plan of the
new expedition was not only to lay a new cable, but also to
take up the end of the old one and join it to a new piece, thus
obtaining a second telegraph line. The vessel sailed from
Valencia July 13, 1866, and July 27 the cable was completely
laid to Heart’s Content, Newfoundland, and a message announcing
the fact sent over the wire to Lord Stanley. Queen Victoria
sent a message of congratulation to President Buchanan on the
28th. September 2d the lost cable of 1865 was recovered and its
laying completed at Newfoundland September 8, 1866.
ENGRAVING ON EGGS.—The art of engraving on eggs
is very puzzling to the uninitiated, but in reality it is very
simple. It merely consists in writing upon the egg-shell with
wax or varnish, or simply with tallow, and then immersing the
egg in some weak acid, such, for example, as vinegar, dilute
hydrochloric acid, or etching liquor. Wherever the varnish or
wax has not protected the shell, the lime of the latter is
decomposed and dissolved in the acid, and the writing or
drawing remains in relief. In connection with this art a
curious incident is told in history. In the month of August,
1808, at the time of the Spanish war, there was found in a
church in Lisbon an egg, on which was plainly foretold the
utter destruction of the French, who then had control of the
city. The story of the wonderful prophecy spread through the
town, causing the greatest excitement among the superstitious
populace, and a general uprising was expected. This, however,
the French commander cleverly thwarted by causing a
counter-prophecy, directly denying the first, to be engrossed
on several hundred eggs, which were then distributed in various
parts of the city. The astonished Portuguese did not know what
to think of this new phenomenon, but its “numerousness,” if we
may so call it, caused it to altogether outweigh the influence
of the first prediction, and there were no further symptoms of
revolt against the French.
CAYENNE PEPPER.—The name of the plant genus
from which cayenne pepper is obtained is capsicum, a name also
given to the product of the plant. This genus belongs to
[pg 64] the solanaceæ, or night
shade family, and has no relation to the family
piperaceæ, which produces the shrub yielding black
pepper. The plant which yields cayenne pepper is identical
with the common red pepper of our gardens. It is an annual,
a native of tropical countries, where it thrives luxuriantly
even in the dryest soils, but it is also cultivated in other
parts of the world. It grows to the height of two or three
feet, and bears a fruit in the shape of a conical pod or
seed-vessel, which is green when immature, but bright
scarlet or orange when ripe. This pod, with its seeds, has a
very pungent taste, and is used when green for pickling, and
when ripe and dried is ground to powder to make cayenne
pepper, or is used for medicine. This powder has a strongly
stimulating effect, and is believed to aid digestion. It is
also employed externally to excite the action of the
skin.
THE BIG TREES OF CALIFORNIA.—There are several
groves of Big Trees in California, the most famous of which are
the Calaveras grove and the Mariposa grove. The Calaveras grove
occupies what may be described as a band or belt 3,200 feet
long and 700 in width. It is between two slopes, in a
depression in the mountains, and has a stream winding through
it, which runs dry in the summer time. In this grove the Big
Trees number ninety-three, besides a great many smaller ones,
which would be considered very large if it were not for the
presence of these monarchs of the forest. Several of the Big
Trees have fallen since the grove was discovered, one has been
cut down, and one had the bark stripped from it to the height
116 feet from the ground. The highest now standing is the
“Keystone State,” 325 feet high and 45 feet in circumference;
and the largest and finest is the “Empire State.” There are
four trees over 300 feet in height, and 40 to 61 feet in
circumference. The tree which was cut down occupied five men
twenty-two days, which would be at the rate of one man 110
days, or nearly four months’ work, not counting Sundays. Pump
augers were used for boring through the giant. After the trunk
was severed from the stump it required five men with immense
wedges for three days to topple it over. The bark was eighteen
inches thick. The tree would have yielded more than 1,000 cords
of four-foot wood and 100 cords of bark, or more than 1,100
cords in all. On the stump of the tree was built a house,
thirty feet in diameter, which the Rev. A.H. Tevis, an
observant traveler, says contains room enough in square feet,
if it were the right shape, for a parlor 12×10 feet, a
dining-room 10×12, a kitchen 10×12, two bed-rooms 10 feet
square each, a pantry 4×8, two clothes-presses 1-1/2 feet deep
and 4 feet wide, and still have a little to spare! The Mariposa
grove is part of a grant made by Congress to be set apart for
public use, resort and recreation forever. The area of the
grant is two miles square and comprises two distinct groves
about half a mile apart. The upper grove contains 365 trees, of
which 154 are over fifteen feet in diameter, besides a great
number of smaller ones. The average height of the Mariposa
trees is less than that of the Calaveras, the highest Mariposa
tree being 272 feet; but the average size of the Mariposa is
greater than that of Calaveras. The “Grizzly Giant,” in the
lower grove, is 94 feet in circumference and 31 feet in
diameter; it has been decreased by burning. Indeed, the forests
at times present a somewhat unattractive appearance, as, in the
past, the Indians, to help them in their hunting, burned off
the chaparral and rubbish, and thus disfigured many of these
splendid trees by burning off nearly all the bark. The first
branch of the “Grizzly Giant” is nearly two hundred feet from
the ground and is six feet in diameter. The remains of a tree,
now prostrate, indicate that it had reached a diameter of about
forty feet and a height of 400 feet; the trunk is hollow and
will admit of the passage of three horsemen riding abreast.
There are about 125 trees of over forty feet in circumference.
Besides these two main groves there are the Tolumne grove, with
thirty big trees; the Fresno grove, with over eight hundred
spread over an area of two and a half miles long and one to two
broad; and the Stanislaus grove, the Calaveras group, with from
700 to 800. There should be named in this connection the
petrified forest near Calitoga, which contains portions of
nearly one hundred distinct trees of great size, scattered over
a tract of three or four miles in extent: the largest of this
forest is eleven feet in diameter at the base and sixty feet
long. It is conjectured that these prostrate giants were
silicified by the eruption of the neighboring Mount St. Helena,
which discharged hot alkaline waters containing silica in
solution. This petrified forest is considered one of the great
natural wonders of California.
HISTORY OF THE CITY OF JERUSALEM.—The earliest
name of Jerusalem appears to have been Jebus, or poetically,
Salem, and its king in Abraham’s time was Melchizedek. When the
Hebrews took possession of Canaan, the city of Salem was
burned, but the fortress remained in the hands of the Jebusites
till King David took it by storm and made it the capital of his
kingdom. From that time it was called Jerusalem. During the
reigns of David and Solomon it attained its highest degree of
power. When ten of the Jewish tribes seceded under Jeroboam
they made Shechem (and later Samaria) the capital of their
kingdom of Israel, and Jerusalem remained the capital of the
smaller but more powerful kingdom of Judah. The city was taken
by Shishak, King of Egypt, in 971 B.C., was later conquered and
sacked by Joash, King of Israel, and in the time of Ahaz, the
King of Syria came against it with a large force, but could not
take it. The city was besieged in Hezekiah’s reign, by the army
of Sennacherib, King of Assyria, but was saved by the sudden
destruction of the invading army. After the death of Josiah,
the city was tributary for some years to the King of Egypt, but
was taken after repeated attempts by the Babylonians under
Nebuchadnezzar in 586 B.C., and was left a heap of ruins. The
work of rebuilding it began by order of King Cyrus about 538
B.C., who allowed the Jewish people who had been carried into
captivity to return for this purpose. From this time Jerusalem
enjoyed comparative peace for several hundred years and grew to
be an important commercial city. When Alexander invaded Syria
it submitted to him without resistance. After his death it
belonged for a time to Egypt and in 198 B.C., passed with the
rest of Judea under the rule of Syria. Antiochus the Great
ruled it with mildness and justice, but the tyranny of his son,
Antiochus Epiphanes, brought about the revolt, headed by the
Maccabees, through which Jerusalem gained a brief independence.
In 63 B.C., Pompey the Great took the city, demolished the
walls and killed thousands of the people, but did not plunder
it. However, nine years later Crassus robbed the temple of all
its treasures. The walls were soon after rebuilt under
Antipater, the Roman procurator, but when Herod came to rule
over the city with the title of King, given him by the Roman
Senate, he was resisted and only took possession after an
obstinate siege, which was followed by the massacre of great
numbers of the people. Herod improved and enlarged the city,
and restored the temple on a more magnificent scale than in
Solomon’s time. Jerusalem is said at this time to have had a
population of over 200,000. This period of wealth and
prosperity was also rendered most, memorable for Jerusalem by
the ministry and crucifixion of Christ. About A.D. 66, the
Jews, goaded to desperation by the tyranny of the Romans,
revolted, garrisoned Jerusalem, and defeated a Roman army sent
against [pg 65] them. This was the beginning
of the disastrous war which ended with the destruction of
the city. It was taken by Titus, in the year 70, after a
long siege, all the inhabitants were massacred, or made
prisoners, and the entire city left a heap of ruins. The
Emperor Hadrian built on the site of Jerusalem a Roman city,
under the name of Elia Capitolina, with a temple of Jupiter,
and Jews were forbidden to enter the city under pain of
death. Under Constantine it was made a place of pilgrimage
for Christians, as the Emperor’s mother, Helena, had with
much pains located the various sites of events in the
history of Christ. The Emperor Julian, on the contrary, not
only allowed the Jews to return to their city, but also made
an attempt, which ended in failure, to rebuild their temple.
In 614 the Persian Emperor Chosroes invaded the Roman
empire. The Jews joined his army, and after conquering the
northern part of Palestine, the united forces laid siege to
and took Jerusalem. The Jews wreaked vengeance on the
Christians for what they had been forced to endure, and
20,000 people were massacred. The Persians held rule in the
city for fourteen years; it was then taken by the Romans
again, but in 636 the Caliph Omar beseiged it. After four
months the city capitulated. It was under the rule of the
Caliphs for 400 years, until the Seljuk Turks in 1077
invaded Syria and made it a province of their empire.
Christian pilgrims had for many years kept up the practice
of visiting the tomb of Christ, as the Caliphs did not
interfere with their devotions any further than by exacting
a small tribute from each visitor. But the cruelties
practiced upon the pilgrims by the Turks were many, and
report of them soon roused all Europe to a pitch of
indignation, and brought about that series of holy wars,
which for a time restored the holy sepulcher into Christian
hands. Jerusalem was stormed and taken July 15, 1099, and
50,000 Moslems were slaughtered by their wrathful Christian
foes. The new sovereignty was precariously maintained until
1187, when it fell before the power of Saladin. Jerusalem,
after a siege of twelve days, surrendered. Saladin, however,
did not put his captives to death, but contented himself
with expelling them from the city. Jerusalem passed into the
hands of the Franks by treaty, in 1229, was retaken by the
Moslems in 1239, once more restored in 1243, and finally
conquered in 1244 by a horde of Kharesmian Turks. In 1517
Palestine was conquered by Sultan Selin I., and since then
has been under the rule of the Ottoman Empire, except for a
brief period—from 1832 to 1840, when it was in the
hands of Mahomet Ali Pasha of Egypt, and his son Ibrahim had
his seat of government in Jerusalem.
THE BLACK DEATH.—- This great plague, known as
the “Black Death,” was the most deadly epidemic ever known. It
is believed to have been an aggravated outburst of the Oriental
plague, which from the earliest records of history has
periodically appeared in Asia and Northern Africa. There had
been a visitation of the plague in Europe in 1342; the Black
Death, in terrible virulence, appeared in 1348-9; it also came
in milder form in 1361-2, and again in 1369. The prevalence and
severity of the pestilence during this century is ascribed to
the disturbed conditions of the elements that preceded it. For
a number of years Asia and Europe had suffered from mighty
earthquakes, furious tornadoes, violent floods, clouds of
locusts darkening the air and poisoning it with their
corrupting bodies. Whether these natural disturbances were the
cause of the plague is not certainly known, but many writers on
the subject regard the connection as both probable and
possible. The disease was brought from the Orient to
Constantinople, and early in 1347 appeared in Sicily and
several coast towns of Italy. After a brief pause the
pestilence broke out at Avignon in January, 1348; advanced
thence to Southern France, Spain and Northern Italy. Passing
through France and visiting, but not yet ravaging, Germany, it
made its way to England, cutting down its first victims at
Dorset, in August, 1348. Thence it traveled slowly, reaching
London early in the winter. Soon it embraced the entire
kingdom, penetrating to every rural hamlet, so that England
became a mere pest-house. The chief symptoms of the disease are
described as “spitting, in some cases actual vomiting, of
blood, the breaking out of inflammatory boils in parts, or over
the whole of the body, and the appearance of those dark
blotches upon the skin which suggested its most startling name.
Some of the victims died almost on the first attack, some in
twelve hours, some in two days, almost all within the first
three days.” The utter powerlessness of medical skill before
the disease was owing partly to the physicians’ ignorance of
its nature, and largely to the effect of the spirit of terror
which hung like a pall over men’s minds. After some months had
passed, the practice of opening the hard boils was adopted,
with very good effect, and many lives were thus saved. But the
havoc wrought by the disease in England was terrible. It is
said that 100,000 persons died in London, nearly 60,000 in
Norwich, and proportionate numbers in other cities. These
figures seem incredible, but a recent writer, who has spent
much time in the investigation of records, asserts that at
least half the population, or about 2,500,000 souls, of England
perished in this outbreak. The ravages of the pestilence over
the rest of the world were no less terrible. Germany is said to
have lost 1,244,434 victims; Italy, over half the population.
On a moderate calculation, it may be assumed that there
perished in Europe during the first appearance of the Black
Death, fully 25,000,000 human beings. Concerning the Orient we
have less reliable records, but 13,000,000 are said to have
died in China, and 24,000,000 in the rest of Asia and adjacent
islands. The plague also ravaged Northern Africa, but of its
course there little is known. The horrors of that dreadful time
were increased by the fearful persecutions visited on the Jews,
who were accused of having caused the pestilence by poisoning
the public wells. The people rose to exterminate the hapless
race, and killed them by fire and torture wherever found. It is
impossible for us to conceive of the actual horror of such
times.
MIGHTY HAMMERS.—An authority on scientific
subjects give the weights of the great hammers used in the iron
works of Europe, and their date of manufacture, as follows: At
the Terni Works, Italy, the heaviest hammer weighs 50 tons, and
was made in 1873; one at Alexandrovski, Russia, was made the
following year of like weight. In 1877, one was finished at
Creusot Works, France, weighing 80 tons; in 1885, one at the
Cockerill Works, Belgium, of 100 tons, and in 1880, at the
Krupp Works, Essen, Germany, one of 150 tons. The latter being
the heaviest hammer in the world.
ASSASSINATION OF PRESIDENT GARFIELD.—July 2,
1881, at 9:25 A.M., as President Garfield was entering the
Baltimore & Potomac Railroad depot at Washington,
preparatory to taking the cars for a two weeks’ jaunt in New
England, he was fired upon and severely wounded by Charles
Jules Guitean, a native of Illinois, but of French descent. The
scene of the assassination was the ladies’ reception-room at
the station. The President and Mr. Blaine, arm in arm, were
walking slowly through the aisle between two rows of benches on
either side of the room; when Guitean entered by a side door on
the left of the gentlemen, passed quickly around the back of
the benches till directly behind the President, and fired the
shot that struck his arm. Mr. Garfield walked about ten feet to
the end of the aisle, and was in the act of turning to face his
assailant when the second shot struck him in
[pg 66] small of the back, and he
fell. The assassin was immediately seized and taken to jail.
The wounded president was conveyed in an ambulance to the
White House. As he was very faint, the first fear was of
internal hemorrhage, which might cause speedy death. But as
he rallied in a few hours, this danger was thought to be
averted and inflammation was now feared. But as symptoms of
this failed to appear, the surgeons in attendance concluded
that no important organ had been injured, that the bullet
would become encysted and harmless, or might possibly be
located and successfully removed. By the 10th of July, the
reports were so favorable, that the president’s recovery was
regarded as certain, and public thanksgivings were offered
in several of the States, by order of the governors, for his
deliverance. The first check in the favorable symptoms
occurred on July 18, and July 23 there was a serious
relapse, attended with chills and fever. The wound had been
frequently probed but without securing any favorable result.
The induction balance was used to locate the ball, and was
regarded as a success, though subsequently its indications
were known to have been altogether erroneous. The probings,
therefore, in what was assumed to be the track of the ball,
only increased the unfavorable symptoms. During the entire
month of August these reports were alternately hopeful and
discouraging, the dangerous indications being generally on
the increase. By August 25, his situation was understood to
be very critical, though an apparent improvement on the 26th
and 28th again aroused hope. At his own earnest desire the
president was removed, September 6, to Elberon Park, near
Long Branch. N.J., in the hope that the cooler air of the
seaside might renew his strength more rapidly. However, the
improvement hoped for did not appear. On September 16, there
was a serious relapse, with well-marked symptoms of blood
poisoning, and September 19, the president died. A
post-mortem examination showed that the ball, after
fracturing one of the ribs, had passed through the spinal
column, fracturing the body of one of the vertebra, driving
a number of small fragments of bone into the soft parts
adjacent, and lodging below the pancreas, where it had
become completely encysted. The immediate cause of death was
hemorrhage from one of the small arteries in the track of
the ball, but the principal cause was the poisoning of the
blood from suppuration.
COINS OF FOREIGN COUNTRIES.—The following
carefullv prepared summary indicates the coins in use in the
various countries, taking their names in alphabetical
order:
Argentine Republic—Gold coins: 20 peso piece, $19.94;
10 pesos, $9.97; 5 pesos, $4.98. Silver: 1 peso, 99 cents. The
copper coin of the country is the centisimo, 100 of which make
a peso or dollar.
Austria—Gold coins: 8 gulden piece, $3.86; 4 gulden,
$1.93. Silver: Marie Theresa thaler, $1.02; 2 gulden, 96 cents;
1 gulden, 48 cents; 1/4 gulden, 12 cents; 20 kreutzer, 10
cents; 10 kreutzer, 5 cents. Of the small copper coin current,
known as the kreutzer, 100 make a gulden.
Brazil—Gold coins: 20 milrei piece, $10.91; 10
milreis, $5.45. Silver: 2 milreis, $1.09; 1 milreis, 55 cents;
1/2 milreis, 27 cents. The Portuguese rei is used for copper
money, worth about 1/8 of a cent.
Chili—Gold coin: 10 pesos (or 1 condor), $9.10; 5
pesos, $4.55: 2 pesos, $1.82. Silver: 1 peso, 91 cents; 50
centavos, 45 cents; 20 centavos, 18 cents; 10 centavos, 9
cents; 5 centavos, 4 cents. The copper coin is 1 centavo, 100th
of a peso.
Colombia—Gold coins: Twenty peso piece, $19.30; 10
pesos, $9.65; 5 pesos, $4.82; 2 pesos, $1.93. Silver: 1 peso,
96 cents; 20 centavos, 19 cents; 10 centavos, 10 cents; 5
centavos, 5 cents. The copper centavo of Colombia is identical
in value with our cent. (The currency of Coloumbia is also used
in Venezuela.)
Denmark—Gold coins: Twenty kroner piece, $5.36; 10
kroner, $2.68. Silver: Two kroner, 53 cents; 1 krone, 27 cents;
50 ore, 13 cents; 40 ore, 10 cents; 25 ore, 6-1/2 cents; 10
ore, 2-1/2 cents. One hundred of the copper ore make one
krone.
France—Gold coins: One hundred franc piece, $19.30; 50
francs. $9.65; 20 francs, $3.85; 10 francs, $1.93; 5 francs, 96
cents. Silver: Five francs, 96 cents; 2 francs, 38 cents; 1
franc, 19 cents; 50 centimes, 10 cents: 20 centimes, 4 cents.
The copper coins are the sou, worth about 9-1/2 mills, and the
centime, 2 mills.
Germany—Gold coins: Twenty-mark piece, $4.76; 10
marks, $2.38; 5 marks, $1.19. Silver: Five marks, $1.19; 2
marks, 48 cents; 1 mark, 24 cents; 50 pfennige, 12 cents; 20
pfennige, 5 cents. One hundred copper pfennige make one
mark.
Great Britain—Gold coins: Pound or sovereign, $4.86;
guinea, $5.12. Silver: Five shillings or crown, $1.25; half
crown, 62-1/2 cents; shilling, 25 cents; sixpence, 12-1/2
cents. Also a three-penny piece and a four-penny piece, but the
latter is being called in, and is nearly out of circulation.
The copper coins of Great Britain are the penny, half-penny and
farthing.
India—Gold coins: Thirty rupees or double mohur,
$14.58; 15 rupees or mohur, $7.29; 10 rupees, $4.86; 5 rupees,
$2.43. Silver: One rupee, 48 cents, and coins respectively of
the value of one-half, one-fourth and one-eighth rupee. In
copper there is the pie, one-fourth of a cent; the pice, 3/4 of
a cent; the ana, 3 cents.
Japan—Gold coins: Twenty yen, $19.94; 10 yen, $9.97; 5
yen, $4.98; 2 yen, $1.99; 1 yen, 99 cents. Silver: The 50, 20,
10 and 5 sen pieces, answering respectively to 50, 20, 10 and 5
cents. In copper there is the sen, answering to 1 cent.
Mexico—Gold coins: Sixteen dollar piece, $15.74; 8
dollars, $7.87; 4 dollars, $3.93; 2 dollars, $1.96; 1 dollar,
98 cents. Silver: 1 dollar, 98 cents; 50-cent piece, 49 cents;
25 cents, 24 cents. The Mexican cent, like our own, equals
one-hundreth of a dollar.
Netherlands—Gold coins: Ten-guilder piece, $4.02; 5
guilders, $2.01. Silver: 2-1/2 guilders, $1; 1 guilder, 40
cents; half-guilder, 20 cents; 25 cents, 10 cents; 10 cents, 4
cents; 5 cents, 2 cents. The Dutch copper cent is one-hundreth
of the guilder.
Peru—Gold coins: Twenty-sol piece, $19.30; 10 sol,
$9.65; 5 sol, $4.82; 2 sol. $1.93; 1 sol, 96 cents. Silver: 1
sol, 96 cents; 50 centesimos, 48 cents; 20, 10 and 5
centesimos, worth respectively 19, 10 and 5 cents. It will be
noted that the Peruvian coinage is almost identical with that
of Colombia. It is also used in Bolivia.
Portugal—Gold coin: Crown, $10.80; half-crown, $5.40;
one-fifth crown, $2.16; one-tenth crown, $1.08. These gold
pieces are also known respectively as 10, 5, 2 and 1 dollar
pieces. The silver coins are the 500, 200, 100 and
50 reis coins, worth respectively 54, 21, 11 and 5
cents. One thousand reis are equal to one crown.
Russia—Gold coins: Imperial or 10-ruble piece, $7.72;
5 rubles, $3.86; 3 rubles, $2.31. Silver: ruble, 77 cents;
half-ruble, 38 cents; quarter-ruble, 19 cents; 20 copecks, 15
cents; 10 copecks, 7 cents; 5 copecks, 4 cents; 100 copecks are
worth 1 ruble.
Turkey—Gold coins: Lira or medjidie, $4.40; half-lira,
$2.20; quarter-lira, $1.10. The silver unit is the piastre,
worth 4 cents of our currency, and silver coins of 1, 2, 5, 10
and 20 piastres are current.
The currency of Denmark is also in use in Norway and Sweden,
these three countries forming the Scandinavian
[pg 67] Belgium, France, Greece,
Italy, Roumania, Servia, Spain and Switzerland are united in
the Latin Union, and use the French coinage. The units in
the different States are, it is true, called by different
names; as in France, Belgium and Switzerland, franc and
centime; in Italy, lira and centesimo; in Greece, drachm and
lepta; in Roumania, lei and bani: in Servia, dinar and para;
in Spain, peseta and centesimo; but in all cases the value
is the same.
The similarity in the coinage of different countries is
worth notice. A very slight change in the percentage of silver
used would render the half-guilder of Austria, the krone of the
Scandinavian Union, the franc of the Latin Union, the mark of
Germany, the half-guilder of Holland, the quarter-ruble of
Russia, the 200-reis piece of Portugal, the 5-piastre piece of
Turkey, the half-milreis of Brazil and the half-rupee of India,
all interchangeable with the English shilling, and all of them
about the value of the quarter-dollar of North and South
American coinage. With the exception of Brazil, the other South
American States, as well as Mexico and the Central American
countries, are all rapidly approximating a uniform coinage,
which the needs of commerce will unquestionably soon harmonize
with that of the United States. Curiously enough, the great
force that is assimilating the alien branches of the human race
is not Christianity but trade.
A HISTORY OF THE PANIC OF 1857.—The cause of
the panic of 1857 was mainly the rage for land speculation
which had run through the country like an epidemic. Paper
cities abounded, unproductive railroads were opened, and to
help forward these projects, irresponsible banks were started,
or good banks found themselves drawn into an excessive issue of
notes. Every one was anxious to invest in real estate and
become rich by an advance in prices. Capital was attracted into
this speculation by the prospect of large gains, and so great
was the demand for money that there was a remarkable advance in
the rates of interest. In the West, where the speculative fever
was at its highest, the common rates of interest were from 2 to
5 per cent. a month. Everything was apparently in the most
prosperous condition, real estate going up steadily, the demand
for money constant, and its manufacture by the banks
progressing successfully, when the failure of the “Ohio Life
and Trust Company,” came, August 24, 1857, like a thunderbolt
from a clear sky. This was followed by the portentous
mutterings of a terrible coming storm. One by one small banks
in Illinois, Ohio, and everywhere throughout the West and South
went down. September 25-26 the banks of Philadelphia suspended
payment, and thus wrecked hundreds of banks in Pennsylvania,
Maryland and adjoining States. October 13-14, after a terrible
run on them by thousands of depositors, the banks of New York
suspended payment. October 14 all the banks of Massachusetts
went down, followed by a general wreckage of credit throughout
New England. The distress which followed these calamities was
very great, tens of thousands of workmen being unemployed for
months. The New York banks resumed payment again December 12,
and were soon followed by the banks in other cities. The
darkest period of the crisis now seemed past, although there
was much heart rending suffering among the poor during the
winter which followed. The commercial reports for the year 1857
showed 5,123 commercial failures, with liabilities amounting to
$291,750,000.
THE HISTORY OF PLYMOUTH ROCK.—A flat rock near
the vicinity of New Plymouth is said to have been the one on
which the great, body of the Pilgrims landed from the
Mayflower. The many members of the colony, who died in the
winter of 1620-21, were buried near this rock. About 1738 it
was proposed to build a wharf along the shore there. At this
time there lived in New Plymouth an old man over 90 years of
ago named Thomas Faunce, who had known some of the Mayflower’s
passengers when a lad, and by them had been shown the rock on
which they had landed. On hearing that it was to be covered
with a wharf the old man wept, and it has been said that his
tears probably saved Plymouth Rock from oblivion. After the
Revolution it was found that the rock was quite hidden by the
sand washed upon it by the sea. The sand was cleared away, but
in attempting to take up the rock it was split in two. The
upper half was taken to the village and placed in the town
square. In 1834 it was removed to a position in front of
Pilgrim Hall and enclosed in an iron railing. In September,
1880, this half of the stone was taken back to the shore and
reunited to the other portion. A handsome archway was then
built over the rock, to protect it in part from the
depredations of relic hunters.
GRANT’S TOUR AROUND THE WORLD.—General Grant
embarked on a steamer at the Philadelphia wharf for his tour
around the world May 17, 1877. He arrived at Queenstown,
Ireland, May 27. Thence he went to Liverpool, Manchester, and
on to London. He remained in that city several weeks, and was
made the recipient of the most brilliant social honors. July
5th he went to Belgium, and thence made a tour through Germany
and Switzerland, He then visited Denmark, and August 25
returned to Great Britain, and until October spent the time in
visiting the various cities of Scotland and England. October
24th he started for Paris, where he remained a month, then went
on to Lyons, thence to Naples, and subsequently with several
friends he made a trip on the Mediterranean, visiting the
islands of Sicily, Malta and others. Thence going to Egypt, the
pyramids and other points of note were visited, and a journey
made up the Nile as far as the first cataract. The programme of
travel next included a visit to Turkey and the Holy Land,
whence, in March, the party came back to Italy through Greece,
revisited Naples, went to Turin and back to Paris. After a few
weeks spent in the social gayeties of that city, the
Netherlands was chosen as the next locality of interest, and
The Hague, Rotterdam, and Amsterdam were visited in turn. June
26, 1878, the General and his party arrived in Berlin. After
staying there some weeks they went to Christiana and Stockholm,
then to St. Petersburg, Moscow and Warsaw, and back over German
soil to Vienna. Another trip was now made through Switzerland,
and, then returning to Paris, a start was made for a journey
through Spain and Portugal, in which Victoria, Madrid, Lisbon,
Seville and other important towns were visited. A trip was also
made from Cadiz to Gibraltar by steamer. After another brief
visit to Paris, General Grant went to Ireland, arriving at
Dublin January 3, 1879; visited several points of interest in
that country, then, by way of London and Paris, went to
Marseilles, whence he set sail by way of the Mediterranean Sea
and the Suez Canal for India. He reached Bombay February 13th.
Thence visited Allahabad, Agra and rode on an elephant to
Amber; also went to Benares, Delhi. Calcutta and Rangoon, spent
a week in Siam, then went by steamer to China. After spending
some time at Canton, Pekin and other places he went to Japan
for a brief visit. He went to Nagasaki, Tokio and Yokahama, and
at last, September 3, 1879, set sail from Tokio on his return
to the United States. September 20th he arrived in the harbor
of San Francisco. After some weeks spent in visiting the points
of interest in California and Oregon he returned to his home in
the Eastern States.
HISTORY OF VASSAR COLLEGE.—- Vassar College is
on the east bank of the Hudson, near Poughkeepsie, N.Y. It was
founded in 1861. In that year Matthew Vassar, a wealthy
[pg 68] of Poughkeepsie, gave to an
incorporated board of trustees the sum of $108,000 and 200
acres of land for the endowment of a college for women. The
building was constructed from plans approved by him, at a
cost of about $200,000. The college was opened in September,
1865, with eight professors and twenty other instructors,
and 300 students. The first president of the college was
Professor Milo P. Jewett; the second Dr. John H. Raymond;
the third the Rev. Samuel Caldwell. The college has a fine
library, with scientific apparatus and a museum of natural
history specimens.
THE ORIGINS OF CHESS.—So ancient is chess, the
most purely intellectual of games, that its origin is wrapped
in mystery. The Hindoos say that it wad the invention of an
astronomer, who lived more than 5,000 years ago, and was
possessed of supernatural knowledge and acuteness. Greek
historians assert that the game was invented by Palamedes to
beguile the tedium of the siege of Troy. The Arab legend is
that it was devised for the instruction of a young despot, by
his father, a learned Brahman, to teach the youth that a king,
no matter how powerful, was dependent upon his subjects for
safety. The probability is that the game was the invention of
some military genius for the purpose of illustrating the art of
war. There is no doubt, that it originated in India, for a game
called by the Sanskrit name of Cheturanga—which in most
essential points strongly resembles modern chess, and was
unquestionably the parent of the latter game—is mentioned
in Oriental literature as in use fully 2,000 years before the
Christian area. In its gradual diffusion over the world the
game has undergone many modifications and changes, but marked
resemblances to the early Indian game are still to be found in
it. From India, chess spread into Persia, and thence into
Arabia, and the Arabs took it to Spain and the rest of Western
Europe.
THE DARK AGES.—The Dark Ages is a name often
applied by historians to the Middle Ages, a term comprising
about 1,000 years, from the fall of the Roman Empire in the
fifth century to the invention of printing in the fifteenth.
The period is called “dark” because of the generally depraved
state of European society at this time, the subservience of
men’s minds to priestly domination, and the general
indifference to learning. The admirable civilization that Rome
had developed and fostered, was swept out of existence by the
barbarous invaders from Northern Europe, and there is no doubt
that the first half of the medieval era, at least, from the
year 500 to 1000, was one of the most brutal and ruffianly
epochs in history. The principal characteristic of the middle
ages were the feudal system and the papal power. By the first
the common people were ground into a condition of almost
hopeless slavery, by the second the evolution of just and
equitable governments by the ruling clashes was rendered
impossible through the intrusion of the pontifical authority
into civil affairs. Learning did not wholly perish, but it
betook itself to the seclusion of the cloisters. The
monasteries were the resort of many earnest scholars, and there
were prepared the writings of historians, metaphysicians and
theologians. But during this time man lived, as the historian
Symonds says, “enveloped in a cowl.” The study of nature was
not only ignored but barred, save only as it ministered in the
forms of alchemy and astrology to the one cardinal medieval
virtue—- credulity. Still the period saw many great
characters and events fraught with the greatest importance to
the advancement of the race.
THE GREATEST DEPTH OF THE OCEAN NEVER
MEASURED.—The deepest verified soundings are those
made in the Atlantic Ocean, ninety miles off the island of St.
Thomas, in the West Indies, 3,875 fathoms, or 23,250 feet
Deeper water has been reported south of the Grand Bank of
Newfoundland, over 27,000 feet in depth, but additional
soundings in that locality did not corroborate this. Some years
ago, it was claimed that very deep soundings, from 45,000 to
48,000 feet, had been found off the coast of South America, but
this report was altogether discredited on additional
investigation in these localities. The ship Challenger, which
in 1872-74 made a voyage round the globe for the express
purpose of taking deep sea soundings in all the oceans, found
the greatest depth touched in the Pacific Ocean less than 3,000
fathoms, and the lowest in the Atlantic 3,875 fathoms, as given
above.
THE ARMY OF THE REVOLUTION.—It is not
positively known how many men from the colonies served in the
war. The official tabular statement indicates a total off
recorded years of enlistment and not a total of the the men who
served. Hence, a man who served from April 19, 1775, until the
formal cessation of hostilities, April 19, 1783 counted as
eight men in the aggregate. In this basis of enlisted years,
the following table gives the contribution various States: New
Hampshire, 12,497; Massachusetts, 69,907; Rhode Island, 5,908;
Connecticut, 31,939; New York, 17,781; New Jersey, 10,726;
Pennsylvania, 25,678; Delaware, 2,386; Maryland, 13,912;
Virginia, 26,678; North Carolina, 7,263; South Carolina, 6,417;
Georgia, 2,679; Total, 233,771.
THE WORLD’S DECISIVE BATTLES.—The fifteen
decisive battles of the world from the fifth century before
Christ to the beginning of the nineteenth century of the
present era, are as follows:
The battle of Marathon, in which the Persian hosts were
defeated by the Greeks under Miltiades, B.C. 490.
The defeat of the Athenians at Syracuse, B.C. 413.
The battle of Arhela, in which the Persians under Darius
were defeated by the invading Greeks under Alexander the Great,
B.C. 331.
The battle of the Metanrus, in which the Carthaginian forces
under Hasdrubal were overthrown by the Romans, B.C. 207.
Victory of the German tribes under Arminins over the Roman
legions under Varus, A.D. 9. (The battle was fought in what is
now the province of Lippe, Germany, near the source of the
river Ems.)
Battle of Chalons, where Attila the terrible King of the
Huns, was repulsed by the Romans under Aetius, A.D. 451
Battle of Tours, in which the Saracen Turks invading Western
Europe were utterly overthrown by the Franks under Charles
Martel, A.D. 732.
Battle of Hastings, by which William the Conqueror became
the ruler of England, Oct. 14, 1066.
Victory of the French under Joan of Arc over the English at
Orleans, April 29, 1429.
Defeat of the Spanish Armada by the English naval force,
July 29 and 30, 1588.
Battle of Blenheim, in which the French and Bavarians were
defeated by the allied armies of Great Britain and Holland
under the Duke of Marlborough, Aug. 2, 1704.
Battle of Pultowa, the Swedish army under Charles XII,
defeated by the Russians under Peter the Great, July 8, 1709.
Victory of the American army under General Gates over the
British under General Burgoyne at Saratoga, Oct. 17, 1777.
Battle of Valmy where the allied armies of Prussia and
Austria were defeated by the French under Marshal Kellerman.
Sept. 20, 1792.
Battle of Waterloo, the allied forces of the British and
Prussians defeated the French under Napoleon, the final
overthrow of the great commander, June 18,
1815.
These battles are selected as decisive, because of the
important consequences that followed them. Few students of
history, probably, would agree with Prof. Creasy, in
restricting the list as he does. Many other conflicts might be
noted, fraught with great importance to the human race, and
unquestionably “decisive” in their nature; as, for instance,
the victory of Sobieski over the Turkish army at Vienna, Sept.
12, 1683. Had the Poles and Austrians been defeated there, the
Turkish general might readily have fulfilled his threat “to
stable his horses in the Church of St. Peter’s at Rome,” and
all Western Europe would, no doubt, have been devastated by the
ruthless and bloodthirsty Ottomans. Of important and decisive
battles since that of Waterloo we may mention in our own Civil
War those of Gettysburg, by which the invasion of the North was
checked, and at Chattanooga, Nov. 23 and 25, 1863, by which the
power of the Confederates in the southwest received a deadly
blow.
THE WANDERING JEW.—There are various versions
of the story of “The Wandering Jew,” the legends of whom have
formed the foundation of numerous romances, poems and
tragedies. One version is that this person was a servant in the
house of Pilate, and gave the Master a blow as He was being
dragged out of the palace to go to His death. A popular
tradition makes the wanderer a member of the tribe of Naphtali,
who, some seven or eight years previous to the birth of the
Christ-child left his father to go with the wise men of the
East whom the star led to the lowly cot in Bethlehem. It runs,
also, that the cause of the killing of the children can be
traced to the stories this person related when he returned to
Jerusalem of the visit of the wise men, and the presentation of
the gifts they brought to the Divine Infant, when He was
acknowledged by them to be the king of the Jews, He was lost
sight of for a time, when he appeared as a carpenter who was
employed in making the cross on which the Saviour was to be
lifted up into the eyes of all men. As Christ walked up the way
to Calvary, He had to pass the workshop of this man, and when
He reached its door, the soldiers, touched by the sufferings of
the Man of Sorrows, besought the carpenter to allow Him to rest
there for a little, but he refused, adding insult to a want of
charity. Then it is said that Christ pronounced his doom, which
was to wander over the earth until the second coming. Since
that sentence was uttered, he has wandered, courting death, but
finding it not, and his punishment, becoming more unbearable as
the generations come and go. He is said to have appeared in the
sixteenth, seventeenth, and even as recently as the eighteenth
century, under the names of Cartaphilus, and Ahasuerus, by
which the Wandering Jew has been known. One of the legends
described him as a shoemaker of Jerusalem, at whose door Christ
desired to rest on the road to Calvary, but the man refused,
and the sentence to wander was pronounced.
SOME MEMORABLE DARK DAYS.—During the last
hundred years there have been an unusually large number of dark
days recorded. As has been suggested by several writers, this
may have been the result of the careful scientific observations
of modern times, as well as of the frequency of these
phenomena. The dark day in the beginning of this century about
which so much has been said and written occurred Oct. 21, 1816.
The first day of the same month and year is also represented as
“a close dark day.” Mr. Thomas Robie, who took observations at
Cambridge, Mass., has this to offer in regard to the
phenomenon. “On Oct. 21 the day was so dark that people were
forced to light candles to eat their dinners by; which could
not he from an eclipse, the solar eclipse being the fourth of
that month.” The day is referred to by another writer as “a
remarkable dark day in New England and New York,” and it is
noted, quaintly by a third, that “in October, 1816, a dark day
occurred after a severe winter in New England.” Nov. 26, 1816,
was a dark day in London, and is described “in the neighborhood
of Walworth and Camberwell so completely dark that some of the
coachmen driving stages were obliged to get down and lead their
horses with a lantern.” The famous dark day in America was May
19, 1780. The phenomenon began about 10 o’clock in the
forenoon. The darkness increased rapidly, and “in many places
it was impossible to read ordinary print.” There was widespread
fear. Many thought that the Day of Judgment was at hand. At
that time the Legislature of Connecticut was in session at
Hartford. The House of Representatives, being unable to
transact their business, adjourned. A proposal to adjourn the
council was under consideration. When the opinion of Colonel
Davenport was asked, he answered: “I am against an adjournment.
The day of judgment is approaching or it is not. If it is not,
there is no cause for adjournment: if it is, I choose to be
found doing my duty. I wish, therefore, that candles may be
brought.” In Whittier’s “Tent on the Beach” is given a
beautiful poetical version of this anecdote. It is suggested by
several authorities that the cause of the dark day in 1780
should be attributed simply to the presence of ordinary clouds
of very unusual volume and density. These instances are, of
course, grouped with phenomena of which not a great deal is
known, and can in no way be classed with those occurrances
occasioned by the smoke from extensive forest tires, volcanic
eruptions, or fogs.
THE REMARKABLE STORY OF CHARLIE ROSS.—Charlie
Ross was the son of Christian K. Ross of Germantown, Pa., and
at the time of his disappearance was a little over 4 years of
age. The child and a brother 6 years old were playing July 1,
1874, in the streets of Germantown, when a couple of men drove
up in a buggy and persuaded the children, with promises of toys
and candies, to get in and ride with them in the vehicle. After
driving around the place for a little time, the older brother,
Walter Ross, was put out of the conveyance, and the strangers
gave him 25 cents, telling him to go to a store near at hand
and buy some candy and torpedoes for himself and Charlie.
Walter did as he was told, but when he came out of the store
the men with Charlie and the vehicle had disappeared. It was
believed at first by the relatives and friends of the missing
boy that he would be returned in a short time, as they supposed
he might have been taken by some drunken men. Time passed,
however, but no trace of the child had been discovered. In a
few weeks a letter was received by Mr. Ross to the effect that
if he would pay $20,000 his son would be returned, but, that
the parent need not search for Charlie, as all efforts to find
the abducted boy or his captors would only be attended with
failure; and it was stated that if this amount was not paid,
Charlie would be killed. The father answered this and a long
correspondence ensued, while the search was prosecuted in all
directions. Mr. Ross wanted the child delivered at the time the
money was paid, but to this the abductors refused to agree. It
is stated that more than $50,000 were expended to recover the
child. At one time two gentlemen were two days in Fifth Avenue
Hotel, New York, with the $20,000 ransom money to be given to
the child-thieves, but they did not appear. The search was
continued, and the officers of the law were looking up any and
all evidence, until they had located the two men. These were
found Dec. 4, 1874, committing a burglary in the house of Judge
Van Brunt, Bay Ridge, L.I.; the burglary was discovered, the
burglars seen and shot by persons residing in an adjoining
residence. One of the men was killed instantly, the
[pg 70] lived several hours, and
confessed that he and his companion had abducted Charlie
Ross, but that the dead thief, Mosher by name, was the one
who knew where the boy was secreted. Walter Ross identified
the burglars as the men who had enticed him and Charlie into
the buggy. There the case rested. No new fact has been
developed. The missing child has never been found. Many
times have children been reported who resembled Charlie, and
Mr. Ross has traveled far and near in his endless search,
only to return sadly and report that his boy was still
missing. No case in recent years has excited such universal
sympathy as that of Charlie Ross.
THE BLUE LAWS ON SMOKING.—There were some very
stringent laws in Massachusetts against the use of tobacco in
public, and while the penalties were not so heavy, yet they
were apparently rigidly enforced for a time. We quote from a
law passed in October, 1632, as follows: “It is ordered that
noe person shall take any tobacco publiquely, under paine of
punishment; also that every one shall pay 1d. for every
time hee is convicted of takeing tobacco in any place, and that
any Assistant shall have power to receave evidence and give
order for levyeing of it, as also to give order for the
levyeing of the officer’s charge. This order to begin the 10th
of November next.” In September, 1634, we discover another law
on the same article: “Victualers, or keepers of an Ordinary,
shall not suffer any tobacco to be taken in their howses, under
the penalty of 5s. for every offence, to be payde by the
victuler, and 12d. by the party that takes it. Further,
it is ordered, that noe person shall take tobacco publiquely,
under the penalty of 2s. 6d., nor privately, in
his owne house, or in the howse of another, before strangers,
and that two or more shall not take it togeather, anywhere,
under the aforesaid penalty for every offence.” In November,
1637, the record runs: “All former laws against tobacco are
repealed, and tobacco is sett at liberty;” but in September,
1638, “the [General] Court, finding that since the repealing of
the former laws against tobacco, the same is more abused then
before, it hath therefore ordered, that no man shall take any
tobacco in the fields, except in his journey, or at meale
times, under paine of 12d. for every offence; nor shall
take any tobacco in (or so near) any dwelling house, barne,
corne or hay rick, as may likely indanger the fireing thereof,
upon paine of 10s. for every offence; nor shall take any
tobacco in any inne or common victualing house, except in a
private roome there, so as neither the master of the same house
nor any other guests there shall take offence thereat, which if
they do, then such person is fourthwith to forbeare, upon paine
of 12s. 6d. for every offence. Noe man shall
kindle fyre by gunpowder, for takeing tobacco, except in his
journey, upon paine of 12d. for every offence.”
THE REMARKABLE CAVES—WYANDOTTE AND
MAMMOTH.—Wyandotte Cave is in Jennings township,
Crawford county, Ind., near the Ohio river. It is a rival of
the great Mammoth Cave in grandeur and extent. Explorations
have been made for many miles. It excels the Mammoth Cave in
the number and variety of its stalagmites and stalactites, and
in the size of several of its chambers. One of these chambers
is 350 feet in length, 245 feet in height, and contains a hill
175 feet high, on which are three fine stalagmites. Epsom
salts, niter and alum have been obtained from the earth of the
cave. The Mammoth Cave is in Edmondson county, near Green
River, about seventy-five miles from Louisville. Its entrance
is reached by passing down a wild, rocky ravine through a dense
forest. The cave extends some nine miles. To visit the portions
already traversed, it is said, requires 150 to 200 miles of
travel. The cave contains a succession of wonderful avenues,
chambers, domes, abysses, grottoes, lakes, rivers, cataracts
and other marvels, which are too well known to need more than a
reference. One chamber—the Star—is about 500 feet
long, 70 feet wide, 70 feet high, the ceiling of which is
composed of black gypsum, and is studded with innumerable white
points, that by a dim light resemble stars, hence the name of
the chamber. There are avenues one and a half and even two
miles in length, some of which are incrusted with beautiful
formations, and present the appearance of enchanted palace
halls. There is a natural tunnel about three-quarters of a mile
long, 100 feet wide, covered with a ceiling of smooth rock 45
feet high. There is a chamber having an area of from four to
five acres, and there are domes 200 and 300 feet high. Echo
River is some three-fourths of a mile in length, 200 feet in
width at some points, and from 10 to 30 in depth, and runs
beneath an arched ceiling of smooth rock about 15 feet high,
while the Styx, another river, is 450 feet long, from 15 to 40
feet wide, and from 30 to 40 feet deep, and is spanned by a
natural bridge. Lake Lethe has about the same length and width
as the river Styx, varies in depth from 3 to 40 feet, lies
beneath a ceiling some 90 feet above its surface, and sometimes
rises to a height of 60 feet. There is also a Dead Sea, quite a
somber body of water. There are several interesting caves in
the neighborhood, one three miles long and three each about a
mile in length.
THE SOUTH SEA BUBBLE.—The “South Sea Bubble,”
as it is generally called, was a financial scheme which
occupied the attention of prominent politicians, communities,
and even nations in the early part of the eighteenth century.
Briefly the facts are: In 1711 Robert Hartley, Earl of Oxford,
then Lord Treasurer, proposed to fund a floating debt of about
£10,000,000 sterling, the interest, about $600,000, to be
secured by rendering permanent the duties upon wines, tobacco,
wrought silks, etc. Purchasers of this fund were to become also
shareholders in the “South Sea Company,” a corporation to have
the monopoly of the trade with Spanish South America, a part of
the capital stock of which was to be the new fund. But Spain,
after the treaty of Utrecht, refused to open her commerce to
England, and the privileges of the “South Sea Company” became
worthless. There were many men of wealth who were stockholders,
and the company continued to flourish, while the ill success of
its trading operations was concealed. Even the Spanish War of
1718 did not shake the popular confidence. Then in April, 1720,
Parliament, by large majorities in both Houses, accepted the
company’s plan for paying the national debt, and after that a
frenzy of speculation seized the nation, and the stock rose to
£300 a share, and by August had reached £1,000 a
share. Then Sir John Blunt, one of the leaders, sold out,
others followed, and the stock began to fall. By the close of
September the company stopped payment and thousands were
beggared. An investigation ordered by Parliament disclosed much
fraud and corruption, and many prominent persons were
implicated, some of the directors were imprisoned, and all of
them were fined to an aggregate amount of £2,000,000 for
the benefit of the stockholders. A great part of the valid
assets was distributed among them, yielding a dividend of about
33 per cent.
AREA OF NORTH AMERICA.—The following figures
show the extent of the United States as compared with the
British possessions in North America: United States, 3,602,884
square miles. British possessions—Ontario, 121,26O;
Quebec, 210,020; Nova Scotia, 18,670; New Brunswick, 27,037;
British Columbia, 233,000; Manitoba, 16,000; N.W. and Hudson
Bay Territories, 2,206,725; Labrador and Arctic Ocean Islands,
make a total of 3,500,000.
HOUSEHOLD RECIPES
MISCELLANEOUS.
Axle Grease.—1. Water, 1 gallon; soda, 1/3
pound; palm oil, 10 pounds. Mix by heat, and stir till nearly
cold.
2. Water, rape oil, of each 1 gallon; soda, 1/3 pound; palm
oil, 1/4 pound.
3. Water, 1 gallon; tallow, 3 pounds; palm oil, 6 pounds;
soda, 1/2 pound. Heat to 210 deg. Fahrenheit and stir until
cool.
4. Tallow, 8 pounds; palm oil, 10 pounds; plumbago, 1 pound.
Makes a good lubricator for wagon axles.
How to Shell Beans Easy.—Pour upon the pods a
quantity of scalding water, and the beans will slip very easily
from the pod. By pouring scalding water on apples the skin may
be easily slipped off, and much labor saved.
How to Clean Bed-Ticks.—Apply Poland starch, by
rubbing it on thick with a cloth. Place it in the sun. When
dry, rub it if necessary. The soiled part will be clean as
new.
How to Wash Carpets.—Shake and beat it well;
lay it upon the floor and tack it firmly; then with a clean
flannel wash it over with a quart of bullock’s gall mixed with
three quarts of soft, cold water, and rub it off with a clean
flannel or house-cloth. Any particular dirty spot should be
rubbed with pure gall.
How to Clean Carpets.—Before proceeding to
sweep a carpet a few handfuls of waste tea-leaves should be
sprinkled over it. A stiff hair broom or brush should be
employed, unless the carpet is very dirty, when a whisk or
carpet-broom should be used, first followed by another made of
hair, to take off the loose dust. The frequent use of a stiff
carpet-broom soon wears off the beauty of the best carpet. An
ordinary clothes brush is best adapted for superior carpets.
When carpets are very dirty they should be cleaned by shaking
and beating.
Beat it well with a stick in the usual manner until all the
dust is removed, then take out the stains, if any, with lemon
or sorrel-juice. When thoroughly dry rub it all over with the
crumb of a hot wheaten loaf, and if the weather is very fine,
let hang out in the open air for a night or two. This treatment
will revive the colors, and make the carpet appear equal to
new.
How to Remove Spots on Carpets.—A few drops of
carbonate of ammonia, and a small quantity of warm rain water,
will prove a safe and easy antacid, etc., and will change, if
carefully applied, discolored spots upon carpets, and indeed,
all spots, whether produced by acids or alkalies. If one has
the misfortune to have a carpet injured by whitewash, this will
immediately restore it.
How to Remove Ink Spots on Carpets.—As soon as
the ink has been spilled, take up as much as you can with a
sponge, and then pour on cold water repeatedly, still taking up
the liquid; next rub the place with a little wet oxalic acid or
salt of sorrel, and wash it off immediately with cold water,
and then rub on some hartshorn.
Cleaning and Scouring of Cloth.—The common
method of cleaning cloth is by beating and brushing, unless
when very dirty, when it undergoes the operation of scouring.
This is best done on the small scale, as for articles of
wearing apparel, etc., by dissolving a little curd soap in
water, and after mixing it with a little ox-gall, to touch over
all the spots of grease, dirt, etc., with it, and to rub them
well with a stiff brush, until they are removed, after which
the article may be well rubbed all over with a brush or sponge
dipped into some warm water, to which the previous mixture and
a little more ox-gall has been added. When this has been
properly done, it only remains to thoroughly rinse the article
in clean water until the latter passes off uncolored, when it
must be hung up to dry. For dark, colored cloths the common
practice is to add some Fuller’s-earth to the mixture of soap
and gall. When nearly dry the nap should be laid right and the
article carefully pressed, after which a brush, moistened with
a drop or two of olive oil, is passed several times over it,
which will give it a superior finish.
Cloth may also be cleaned in the dry way, as follows: First
remove the spots, as above, and when the parts have dried,
strew clean, damp sand over it, and beat it in with a brush,
after which brush the article with a hard brush when the sand
will readily come out, and bring the dirt with it. Black cloth
which is very rusty should receive a coat of reviver after
drying, and be hung up until the next day, when it may be
pressed and finished off as before. Scarlet cloth requires
considerable caution. After being thoroughly rinsed, it should
be repeatedly passed through cold spring water, to which a
tablespoonful or two of solution of tin has been added. If much
faded, it should be dipped in a scarlet dye-bath. Buff cloth is
generally cleansed by covering it with a paste made with
pipe-clay and water, which, when dry,-is rubbed and brushed
off.
Renovation of Cloth.—The article undergoes the
process of scouring before described, and, after being well
rinsed and drained, it is put on a board, and the thread-bare
parts rubbed with a half-worn hatter’s card, filled with
flocks, or with a teazle or a prickly thistle, until a nap is
raised. It is next hung up to dry, the nap laid the right way
with a hard brush, and finished as before. When the cloth is
much faded, it is usual to give it a dip, as it is called, or
to pass it through a dye-bath, to freshen up the color.
How to Revive the Color of Black Cloth.—If a
coat, clean it well, then boil from two to four ounces of
logwood in your copper, or boiler, for half an hour; dip your
coat in warm water, and squeeze it as dry as you can, then put
it into the copper and boil it for half an hour. Take it out,
and add a piece of green copperas, about the size of a
horse-bean; boil it another half hour, then draw it, and hang
it in the air for an hour or two; take it down; rinse it in two
or three cold waters; dry it, and let it be
[pg 72] brushed with a soft brush,
over which a drop or two of the oil of olives has been
rubbed, then stroke your coat regularly over.
How to Restore Crape.—Skimmed milk and water,
with a little bit of glue in it, made scalding hot, is
excellent to restore rusty Italian crape. If clapped and pulled
dry like muslin, it will look as good as new; or, brush the
veil till all the dust is removed, then fold it lengthwise, and
roll it smoothly and tightly on a roller. Steam it till it is
thoroughly dampened, and dry on the roller.
How to Cleanse Feather Beds.—When feather beds
become soiled and heavy they may be made clean and light by
being treated in the following manner: Rub them over with a
stiff brush, dipped in hot soap-suds. When clean lay them on a
shed, or any other clean place where the rain will fall on
them. When thoroughly soaked let them dry in a hot sun for six
or seven successive days, shaking them up well and turning them
over each day. They should be covered over with a thick cloth
during the night; if exposed to the night air they will become
damp and mildew. This way of washing the bed-ticking and
feathers makes them very fresh and light, and is much easier
than the old-fashioned way of emptying the beds and washing the
feathers separately, while it answers quite as well. Care must
be taken to dry the bed perfectly before sleeping on it. Hair
mattresses that have become hard and dirty can be made nearly
as good as new by ripping them, washing the ticking, and
picking the hair free from bunches and keeping it in a dry,
airy place several days. Whenever the ticking gets dry fill it
lightly with the hair, and tack it together.
How to Cut Up and Cure Pork.—Have the hog laid
on his back on a stout, clean bench; cut off the head close to
the base. If the hog is large, there will come off a
considerable collar, between head and shoulders, which, pickled
or dried, is useful for cooking with vegetables. Separate the
jowl from the face at the natural joint; open the skull
lengthwise and take out the brains, esteemed a luxury. Then
with a sharp knife remove the back-bone the whole length, then
the long strip of fat underlying it, leaving about one inch of
fat covering the spinal column.
The leaf lard, if not before taken out for the housewife’s
convenience, is removed, as is also the tenderloin—a
fishy-shaped piece of flesh—often used for sausage, but
which makes delicious steak. The middling or sides are now cut
out, leaving the shoulders square-shaped and the hams pointed,
or they may be rounded to your taste. The spare-ribs are
usually wholly removed from the sides, with but little meat
adhering. It is the sides of small, young hogs cured as hams
that bear the name of breakfast bacon, The sausage meat comes
chiefly in strips from the backbone, part of which may also be
used as steak. The lean trimmings from about the joints are
used for sausage, the fat scraps rendered up with the backbone
lard.
The thick part of the backbone that lies between the
shoulders, called griskin or chine, is separated from the
tapering, bony part, called backbone by way of distinction, and
used as flesh. The chines are smoked with jowls, and used in
late winter or spring.
When your meat is to be pickled it should be dusted lightly
with saltpetre sprinkled with salt, and allowed to drain
twenty-four hours; then plunge it into pickle, and keep under
with a weight. It is good policy to pickle a portion of the
sides. They, after soaking, are sweeter to cook with
vegetables, and the grease fried from them is much more useful
than that of smoked meat.
If your meat is to be dry salted, allow one teaspoonful of
pulverized saltpetre to one gallon of salt, and keep the
mixture warm beside you. Put on a hog’s ear as a mitten, and
rub each piece of meat thoroughly. Then pack skin side down,
ham upon ham, side upon side, strewing on salt abundantly. It
is best to put large and small pieces in different boxes for
the convenience of getting at them to hang up at the different
times they will come into readiness. The weather has so much to
do with the time that meat requires to take salt that no
particular time can be specified for leaving it in.
The best test is to try a medium-sized ham; if salt enough,
all similar and smaller pieces are surely ready, and it is well
to remember that the saltness increases in drying. Ribs and
steaks should be kept in a cold, dark place, without salting,
until ready for use. If you have many, or the weather is warm,
they keep better in pickle than dry salt. Many persons turn and
rub their meat frequently. We have never practiced this, and
have never lost any.
When the meat is ready for smoking, dip the hocks of the
joints in ground black pepper and dust the raw surface thickly
with it. Sacks, after this treatment, may be used for double
security, and I think bacon high and dry is sweeter than packed
in any substance. For sugar-cured hams we append the best
recipe we have ever used, though troublesome.
English Recipe for Sugar-Curing Hams.—So soon
as the meat comes from the butcher’s hand rub it thoroughly
with the salt. Repeat this four days, keeping the meat where it
can drain. The fourth day rub it with saltpetre and a handful
of common salt, allowing one pound of saltpetre to seventy
pounds of meat. Now mix one pound of brown sugar and one of
molasses, rub over the ham every day for a fortnight, and then
smoke with hickory chips or cobs. Hams should be hung highest
in meat-houses, because there they are less liable to the
attacks of insects, for insects do not so much infest high
places—unlike human pests.
Pickle.—Make eight gallons of brine strong
enough to float an egg; add two pounds of brown sugar or a
quart of molasses, and four ounces of saltpetre; boil and skim
clean, and pour cold on your meat. Meat intended for smoking
should remain in pickle about four weeks. This pickle can be
boiled over, and with a fresh cup of sugar and salt used all
summer. Some persons use as much soda as saltpetre. It will
correct acidity, but we think impairs the meat.
Washing Preparation.—Take a 1/4 of a pound of
soap, a 1/4 of a pound of soda, and a 1/4 of a pound of
quicklime. Cut up the soup and dissolve it in 1 quart of
boiling water; pour 1 quart of boiling water over the soda, and
3 quarts of boiling water upon the quicklime. The lime must be
quick and fresh; if it is good it will bubble up on pouring the
hot water upon it. Each must be prepared in separate vessels.
The lime must settle so as to leave the water on the top
perfectly clear; then strain it carefully (not disturbing the
settlings) into the washboiler with the soda and soap; let it
scald long enough to dissolve the soap, then add 6 gallons of
soap water. The clothes must be put to soak over night, after
rubbing soap upon the dirtiest parts of them. After having the
above in readiness, wring out the clothes which have been put
in soak, put them on to boil, and let each lot boil half an
hour; the same water will answer for the whole washing. After
boiling each lot half an hour drain them from the boiling water
put them in a tub and pour upon them two or three pailsful of
clear, hot water; after this they will want very little
rubbing; then rinse through two waters, blueing the last. When
dried they will be a beautiful white. After washing the
cleanest part of the white clothes, take two pails of the suds
in which they have been washed, put it over the fire and scald,
and this will wash all the flannels and colored clothes without
any extra soap. The white flannels, after being well washed in
the suds, will require to be scalded by turning on a teakettle
of boiling water.
HOW TO DESTROY HOUSEHOLD PESTS
How to Destroy Ants.—Ants that frequent houses
or gardens may he destroyed by taking flower of brimstone half
a pound and potash four ounces; set them in an iron or earthen
pan over the fire till dissolved and united; afterward beat
them to a powder, and infuse a little of this powder in water;
and wherever you sprinkle it the ants will die or fly the
place.
How to Destroy Black Ants.—A few leaves of
green wormwood, scattered among the haunts of these troublesome
insects, is said to be effectual in dislodging them.
How to Destroy Red Ants.—The best way to get
rid of ants, is to set a quantity of cracked walnuts or
shell-barks on plates, and put them in the closet or places
where the ants congregate. They are very fond of these, and
will collect on them in myriads. When they have collected on
them make a general auto-da-fe, by turning nuts and ants
together into the fire, and then replenish the plates with
fresh nuts. After they have become so thinned off as to cease
collecting on plates, powder some camphor and put in the holes
and crevices, whereupon the remainder of them will speedily
depart. It may help the process of getting them to assemble on
shell-barks, to remove all edibles out of their way for the
time.
How to Destroy Black Bees.—Place two or three
shallow vessels—the larger kind of flower-pot saucers
will do—half filled with water, on the floors where they
assemble, with strips of cardboard running from the edge of the
vessel to the floor, at a gentle inclination; these the
unwelcome guests will eagerly ascend, and so find a watery
grave.
How to Destroy Bed-Bugs.—1. When they have made
a lodgement in the wall, fill all the apertures with a mixture
of soft soap and Scotch snuff. Take the bedstead to pieces, and
treat that in the same way. 2. A strong decoction of red pepper
applied to bedsteads will either kill the bugs or drive them
away. 3. Put the bedstead into a close room and set fire to the
following composition, placed in an iron pot upon the hearth,
having previously closed up the chimney, then shut the door,
let them remain a day: Sulphur nine parts; saltpetre, powdered,
one part. Mix. Be sure to open the door of the room five or six
hours before you venture to go into it a second time. 4. Rub
the bedstead well with lampoil; this alone is good, but to make
it more effectual, get ten cents worth of quicksilver and add
to it. Put it into all the cracks around the bed, and they will
soon disappear. The bedsteads should first be scalded and wiped
dry, then put on with a feather. 5. Corrosive sublimate, one
ounce; muriatic acid, two ounces; water, four ounces; dissolve,
then add turpentine, one pint; decoction of tobacco, one pint.
Mix. For the decoction of tobacco boil one ounce of tobacco in
a 1/2 pint of water. The mixture must be applied with a paint
brush. This wash is deadly poison. 6. Rub the bedsteads in the
joints with equal parts of spirits of turpentine and kerosene
oil, and the cracks of the surbase in rooms where there are
many. Filling up all the cracks with hard soap is an excellent
remedy.
March and April are the months when bedsteads should be
examined to kill all the eggs. 7. Mix together two ounces
spirits of turpentine, one ounce corrosive sublimate, and one
pint alcohol. 8. Distilled vinegar, or diluted good vinegar, a
pint; camphor one-half ounce; dissolve. 9. White arsenic, two
ounces; lard, thirteen ounces; corrosive sublimate, one-fourth
ounce; venetian red, one-fourth ounce. (Deadly poison.) 10.
Strong mercurial ointment one ounce; soft soap one ounce; oil
of turpentine, a pint 11. Gasoline and coaloil are both
excellent adjuncts, with cleanliness, in ridding a bed or house
of these pests.
How to Destroy Caterpillars.—Boil together a
quantity of rue, wormwood, and any cheap tobacco (equal parts)
in common water. The liquid should be very strong. Sprinkle it
on the leaves and young branches every morning and evening
during the time the fruit is ripening.
How to Destroy Cockroaches and Beetles.—1.
Strew the roots of black hellebore, at night, in the places
infested by these vermin, and they will be found in the morning
dead or dying. Black hellebore grows in marshy grounds, and may
be had at the herb shops. 2. Put about a quart of water
sweetened with molasses in a tin wash basin or smooth glazed
china bowl. Set it at evening in a place frequented by the
bugs. Around the basin put an old piece of carpet that the bugs
can have easy access to the top. They will go down in the
water, and stay till you come. 3. Take pulverized borax, 4
parts, flour 1 part, mix intimately and distribute the mixture
in cupboards which are frequented by the roaches, or blow it,
by means of a bellows, into the holes or cracks that are
infested by them. 4. By scattering a handful of fresh cucumber
parings about the house. 5. Take carbonic acid and powdered
camphor in equal parts; put them in a bottle; they will become
fluid. With a painter’s brush of the size called a sash-tool,
put the mixture on the cracks or places where the roaches hide;
they will come out at once. Then kill. 6. Mix up a quantity of
fresh burned plaster of paris (gypsum, such as is used for
making molds and ornaments), with wheat flour and a little
sugar, and distribute on shallow plates and box boards, and
place in the corners of the kitchen and pantry where they
frequent. In the darkness they will feast themselves on it.
Whether it interferes with their digestion or not, is difficult
to ascertain, but after three or four nights renewal of the
preparation, no cockroaches will be found on the premises.
How to Destroy Crickets.—Sprinkle a little
quick lime near to the cracks through which they enter the
room. The lime may be laid down overnight, and swept away in
the morning. In a few days they will most likely all be
destroyed. But care must be taken that the children do not
meddle with the lime, as a very small portion of it getting
into the eye, would prove exceedingly hurtful. In case of such
an accident the best thing to do would be to wash the eye with
vinegar and water.
How to get Rid of Fleas.—Much of the largest
number of fleas are brought into our family circles by pet dogs
and cats. The oil of pennyroyal will drive these insects off:
but a cheaper method, where the herb flourishes, is to throw
your cats and dogs into a decoction of it once a week. When the
herb cannot be got, the oil can be procured. In this case,
saturate strings with it and tie them around the necks of the
dogs and cats. These applications should be repeated every
twelve or fifteen days. Mint
[pg 74] freshly cut, and hung round a
bedstead, or on the furniture, will prevent annoyance from
bed insects; a few drops of essential oil of lavender will
be more efficacious.
How to Destroy Flies.—1. Take an infusion of
quassia, one pint; brown sugar, four ounces, ground pepper, two
ounces. To be well mixed together, and put in small shallow
dishes where required. 2. Black pepper (powdered), one drachm;
brown sugar, one drachm; milk or cream, two drachms. Mix, and
place it on a plate or saucer where the flies are most
troublesome. 3. Pour a little simple oxymel (an article to be
obtained at the druggists), into a common tumbler glass, and
place in the glass a piece of cap paper, made into the shape of
the upper part of a funnel, with a hole at the bottom to admit
the flies. Attracted by the smell, they readily enter the trap
in swarms, and by the thousands soon collected prove that they
have not the wit or the disposition to return. 4. Take some
jars, mugs, or tumblers, fill them half full with soapy water;
cover them as jam-pots are covered, with a piece of paper,
either tied down or tucked under the rim. Let this paper be
rubbed inside with wet sugar, molasses, honey, or jam, or any
thing sweet; cut a small hole in the center, large enough for a
fly to enter. The flies settle on the top, attracted by the
smell of the bait; they then crawl through the hole, to feed
upon the sweets beneath. Meanwhile the warmth of the weather
causes the soapy water to ferment, and produces a gas which
overpowers the flies, and they drop down into the vessel.
Thousands may be destroyed this way, and the traps last a long
time.
Fly Paper.—Melt resin, and add thereto while
soft, sufficient sweet oil, lard, or lamp oil to make it, when
cold about the consistency of honey. Spread on writing paper,
and place in a convenient spot. It will soon be filled with
ants, Hies, and other vermin.
How to Expel Insects.—All insects dread
pennyroyal: the smell of it destroys some, and drives others
away. At the time that fresh pennyroyal cannot be gathered, get
oil of pennyroyal; pour some into a saucer, and steep in it
small pieces of wadding or raw cotton, and place them in
corners, closet-shelves, bureau drawers, boxes, etc., and the
cockroaches, ants, or other insects will soon disappear. It is
also well to place some between the mattresses, and around the
bed. It is also a splendid thing for brushing off that terrible
little insect, the seed tick.
How to Destroy Mice.—1. Use tartar emetic
mingled with some favorite food. The mice will leave the
premises. 2. Take one part calomel, five parts of wheat flour,
one part sugar, and one-tenth of a part of ultramarine. Mix
together in a fine powder and place it in a dish. This is a
most efficient poison for mice.
3. Any one desirous of keeping seeds from the depredations
of mice can do so by mixing pieces of camphor gum in with the
seeds. Camphor placed in drawers or trunks will prevent mice
from doing them injury. The little animal objects to the odor
and keeps a good distance from it. He will seek food
elsewhere.
4. Gather all kinds of mint and scatter about your shelves,
and they will forsake the premises.
How to Drive Away Mosquitoes.—1. A camphor bag
hung up in an open casement will prove an effectual barrier to
their entrance. Camphorated spirits applied as perfume to the
face and hands will prove an effectual preventive; but when
bitten by them, aromatic vinegar is the beat antidote.
2. A small amount of oil of pennyroyal sprinkled around the
room will drive away the mosquitoes. This is an excellent
recipe.
3. Take of gum camphor a piece about half the size of an
egg, and evaporate it by placing it in a tin vessel and holding
it over a lamp or candle, taking care that it does not ignite.
The smoke will soon fill the room and expel the mosquitoes.
How to Preserve Clothing from Moths.—1. Procure
shavings of cedar wood and enclose in muslin bags, which should
be distributed freely among clothes. 2. Procure shavings of
camphor wood, and enclose in bags. 3. Sprinkle pimento
(allspice) berries among the clothes. 4. Sprinkle the clothes
with the seeds of the musk plant. 5. An ounce of gum camphor
and one of the powdered shell of red pepper are macerated in
eight ounces of strong alcohol for several days, then strained.
With this tincture the furs or cloths are sprinkled over, and
rolled up in sheets. 6. Carefully shake and brush woolens early
in the spring, so as to be certain that no eggs are in them;
then sew them up in cotton or linen wrappers, putting a piece
of camphor gum, tied up in a bit of muslin, into each bundle,
or into the chests and closets where the articles are to lie.
No moth will approach while the smell of the camphor continues.
When the gum is evaporated, it must be renewed. Enclose them in
a moth-proof box with camphor, no matter whether made of white
paper or white pine, before any eggs are laid on them by early
spring moths. The notion of having a trunk made of some
particular kind of wood for this purpose, is nonsense. Furs or
woolens, put away in spring time, before moth eggs are laid,
into boxes, trunks, drawers, or closets even, where moths
cannot enter, will be safe from the ravages of moth-worms,
provided none were in them that were laid late in the autumn,
for they are not of spontaneous production.
How to Kill Moths in Carpets.—Wring a coarse
crash towel out of clear water, spread it smoothly on the
carpet, iron it dry with a good hot iron, repeating the
operation on all parts of the carpet suspected of being
infected with moths. No need to press hard, and neither the
pile nor color of the carpet will he injured, and the moths
will be destroyed by the heat and steam.
How to Destroy Rats.—1. When a house is
invested with rats which refuse to be caught by cheese and
other baits, a few drops of the highly-scented oil of rhodium
poured on the bottom of the cage will be an attraction which
they cannot refuse. 2. Place on the floor near where their
holes are supposed to be a thin layer of moist caustic potash.
When the rats travel on this, it will cause their feet to
become sore, which they lick, and their tongues become likewise
sore. The consequence is, that they shun this locality, and
seem to inform all the neighboring rats about it, and the
result is that they soon abandon a house that has such mean
floors. 3. Cut some corks as thin as wafers, and fry, roast, or
stew them in grease, and place the same in their track; or a
dried sponge fried or dipped in molasses or honey, with a small
quantity of bird lime or oil of rhodium, will fasten to their
fur and cause them to depart. 4. If a live rat can be caught
and smeared over with tar or train oil, and afterwards allowed
to escape in the holes of other rats, he will cause all soon to
take their departure. 5. If a live rat be caught, and a small
bell be fastened around his neck, and allowed to escape, all of
his brother rats as well as himself will very soon go to some
other neighbor’s house. 6. Take a pan, about twelve inches
deep, and half fill it with water; then sprinkle some bran on
the water and set the pan in a place where the rats most
frequent. In the morning you will find several rats in the pan.
7. Flour, three parts; sugar, one-half part; sulphur, two
parts, and phosphorus, two parts. Smear on meat, and place near
where the rats are most troublesome. 8. Squills are an
excellent poison for rats. The powder should be mixed with some
fatty substance, and spread upon slices of bread. The pulp of
[pg 75] is also very good. Rats are
very fond of either. 9. Take two ounces of carbonate of
barytes, and mix with one pound of suet or tallow, place a
portion of this within their holes and about their haunts.
It is greedily eaten, produces great thirst, and death
ensues after drinking. This is a very effectual poison,
because it is both tasteless and odorless. 10. Take one
ounce of finely powdered arsenic, one ounce of lard; mix
these into a paste with meal, put it about the haunts of
rats. They will eat of it greedily. 11. Make a paste of one
ounce of flour, one-half gill of water, one drachm of
phosphorus, and one ounce of flour. Or, one ounce of flour,
two ounces of powdered cheese crumbs, and one-half drachm of
phosphorus; add to each of these mixtures a few drops of the
oil of rhodium, and spread this on thin pieces of bread like
butter; the rats will eat of this greedily, and it is a sure
poison. 12. Mix some ground plaster of paris with some sugar
and Indian meal. Set it about on plates, and leave beside
each plate a saucer of water. When the rats have eaten the
mixture they will drink the water and die. To attract them
toward it, you may sprinkle on the edges of the plates a
little of the oil of rhodium. Another method of getting rid
of rats is, to strew pounded potash on their holes. The
potash gets into their coats and irritates the skin, and the
rats desert the place. 13. The Dutch method: this is said to
be used successfully in Holland; we have, however, never
tried it. A number of rats are left together to themselves
in a very large trap or cage, with no food whatever; their
craving hunger will, at last, cause them to fight and the
weakest will be eaten by the others; after a short time the
fight is renewed, and the next weakest is the victim, and so
it goes on till one strong rat is left. When this one has
eaten the last remains of any of the others, it is set
loose; the animal has now acquired such a taste for
rat-flesh that he is the terror of ratdom, going round
seeking what rat he may devour. In an incredibly short time
the premises are abandoned by all other rats, which will not
come back before the cannibal rat has left or has died. 14.
Catch a rat and smear him over with a mixture of phosphorus
and lard, and then let him loose. The house will soon be
emptied of these pests.
Vermin, in Water.—Go to the river or pond, and
with a small net (a piece of old mosquito bar will do) collect
a dozen or more of the small fishes known as minnows, and put
them in your cistern, and in a short time you will have clear
water, the wiggle-tails and reddish-colored bugs or lice being
gobbled up by the fishes.
ACCIDENTS AND INJURIES
And How to Meet Them
As accidents are constantly liable to occur, the importance
of knowing how best to meet the various emergencies that may
arise can hardly be over-estimated. In all cases, and under all
circumstances, the best help to assist a party in this trying
moment is presence of mind.
Harvest Bug-Bites.—The best remedy is the use
of benzine, which immediately kills the insect. A small drop of
tincture of iodine has the same effect.
Bites and Stings of Insects.—Such as bees,
wasps, hornets, etc., although generally painful, and ofttimes
causing much disturbance, yet are rarely attended with fatal
results. The pain and swelling may generally be promptly
arrested by bathing freely with a strong solution of equal
parts of common salt and baking soda, in warm water; or by the
application of spirits of hartshorn; or of volatile liniment
(one part of spirits of hartshorn and two of olive oil). In the
absence of the other articles, warm oil may be used; or, if
this is not at hand, apply a paste made from fresh clay-earth.
If the sting of the insect is left in the wound, as is
frequently the case, it should always be extracted. If there is
faintness, give some stimulant; as, a tablespoonful or two of
brandy and water, or brandy and ammonia.
Mad Dog Bites.—1. Take immediately warm vinegar
or tepid water; wash the wound clean therewith and then dry it;
pour upon the wound, then, ten or twelve drops of muriatic
acid. Mineral acids destroy the poison of the saliva, by which
means the evil effects of the latter are neutralized. 2. Many
think that the only sure preventive of evil following the bite
of a rabid dog is to suck the wound immediately, before the
poison has had time to circulate with the blood. If the person
bit cannot get to the wound to suck it, he must persuade or pay
another to do it for him. There is no fear of any harm
following this, for the poison entering by the stomach cannot
hurt a person. A spoonful of the poison might be swallowed with
impunity, but the person who sucks the place should have no
wound on the lip or tongue, or it might be dangerous. The
precaution alluded to is a most important one, and should never
be omitted prior to an excision and the application of lunar
caustic in every part, especially the interior and deep-seated
portions. No injury need be anticipated if this treatment is
adopted promptly and effectively. The poison of hydrophobia
remains latent on an average six weeks; the part heals over,
but there is a pimple or wound, more or less irritable; it then
becomes painful; and the germ, whatever it is, ripe for
dissemination into the system, and then all hope is gone.
Nevertheless, between the time of the bite and the activity of
the wound previous to dissemination, the caustic of nitrate of
silver is a sure preventive; after that it is as useless as all
the other means. The best mode of application of the nitrate of
silver is by introducing it solidly into the wound.
Serpents Bites.—The poison inserted by the
stings and bites of many venomous reptiles is so rapidly
absorbed, and of so fatal a description, as frequently to
occasion death before any remedy or antidote can be applied;
and they are rendered yet more dangerous from the fact that
these wounds are inflicted in parts of the country and world
where precautionary measures are seldom thought of, and
generally at times when people are least prepared to meet them.
1. In absence of any remedies, the first best plan to adopt on
being bitten by any of the poisonous snakes is to do as
recommended above in Mad Dog Bites—viz., to wash off the
place immediately; if possible get the mouth to the spot, and
forcibly suck out all the poison, first applying a ligature
above the wound as tightly as can be borne. 2. A remedy
promulgated by the Smithsonian Institute is
[pg 76] 30 grs. iodide potassium, 30
grs. iodine, 1 oz. water, to be applied externally to the
wound by saturating lint or batting—the same to be
kept moist with the antidote until the cure be effected,
which will be in one hour, and sometimes instantly. 3. An
Australian physician has tried and recommends carbolic acid,
diluted and administered internally every few minutes until
recovery is certain. 4. Another Australian physician,
Professor Halford, of Melbourne University, has discovered
that if a proper amount of dilute ammonia be injected into
the circulation of a patient suffering from snake-bite, the
curative effect is usually sudden and startling, so that, in
many cases, men have thus been brought back, as it were, by
magic, from the very shadow of death.
Bleeding at the Nose.—1. Roll up a piece of
paper, and press it under the upper lip. 2. In obstinate cases
blow a little gum Arabic up the nostrils through a quill, which
will immediately stop the discharge; powdered alum is also
good. 3. Pressure by the finger over the small artery near the
ala (wing) of the nose, on the side where the blood is flowing,
is said to arrest the hemorrhage immediately.
Bleeding from the Lungs.—A New York physician
has related a case in which inhalation of very dry persulphate
of iron, reduced to a palpable powder, entirely arrested
bleeding from the lungs, after all the usual remedies, lead,
opium, etc., had failed. A small quantity was administered by
drawing into the lungs every hour during part of the night and
following day.
Bleeding from the Bowels.—The most common cause
of this, when not a complication of some disease, is
hemorrhoids or piles. Should serious hemorrhage occur, rest and
quiet, and cold water poured slowly over the lower portion of
the belly, or cloths wet with cold water, or better, with ice
water applied over the belly and thighs, and to the lower end
of the bowels, will ordinarily arrest it. In some cases it may
be necessary to use injections of cold water, or even put small
pieces of ice in the rectum.
Bleeding from the Mouth.—This is generally
caused by some injury to the cheeks, gums or tongue, but it
sometimes occurs without any direct cause of this kind, and no
small alarm may be caused by mistaking it for bleeding from the
lungs. Except when an artery of some size is injured, bleeding
from the mouth can generally be controlled by gargling and
washing the mouth with cold water, salt and water, or alum and
water, or some persulphate of iron may be applied to the
bleeding surface. Sometimes obstinate or even alarming bleeding
may follow the pulling of a tooth. The best remedy for this is
to plug the cavity with lint or cotton wet with the solution of
persulphate of iron, and apply a compress which may be kept in
place by closing the teeth on it.
Bleeding from the Stomach.—Vomiting
blood.—Hemorrhage from the stomach is seldom so
serious as to endanger life; but as it may be a symptom of some
dangerous affection, it is always best to consult a physician
concerning it. In the meantime, as in all other varieties of
hemorrhage, perfect quiet should be preserved. A little salt,
or vinegar, or lemon juice, should be taken at intervals, in a
small glass of fresh cool water, or ice-water, as ice may be
swallowed in small pieces, and cloths wet with ice-water, or
pounded ice applied over the stomach.
Bleeding from Varicose Veins.—Serious and even
fatal hemorrhage may occur from the bursting of a large
varicose or “broken” vein. Should such an accident occur, the
bleeding may be best controlled, until proper medical aid can
be procured, by a tight bandage; or a “stick tourniquet,”
remembering that the blood comes toward the heart in the veins,
and from it in the arteries. The best thing to prevent the
rupture of varicose or broken veins is to support the limb by
wearing elastic stockings, or a carefully applied bandage.
Burns and Scalds.—There is no class of
accidents that cause such an amount of agony, and none which
are followed with more disastrous results.
1. By putting the burned part under cold water, milk, or
other bland fluid, instantaneous and perfect relief from all
pain will be experienced. On withdrawal, the burn should be
perfectly covered with half an inch or more of common wheaten
flour, put on with a dredging-box, or in any other way, and
allowed to remain until a cure is effected, when the dry, caked
flour will fall off, or can be softened with water, disclosing
a beautiful, new and healthy skin, in all cases where the burns
have been superficial. 2. Dissolve white lead in flaxseed oil
to the consistency of milk, and apply over the entire burn or
scald every five minutes. It can be applied with a soft
feather. This is said to give relief sooner, and to be more
permanent in its effects, than any other application. 3. Make a
saturated solution of alum (four ounces to a quart of hot
water). Dip a cotton cloth in this solution and apply
immediately on the burn. As soon as it becomes hot or dry,
replace it by another, and continue doing so as often as the
cloth dries, which at first will be every few minutes. The pain
will immediately cease, and after twenty-four hours of this
treatment the burn will be healed; especially if commenced
before blisters are formed. The astringent and drying qualities
of the alum will entirely prevent their formation. 4.
Glycerine, five ounces; white of egg, four ounces; tincture of
arnica, three ounces. Mix the glycerine and white of egg
thoroughly in a mortar, and gradually add the arnica. Apply
freely on linen rags night, and morning, washing previously
with warm castile soap-suds. 5. Take one drachm of finely
powdered alum, and mix thoroughly with the white of two eggs
and one teacup of fresh lard; spread on a cloth, and apply to
the parts burnt. It gives almost instant relief from pain, and,
by excluding the air, prevents excessive inflammatory action.
The application should be changed at least once a day. 6. M.
Joel, of the Children’s Hospital, Lausanne, finds that a tepid
bath, containing a couple of pinches of sulphate of iron, gives
immediate relief to young children who have been extensively
burned. In a case of a child four years old, a bath repeated
twice a day—twenty minutes each bath—the
suppuration decreased, lost its odor, and the little sufferer
was soon convalescent. 7. For severe scalding, carbolic acid
has recently been used with marked benefit. It is to be mixed
with thirty parts of the ordinary oil of lime water to one part
of the acid. Linen rags satured in the carbolic emulsion are to
be spread on the scalded parts, and kept moist by frequently
smearing with the feather dipped in the liquid. Two advantages
of this mode of treatment are, the exclusion of air, and the
rapid healing by a natural restorative action without the
formation of pus, thus preserving unmarred and personal
appearance of the patient—a matter of no small importance
to some people.
Choking.—In case of Choking, a violent slap
with the open hand between the shoulders of the sufferer will
often effect a dislodgment. In case the accident occurs with a
child, and the slapping process does not afford instant relief,
it should be grasped by the feet, and placed head downwards,
and the slapping between the shoulders renewed; but in case
this induced violent suffocative paroxysms it must not be
repeated. If the substance, whatever it maybe, has entered the
windpipe, and the coughing and inverting the body fails to
dislodge it, it is probable that nothing but cutting open the
windpipe will be of any [pg 77] and for this the services of
a surgeon should always be procured. If food has stuck in
the throat or gullet, the forefinger should be immediately
introduced; and if lodged at the entrance of the gullet, the
substance may be reached and extracted, possibly, with the
forefinger alone, or may be seized with a pair of pincers,
if at hand, or a curling tongs, or anything of the kind.
This procedure may be facilitated by directing the person to
put the tongue well out, in which position it may be
retained by the individual himself, or a bystander by
grasping it, covered with a handkerchief or towel. Should
this fail, an effort should be made to excite retching or
vomiting by passing the finger to the root of the tongue, in
hopes that the offending substance may in this way be
dislodged; or it may possibly be effected by suddenly and
unexpectedly dashing in the face a basin of cold water, the
shock suddenly relaxing the muscular spasm present, and the
involuntary gasp at the same time may move it up or down. If
this cannot be done, as each instant’s delay is of vital
importance to a choking man, seize a fork, a spoon, a
penholder, pencil, quill, or anything suitable at hand, and
endeavor to push the article down the throat. If it be low
down the gullet, and other means fail, its dislodgment may
sometimes be effected by dashing cold water on the spine, or
vomiting may be induced by an emetic of sulphate of zinc
(twenty grains in a couple of tablespoonfuls of warm water),
or of common salt and mustard in like manner, or it may be
pushed into the stomach by extemporizing a probang, by
fastening a small sponge to the end of a stiff strip of
whalebone. If this cannot he done, a surgical operation will
be necessary. Fish bones or other sharp substances, when
they cannot be removed by the finger or forceps, may
sometimes be dislodged by swallowing some pulpy mass, as
masticated bread, etc. Irregularly shaped substances, a
plate with artificial teeth for instance, can ordinarily be
removed only by surgical interference.
Colic.—Use a hot fomentation over the abdomen,
and a small quantity of ginger, pepermint or common tea. If not
relieved in a few minutes, then give an injection of a quart of
warm water with twenty or thirty drops of laudanum, and repeat
it if necessary. A half teaspoonful of chloroform, in a
tablespoonful of sweetened water, with or without a few drops
of spirits of lavender or essence of peppermint, will often
give prompt relief.
Convulsions.—In small children convulsions
frequently happen from teething, sometimes from worms or from
some irritating substance within the stomach or bowels, and
sometimes from some affection of the brain.
When a child has convulsions, place it immediately in a warm
or hot bath, and sponge its head with cold water. Then apply a
hot mustard plaster to the wrists, ankles and soles of the
feet, or, in case a plaster cannot be obtained, apply a cloth
wrung out of hot mustard water. Allow these to remain until the
skin reddens, and use care that the same do not blister. After
the fit has subsided, use great care against its return by
attention to the cause which gave rise to it.
Convulsions in adults must be treated in accordance with the
manner which gave rise to them. During the attack great care
should be taken that the party does not injure himself, and the
best preventive is a cork or a soft piece of wood, or other
suitable substance, placed between the teeth to prevent biting
the tongue and cheeks: tight clothing must be removed or
loosened; mustard poultices should be applied to the
extremities and over the abdomen; abundance of fresh air should
be secured by opening windows and doors, and preventing
unnecessary crowding of persons around; cold water may be
dashed on the face and chest; and if there be plethora, with
full bounding pulse, with evidence of cerebral or other
internal congestion, the abstraction of a few ounces of blood
may be beneficial.
Cramp.—Spasmodic or involuntary contractions of
the muscles generally of the extremities, accompanied with
great pain. The muscles of the legs and feet are the most
commonly affected with cramp, especially after great exertion.
The best treatment is immediately to stand upright, and to well
rub the part with the hand. The application of strong
stimulants, as spirits of ammonia, or of anodines, as opiate
liniments, has been recommended. When cramp occurs in the
stomach, a teaspoonful of sal volatile in water, or a dram
glassful of good brandy, should be swallowed immediately. When
cramp comes on during cold bathing, the limb should be thrown
out as suddenly and violently as possible, which will generally
remove it, care being also taken not to become flurried nor
frightened, as presence of mind is very essential to personal
safety on such an occasion. A common cause of cramp is
indigestion, and the use of acescent liquors; these should be
avoided.
Cuts.—In case the flow of blood is trifling,
stop the bleeding by bringing the edges of the wound together,
If the flow of blood is great, of a bright vermillion color,
and flows in spurts or with a jerk, an artery is severed, and
at once should pressure be made on the parts by the finger
(between the cut and the heart), until a compress is arranged
by a tight ligature above the wounded part. Then the finger may
be taken off, and if the blood still flows, tighten the
handkerchief or other article that forms the ligature, until it
ceases. If at this point the attendance of a physician or
surgeon cannot be secured, take strong silk thread, or wax
together three or four threads and cut them into lengths of
about a foot long. Wash the parts with warm water, and then
with a sharp hook or small pair of pincers in your hand, fix
your eye steadfastly upon the wound, and directing the ligature
to be slightly released, you will see the mouth of the artery
from which the blood springs. At once seize it, draw it out a
little while an assistant passes a ligature round it, and ties
it up tight with a double knot. In this way take up in
succession every bleeding vessel you can see or get hold of. If
the wound is too high up in a limb to apply the ligature do not
lose your presence of mind. If it is the thigh, press firmly on
the groin; if in the arm, with the band-end or ring of a common
door-key make pressure above the collar bone, and about its
middle, against its first rib, which lies under it. The
pressure should be continued until assistance is procured and
the vessel tied up. If the wound is on the face, or other place
where pressure cannot effectually be made, place a piece of ice
directly over the wound allowing it to remain there until the
blood coagulates, when it may be removed, and a compress and
bandage be applied.
After the bleeding is arrested the surrounding blood should
be cleared away, as well as any extraneous matter then bring
the sides of the wound into contact throughout the whole depth,
in order that they may grow together as quickly as possible,
retaining them in their position by strips of adhesive plaster.
If the wound be deep and extensive, the wound itself and the
adjacent parts must be supported by proper bandages. The
position of the patient should be such as will relax the skin
and muscles of the wounded part. Rest, low and unstimulating
diet, will complete the requirements necessary to a speedy
recovery.
How to Distinguish Death.—As many instances
occur of parties being buried alive, they being to all
appearance dead, the great importance of knowing how to
distinguish real from imaginary death need not be explained.
The appearances which mostly accompany death, are an entire
[pg 78] of breathing, of the heart’s
action; the eyelids are partly closed, the eyes glassy, and
the pupils usually dilated; the jaws are clenched, the
fingers partially contracted, and the lips and nostrils more
or less covered with frothy mucus, with increasing pallor
and coldness of surface, and the muscles soon become rigid
and the limbs fixed in their position. But as these same
conditions may also exist in certain other cases of
suspended animation, great care should be observed, whenever
there is the least doubt concerning it, to prevent the
unnecessary crowding of the room in which the corpse is, or
of parties crowding around the body; nor should the body be
allowed to remain lying on the back without the tongue being
so secured as to prevent the glottis or orifice of the
windpipe being closed by it; nor should the face be closely
covered; nor rough usage of any kind be allowed. In case
there is great doubt, the body should not be allowed to be
inclosed in the coffin, and under no circumstances should
burial be allowed until there are unmistakable signs of
decomposition.
Of the numerous methods proposed as signs for real death, we
select the following: 1. So long as breathing continues, the
surface of a mirror held to the mouth and nostrils will become
dimmed with moisture. 2. If a strong thread or small cord be
tied tightly round the finger of a living person, the portion
beyond the cord or thread will become red and swollen—if
dead, no change is produced. 3. If the hand of a living person
is held before a strong light a portion of the margin or edges
of the fingers is translucent—if dead, every part of it
is opaque. 4. A coal of fire, a piece of hot iron, or the flame
of a candle, applied to the skin, if life remains, will
blister—if dead it will merely sear. 5. A bright steel
needle introduced and allowed to remain for half an hour in
living flesh will be still bright—if dead, it will be
tarnished by oxydation. 6. A few drops of a solution of atropia
(two grains to one-half ounce of water) introduced into the
eye, if the person is alive, will cause the pupils to
dilate—if dead, no effect will be produced. 7. If the
pupil is already dilated, and the person is alive, a few drops
of tincture of the calabar bean will cause it to
contract—if dead, no effect will be produced.
Dislocations.—These injuries can mostly be
easily recognized; 1. By the deformity that the dislocation
gives rise to by comparing the alteration in shape with the
other side of the body. 2. Loss of some of the regular
movements of the joints. 3. In case of dislocation, surgical
aid should be procured at once. While waiting the arrival of a
physician, the injured portion should be placed in the position
most comfortable to the patient, and frequent cold bathing or
cloths wrung out of cold water, applied to the parts affected,
so as to relieve suffering and prevent inflammation.
Foreign Bodies in Ears.—Great care should be
taken in removing foreign bodies from the ear, as serious
injury may be inflicted. Most foreign bodies, especially those
of small size, can be easily removed by the use of a syringe
with warm water, and in most cases no other means should be
used. Should the first efforts fail, repeat the operation. A
syringe throwing a moderately small and continuous stream is
the best adapted for the purpose, and the removal may generally
be facilitated by inclining the ear downward while using the
syringe. Severe inflammation may be excited, and serious injury
done, by rash attempts to seize a foreign body in the ear, with
a forceps or tweezers, or trying to pick it out with a pin or
needle, or with an ear scoop. Should it be necessary from any
cause to use instruments, great care should be observed, and
but very little force exerted. It has lately been recommended,
when foreign bodies cannot be removed by syringing the ear, to
introduce a small brush or swab of frayed linen or muslin
cloth, or a bit of sponge, moistened with a solution of glue,
and keep it in contact with the foreign body until the glue
adheres, when the body may be easily removed.
Insects in the Ear.—Insects in the ear may be
easily killed by pouring oil in the ear, after which remove by
syringing. (See foreign bodies in ear.)
To Remove Hardened Ear Wax.—Hardened car wax
may be softened by dropping into the ear some oil or glycerine,
and then syringing. (See foreign bodies in ear.)
Foreign Bodies in Eye.—To remove small
particles from the eye, unless they have penetrated the globe,
or become fixed in the conjunctiva, do as follows:
Grasp the upper lid between the thumb and forefinger, lift
it from the eyeball, and having drawn it down as far as
possible outside the lower lid, let it slide slowly back to its
place, resting upon the lower lid as it goes back; and then
wipe the edges of the lids with a soft handkerchief to remove
the foreign substance. This may be repeated a number of times,
if necessary, without injury. Should this means fail, evert the
lids and remove the foreign substance, by touching it lightly
with the fold of a handkerchief, or with the point of a roll of
paper made like a candle-lighter; or, if necessary, with a
small pair of forceps. A drop of sweet oil instilled in the
eye, while perfectly harmless, provokes a flow of tears that
will frequently wash away any light substance.
Bits of metal, sharp pieces of sand, etc. sometimes
penetrate the globe of the eye, and, unless removed, may excite
so much inflammation as to destroy the eye. They should he
removed by a competent surgeon.
Fainting.—Lay the person who has fainted in a
current of air, or in such a position that the air from an open
window or door will have full play upon the face. Do not allow
parties to crowd closely around, but give the sufferer plenty
of room. Recovery will take place in a few minutes. The clothes
also may be opened, and cold water sprinkled upon the face,
hands and chest; and some pungent substance, as smelling salts,
camphor, aromatic vinegar, etc., may be applied to the
nostrils; and as soon as able to swallow, a little fresh water,
or spirits and water, may be given. Persons who faint easily
should avoid crowded rooms and places where the air is
close.
Fits.—See Convulsions.
Clothing on Fire.—If a woman’s clothes catch on
fire, let her instantly roll herself over and over on the
ground. In case any one be present, let them throw her down and
do the like, and then wrap her up in a table-cloth, rug, coat,
or the first woolen article that can be found.
Fractures.—As we can only give general rules
for treating the various fractures, we would advise any one
suffering from such to immediately apply to the nearest
surgeon, and not rely upon an inexperienced party.
Frost-Bite.—Place the party suffering in a room
without fire, and rub the frozen or frosted parts with snow, or
pour ice-water over them until sensation begins to return. As
soon as a stinging pain is felt, and a change of color appears,
then cease the rubbing, and apply clothes wet with ice-water,
and subsequently, if active inflammation follow and suppuration
results, a solution of carbolic acid in water, one part to
thirty, should be applied. If mortification set in, amputation
is generally necessary. Where persons suffer from the
constitutional effects of cold, hot stimulants should be given
internally, and the body rubbed briskly with the hands and warm
flannel.
Poisons, Their Symptoms and Antidotes.—When a
person has taken poison, the first thing to do is to compel the
patient to vomit, and for that purpose give any emetic that can
be most readily and quickly obtained, and which is prompt and
energetic, but safe in its
action.
For this purpose there is, perhaps, nothing better than a
large teaspoonful of ground mustard in a tumblerful of warm
water, and it has the advantage of being almost always at hand.
If the dry mustard is not to be had, use mixed mustard from the
mustard pot. Its operation may generally be facilitated by the
addition of a like quantity of common table salt. If the
mustard is not at hand, give two or three teaspoonfuls of
powdered alum in syrup or molasses, and give freely of warm
water to drink; or give ten to twenty grains of sulphate of
zinc (white vitriol), or twenty to thirty grains of ipecac,
with one or two grains of tartar emetic, in a large cup of warm
water, and repeat every ten minutes until three or four doses
are given, unless free vomiting is sooner produced. After
vomiting has taken place, large draughts of warm water should
be given the patient, so that the vomiting will continue until
the poisonous substances have been thoroughly evacuated, and
then suitable antidotes should be given. If vomiting cannot be
produced, the stomach-pump should be used. When it is known
what particular kind of poison has been swallowed, then the
proper antidote for that poison should be given, but when this
cannot be ascertained, as is often the case, give freely of
equal parts of calcined magnesia, pulverized charcoal, and
sesquioxide of iron, in sufficient quantity of water. This is a
very harmless mixture, and is likely to be of great benefit, as
the ingredients, though very simple, are antidotes for the most
common and active poisons. In case this mixture cannot be
obtained, the stomach should be soothed and protected by the
free administration of demulcent, mucilaginous or oleaginous
drinks, such as the whites of eggs, milk, mucilage of gum
arabic, or slippery elm bark, flaxseed tea, starch, wheat,
flour, or arrow-root mixed in water, linseed or olive oil, or
melted butter or lard. Subsequently the bowels should be moved
by some gentle laxative, as a tablespoonful or two of castor
oil, or a teaspoonful of calcined magnesia; and pain or other
evidence of inflammation must be relieved by the administration
of a few drops of laudanum, and the repeated application of hot
poultices, fomentations and mustard plasters. The following are
the names of the articles that may give rise to poisoning, most
commonly used, and their antidote:
Mineral Acids—Sulphuric Acid (Oil of Vitriol),
Nitric Acid (Aqua Fortis), Muriatic Acid (Spirits of
Salts).—Symptoms: Acid, burning taste in the mouth,
acute pain in the throat, stomach and bowels; frequent
vomiting, generally bloody, mouth and lips excoriated,
shriveled, white or yellow; hiccough, copious stools, more or
less bloody, with great tenderness in the abdomen; difficult
breathing, irregular pulse, excessive thirst, while drink
increases the pain and rarely remains in the stomach; frequent
but vain efforts to urinate; cold sweats, altered countenance;
convulsions generally preceding death; nitric acid causes
yellow stains; sulphuric acid, black ones. Treatment: Mix
calcined magnesia in milk or water to the consistence of cream,
and give freely to drink a glassful every couple of minutes, if
it can be swallowed. Common soap (hard or soft), chalk,
whiting, or even mortar from the wall mixed in water, may be
given, until magnesia can be obtained. Promote vomiting by
tickling the throat, if necessary, and when the poison is got
rid of, flaxseed or elm tea, gruel, or other mild drinks. The
inflammation which always follows wants good treatment to save
the patient’s life.
Vegetable Acids—Acetic, Citric, Oxalic,
Tartaric.—Symptoms: Intense burning pain of mouth,
throat and stomach; vomiting blood which is highly acid,
violent purging, collapse, stupor, death.
Oxalic Acid is frequently taken in mistake for Epsom
salts, to which in shops it often bears a strong resemblance.
Treatment: Give chalk or magnesia in a large quantity of water,
or large draughts of lime water. If these are not at hand,
scrape the wall or ceiling, and give the scrapings, mixed with
water.
Prussic or Hydrocyanic Acid—Laurel Water, Cyanide
of Potassium, Bitter Almond Oil, etc.—Symptoms: In
large doses almost invariably instantaneously fatal, when not
immediately fatal, sudden loss of sense and control of the
voluntary muscles; the odor of the poison generally susceptible
on the breath. Treatment: Chlorine, in the form of chlorine
water, in doses of from one to four fluid drachms, diluted.
Weak solution of chloride lime of soda; water of ammonia
(spirits of hartshorn) largely diluted may be given, and the
vapor of it cautiously inhaled. Cold affusion, and chloroform
in half to teaspoonful doses in glycerine or mucilage, repeated
every few minutes, until the symptoms are ameliorated.
Artificial respiration.
Aconite—Monkshood, Wolfsbane.—Symptoms:
Numbness and tingling in the mouth and throat, and afterwards
in other portions of the body, with sore throat, pain over the
stomach, and vomiting; dimness of vision, dizziness, great
prostration, loss of sensibility and delirium. Treatment: An
emetic and then brandy in tablespoonful doses, in ice-water,
every half hour; spirits of ammonia in half teaspoonful doses
in like manner; the cold douche over the head and chest, warmth
to the extremities, etc.
Alkalies and their Salts—Concentrated Lye, Woodash
Lye, Caustic Potash, Ammonia, Hartshorn.—Symptoms:
Caustic, acrid taste, excessive heat in the throat, stomach and
intestines; vomiting of bloody matter, cold sweats, hiccough,
purging of bloody stools.—Treatment: The common vegetable
acids. Common vinegar being always at hand, is most frequently
used. The fixed oils, as castor, flaxseed, almond and olive
oils form soaps with the alkalies and thus also destroy their
caustic effect. They should be given in large quantity.
Alcohol, Brandy, and other Spirituous
Liquors.—Symptoms: Confusion of thought, inability to
walk or stand, dizziness, stupor, highly flushed or pale face,
noisy breathing.—Treatment: After emptying the stomach,
pour cold water on the head and back of the neck, rub or slap
the wrists and palms, and the ankles and soles of the feet, and
give strong, hot coffee, or aromatic spirits of hartshorn, in
teaspoonful doses in water. The warmth of the body must be
sustained.
Antimony, and its Preparations. Tartar Emetic, Antimonial
Wine, Kerme’s Mineral.—Symptoms: Faintness and
nausea, soon followed by painful and continued vomiting, severe
diarrhoea, constriction and burning sensation in the throat,
cramps, or spasmodic twitchings, with symptoms of nervous
derangement, and great prostration of strength, often
terminating in death.—Treatment: If vomiting has not been
produced, it should be effected by tickling the fauces, and
administering copious draughts of warm water. Astringment
infusions, such as of gall, oak bark, Peruvian bark, act as
antidotes, and should be given promptly. Powdered yellow bark
may be used until the infusion is prepared, or very strong
green tea should be given. To stop the vomiting, should it
continue, blister over the stomach by applying a cloth wet with
strong spirits of hartshorn, and then sprinkle on the
one-eighth to one-fourth of a grain of morphia.
Arsenic and its Preparations—Ratsbane, Fowler’s
Solution, etc.—Symptoms: Generally within an hour
pain and heat are felt in the stomach, soon followed
[pg 80] vomiting, with a burning
dryness of the throat and great thirst; the matters vomited
are generally colored, either green yellow, or brownish, and
sometimes bloody. Diarrhoea or dysentery ensues, while the
pulse becomes small and rapid, yet irregular. Breathing much
oppressed; difficulty in vomiting may occur, while cramps,
convulsions, or even paralysis often precede death, which
sometimes takes place within five or six hours after arsenic
has been taken.—Treatment: Give a prompt emetic, and
then hydrate of peroxide of iron (recently prepared) in
tablespoonful doses every ten or fifteen minutes until the
urgent symptoms are relieved. In the absence of this, or
while it is being prepared, give large draughts of new milk
and raw eggs, limewater and oil, melted butter, magnesia in
a large quantity of water, or even if nothing else is at
hand, flour and water, always, however, giving an emetic the
first thing, or causing vomiting by tickling the throat with
a feather, etc. The inflammation of the stomach which
follows must be treated by blisters, hot fomentations,
mucilaginous drinks, etc., etc.
Belladonna or Deadly Night Shade.—Symptoms:
Dryness of the mouth and throat, great thirst, difficulty of
swallowing, nausea, dimness, confusion or loss of vision, great
enlargement of the pupils, dizziness, delirium and
coma.—Treatment: There is no known antidote. Give a
prompt emetic and then reliance must be placed on continual
stimulation with brandy, whisky, etc., and to necessary
artificial respiration. Opium and its preparations, as morphia,
laudanum, etc., are thought by some to counteract the effect of
belladonna, and may be given in small and repeated doses, as
also strong black coffee and green tea.
Blue Vitriol, or Blue Stone.—See Copperas.
Cantharides (Spanish or Blistering Fly) and Modern Potato
Bug.—Symptoms: Sickening odor of the breath, sour
taste, with burning heat in the throat, stomach, and bowels;
frequent vomiting, often bloody; copious bloody stools, great
pain in the stomach, with burning sensation in the bladder and
difficulty to urinate, followed with terrible convulsions,
delirium and death.—Treatment excite vomiting by drinking
plentifully of sweet oil or other wholesome oils, sugar and
water, milk. or slippery elm tea; give injections of castor oil
and starch, or warm milk. The inflammatory symptoms which
generally follow must, be treated by a medical man. Camphorated
oil or camphorated spirits should be rubbed over the bowels,
stomach and thighs.
Caustic Potash.—See Alkalies.
Cobalt, or Fly-Powder.—Symptoms: Heat and pain
in the. throat and stomach, violent retching and vomiting, cold
and clammy skin, small and feeble pulse, hurried and difficult
breathing, diarrhoea, etc.—Treatment: An emetic, followed
by the free administration of milk, eggs, wheat flour and
water, and mucilaginous drinks.
Copper—Blue Vitriol, Verdigris or Pickles or Food
Cooked in Soul Copper Vessels.—Symptoms: General
inflammation of the alimentary canal, suppression of urine;
hiccough, a disagreeable metallic taste, vomiting, violent
colic, excessive thirst, sense of tightness of the throat,
anxiety; faintness, giddiness, and cramps and convulsions
generally precede death.—Treatment: Large doses of simple
syrup as warm as can be swallowed, until the stomach rejects
the amount it contains. The whites of eggs and large quantities
of milk. Hydrated peroxide of iron.
Copperas.—See Iron.
Creosote.—Carbolic Acid.—Symptoms:
Burning pain. acrid, pungent taste, thirst, vomiting, purging,
etc.—Treatment: An emetic, and the free administration of
albumen, as the whites of eggs, or in the absence of these,
milk, or flour and water.
Corrosive Sublimate.—See Mercury.
Deadly Night-Shade.—See Belladonna.
Fox-Glove, or Digitalis.—Symptoms: Loss of
strength, feeble, fluttering pulse, faintness, nausea, and
vomiting and stupor; cold perspiration, dilated pupils,
sighing, irregular breathing, and sometimes
convulsions.—Treatment: After vomiting, give brandy and
ammonia in frequently repeated doses, apply warmth to the
extremities, and if necessary resort to artificial
respiration.
Gases—Carbonic Acid, Chlorine, Cyanogen,
Hydrosulphuric Acid, etc.—Symptoms: Great drowsiness,
difficult respiration, features swollen, face blue as in
strangulation.—Treatment: Artificial respirations, cold
douche, frictions with stimulating substances to the surface of
the body. Inhalation of steam containing preparations of
ammonia. Cupping from nape of neck. Internal use of
chloroform.
Green Vitriol.—See Iron.
Hellebore, or Indian Poke.—Symptoms: Violent
vomiting and purging, bloody stools, great anxiety, tremors,
vertigo, fainting, sinking of the pulse, cold sweets and
convulsions.—Treatment: Excite speedy vomiting by large
draughts of warm water, molasses and water, tickling the throat
with the finger or a feather, and emetics; give oily and
mucilaginous drinks, oily purgatives, and clysters, acids,
strong coffee, camphor and opium.
Hemlock (Conium).—Symptoms: Dryness of the
throat, tremors, dizziness, difficulty of swallowing,
prostration and faintness, limbs powerless or paralyzed, pupils
dilated, pulse rapid and feeble; insensibility and convulsions
sometimes precede death.—Treatment: Empty the stomach and
give brandy in tablespoonful doses, with half teaspoonful of
spirits of Ammonia, frequently repeated, and if much pain and
vomiting, give bromide of ammonium in five-grain doses every
half hour. Artificial respiration may be required.
Henbane or Hyoscyamus.—Symptoms: Muscular
twitching, inability to articulate plainly, dimness of vision
and stupor; later, vomiting and purging, small, intermittent
pulse, convulsive movement of the extremities and coma.
Treatment: Similar to Opium Poisoning, which see.
Iodine.—Symptoms: Burning pain in throat,
lacerating pain in the stomach, fruitless effort to vomit,
excessive tenderness of the epigastrium. Treatment: Free
emesis, prompt administration of starch, wheat flour, or
arrowroot, beat up in water.
Lead.—Acetate of Lead, Sugar of Lead, Dry White
Lead, Red Lead, Litharge, or Pickles, Wine, or Vinegar,
Sweetened by Lead.—Symptoms: When taken in large
doses, a sweet but astringent metallic taste exists, with
constriction in the throat, pain in the region of the stomach,
painful, obstinate, and frequently bloody vomitings, hiccough,
convulsions or spasms, and death. When taken in small but
long-continued doses, it produces colic, called painter’s
colic; great pain, obstinate constipation, and in extreme cases
paralytic, symptoms, especially wrist-drop, with a blue line
along the edge of the gums. Treatment: To counteract the
poison, give alum in water, one and a half ounce to a quart;
or, better still, Epsom salts or Glauber salts, an ounce of
either in a quart of water; or dilute sulphuric acid, a
teaspoonful in a quart of water. If a large quantity of sugar
of lead has been recently taken, empty the stomach by an emetic
of sulphate of zinc (one drachm in a quart of water), giving
one-fourth [pg 81] to commence, and repeating
smaller doses until free vomiting is produced; castor oil
should be given to clear the bowels, and injections of oil
and starch freely administered. If the body is cold, use the
warm bath.
Meadow Saffron.—See Belladonna.
Laudanum.—See Opium.
Lunar Caustic.—See Silver.
Lobelia.—Indian Poke.—Symptoms: Excessive
vomiting and purging, pains in the bowels, contraction of the
pupils, delirium, coma, and convulsions. Treatment: Mustard
over the stomach, and brandy and ammonia.
Mercury.—Corrosive Sublimate (bug poisons
frequently contain this poison), Red Precipitate, Chinese or
English Vermillion.—Symptoms: Acrid, metallic taste
in the mouth, immediate constriction and burning in the throat,
with anxiety and tearing pains in both stomach and bowels,
sickness, and vomiting of various colored fluids, and sometimes
bloody and profuse diarrhoea, with difficulty and pain in
urinating; pulse quick, small and hard; faint sensations, great
debility, difficult breathing, cramps, cold sweats, syncope and
convulsions. Treatment: If vomiting does not already exist,
emetics must be given immediately—albumen of eggs in
continuous large doses, and infusion of catechu afterwards,
sweet milk, mixtures of flour and water in successive cupfuls,
and to check excessive salivation put a half ounce of chlorate
of potash in a tumbler of water, and use freely as a gargle,
and swallow a tablespoonful every hour or two.
Monkshood.—See Arnica.
Morphine.—See Opium.
Nitrate of Silver (Lunar Caustic.)—Symptoms:
Intense pain and vomiting and purging of blood; mucus and
shreds of mucus membranes; and if these stand they become dark.
Treatment: Give freely of a solution of common salt in water,
which decomposes the poison, and afterwards flax-seed or elm
bark tea, and after a while a dose of castor oil.
Nux Vomica.—See Strychnine.
Opium and all its Preparations—Morphine, Laudanum,
Paregoric, etc.—Symptoms: Giddiness, drowsiness,
increasing to stupor, and insensibility; pulse usually, at
first, quirk and irregular, and breathing hurried, and
afterwards pulse slow and feeble, and respiration slow and
noisy; the pupils are contracted and the eyes and face
congested, and later, as death approaches, the extremities
become cold, the surface is covered with cold, clammy
perspiration, and the sphincters relax. The effects of opium
and its preparations, in poisonous doses, appear in from a half
to two hours from its administration. Treatment: Empty the
stomach immediately with an emetic or with the stomach pump.
Then give very strong coffee without milk; put mustard plasters
on the wrist and ankles; use the cold douche to the head and
chest, and if the patient is cold and sinking give brandy, or
whisky and ammonia. Belladonna is thought by many to counteract
the poisonous effects of opium, and may be given in doses of
half to a teaspoonful of the tincture, or two grains of the
extract, every twenty minutes, until some effect is observed in
causing the pupils to expand. Use warmth and friction, and if
possible prevent sleep for some hours, for which purpose the
patient should be walked about between two persons, and if
necessary a bunch of switches may be freely used. Finally, as a
last resort, use artificial respiration, and a persistance in
it will sometimes be rewarded with success in apparently
hopeless cases. Galvanism should also be tried.
Oxalic Acid.—See Acids.
Phosphorus—Found in Lucifer Matches and some Rat
Poisons.—Symptoms: Symptoms of irritant poisoning;
pain in the stomach and bowels; vomiting; diarrhoea; tenderness
and tension of the abdomen. Treatment: An emetic is to be
promptly given; copious draughts containing magnesia in
suspension: mucilaginous drinks. General treatment for
inflammatory symptoms.
Poisonous Fish.—Symptoms: In an hour or
two—often in much shorter time—after the fish has
been eaten, a weight at the stomach comes on, with slight
vertigo and headache; sense of heat about the head and eyes;
considerable thirst, and often an eruption of the skin.
Treatment: After full vomiting, an active purgative should be
given to remove any of the noxious matter from the intestines.
Vinegar and water may be drunk after the above remedies have
operated, and the body may be sponged with the same. Water made
very sweet with sugar, with aromatic spirits of ammonia added,
may be drunk freely as a corrective. A solution of cholorate of
potash, or of alkali, the latter weak, may be given to obviate
the effect of the poison. If spasms ensue after evacuation,
laudanum in considerable doses it necessary. If inflammation
should occur, combat in the usual way.
Poisonous Mushrooms.—- Symptoms: Nausea, heat
and pains in the stomach and bowels; vomiting and purging,
thirst, convulsions and faintings, pulse small and frequent,
dilated pupil and stupor, cold sweats and death.
Treatment: The stomach and bowels are to be cleared by an
emetic of ground mustard or sulphate of zinc, followed by
frequent doses of Glauber of Epsom salts, and large stimulating
clysters. After the poison is evacuated, either may be given
with small quantities of brandy and water. But if inflammatory
symptoms manifest themselves, such stimuli should be avoided,
and these symptoms appropriately treated.
Potash.—See Alkali.
Prussic Acid, Hydrocyanic.—See Acids.
Poison Ivy.—Symptoms. Contact with, and with
many persons the near approach to the vine, gives rise to
violent erysipelatous inflammation, especially of the face and
hands, attended with itching, redness, burning and swelling,
with watery blisters.
Treatment: Give saline laxatives, and apply weak lead and
laudanum, or limewater and sweet oil, or bathe the parts freely
with spirits of nitre. Anointing with oil will prevent
poisoning from it.
Saltpetre, Nitrate of Potash.—Symptoms. Only
poisonous in large quantities, and then causes nausea, painful
vomiting, purging, convulsions, faintness, feeble pulse, cold
feet and hands, with tearing pains in stomach and bowels.
Treatment: Treat just as is directed for arsenic, for there
is no antidote known, and emptying the stomach and bowels with
mild drinks must be relied on.
Savine.—Symptoms: Sharp pains in the bowels,
hot skin, rapid pulse, violent vomiting and sometimes purging,
with great prostration. Treatment: Mustard and hot fomentations
over the stomach and bowels, and ice only allowed in the
stomach until the inflammation ceases. If prostration comes on,
food and stimulants must be given by injection.
Stramonium, Thorn-apple or Jamestown
Weed.—Symptoms: Vertigo, headache, perversion of
vision, slight delirium, sense of suffocation, disposition to
sleep, bowels relaxed and all secretions augmented. Treatment:
Same as Belladonna.
Strychnine and Nux Vomica.—Symptoms: Muscular
twitching, constriction of the throat, difficult breathing and
oppression of the chest; violent muscular spasms then occur,
continuous in character like lock-jaw, with the body
[pg 82] backwards, sometimes like a
bow. Treatment: Give, if obtainable, one ounce or more of
bone charcoal mixed with water, and follow with an active
emetic; then give chloroform in teaspoonful doses, in flour
and water or glycerine, every few minutes while the spasms
last, and afterwards brandy and stimulants, and warmth of
the extremities if necessary. Recoveries have followed the
free and prompt administration of oils or melted butter or
lard. In all cases empty the stomach if possible.
Sulphate of Zinc, White Vitriol.—See Zinc.
Tin—Chloride of Tin, Solution of Tin (Used by
Dyers), Oxide of Tin or Putty Powder.—Symptoms:
Vomiting, pains in the stomach, anxiety, restlessness, frequent
pulse, delirium, etc. Treatment: Empty the stomach, and give
whites of eggs in water, milk in large quantities, or flour
beaten, up in water, with magnesia or chalk.
Tartar Emetic.—See Antimony.
Tobacco.—Symptoms: Vertigo, stupor, fainting,
nausea, vomiting, sudden nervous debility, cold sweat, tremors,
and at times fatal prostration. Treatment: After the stomach is
empty apply mustard to the abdomen and to the extremities, and
give strong coffee, with brandy and other stimulants, with
warmth to the extremities.
Zinc—Oxide of Zinc, Sulphate of Zinc, White
Vitriol, Acetate of Zinc.—Symptoms: Violent vomiting,
astringent taste, burning pain in the stomach, pale
countenance, cold extremities, dull eyes, fluttering pulse.
Death seldom ensues, in consequence of the emetic effect.
Treatment: The vomiting may be relieved by copious draughts of
warm water. Carbonate of soda, administered in solution, will
decompose the sulphate of zinc. Milk and albumen will also act
as antidotes. General principles to be observed in the
subsequent treatment.
Woorara.—Symptoms: When taken into the stomach
it is inert; when absorbed through a wound it causes sudden
stupor and insensibility, frothing at the mouth and speedy
death. Treatment: Suck the wound immediately, or cut it out and
tie a cord around the limb between the wound and the heart.
Apply iodine, or iodide of potassium, and give it internally,
and try artificial respiration.
Scalds.—See Burns and Scalds.
Sprains.—The portions most frequently
implicated are the wrist and ankle; no matter which portion it
may be, however, rest and quietness is a very important part of
the treatment, and, when possible, in an elevated position. If
the wrist is sprained it should be carried in a sling; if the
ankle, it should be supported on a couch or stool. Cold lotions
(see Bruises) should be freely applied, and irrigation by
pouring water from a pitcher or tea-kettle resorted to several
times a day to prevent inflammation. Later, frictions with
opodeldoc, or with some stimulating liniment, and supporting
the parts by pressure made with a flannel roller, or laced
stocking when the ankle is involved, will be useful to restore
tone; or strips of adhesive plaster properly applied will be
useful for the same purpose. Recovery from severe sprains is
always tedious. It is an old saying “that a bad sprain is worse
than a broken bone.”
Stings of Bees and Wasps.—See Bites and
Stings.
Suffocation from Noxious Gases, Foul Air, Fire Damp,
Etc.—Remove to fresh air and dash cold water over the
head, neck and chest; carefully apply hartshorn, or smelling
salts to the nostrils, and when the breathing is feeble or has
ceased, resort immediately to artificial respiration (see
Asphyxia and Drowning). Keep up the warmth of the body, and as
soon as the patient can swallow give stimulants in small
quantities.
Sunstroke.—This is caused by long exposure in
great heat, especially when accompanied with great fatigue and
exhaustion. Though generally happening from exposure to the
sun’s rays, yet precisely similar effects may be and are
produced from any undue exposure to great and exhaustive heat,
such as workmen are exposed to in foundries, gas factories,
bakeries, and other similar employments. Its first symptom is
pain in the head and dizziness, quickly followed by loss of
consciousness, and resulting in complete prostration:
sometimes, however, the attack is sudden, as in apoplexy. The
head is generally burning hot, the face, dark and swollen, the
breathing labored and snoring, and the feet and hands cold.
Remove the patient at once to a cool and shady place, and lay
him down with his head a little raised; apply ice or iced water
to the head and face; loosen all cloths around the neck or
waist; bathe the chest with cold water, apply mustard plasters,
or cloths wetted with turpentine, to the calves and soles of
the feet, and as soon as the patient can swallow, give weak
brandy or whisky and water.
There is no easy road to success—I Thank God for
it.
A trained man will make his life tall. Without training,
you
are left on a sea of luck, where thousands go down, while
one
meets with success. JAMES A. GARFIELD.”
THE FAMILY PHYSICIAN
The following receipts written by DR. J. H. GUNN will be
found of great value, especially in emergencies:
Asthma.—Take hyssop water and poppy water, of
each ten ounces; oxymel of squills, six ounces; syrup of maiden
hair, two ounces. Take one spoonful when you find any
difficulty in breathing.
Ague in the Breast.—Take one part of gum
camphor, two parts yellow bees-wax, three parts clean lard; let
all melt slowly, in any vessel [earthen best], on stove. Use
either cold or warm; spread very thinly on cotton or linen
cloths, covering those with flannel. No matter if the breast is
broken, it will cure if persevered in. Do not, no matter how
painful, cease from drawing milk from the breast that is
affected.
Ague, Mixture.—Mix twenty grains quinine with
one pint diluted gin or port wine, and add ten grains
subcarbonate of iron. Dose, a wine-glass each hour until the
ague is broken, and then two or three times a day until the
whole has been used.
2. Take Peruvian bark, two ounces; wild cherry tree bark, 1
ounce; cinnamon, one drachm; powdered capsicum, one
teaspoonful; sulphur, one ounce; port wine, two quarts. Let it
stand a day or two. Dose, a wine-glassful every two or three
hours until the disease is broken, and then two or three times
a day until all is taken.
Sprained Ankle.—Wash the ankle frequently with
cold salt and water, which is far better than warm vinegar or
decoctions of herbs. Keep your foot as cold as possible to
prevent inflammation, and sit with it elevated on a cushion.
Live on very low diet, and take every day some cooling
medicine. By obeying these directions only, a sprained ankle
has been cured in a few days.
Apoplexy.—Occurs only in the corpulent or
obese, and the gross or high livers. To treat, raise the head
to a nearly upright position; unloose all tight clothes,
strings, etc., and apply cold water to the head and warm water
and warm cloths to the feet. Have the apartment cool and well
ventilated. Give nothing by the mouth until the breathing is
relieved, and then only draughts of cold water.
Preparation for the Cure of Baldness.—Rum, one
pint; alcohol, one ounce; distilled water, one ounce, tincture
of cantharides, a half drachm; carbonate of potash, a half
drachm; carbonate of ammonia, one drachm. Mix the liquids after
having dissolved the salts, and filter. After the skin of the
head has been wetted with this preparation for several minutes,
it should be washed with water.
Bilious Colic.—Mix two tablespoonfuls of Indian
meal in half a pint of cold water; drink it at two
draughts.
Bilious Complaints.—Take the root and branch of
dandelion, and steep it in soft water a sufficient length of
time to extract all the essence; then strain the liquor and
simmer until it becomes quite thick. Dose: From one to three
glasses a day may be taken with good effect.
Blackberry Cordial.—To one quart blackberry
juice add one pound white sugar, one tablespoonful each cloves,
allspice, cinnamon and nutmeg. Boil together fifteen minutes,
and add a wine-glass of whisky, brandy or rum. Bottle while
hot, cork tight and seal. Used in diarrhea and dysentery. Dose,
a wine-glassful for an adult, half that quantity for a child.
It can be taken three or four times a day if the case is
severe.
Blisters.—- On the feet, occasioned by walking,
are cured by drawing a needleful of worsted thread through
them; clip it off at both ends and leave it till the skin peals
off.
Raising Blood.—Make a tea of white oak bark,
and drink freely during the day; or take half a pound of yellow
dock root, boil in new milk, say one quart: drink one gill
three times a day, and take one pill of white pine pitch every
day.
How to Stop Blood.—Take the fine dust of tea,
or the scrapings of the inside of tanned leather. Bind it upon
the wound closely, and blood will soon cease to flow.
Boils.—Make a poultice of ginger and flour, and
lay it on the boil. This will soon draw it to a head.
Swelled Bowels in Children.—Bathe the stomach
of the child with catnip steeped, mixed with fresh butter and
sugar.
Chilblains.—Dr. Fergus recommends sulphurous
acid in this affection. It should be applied with a camel’s
hair brush, or by means of a spray producer. One application of
this effects a cure. The acid should be used pure. A good wash
for hands or feet affected with chilblains is sulphurous acid,
three parts; glycerine, one part, and water one part. The acid
will be found particularly useful in the irritating, tormenting
stage of chilblains.
Chilblains and Chapped Hands.—When chilblains
manifest themselves, the best remedy not only for preventing
their ulcerating, but overcoming the tingling, itching pain,
and stimulating the circulation of the part to healthy action,
is the liniment of belladona, two drachms; the liniment of
aconite, one drachm; carbolic acid, ten drops; collodion
flexile, one ounce; painted with a camel’s hair pencil over
their surface. When the chilblains vesicate, ulcerate or
slough, it is better to omit the aconite and apply the other
components of the liniment without it. The collodion
[pg 84] forms a coating or protecting
film, which excludes the air, while the sedative liniments
allay the irritation, generally of no trivial nature. For
chapped hands we advise the free use of glycerine and good
oil, in the proportion of two parts of the former to four of
the latter; after this has been well rubbed into the hands
and allowed to remain for a little time, and the hands
subsequently washed with Castile soap and water, we
recommend the belladonna and collodion flexile to be painted
on, and the protective film allowed to remain permanently.
These complaints not unfrequently invade persons of languid
circulation and relaxed habit, who should be put on a
generous regimen, and treated with ferruginous tonics.
Obstinate, cases are occasionally met with which no local
application will remedy, unless some disordered state of the
system is removed, or the general condition of the patient’s
health improved. Chapped lips are also benefited by the
stimulating form of application we advocate, but the aconite
must not be allowed to get on the lips, or a disagreeable
tingling results.
Chilblain Balm.—Boil together ten fluid ounces
olive oil, two fluid ounces Venice turpentine, and one ounce
yellow wax; strain, and while still warm add, constantly
stirring, two and a half drachms balsam of Peru and ten grains
camphor.
Cure for Chilblain.—Make a strong lye by
boiling wood ashes in water. Put your feet in a small tub and
cover them with the lye as hot as you can bear it. Gradually
add more lye, hotter and hotter. Keep them in half an hour,
bathing and rubbing them continually, and being very careful to
keep the lye hot.
Chilblain Lotion.—Dissolve one ounce muriate of
ammonia in one-half pint cider vinegar, and apply frequently.
One-half pint of alcohol may be added to this lotion with good
effects.
Chilblain Ointment.—Take mutton tallow and
lard, of each three-fourths of a pound avoirdupois; melt, in an
iron vessel, and add hydrated oxide of iron, two ounces,
stirring continually with an iron spoon until the mass is of a
uniform black color; when nearly cool add Venice turpentine,
two ounces; Armenian bole, one ounce; oil of bergamot, one
drachm; rub up the bole with a little olive oil before putting
it in. Apply several times daily by putting it upon lint or
linen. It heals the worst cases in a few days.
Russian Remedy for Chilblains.—Slices of the
rind of fully ripe cucumbers, dried with the soft parts
attached. Previous to use they are softened by soaking them in
warm water, and are then bound on the sore parts with the inner
side next them, and left on all night. This treatment is said
to be adopted for both broken and unbroken chilblains.
How to Cure Itching Chilblains.—Take
hydrochloric acid, one part, and water, eight parts; mix. Apply
on going to bed. This must not be used if the skin is broken.
Sal ammoniac, two ounces; rum, one pint; camphor, two drachms.
The affected part is wetted night and morning, and when dry is
touched with a little simple ointment of any kind—cold
cream or pomatum.
Oil of turpentine, four ounces; camphor, six drachms; oil of
cajeput, two drachms. Apply with friction.
How to Cure Broken Chilblains.—Mix together
four fluid ounces collodion, one and a half fluid ounces Venice
turpentine, and one fluid ounce castor oil.
How to Cure Corns.—Take equal parts of
mercurial and galbanum ointments; mix them well together,
spread on a piece of soft leather, and apply it to the corns
morning and evening. In a few days benefit will be derived.
Take two ounces of gum ammoniac, two ounces of yellow wax, and
six ounces of verdigris; melt them together, and spread the
composition on soft leather; cut away as much of the corn as
you can, then apply the plaster, and renew it every fortnight
till the corn is away. Get four ounces of white diachylon
plaster, four ounces of shoemaker’s wax, and sixty drops of
muriatic acid or spirits of salt. Boil them for a few minutes
in an earthen pipkin, and when cold roll the mass between the
hands, and apply it on a piece of white leather. Soak the feet
well in warm water, then with a sharp instrument pare off as
much of the corn as can be done without pain, and bind up the
part with a piece of linen or muslin thoroughly saturated with
sperm oil, or, which is better, the oil which floats upon the
surface of the herring or mackerel. After three or four days
the dressing may be removed by scraping, when the new skin will
be found of a soft and healthy texture, and less liable to the
formation of a new corn than before. Corns may be prevented by
wearing easy shoes. Bathe the feet frequently in lukewarm
water, with a little salt or potashes dissolved in it. The corn
itself will be completely destroyed by rubbing it often with a
little caustic solution of potash till the soft skin is formed.
Scrape to a pulp sufficient Spanish garlic, and bind on the
corn over night, after first soaking it well in warm water, and
scrape off as much as possible of the hardened portion in the
morning. Repeat the application as required.
How to Cure Soft Corns.—Scrape a piece of
common chalk, and put a pinch to the soft corn, and bind a
piece of linen rag upon it.
How to Cure Tender Corns.—A strong solution of
tannic acid is said to be an excellent application to tender
feet as well as a preventive of the offensive odor attendant
upon their profuse perspiration. To those of our readers who
live far away in the country, we would suggest a strong
decoction of oak bark as a substitute.
Caustic for Corns.—Tincture of iodine, four
drachms: iodide of iron, twelve grains; chloride of antimony,
four drachms; mix, and apply with a camel’s hair brush, after
paring the corn. It is said to cure in three times.
How to Relieve Corns.—Bind them up at night
with a cloth wet with tincture of arnica, to relieve the pain,
and during the day occasionally moisten the stocking over the
corn with arnica if the shoe is not large enough to allow the
corn being bound up with a piece of linen rag.
Remedy for Corns.—1. The pain occasioned by
corns may be greatly alleviated by the following preparation:
Into a one-ounce vial put two drachms of muriatic acid and six
drachms of rose-water. With this mixture wet the corns night
and morning for three days. Soak the feet every evening in warm
water without soap. Put one-third of the acid into the water,
and with a little picking the corn will be dissolved. 2. Take a
lemon, cut off a small piece, then nick it so as to let in the
toe with the corn, tie this on at night so that it cannot move,
and in the morning you will find that, with a blunt knife, you
may remove a considerable portion of the corn. Make two or
three applications, and great relief will be the result.
How to Cure Solvent Corns.—Expose salt of
tartar (pearlash) in a wide-mouth vial in a damp place until it
forms an oil-like liquid, and apply to the corn.
How to Cure Cholera.—Take laudanum, tincture
cayenne, compound tincture rhubarb, peppermint, and camphor, of
each equal parts. Dose, ten to thirty drops. In plain terms,
take equal parts tincture of opium, red pepper, rhubarb,
peppermint and camphor, and mix them for use. In case of
diarroea, take a dose of ten to twenty drops in three or four
teaspoonfuls of water. No one who has this by him, and takes it
in time, will ever have the cholera.
Signs of Disease in Children.—In the case of a
baby not yet able to talk, it must cry when it is ill. The
colic [pg 85] baby cry loud, long, and
passionately, and shed tears—stopping for a moment and
beginning again.
If the chest is affected, it gives one sharp cry, breaking
off immediately, as if crying hurt it.
If the head is affected, it cries in sharp, piercing
shrieks, with low moans and wails between. Or there may be
quiet dozing, and startings between.
It is easy enough to perceive, where a child is attacked by
disease, that there has some change taken place; for either its
skin will be dry and hot, its appetite gone; it is stupidly
sleepy, or fretful or crying; it is thirsty, or pale and
languid, or in some way betrays that something is wrong. When a
child vomits, or has a diarrhoea, or is costive and feverish,
it is owing to some derangement, and needs attention. But these
various symptoms may continue for a day or two before the
nature of the disease can be determined. A warm bath, warm
drinks, etc., can do no harm, and may help to determine the
case. On coming out of the bath, and being well rubbed with the
hand, the skin will show symptoms of rash, if it is a skin
disease which has commenced. By the appearance of the rash, the
nature of the disease can be learned. Measles are in patches,
dark red, and come out first about the face. If scarlet fever
is impending, the skin will look a deep pink all over the body,
though most so about the neck and face. Chicken-pox shows
fever, but not so much running at the nose, and appearances of
cold, as in measles, nor is there as much of a cough. Besides,
the spots are smaller, and do not run much together, and are
more diffused over the whole surface of the skin; and enlarge
into blisters in a day or two.
How to Cure Consumption.—Take one tablespoonful
of tar, and the yolks of three hen’s eggs, beat them well
together. Dose, one tablespoonful morning, noon and night.
Croup, Remedy for in One Minute.—This remedy is
simply alum. Take a knife or grater, and shave or grate off in
small particles about a teaspoonful of alum; mix it with about
twice its quantity of sugar, to make it palatable, and
administer as quickly as possible. Its effects will be truly
magical, as almost instantaneous relief will be afforded.
Cholera Remedy, Hartshorne’s.—Take of
chloroform, tincture of opium, spirits of camphor, and spirits
of aromatic ammonia, each one and one-half fluid drachms;
creosote, three drops; oil of cinnamon, eight drops; brandy,
two fluid drachms. Dilute a teaspoonful with a wine-glass of
water, and give two teaspoonfuls every five minutes, followed
by a lump of ice.
Cure for Dandruff.—Good mild soap is one of the
safest remedies, and is sufficient in ordinary cases; carbonate
of potash or soda is too alkaline for the skin. Every
application removes a portion of the cuticle, as you may
observe by the smoothness of the skin of your hands after
washing them with it. Borax is recommended; but this is also
soda combined with a weak acid, boracic acid, and may by
protracted use also injuriously act on the scalp. Soap is also
soda or potash combined with the weak, fatty acids; and when
the soap contains an excess of the alkalies or is sharp, it is
as injurious as the carbonate of potash. All that injures the
scalp injures the growth of the hair. One of the best
applications from the vegetable kingdom is the mucilaginous
decoction of the root of the burdock, called bardane in French
(botanical name, Lappa Minor). In the mineral kingdom
the best remedy is a solution of flowers of sulphur in water,
which may be made by the addition of a very small portion of
sulphide of potassium, say ten or twenty grains to the pint.
This solution is shaken up with the sulphur, and the clear
liquid remaining on the top is used. This recipe is founded on
the fact that sulphur is a poison for inferior vegetable or
animal growth, like dandruff, itch, etc., and is not at all a
poison for the superior animal like man.
How to Cure Diphtheria.—A French physician
expresses his preference for lemon juice, as a local
application in diphtheria, to chlorate of potash, nitrate of
silver, perchloride of lime water. He uses it by dipping a
little plug of cottonwood, twisted around a wire, in the juice,
and pressing it against the diseased surface four or five times
daily.
How to Cure Bad Breath.—Bad or foul breath will
be removed by taking a teaspoonful of the following mixture
after each meal: One ounce liquor of potassa, one ounce
chloride of soda, one and one-half ounces phosphate of soda,
and three ounces of water.
2. Chlorate of potash, three drachms; rose-water, four
ounces. Dose, a tablespoonful four or five times daily.
How to Cure Bunions.—A bunion is a swelling on
the ball of the great toe, and is the result of pressure and
irritation by friction. The treatment for corns applies also to
bunions; but in consequence of the greater extension of the
disease, the cure is more tedious. When a bunion is forming it
may be stopped by poulticing and carefully opening it with a
lancet.
How to Cure Burns and Scalds.—Take half a pound
of powdered alum, dissolve it in a quart of water; bathe the
burn or scald with a linen rag, wetted with this mixture, then
bind the wet rag on it with a strip of linen, and moisten the
bandage with the alum water frequently, without removing it
during two or three days.
Tea Leaves for Burns.—Dr. Searles, of Warsaw,
Wis., reports the immediate relief from pain in severe burns
and scalds by the application of a poultice of tea leaves.
How to Cure Cancer.—Boil down the inner bark of
red and white oak to the consistency of molasses; apply as a
plaster, shifting it once a week; or, burn red-oak bark to
ashes; sprinkle it on the sore till it is eaten out; then apply
a plaster of tar; or, take garget berries and leaves of
stramonium; simmer them together in equal parts of neatsfoot
oil and the tops of hemlock; mix well together, and apply it to
the parts affected; at the same time make a tea of winter-green
(root and branch); put a handful into two quarts of water; add
two ounces of sulphur and drink of this tea freely during the
day.
Castor Oil Mixture.—Castor oil, one dessert
spoonful; magnesia, one dessert spoonful. Rub together into a
paste. By this combination, the taste of the oil is almost
entirely concealed, and children take it without
opposition.
How to Disguise Castor Oil.—Rub up two drops
oil of cinnamon with an ounce of glycerine and add an ounce of
castor oil. Children will take it as a luxury and ask for
more.
Castor Oil Emulsions.—Take castor oil and
syrup, each one ounce; the yolk of an egg, and orange flower
water, one-half ounce. Mix. This makes a very pleasant
emulsion, which is readily taken by adults as well as
children.
How to Cure Catarrh.—Take the bark of sassafras
root, dry and pound it, use it as a snuff, taking two or three
pinches a day.
How to Cure Chilblains.—Wash the parts in
strong alum water, apply as hot as can be borne.
How to Cure Cold.—Take three cents’ worth of
liquorice, three of rock candy, three of gum arabic, and put
them into a quart of water; simmer them till thoroughly
[pg 86] then add three cents’ worth
paregoric, and a like quantity of antimonial wine.
How to Cure Corns.—Boil tobacco down to an
extract, then mix with it a quantity of white pine pitch, and
apply it to the corn; renew it once a week until the corn
disappears.
Good Cough Mixture.—Two ounces ammonia mixture;
five ounces camphor mixture; one drachm tincture of digitalis
(foxglove); one-half ounce each of sweet spirits of nitre and
syrup of poppies; two drachms solution of sulphate of morphia.
A tablespoonful of this mixture is to be taken four times a
day.
2. Tincture of blood-root, one ounce; sulphate of morphia,
one and a half grains; tincture of digitalis, one-half ounce;
wine of antimony, one-half ounce; oil of wintergreen, ten
drops. Mix. Dose from twenty to forty drops twice or three
times a day. Excellent for a hard, dry cough.
3. Common sweet cider, boiled down to one-half, makes a
most, excellent syrup for colds or coughs for children, is
pleasant to the taste, and will keep for a year in a cool
cellar. In recovering from an illness, the system has a craving
for some pleasant drink. This is found in cider which is placed
on the fire as soon as made, and allowed to come to a boil,
then cooled, put in casks, and kept in a cool cellar.
4. Roast a large lemon very carefully without burning; when
it is thoroughly hot, cut and squeeze into a cup upon three
ounces of sugar candy. finely powdered: take a spoonful
whenever your cough troubles you. It is as good as it is
pleasant.
Cure for Deafness.—Take ant’s eggs and union
juice. Mix and drop them into the ear. Drop into the ear, at
night, six or eight drops of hot sweet oil.
Remedies for Diarrhoea.—1. Take one teaspoonful
of salt, the same of good vinegar, and a tablespoonful of
water; mix and drink. It acts like a charm on the system, and
even one dose will generally cure obstinate cases of diarrhoea,
or the first stages of cholera. If the first does not bring
complete relief, repeat the dose, as it is quite harmless. 2.
The best rhubarb root, pulverized, 1 ounce; peppermint leaf, 1
ounce, capsicum, 1/8 ounce; cover with boiling water and steep
thoroughly, strain, and add bicarbonate of potash and essence
of cinnamon, of each 1/2 ounce; with brandy (or good whisky);
equal in amount to the whole, and loaf sugar, four ounces.
Dose—for an adult, 1 or 2 tablespoons; for a child, 1 to
2 teaspoons, from 3 to 6 times per day, until relief is
obtained. 3. To half a bushel of blackberries; well mashed, add
a quarter of a pound of allspice, 2 ounces of cinnamon, 2
ounces of cloves; pulverize well, mix and boil slowly until
properly done; then strain or squeeze the juice through
home-spun or flannel, and add to each pint of the juice 1 pound
of loaf sugar, boil again for some time, take it off, and while
cooling, add half a gallon of the best Cognac brandy.
Cure for Chronic Diarroea.—Rayer recommends the
association of cinchona, charcoal and bismuth in the treatment
of chronic diarrh a, in the following proportions: Subnitrate
of bismuth, one drachm; cinchona, yellow, powdered, one-half
drachm; charcoal, vegetable, one drachm. Make twenty powders
and take two or three a day during the intervals between
meals.
Cures for Dysentery.—Tincture rhubarb, tincture
of capsicum, tincture of camphor, essence of ginger and
laudanum, equal parts. Mix; shake well and take from ten to
twenty drops every thirty minutes, until relief is obtained.
This is a dose for an adult. Half the amount for a child under
twelve years of age. 2. Take some butter off the churn,
immediately after being churned, just as it is, without being
salted or washed: clarify it over the fire like honey. Skim off
all the milky particles when melted over a clear fire. Let the
patient (if an adult) take two tablespoonfuls of the clarified
remainder, twice or thrice within the day. This has never
failed to effect a cure, and in many cases it has been almost
instantaneous. 3. In diseases of this kind the Indians use the
roots and leaves of the blackberry bush—- a decoction of
which, in hot water, well boiled down, is taken in doses of a
gill before each meal, and before retiring to bed. It is an
almost infallible cure. 4. Beat one egg in a teacup; add one
tablespoonful of loaf sugar and half a teaspoonful of ground
spice; fill the cup with sweet milk. Give the patient one
tablespoonful once in ten minutes until relieved. 5. Take one
tablespoonful of common salt, and mix it, with two
tablespoonfuls of vinegar and pour upon it a half pint of
water, either hot or cold (only let it be taken cool.) A wine
glass full of this mixture in the above proportions, taken
every half hour, will he found quite efficacious in curing
dysentery. If the stomach be nauseated, a wine-glass full taken
every hour will suffice. For a child, the quantity should be a
teaspoonful of salt and one of vinegar in a teacupful of
water.
Dropsy.—Take the leaves of a currant bush and
make into tea, drink it.
Cure for Drunkenness.—- The following singular
means of curing habitual drunkenness is employed by a Russian
physician. Dr. Schreiber, of Brzese Litewski: It consists in
confining the drunkard in a room, and in furnishing him at
discretion with his favorite spirit diluted with two-thirds of
water; as much wine, beer and coffee as he desires, but
containing one-third of spirit: all the food—the bread,
meat, and the legumes are steeped in spirit and water. The poor
devil is continually drunk and dort. On the fifth day of this
regime he has an extreme disgust for spirit; he earnestly
requests other diet: but his desire must not be yielded to
until the poor wretch no longer desires to eat or drink: he is
then certainly cured of his penchant for drunkenness. He
acquires such a disgust for brandy or other spirits that he is
ready to vomit at the very sight of it.
Cure for Dyspepsia.—1. Take bark of white
poplar root, boil it thick, and add a little spirit, and then
lay it on the stomach.
2. Take wintergreen and black cherry-tree bark and yellow
dock: put into two quarts of water; boil down to three pints;
take two or three glasses a day.
Here are two remedies for dyspepsia, said by those who “have
tried them” to be infallible. 1. Eat onions. 2. Take two parts
of well-dried and pounded pods of red pepper, mixed with one
part of ground mustard, and sift it over everything you eat or
drink.
How to Cure Earache.—Take a small piece of
cotton batting or cotton wool, make a depression in the center
with the finger, and then fill it up with as much ground pepper
as will rest on a five-cent piece; gather it into a ball and
tie it up; dip the ball into sweet oil and insert it in the
ear, covering the latter with cotton wool, and use a bandage or
cap to retain it in its place. Almost instant relief will be
experienced; and the application is so gentle that an infant,
will not get injured by it, but experience relief as well as
adults. Roast a piece of lean mutton, squeeze out the juice and
drop it info the ear as hot as it can be borne. Roast an onion
and put into the ear as hot as it can be borne.
How to Cure Erysipelas.—Dissolve five ounces of
salt in one pint of good brandy and take two tablespoonfuls
three times per day.
Cure for Inflamed Eyes.—Pour boiling water on
alder flowers, and steep them like tea; when cold, put three or
four drops of laudanum into a small glass of the alder-tea, and
let the mixture run into the eyes two or three times a day, and
the eyes will become perfectly strong in the course of a
week.
Cure for Weeping Eyes.—Wash the eyes in
chamomile tea night and morning.
Eyes, Granular Inflammation.—A prominent
oculist says that the contagious Egyptian or granular
inflammation of the eyes is spreading throughout the country,
and that he has been able in many, and indeed in a majority of
cases, to trace the disease to what are commonly called rolling
towels. Towels of this kind are generally found in country
hotels and the dwellings of the working classes, and, being
thus used by nearly every one, are made the carriers of one of
the most troublesome diseases of the eye. This being the case,
it is urgently recommended that the use of these rolling towels
be discarded, and thus one of the special vehicles for the
spread of a most dangerous disorder of the eyes—one by
which thousands of workingmen are annually deprived of their
means of support—will no longer exist.
Cure for Sty in Eye.—Bathe frequently with warm
water. When the sty bursts, use an ointment composed of one
part of citron ointment and four of spermaceti, well rubbed
together, and smear along the edge of the eye-lid.
Cure for Felons.—1. Stir one-half teaspoonful
of water into an ounce of Venice turpentine until the mixture
appears like granulated honey. Wrap a good coating of it around
the finger with a cloth. If the felon is only recent, the pain
will be removed in six hours.
2. As soon as the part begins to swell, wrap it with a cloth
saturated thoroughly with the tincture of lobelia. An old
physician says, that he has known this to cure scores of cases,
and that it never fails if applied in season.
Cure for Fever and Ague.—Take of cloves and
cream of tartar each one-half ounce, and one ounce of Peruvian
bark. Mix in a small quantity of tea, and take it on well days,
in such quantities as the stomach will bear.
Cure for Fever Sores.—Take of hoarhound, balm,
sarsaparilla, loaf sugar, aloes, gum camphor, honey, spikenard,
spirits of turpentine, each two ounces. Dose, one
tablespoonful, three mornings, missing three; and for a wash,
make a strong tea of sumach, washing the affected parts
frequently, and keeping the bandage well wet.
Cure for Fits.—Take of tincture of fox-glove,
ten drops at each time twice a day, and increase one drop at
each time as long as the stomach will bear it, or it causes a
nauseous feeling.
Glycerine Cream.—Receipt for chapped lips: Take
of spermaceti, four drachms; white wax, one drachm; oil of
almonds, two troy ounces; glycerine, one troy ounce. Melt the
spermaceti, wax and oil together, and when cooling stir in
glycerine and perfume.
Glycerine Lotion.—For softening the skin of the
face and hands, especially during the commencement of cold
weather, and also for allaying the irritation caused by the
razor: Triturate, four and a half grains of cochineal with one
and a half fluid ounces of boiling water, adding gradually;
then add two and a half fluid ounces of alcohol. Also make an
emulsion of eight drops of ottar of roses with thirty grains of
gum arabic and eight fluid ounces of water; then add three
fluid ounces of glycerine, and ten fluid drachms of quince
mucilage. Mix the two liquids.
Fleshworms.—These specks, when they exist in
any number, are a cause of much unsightliness. They are minute
corks, if we may use the term, of coagulated lymp, which close
the orifices of some of the pores or exhalent vessels of the
skin. On the skin immediately adjacent to them being pressed
with the finger nails, these bits of coagulated lymph will come
from it in a vermicular form. They are vulgarly called “flesh
worms,” many persons fancying them to be living creatures.
These may be got rid of and prevented from returning, by
washing with tepid water, by proper friction with a towel, and
by the application of a little cold cream. The longer these
little piles are permitted to remain in the skin the more
firmly they become fixed; and after a time, when they lose
their moisture they are converted into long bony spines as
dense as bristles, and having much of that character. They are
known by the name of spotted achne. With regard to local
treatment, the following lotions are calculated to be
serviceable: 1. Distilled rose water, 1 pint; sulphate of zinc,
20 to 60 grains. Mix. 2. Sulphate of copper, 20 grains;
rosewater, 4 ounces; water, 12 ounces. Mix. 3. Oil of sweet
almonds, 1 ounce; fluid potash, 1 drachm. Shake well together
and then add rose-water, 1 ounce; pure water, 6 ounces. Mix.
The mode of using these remedies is to rub the pimples for some
minutes with a rough towel, and then dab them with the lotion.
4. Wash the face twice a day with warm water, and rub dry with
a coarse towel. Then with a soft towel rub in a lotion made of
two ounces of white brandy, one ounce of cologne, and one-half
ounce of liquor potassa.
How to Remove Freckles.—Freckles; so
persistently regular in their annual return, have annoyed the
fair sex from time immemorial, and various means have been
devised to eradicate them, although thus far with no decidedly
satisfactory results. The innumerable remedies in use for the
removal of these vexatious intruders, are either simple and
harmless washes, such as parsley or horseradish water,
solutions of borax, etc., or injurious nostrums, consisting
principally of lead and mercury salts.
If the exact cause of freckles were known, a remedy for them
might be found. A chemist in Moravia, observing the bleaching
effect of mercurial preparations, inferred that the growth of a
local parasitical fungus was the cause of the discoloration of
the skin, which extended and ripened its spores in the warmer
season. Knowing that sulpho-carbolate of zinc is a deadly enemy
to all parasitic vegetation (itself not being otherwise
injurious), he applied this salt for the purpose of removing
the freckles. The compound consists of two parts of
sulpho-carbolate of zinc, twenty-five parts of distilled
glycerine, twenty-five parts of rose-water, and five parts of
scented alcohol, and is to be applied twice daily for from half
an hour to an hour, then washed off with cold water. Protection
against the sun by veiling and other means is recommended, and
in addition, for persons of pale complexion, some mild
preparation of iron.
Gravel.—1. Make a strong tea of the low herb
called heart’s ease, and drink freely. 2. Make of Jacob’s
ladder a strong tea, and drink freely. 3. Make of bean leaves a
strong tea, and drink freely.
Wash for the Hair.—Castile soap, finely shaved,
one teaspoonful; spirits of hartshorn, one drachm; alcohol,
five ounces; cologne water and bay rum, in equal quantities
enough to make eight ounces. This should be poured on the head,
followed by warm water (soft water); the result will be, on
washing, a copious lather and a smarting sensation to the
person operated on. Rub this well into the hair. Finally, rinse
with warm water, and afterwards with cold water. If the head is
very much clogged with dirt, the hair will come out
plentifully, but the scalp will become white and perfectly
clean.
Hair Restorative.—Take of castor oil, six fluid
ounces; alcohol, twenty-six fluid ounces. Dissolve. Then add
[pg 88] of cantharides (made with
strong alcohol), one fluid ounce; essence of jessamine (or
other perfume), one and a half fluid ounces.
Cure for Heartburn.—Sal volatile combined with
camphor is a splendid remedy.
Sick Headache.—Take a teaspoonful of powdered
charcoal in molasses every morning, and wash it down with a
little tea, or drink half a glass of raw rum or gin, and drink
freely of mayweed tea.
Headache.—Dr. Silvers, of Ohio, in the
Philadelphia Medical and Surgical Reporter, recommends
ergot in headache, especially the nervous or sick headache. He
says it will cure a larger proportion of cases than any other
remedy. His theory of its action is that it lessens the
quantity of blood in the brain by contracting the muscular
fibres of the arterial walls. He gives ten to twenty drops of
the fluid extract, repeated every half hour till relief is
obtained, or four or five doses used. In other forms of
disease, where opium alone is contra-indicated, its bad effects
are moderated, he says, by combining it with ergot.
Headache Drops.—For the cure of nervous, sun,
and sick headache, take two quarts of alcohol, three ounces of
Castile soap, one ounce camphor, and two ounces ammonia. Bathe
forehead and temples.
Hive Syrup.—Put one ounce each of squills and
seneca snake-root into one pint of water; boil down to one-half
and strain. Then add one-half pound of clarified honey
containing twelve grains tartrate of antimony. Dose for a
child, ten drops to one teaspoonful, according to age. An
excellent remedy for croup.
How to Clean the Hair.—From the too frequent
use of oils in the hair, many ladies destroy the tone and color
of their tresses. The Hindoos have a way of remedying this.
They take a hand basin filled with cold water, and have ready a
small quantity of pea flour. The hair is in the first place
submitted to the operation of being washed in cold water, a
handful of the pea flour is then applied to the head and rubbed
into the hair for ten minutes at least, the servant adding
fresh water at short intervals, until it becomes a perfect
lather. The whole head is then washed quite clean with copious
supplies of the aqueous fluid, combed, and afterwards rubbed
dry by means of coarse towels. The hard and soft brush is then
resorted to, when the hair will be found to be wholly free from
all encumbering oils and other impurities, and assume a glossy
softness, equal to the most delicate silk. This process tends
to preserve the tone and natural color of the hair, which is so
frequently destroyed by the too constant use of caustic
cosmetics.
How to Soften Hands.—After cleansing the hands
with soap, rub them well with oatmeal while wet.
How to Remove Stains from Hands.—Damp the hands
first in water, then rub them with tartaric acid, or salt of
lemons, as you would with soap; rinse them and rub them dry.
Tartaric acid, or salt of lemons, will quickly remove stains
from white muslin or linen. Put less than half a teaspoonful of
salt or acid into a tablespoonful of water; wet the stain with
it, and lay it in the sun for an hour; wet it once or twice
with cold water during the time; if this does not quite remove
it, repeat the acid water, and lay it in the sun.
How to Whiten Hands.—1. Stir 1/4 of a pound of
Castile soap, and place it in a jar near the fire, pour over it
1/2 pint of alcohol; when the soap is dissolved and mixed with
the spirit, add 1 ounce of glycerine, the same of oil of
almonds, with a few drops of essence of violets, or ottar of
roses, then pour it into moulds to cool for use. 2. A
wineglassful of eau-de-cologne, and one of lemon-juice, two
cakes of broken Windsor soap, mixed well together, when hard,
will form an excellent substance.
How to Cure Scurf in the Head.—A simple and
effectual remedy. Into a pint of water drop a lump of fresh
quick lime, the size of a walnut; let it stand all night, then
pour the water off clear from the sediment or deposit, add 1/4
of a pint of the best vinegar, and wash the head with the
mixture. Perfectly harmless; only wet the roots of the
hair.
How to Cure Chapped Lips.—Take 2 ounces of
white wax, 1 ounce of spermaceti, 4 ounces of oil of almonds, 2
ounces of honey, 1/4 of an ounce of essence of bergamot, or any
other scent. Melt the wax and spermaceti; then add the honey,
and melt all together, and when hot add the almond oil by
degrees, stirring till cold. 2. Take oil of almonds 3 ounces;
spermaceti 1/2 ounce; virgin rice, 1/2 ounce. Melt these
together over a slow fire, mixing with them a little powder of
alkane root to color it. Keep stirring till cold, and then add
a few drops of the oil of rhodium. 3.
Take oil of almonds, spermaceti, white wax. and white sugar
candy, equal parts. These form a good, white lip salve.
How to Remove Moth Patches.—Wash the patches
with solution of common bicarbonate of soda and water several
times during the day for two days, or until the patches are
removed, which will usually be in forty-eight hours. After the
process wash with some nice toilet soap, and the skin will be
left nice, smooth and clear of patches.
How to Take Care of the Nails.—The nails should
be kept clean by the daily use of the nail brush and soap and
water. After wiping the hands, but while they are still soft
from the action of the water, gently push back the skin which
is apt to grow over the nails, which will not only preserve
them neatly rounded, but will prevent the skin from cracking
around their roots (nail springs), and becoming sore. The
points of the nail should be pared at least once a week; biting
them should be avoided.
How to Cure Hiccough.—A convulsive motion of
the diaphragm and parts adjacent. The common causes are
flatuency, indigestion, acidity and worms. It may usually be
removed by the exhibition of warm carminatives, cordials, cold
wafer, weak spirits, camphor julep, or spirits of sal volatile.
A sudden fright or surprise will often produce the like effect.
An instance is recorded of a delicate young lady that was
troubled with hiccough for some months, and who was reduced to
a state of extreme debility from the loss of sleep occasioned
thereby, who was cured by a fright, after medicines and topical
applications had failed. A pinch of snuff, a glass of cold
soda-water, or an ice-cream, will also frequently remove this
complaint.
How to Cure Hoarseness.—Make a strong tea of
horseradish and yellow dock root, sweetened with honey and
drink freely.
Remedies for Hoarseness.—Take one drachm of
freshly scraped horse-radish root, to be infused with four
ounces of water in a close vessel for three hours, and made
into a syrup, with double its quantity of vinegar. A
teaspoonful has often proved effectual.
How to Cure Humors.—Take equal parts of saffron
and seneca snake root, make a strong tea, drink one half-pint a
day, and this will drive out all humors from the system.
How to Cure Hysterics.—Take the leaves of
motherwort and thoroughwort, and the bark of poplar root; equal
parts. Mix them in molasses, and take four of them when the
first symptoms of disorder are felt, and they will effectually
check it.
How to Cure Barber’s Itch.—Moisten the parts
affected with saliva (spittle) and rub it over thoroughly
[pg 89] times a day with the ashes of
a good Havana cigar. This is a simple remedy, yet it has
cured the most obstinate cases.
Itch Ointment.—1. Take lard, one pound; suet,
one pound; sugar of lead, eight ounces; vermillion, two ounces.
Mix. Scent with a little bergamot. 2. Take bichloride of
mercury, one ounce; lard, one pound; suet, one pound;
hydrochloride acid, one and a half ounces. Melt and well mix,
and when perfectly cold, stir in essence of lemon, four
drachms; essence of bergamot, one drachm. 3. Take powdered
chloride of lime, one ounce; lard, one pound. Mix well, then
add essence of lemon, two drachms. 4. Take bichloride of
mercury, one part; lard, fifteen parts. Mix well together. 5.
Take white precipitate, one part; lard, twelve parts. Mix. A
portion of either of these ointments must be well rubbed on the
parts affected, night and morning.
How to Cure Seven-Year Itch.—1. Use plenty of
castile soap and water, and then apply freely iodide of sulphur
ointment; or take any given quantity of simple sulphur ointment
and color it to a light brown or chocolate color with the
subcarbonate of iron, and then perfume it. Apply this freely,
and if the case should be a severe one, administer mild
alteratives in conjunction with the outward application. 2. The
sulphur bath is a good remedy for itch or any other kind of
skin diseases. Leprosy (the most obstinate of all) has been
completely cured by it, and the common itch only requires two
or three applications to completely eradicate it from the
system. 3. Benzine, it is said, will effect a complete cure for
scabies in the course of half to three-quarters of an hour,
after which the patient should take a warm bath from twenty to
thirty minutes.
How to Cure Jaundice.—1. Take the whites of two
hen’s eggs, beat them up well in a gill of water; take of this
a little every morning; it will soon do good. It also creates
an appetite, and strengthens the stomach. 2. Take of black
cherry-tree bark, two ounces; blood root and gold thread, each
half an ounce; put in a pint of brandy. Dose, from a
teaspoonful to a tablespoonful morning and night.
How to Cure Stiffened Joints.—Take of the bark
of white oak and sweet apple trees, equal parts; boil them down
to a thick substance, and then add the same quantity of
goose-grease or oil, simmer all together, and then rub it on
the parts warm.
How to Cure Kidney Disease.—Equal parts of the
oil of red cedar and the oil of spearmint.
How to Cure Lame Back.—Take the berries of red
cedar and allow them to simmer in neatsfoot oil, and use as an
ointment.
How to Kill Lice.—All kinds of lice and their
nits may be got rid of by washing with a simple decoction of
stavesacre (Delphinium staphisagria), or with a lotion
made with the bruised seed in vinegar, or with the tincture, or
by rubbing in a salve made with the seeds and four times their
weight of lard very carefully beaten together. The acetic
solution and the tincture are the cleanliest and most agreeable
preparations, but all are equally efficacious in destroying
both the creatures and their eggs, and even in relieving the
intolerable itching which their casual presence leaves behind
on many sensitive skins. The alkaloid delphinia may also be
employed, but possesses no advantage except in the preparation
of an ointment, when from any reason that form of application
should be preferred.
Rheumatic Liniment.—Olive oil, spirits of
camphor and chloroform, of each two ounces; sassafras oil, 1
drachm. Add the oil of sassafras to the olive oil, then the
spirits of camphor, and shake well before putting in the
chloroform; shake when used, and keep it corked, as the
chloroform evaporates very fast if it is left open. Apply three
or four times daily, rubbing in well, and always toward the
body.
Sore Throat Liniment.—Gum camphor, two ounces;
castile soap, shaved fine, one drachm; oil of turpentine and
oil of origanum, each one-half ounce; opium, one-fourth of an
ounce; alcohol, one pint. In a week or ten days they will be
fit for use. Bathe the parts freely two or three times daily
until relief is obtained.
A Wonderful Liniment.—Two ounces oil of spike,
two ounces origanum, two ounces hemlock, two ounces wormwood,
four ounces sweet oil, two ounces spirit of ammonia, two ounces
gum camphor, two ounces spirits turpentine. Add one quart
strong alcohol. Mix well together, and bottle tight. This is an
unequaled horse liniment, and of the best ever made for human
ailments such as rheumatism, sprains, etc.
How to Cure Sore Lips.—Wash the lips with a
strong tea, made from the bark of the white oak.
Liver Complaint.—Make a strong tea of syrup of
burdock, wormwood and dandelion, equal parts, and drink
freely.
Lock Jaw.—It is said that the application of
warm lye, made of ashes as strong as possible, to a wounded
part, will prevent a locked jaw; if a foot or hand, immerse in
it; if another part of the body, bathe with flannels wrung out
of the warm lye.
Mumps.—This disease, most common among
children, begins with soreness and stiffness in the side of the
neck. Soon a swelling of the parotid gland takes place, which
is painful, and continues to increase for four or five days,
sometimes making it difficult to swallow, or open the mouth.
The swelling sometimes comes on one side at a time, but
commonly upon both. There is often heat, and sometimes fever,
with a dry skin, quick pulse, furred tongue, constipated bowls,
and scanty and high-colored urine. The disease is contagious.
The treatment is very simple—a mild diet, gentle
laxative, occasional hot fomentations, and wearing a piece of
flannel round the throat.
How to Prevent Ingrowing Nails.—If the nail of
your toe be hard, and apt to grow round, and into the corners
of your toe, take a piece of broken glass and scrape the top
very thin; do this whenever you cut your nails, and by constant
use it makes the corners fly up and grow flat, so that it is
impossible they should give you any pain.
How to Whiten Nails.—The best wash for
whitening the nails is two drachms of diluted sulphuric acid,
one drachm of tincture of myrrh, added to four ounces of spring
water; first cleanse the hands, and then apply the wash.
Sure Cure for Neuralgia.—1. Fill a tight-top
thimble with cotton wool, and drop on it a few drops of strong
spirits of hartshorn. The open mouth of the thimble is then
applied over the seat of pain for a minute or two, until the
skin is blistered. The skin is then rubbed off, and upon the
denuded surface a small quantity of morphia (one-fourth grain)
is applied. This affords almost instant relief. A second
application of the morphia, if required, is to be preceded by
first rubbing off the new formation that has sprung up over the
former blistered surface.
2. Dr. J. Knox Hodge recommends the following as an
application which will relieve facial or any other neuralgia
almost instantaneously: Albumen of egg, one drachm; rhigolene,
four ounces; oil of peppermint, two ounces; colodion and
chloroform, each one ounce. Mix. Agitate occasionally for
twenty-four hours, and by gelatinization a beautiful and
semi-solidified, opodeldoc-looking compound
[pg 90] which will retain its
consistency and hold the ingredients intimately blended for
months. Apply by smart friction with the hand, or gently
with a soft brush or mop along the course of the nerve
involved.
3. Mix one and one-half drachms iodide of potash, fifteen
grains of quinine and one ounce ginger syrup, and two and a
half ounces water. Dose, a tablespoonful every three hours.
4. Of the Stomach.—Take of distilled water of
cherry laurel, five parts; muriate of morphia, one-tenth part.
Mix and dissolve. One drop on a lump of sugar immediately
before meals.
Ointment for Sore Nipples.—Glycerine, rose
water and tannin, equal weights, rubbed together into an
ointment, is very highly recommended for sore or cracked
nipples.
Glycerine Ointment.—Melt together spermaceti,
two drachms; white wax, one-half drachm; oil of sweet almonds,
two ounces, and then add glycerine, one ounce, and stir briskly
until cool. An admirable application for chapped hands,
etc.
Ointment for Itch.—- White precipitate, fifteen
grains; saltpetre, one-half drachm; flour of sulphur, one
drachm; Mix well with lard, two ounces. Long celebrated for the
cure of itch.
Sulphur Ointment.—Flour of sulphur, eight
ounces; oil of bergamot, two drachms; lard, one pound. Rub
freely three times a day, for itch.
Ointment for Piles.—Tannin, two drachms; water,
two fluid drachms; triturate together, and add lard, one and a
half drachms. An excellent application for piles.
Ointment for Hemorrhoids.—Sulphate of morphia,
three grains; extract of stramonia, thirty grains; olive oil,
one drachm; carbonate of lead, sixty grains; lard, three
drachms.
Pains.—1. Steep marigold in good cider vinegar
and frequently wash the affected parts. This will afford speedy
relief.
2. Take half a pound of tar and the same quantity of
tobacco, and boil them down separately to a thick substance;
then simmer them together. Spread a plaster and apply it to the
affected parts, and it will afford immediate relief.
Painters’ Colic.—Make of tartaric acid a syrup
similar to that of lemon syrup; add a sufficient quantity of
water, and drink two or three glasses a day.
Instantaneous Pain-Killer.—Another and even
more instant cure of pain is made as follows: Take
aqua-ammonia, sulphuric ether and alcohol, equal parts, and
apply over the pain.
How to Cure Pimples.—Take a teaspoonful of the
tincture of gum guaiacum and one teaspoonful of vinegar; mix
well and apply to the affected parts.
Poor Man’s Plaster.—Melt together beeswax, one
ounce; tar, three ounces; resin, three ounces, and spread on
paper or muslin.
Rheumatic Plaster.—One-fourth pound of resin
and one-fourth pound of sulphur; melt by a slow fire, and add
one ounce of Cayenne pepper and one-fourth of an ounce of
camphor gum; stir well till mixed, and temper with neatsfoot
oil.
Strengthening Plaster.—Litharge plasters,
twenty-four parts; white resin, six parts; yellow wax and olive
oil, of each three parts, and red oxide of iron, eight parts.
Let the oxide be rubbed with the oil, and the other ingredients
added melted, and mix the whole well together. The plaster,
after being spread over the leather, should be cut into strips
two inches wide and strapped firmly around the joint.
Mustard Plasters.—It is stated that in making a
mustard plaster, no water whatever should be used, but the
mustard mixed with the white of an egg; the result will be a
plaster that will “draw” perfectly, but will not produce a
blister even upon the skin of an infant, no matter how long it
is allowed to remain upon the part.
Bread and Milk Poultice.—Take stale bread in
crumbs, pour boiling sweet milk, or milk and water over it, and
simmer till soft, stirring it well; then take it from the fire,
and gradually stir in a little glycerine or sweet oil, so as to
render the poultice pliable when applied.
Linseed Poultice.—- Take of linseed, powdered,
four ounces; hot water sufficient, mix and stir well with a
spoon, until of suitable consistence. A little oil should be
added, and some smeared over the surface as well, to prevent
its getting hard. A very excellent poultice, suitable for many
purposes.
Spice Poultice.—Powdered cinnamon, cloves and
Cayenne pepper, of each two ounces; rye meal, or flour, spirits
and honey, of each sufficient to make of suitable
consistence.
Quinsy.—This is an inflammation of the tonsils,
or common inflammatory sore throat; commences with a slight
feverish attack, with considerable pain and swelling of the
tonsils, causing some difficulty in swallowing; as the attack
advances these symptoms become more intense, there is headache,
thirst, a painful sense of tension, and acute darting pains in
the ears. The attack is generally brought on by exposure to
cold, and lasts from five to seven days, when it subsides
naturally, or an abscess may form in tonsils and burst, or the
tonsil may remain enlarged, the inflammation subsiding.
TREATMENT.—The patient should remain in a warm room,
the diet chiefly milk and good broths, some cooling laxative
and diaphoretic medicine may be given; but the greatest relief
will be found in the frequent inhalation of the steam of hot
water through an inhaler, or in the old-fashioned way, through
the spout of a teapot.
Other Remedies for Rheumatism.—1. Bathe the
parts affected with water in which potatoes have been boiled,
as hot as can be borne, just before going to bed; by morning it
will be much relieved, if not removed. One application of this
simple remedy has cured the most obstinate of rheumatic pains.
2. Half an ounce of pulverized salt petre put in half a pint of
sweet oil; bathe the parts affected, and a sound cure will be
speedily effected. 3. Rheumatism has frequently been cured by a
persistent use of lemon juice, either undiluted or in the form
of lemonade. Suck half a lemon every morning before breakfast,
and occasionally during the day, and partake of lemonade when
thirsty in preference to any other drink. If severely afflicted
a physician should be consulted, but, in all cases, lemon juice
will hasten the cure. 4. By the valerian bath, made simply by
taking one pound of valerian root, boiling it gently for about
a quarter of an hour in one gallon of water, straining and
adding the strained liquid to about twenty gallons of water in
an ordinary bath. The temperature should be about ninety-eight
degrees, and the time of immersion from twenty minutes to half
an hour. Pains must be taken to dry the patient perfectly upon
getting out of the bath. If the inflammation remain refractory
in any of the joints, linseed meal poultices should be made
with a strong decoction of valerian root and applied.
How to Cure Ring-Worm.—To one part sulphuric
acid, add sixteen to twenty parts water. Use a brush and
feather, and apply it to the parts night and morning. A few
dressings will generally cure. If the solution is too
[pg 91] and causes pain, dilute it
with water, and if the irritation is excessive, rub on a
little oil or other softening application, but always avoid
the use of soap.
Or, wash the head with soft soap every morning, and apply
the following lotion every night: One-half drachm of
sub-carbonate of soda dissolved in one gill of vinegar.
Healing Salve.—Sweet oil, three quarts; resin,
three ounces; beeswax, three ounces. Melt together; then add
powdered red lead, two pounds; heat all these together and when
nearly cold add a piece of camphor as large as a nutmeg. Good
for burns, etc.
Salt Rheum.—1. Make a strong tea of elm root
bark; drink the tea freely, and wash the affected part in the
same. 2. Take one ounce of blue flag root, steep it in half a
pint of gin; take a teaspoonful three times a day, morning,
noon and night, and wash with the same. 3. Take one ounce of
oil of tar, one drachm of oil of checker berry; mix. Take from
five to twenty drops morning and night as the stomach will
bear.
Bleeding of the Stomach.—Take a teaspoonful of
camomile tea every ten minutes until the bleeding stops.
Sickness of Stomach.—Drink three or four times
a day of the steep made from the bark of white poplar
roots.
Sunburn and Tan.—1. Take two drachms of borax,
one drachm of Roman alum, one drachm of camphor, half an ounce
of sugar candy, and a pound of ox-gall. Mix, and stir well for
ten minutes or so, and repeat this stirring three or four times
a day for a fortnight, till it appears clear and transparent.
Strain through blotting paper, and bottle up for use. 2. Milk
of almonds made thus: Take of blanched bitter almonds half an
ounce, soft water half a pint; make an emulsion by beating the
almonds and water together, strain through a muslin cloth, and
it is made. 3. A preparation composed of equal parts of olive
oil and lime water is also an excellent remedy for sunburn.
To Produce Sweat.—Take of nitre, one-half
drachm; snake’s head (herb), saffron, camphor, snake-root,
seneca, bark of sassafras root, each one ounce; ipecac, and
opium, each one half ounce; put the above in three quarts of
Holland gin, and take a tablespoonful in catnip tea every few
minutes, till a sweat is produced.
Teething.—Young children whilst cutting their
first set of teeth often suffer severe constitutional
disturbance. At first there is restlessness and peevishness,
with slight fever, but not infrequently these are followed by
convulsive fits, as they are commonly called, which depends on
the brain becoming irritated; and sometimes under this
condition the child is either cut off suddenly, or the
foundation of serious mischief to the brain is laid. The
remedy, or rather the safeguard, against these frightful
consequences is trifling, safe, and almost certain, and
consists merely in lancing the gum covering the tooth which is
making its making its way through. When teething is about it
may be known by the spittle constantly driveling from the mouth
and wetting the frock. The child has its fingers in its month,
and bites hard any substance it can get hold of. If the gums be
carefully looked at, the part where the tooth is pressing up is
swollen and redder than usual; and if the finger be pressed on
it the child shrinks and cries, showing that the gum is tender.
When these symptoms occur, the gum should be lanced, and
sometimes the tooth comes through the next day, if near the
surface; but if not so far advanced the cut heals and a scar
forms, which is thought by some objectionable, as rendering the
passage of the tooth more difficult. This, however, is untrue,
for the scar will give way much more easily than the uncut gum.
If the tooth does not come through after two or three days, the
lancing may be repeated; and this is more especially needed if
the child be very fractious, and seems in much pain. Lancing
the gums is further advantageous, because it empties the
inflamed part of its blood, and so relieves the pain and
inflammation. The relief children experience in the course of
two or three hours from the operation is often very remarkable,
as they almost immediately become lively and cheerful.
Wash for Teeth and Gums.—The teeth should be
washed night and morning, a moderately small and soft brush
being used; after the morning ablution, pour on a second
tooth-brush, slightly dampened, a little of the following
lotion: Carbolic acid, 20 drops; spirits of wine, 2 drachms;
distilled water, 6 ounces. After using this lotion a short time
the gums become firmer and less tender, and impurity of the
breath (which is most commonly caused by bad teeth), will be
removed. It is a great mistake to use hard tooth-brushes, or to
brush the teeth until the gums bleed.
Tetter.—After a slight feverish attack, lasting
two or three days, clusters of small, transparent pimples,
filled sometimes with a colorless, sometimes with a brownish
lymph, appear on the cheeks or forehead, or on the extremities,
and at times on the body. The pimples are about the size of a
pea, and break after a few days, when a brown or yellow crust
is formed over them, which falls off about the tenth day,
leaving the skin red and irritable. The eruption is attended
with heat; itching, tingling, fever, and restlessness,
especially at night. Ringworm is a curious form of tetter, in
which the inflamed patches assume the form of a ring.
TREATMENT—Should consist of light diet, and gentle
laxatives. If the patient be advanced in life, and feeble, a
tonic will be desirable. For a wash, white vitriol, 1 drachm;
rose-water, 3 ounces, mixed; or an ointment made of
alder-flower ointment, 1 ounce; oxide of zinc, 1 drachm.
To Remove Tan.—Tan may be removed from the face
by mixing magnesia in soft water to the consistency of paste,
which should then be spread on the face and allowed to remain a
minute or two. Then wash off with Castile soap suds, and rinse
with soft water.
Care of the Teeth.—The mouth has a temperature
of 98 degrees, warmer than is ever experienced in the shade in
the latitude of New England. It is well known that if beef, for
example, be exposed in the shade during the warmest of our
summer days, it will very soon decompose. If we eat beef for
dinner, the particles invariably find their way into the spaces
between the teeth. Now, if these particles of beef are not
removed, they will frequently remain till they are softened by
decomposition. In most mouths this process of decomposition is
in constant progress. Ought we to be surprised that the gums
and teeth against which these decomposing or putrefying masses
lie should become subjects of disease?
How shall our teeth be preserved? The answer is very
simple—keep them very clean. How shall they be kept
clean? Answer—By a toothpick, rinsing with water, and the
daily use of a brush.
The toothpick should be a quill, not because the metalic
picks injure the enamel, but because the quill pick is so
flexible it fits into all the irregularities between the teeth.
Always after using the toothpick the mouth should be thoroughly
rinsed. If warm water be not at hand, cold may be used,
although warm is much better. Closing the lips, with a motion
familiar to all, everything may be thoroughly rinsed from the
mouth.
Every morning (on rising), and every evening (on going to
bed), the tooth-brush should be used, and the teeth, both
outside and inside, thoroughly brushed.
Much has been said pro and con., upon the use
of soap with the tooth-brush. My own experience and the
[pg 92] of members of my family is
highly favorable to the regular morning and evening use of
soap. Castile or other good soap will answer this purpose.
(Whatever is good for the hands and face is good for the
teeth.) The slightly unpleasant taste which soap has when we
begin to use it will soon be unnoticed.
Tooth Powders.—Many persons, while laudably
attentive to the preservation of their teeth, do them harm by
too much officiousness. They daily apply to them some
dentifrice powder, which they rub so hard as not only to injure
the enamel by excessive friction, but to hurt the gums even
more than by the abuse of the toothpick. The quality of some of
the dentifrice powders advertised in newspapers is extremely
suspicious, and there is reason to think that they are not
altogether free from a corrosive ingredient. One of the safest
and best compositions for the purpose is a mixture of two parts
of prepared chalk, one of Peruvian bark, and one of hard soap,
all finely powdered, which is calculated not only to clean the
teeth without hurting them, but to preserve the firmness of the
gums.
Besides the advantage of sound teeth for their use in
mastication, a proper attention to their treatment conduces not
a little to the sweetness of the breath. This is, indeed, often
affected by other causes existing in the lungs, the stomach,
and sometimes even in the bowels, but a rotten state of the
teeth, both from the putrid smell emitted by carious bones and
the impurities lodged in their cavities, never fails of
aggravating an unpleasant breath wherever there is a tendency
of that kind.
Remedies for Toothache.—1. One drachm of alum
reduced to an impalpable powder, three drachms of nitrous
spirits of ether—mix, and apply them to the tooth on
cotton. 2. Mix a little salt and alum, equal portions, grind it
fine, wet a little lock of cotton, fill it with the powder and
put it in your tooth. One or two applications seldom fail to
cure. 3. To one drachm of collodion add two drachms of
Calvert’s carbolic acid. A gelatinous mass is precipitated, a
small portion of which, inserted in the cavity of an aching
tooth, invariably gives immediate relief. 4. Saturate a small
bit of clean cotton wool with a strong solution of ammonia, and
apply it immediately to the affected tooth. The pleasing
contrast immediately produced in some cases causes fits of
laughter, although a moment previous extreme suffering and
anguish prevailed. 5. Sometimes a sound tooth aches from
sympathy of the nerves of the face with other nerves. But when
toothache proceeds from a decayed tooth either have it taken
out, or put hot fomentations upon the face, and hot drinks into
the mouth, such as tincture of cayenne.
To Cure Warts.—Warts are formed by the small
arteries, veins, and nerves united together, taking on a
disposition to grow by extending themselves upward, carrying
the scarf-skin along with them, which, thickening, forms a
wart. Corns are a similar growth, brought about by the friction
of tight boots and shoes. 1. Take a piece of diachylon plaster,
cut a hole in the centre the size of the wart, and stick it on,
the wart protruding through. Then touch it daily with
aquafortis, or nitrate of silver. They may be removed by tying
a string tightly around them. 2. Take a blacksmith’s punch,
heat it red hot and burn the warts with the end of it. When the
burn gets well the warts will be gone forever. 3. Scrape down
enough dry cobwebs to make a ball large enough to, or a little
more than, cover the wart and not touch the flesh around the
same; lay it on top of the wart, ignite it and let it be until
it is all burnt up. The wart will turn white, and in a few days
come out. 4. Pass a pin through the wart; apply one end of the
pin to the flame of a lamp; hold it there until the wart fries
under the action of the heat. A wart so treated will leave. 5.
Dissolve as much common washing soda as the water will take up;
wash the warts with this for a minute or two, and let them dry
without wiping. Keep the water in a bottle and repeat the
washing often, and it will take away the largest warts. 6. They
may be cured surely by paring them down until the blood comes
slightly and then rubbing them with lunar caustic. It is
needless to say this hurts a little, but it is a sure cure. The
hydrochlorate of lime applied in the same way will cure after
several applications and some patience; so will strong good
vinegar, and so it is said will milk weed. The cures founded
upon superstitious practices, such as muttering some phrases
over the excrescence, stealing a piece of beef, rubbing the
wart therewith and then burying it under the leaves to await
its decay, etc., etc., are all the remnants of a past state of
ignorance and are of no use whatever. Warts are generally only
temporary and disappear as their possessors grow up.
How to Cure White Swelling.—Draw a blister on
the inside of the leg below the knee; keep it running with
ointment made of hen manure, by simmering it in hog’s lard with
onions; rub the knee with the following kind of ointment: Bits
of peppermint, oil of sassafras, checkerberry, juniper, one
drachm each; simmer in one-half pint neatsfoot oil, and rub on
the knee three times a day.
How to Cure Wounds.—Catnip steeped, mixed with
fresh butter and sugar.
How to Cure Whooping-Cough.—Take a quart of
spring water, put in it a large handful of chin-cups that grow
upon moss, a large handful of unset hyssop; boil it to a pint,
strain it off, and sweeten it with sugar-candy. Let the child,
as often as it coughs, take two spoonfuls at a time.
How to Cure Worms in Children.—1. Take one
ounce of powdered snake-head (herb), and one drachm each of
aloes and prickly ash bark; powder these, and to one-half
teaspoonful of this powder add a teaspoonful of boiling water
and a teaspoonful of molasses. Take this as a dose, night or
morning, more or less, as the symptoms may require. 2. Take
tobacco leaves, pound them up with honey, and lay them on the
belly of the child or grown person, at the same time
administering a dose of some good physic. 3. Take garden
parsley, make it into a tea and let the patient drink freely of
it. 4. Take the scales that will fall around the blacksmith’s
anvil, powder them fine, and put them in sweetened rum. Shake
when you take them, and give a teaspoonful three times a
day.
Scalding of the Urine.—Equal parts of the oil
of red cedar, and the oil of spearmint.
Urinary Obstructions.—Steep pumpkin seeds in
gin, and drink about three glasses a day; or, administer half a
drachm uva ursi every morning, and a dose of spearmint.
Free Passage Of Urine.—The leaves of the
currant bush made into a tea, and taken as a common drink.
Venereal Complaints.—Equal parts of the oil of
red cedar, combined with sarsaparilla, yellow dock and burdock
made into a syrup; add to a pint of this syrup an ounce of gum
guiaicum. Dose, from a tablespoonful to a wine-glass, as best
you can bear.
How to Cure Sore Throat.—”One who has tried it”
communicates the following sensible item about curing sore
throat: Let each one of your half million readers buy at any
drug store one ounce of camphorated oil and five cents’ worth
of chloride of potash. Whenever any soreness appears in the
throat, put the potash in half a tumbler of water, and with it
gargle the throat thoroughly; then rub the neck thoroughly with
the camphorated oil at night before going to bed, and also pin
around the throat a small strip of woolen flannel. This is a
simple, cheap and sure remedy.
LANGUAGE OF FLOWERS
Acacia—Concealed love.
Adonis Vernalis—Sorrowful remembrances.
Almond—Hope.
Aloe—Religious superstition.
Alyssum, Sweet—Worth beyond beauty.
Ambrosia—Love returned.
Apple Blossom—Preference.
Arbor Vitæ—Unchanging friendship.
Bachelor’s button—Hope in love.
Balsam—Impatience.
Begonia—Deformity.
Bellflower—Gratitude.
Belvidere, Wild (Licorice)—I declare against you.
Blue Bell—I will be constant.
Box—Stoical indifference.
Briers—Envy.
Burdock—Touch me not.
Cactus—Thou leavest not.
Camellia—Pity.
Candytuft—Indifference.
Canterbury Bell—Gratitude.
Cape Jessamine—Ecstasy; transport.
Calla Lily—Feminine beauty.
Carnation (Yellow)—Disdain.
Cedar—I live for thee.
China Aster—I will see about it.
Chrysanthemum Rose—I love.
Cowslip—Pensiveness.
Cypress—Mourning.
Crocus—Cheerfulness.
Cypress and Marigold—Despair.
Daffodil—Chivalry.
Dahlia—Forever thine.
Daisy (Garden)—I partake your sentiment.
Daisy (Wild)—I will think of it.
Dandelion—Coquetry.
Dead Leaves—Sadness.
Dock—Patience.
Dodder—Meanness.
Dogwood—Am I indifferent to you?
Ebony—Hypocrisy.
Eglantine—I wound to heal.
Elder—Compassion.
Endive—Frugality.
Evening Primrose—Inconstancy.
Evergreen—Poverty.
Everlasting—Perpetual remembrance.
Fennel—Strength.
Filbert—Reconciliation.
Fir-tree—Elevation.
Flux—I feel your kindness.
Forget-me-not—True love; remembrance.
Fox-glove—Insincerity.
Furze—Anger.
Fuchsia—Taste.
Gentian—Intrinsic worth.
Geranium, Ivy—Your hand for the next dance.
Geranium, Nutmeg—I expect a meeting.
Geranium, Oak—Lady, deign to smile.
Geranium, Rose—Preference.
Geranium, Silver leaf—Recall.
Gilliflower—Lasting beauty.
Gladiolus—Ready; armed.
Golden Rod—Encouragement.
Gorse—Endearing affection.
Gass—Utility.
Harebell—Grief.
Hawthorn—Hope.
Hazel—Recollection.
Hartsease—Think of me.
Heliotrope—Devotion.
Henbane—Blemish.
Holly—Foresight.
Hollyhock—Fruitfulness.
Hollyhock, White—Female ambition.
Honeysuckle—Bond of Love.
Honeysuckle, Coral—The color of my fate.
Hyacinth—Jealousy.
Hyacinth, Blue—Constancy.
Hyacinth, Purple—Sorrow.
Hydrangea—Heartlessness.
Ice plant—Your looks freeze me.
Iris—Message.
Ivy—Friendship; matrimony.
Jessamine, Cape—Transient joy;
ecstasy.
Jessamine, White—Amiability.
Jessamine, Yellow—Grace; elegance.
Jonquil—I desire a return of affection.
Juniper—Asylum; shelter.
Justitia—Perfection of loveliness.
Kalmia (Mountain Laurel)—Treachery.
Kannedia—Mental beauty.
Laburnum—Pensive beauty.
Lady’s Slipper—Capricious beauty.
Larch—Boldness.
Larkspur—Fickleness.
Laurel—Glory.
Lavender—Distrust.
Lettuce—Cold-hearted.
Lilac—First emotion of love.
Lily—Purity; modesty.
Lily of the Valley—Return of happiness.
Lily, Day—Coquetry,
Lily, Water—Eloquence.
Lily, Yellow—Falsehood.
Locust—Affection beyond the grave.
Love in a Mist—You puzzle me.
Love Lies Bleeding—Hopeless, not heartless.
Lupine—Imagination.
Mallow—Sweetness; mildness.
Maple—Reserve.
Marigold—Cruelty.
Marjoram—Blushes.
Marvel of Peru (Four O’clocks)—Timidity.
Mint—Virtue.
Mignonette—Your qualities surpass your charms.
Mistletoe—I surmount all difficulties.
Mock Orange (Syringa)—Counterfeit.
Morning Glory—Coquetry.
Maiden’s Hair—Discretion.
Magnolia, Grandiflora—Peerless and proud.
Magnolia, Swamp—Perseverance.
Moss—Maternal love.
Motherwort—Secret love.
Mourning Bride—Unfortunate attachment.
Mulberry, Black—I will not survive you.
Mulberry, White—Wisdom.
Mushroom—Suspicion.
Musk-plant—Weakness.
Myrtle—Love faithful in absence.
Narcissus—Egotism.
Nasturtium—Patriotism.
Nettle—Cruelty; slander.
Night Blooming Cereus—Transient beauty.
Nightshade—Bitter truth.
Oak—Hospitality.
Oats—Music.
Oleander—Beware.
Olive-branch—Peace.
Orange-flower—Chastity.
Orchis—Beauty.
Osier—Frankness.
Osmunda—Dreams.
Pansy—Think of me.
Parsley—Entertainment; feasting.
Passion-flower—Religious fervor; susceptibility.
Pea, Sweet—Departure.
Peach Blossom—This heart is thine.
Peony—Anger.
Pennyroyal—Flee away.
Periwinkle—Sweet remembrances.
Petunia—Less proud than they deem thee.
Phlox—Our souls are united.
Pimpernel—Change.
Pink—Pure affection.
Pink, Double Red—Pure, ardent love.
Pink, Indian—Aversion.
Pink, Variegated—Refusal.
Pink, White—You are fair.
Pomegranite—Fully.
Poppy—Consolation.
Primrose—Inconstancy.
Rhododendron—Agitation.
Rose, Austrian—Thou art all that’s lovely.
Rose, Bridal—Happy love.
Rose, Cabbage—Ambassador of love.
Rose, China—Grace.
Rose, Damask—Freshness.
Rose, Jacqueminot—Mellow love.
Rose, Maiden’s Blush—If you do love me, you will
find me out.
Rose, Moss—Superior merit.
Rose, Moss Rosebud—Confession of love.
Rose, Sweet-briar—Sympathy.
Rose, Tea—Always lovely.
Rose, White—I am worthy of you.
Rose, York and Lancaster—War.
Rose, Wild—Simplicity.
Rue—Disdain.
Saffron—Excess is dangerous.
Sardonia—Irony.
Sensitive Plant—Timidity.
Snap-Dragon—Presumption.
Snowball—Thoughts of Heaven.
Snowdrop—Consolation.
Sorrel—Wit ill (poorly) timed.
Spearmint—Warm feelings.
Star of Bethlehem—Reconciliation.
Strawberry—Perfect excellence.
Sumac—Splendor.
Sunflower, Dwarf—Your devout admirer.
Sunflower, Tall—Pride.
Sweet William—Finesse.
Syringa—Memory.
Tansy—I declare against you.
Teazel—Misanthropy.
Thistle—Austerity.
Thorn Apple—Deceitful charms.
Touch-me-not—Impatience.
Trumpet-flower—Separation.
Tuberose—Dangerous pleasures.
Tulip—Declaration of love.
Tulip, Variegated—Beautiful eyes.
Tulip, Yellow—Hopeless love.
Venus’ Flytrap—Have I caught you at
last.
Venus’ Looking-glass—Flattery.
Verbena—Sensibility.
Violet, Blue—Love.
Violet, White—Modesty.
Wallflower—Fidelity.
Weeping Willow—Forsaken.
Woodbine—Fraternal love.
Yew—Sorrow.
Zennæ—Absent friends.
MASTERPIECES OF ELOQUENCE
The following masterpieces of elegiac eloquence are
unsurpassed in the repertory of the English classics, for lofty
and noble sentiment, exquisite pathos, vivid imagery,
tenderness of feeling, glowing power of description, brilliant
command of language, and that immortal and seldom attained
faculty of painting in the soul of the listener or reader a
realistic picture whose sublimity of conception impresses the
understanding with awe and admiration, and impels the mind to
rise involuntarily for the time to an elevation out of and
above the inconsequent contemplation of the common and sordid
things of life.
AT HIS BROTHER’S GRAVE.
The following grand oration was delivered by Hon. Robert G.
Ingersoll on the occasion of the funeral of his brother, Hon.
Eben C. Ingersoll, in Washington, June 2:
“My friends, I am going to do that which the dead oft
promised he would do for me. The loved and loving brother,
husband, father, friend, died where manhood’s morning almost
touches noon, and while the shadows were still falling towards
the west. He had not passed on life’s highway the stone that
marks the highest point, but being weary for a moment he lay
down by the wayside, and using his burden for a pillow fell
into that dreamless sleep that kisses down the eyelids. Still,
while yet in love with life and raptured with the world, he
passed to silence and pathetic dust. Yet, after all, it may be
best, just in the happiest, sunniest hour of all the voyage,
while eager winds are kissing every sail, to dash against the
unseen rock and in an instant to hear the billows roar, ‘A
sunken ship;’ for whether in mid-sea or among the breakers of
the farther shore, a wreck must mark at last the end of each
and all, and every life, no matter if its every hour is rich
with love, and every moment jeweled with a joy, will at its
close become a tragedy as sad and deep and dark as can be woven
of the warp and woof of mystery and death. This brave and
tender man in every storm of life was oak and rock, but in the
sunshine he was vine and flower. He was the friend of all
heroic souls. He climbed the heights and left all superstitions
far below, while on his forehead fell the golden dawning of a
grander day. He loved the beautiful, and was with color, form
and music touched to tears. He sided with the weak, and with a
willing hand gave alms. With loyal heart, and with the purest
hand he faithfully discharged all public trusts. He was a
worshiper of liberty and a friend of the oppressed. A thousand
times I have heard him quote the words, ‘For Justice all place
temple, and all seasons summer.’ He believed that happiness was
the only good, reason the only torch, justice the only
worshiper, humanity the only religion, and love the priest. He
added to the sum of human joy, and were everyone for whom he
did some loving service to bring a blossom to his grave, he
would sleep to-night beneath a wilderness of flowers. Life is a
narrow vale between the cold and barren peaks of two
eternities. We strive in vain to look beyond the heights. We
cry aloud, and the only answer is the echo of our wailing cry.
From the voiceless lips of the unreplying dead there comes no
word, but the light of death. Hope sees a star, and listening
love can hear the rustic of a wing, lie who sleeps here when
dying, mistaking the approach of death for the return of
health, whispered with his latest breath, ‘I am better now.’
Let us believe, in spite of doubts and dogmas, and tears and
fears, that these dear words are true of all the countless
dead. And now, to you who have been chosen from among the many
men he loved to do the last sad office for the dead, we give
his sacred dust. Speech cannot contain our love. There was,
there is, no gentler, stronger, manlier man.”
AT THE GRAVE OF A CHILD.
Colonel Ingersoll upon one occasion was one of a little
party of sympathizing friends who had gathered in a drizzling
rain to assist the sorrowing friends of a young boy—a
bright and stainless flower, cut off in the bloom of its beauty
and virgin purity by the ruthless north winds from the
Plutonian shades—in the last sad office of committing the
poor clay to the bosom of its mother earth. Inspired by that
true sympathy of the great heart of a great man, Colonel
Ingersoll stepped to the side of the grave and spoke as
follows:
“My friends, I know how vain it is to gild grief with words,
and yet I wish to take from every grave its fear. Here in this
world, where life and death are equal king, all should be brave
enough to meet what all the dead have met. The future has been
filled with fear, stained and polluted by the heartless past.
From the wondrous tree of life the buds and blossoms fall with
ripened fruit, and in the common bed of earth the patriarchs
and babes sleep side by side. Why should we fear that which
will come to all that is? We cannot tell; we do not know which
is the greater blessing—life or death. We cannot say that
death is not a good; we do not know whether the grave is the
end of this life or the door of another, or whether the night
here is not somewhere else a dawn. Neither can we
[pg 95] which is the more fortunate,
the child dying in its mother’s arms, before its lips have
learned to form a word, or he who journeys all the length of
life’s uneven road, taking the last slow steps painfully
with staff and crutch. Every cradle asks us ‘whence,’ and
every coffin ‘whither?’ The poor barbarian, weeping above
his dead, can answer these questions as intelligently and
satisfactorily as the robed priest of the most authentic
creed. The tearful ignorance of the one is just as good as
the learned and unmeaning words of the other. No man,
standing where the horizon of life has touched a grave, has
any right to prophesy a future filled with pain and tears.
It may be that death gives all there is of worth to live. If
those we press and strain against our hearts could never
die, perhaps that love would wither from the earth. May be
this common fate treads from out the paths between our
hearts the weeds of selfishness and hate, and I had rather
live and love where death is king, than have eternal life
where love is not. Another life is naught, unless we know
and love again the ones who love us here. They who stand
with breaking hearts around this little grave need have no
fear. The larger and the nobler faith in all that is and is
to be, tells us that death, even at its worst, is only
perfect rest. We know that through the common wants of life,
the needs and duties of each hour, their grief will lessen
day by day, until at last these graves will be to them a
place of rest and peace, almost of joy. There is for them
this consolation, the dead do not suffer. If they live
again, their lives will surely be as good as ours. We have
no fear; we are all the children of the same mother, and the
same fate awaits us all. We, too, have our religion, and it
is this: ‘Help for the living; hope for the dead.'”
SUNDRY BRIEF ITEMS OF INTEREST.
In 1492 America was discovered.
In 1848 gold was found in California.
Invention of telescopes, 1590.
Elias Howe, Jr., invented sewing machines, in 1846.
In 1839 envelopes came into use.
Steel pens first made in 1830.
The first watch was constructed in 1476.
First manufacture of sulphur matches in 1829.
Glass windows introduced into England in the eighth
century.
First coaches introduced into England in 1569.
In 1545 needles of the modern style first came into use.
In 1527 Albert Durer first engraved on wood.
1559 saw knives introduced into England.
In the same year wheeled carriages were first used in
France.
In 1588 the first newspaper appeared in England.
In 1629 the first printing press was brought to America.
The first newspaper advertisement appeared in 1652.
England sent the first steam engine to this continent in
1703.
The first steamboat in the United States ascended the Hudson
in 1807.
Locomotive first used in the United States in 1830.
First horse railroad constructed in 1827.
In 1830 the first iron steamship was built.
Coal oil first used for illuminating purposes in 1836.
Looms introduced as a substitute for spinning wheels in
1776.
The velocity of a severe storm is 36 miles an hour; that of
a hurricane, 80 miles an hour.
National ensign of the United States formally adopted by
Congress in 1777.
A square acre is a trifle less than 209 feet each way.
Six hundred and forty acres make a square mile.
A “hand” (employed in measuring horses’ height) is four
inches.
A span is 10-7/8 inches.
Six hundred pounds make a barrel of rice.
One hundred and ninety-six pounds make a barrel of
flour.
Two hundred pounds make a barrel of pork.
Fifty-six pounds make a firkin of butter.
The number of languages is 2,750.
The average duration of human life is 31 years.
PHYSICIANS’ DIGESTION TABLE
SHOWING THE TIME REQUIRED FOR THE DIGESTION OF THE ORDINARY
ARTICLES OF FOOD.
Soups.—Chicken, 3 hours; mutton, 3-1/2 hours; oyster,
3-1/2 hours; vegetable, 4 hours.
Fish.—Bass, broiled, 3 hours; codfish, boiled, 2
hours; oysters, raw, 3 hours; oysters, roasted, 3-1/4 hours;
oysters, stewed, 3-1/2 hours; salmon (fresh), boiled, 1-3/4
hours; trout, fried, 1-1/2 hours.
Meats.—Beef, roasted, 3 hours; beefsteak, broiled, 3
hours; beef (corned), boiled, 4-1/4 hours; lamb, roast, 2-1/2
hours; lamb, boiled, 3 hours; meat, hashed, 2-1/2 hours;
mutton, broiled, 3 hours; mutton, roast, 3-1/4 hours; pig’s
feet, soused, 1 hour; pork, roast, 5-1/4 hours; pork, boiled,
4-1/2 hours; pork, fried, 4-1/4 hours; pork, broiled, 3-1/4
hours; sausage, fried, 4 hours; veal, broiled, 4 hours; veal,
roast, 4-1/2 hours.
Poultry and game.—Chicken, fricasseed, 3-3/4 hours;
duck (tame), roasted, 4 hours; duck (wild), roasted, 4-3/4
hours; fowls (domestic), roasted or boiled, 4 hours; goose
(wild), roasted, 2-1/2 hours; goose (tame), roasted, 2-1/4
hours; turkey, boiled or roasted, 2-1/2 hours; venison, broiled
or roasted, 1-1/2 hours.
Vegetables.—Asparagus, boiled, 2-1/2 hours; beans
(Lima), boiled, 2-1/2 hours, beans (string), boiled, 3 hours;
beans, baked (with pork), 4-1/2 hours; beets (young), boiled,
3-3/4 hours; beets (old) boiled, 4 hours; cabbage, raw, 2
hours; cabbage, boiled, 4-1/2 hours; cauliflower, boiled, 2-1/2
hours; corn (green), boiled, 4 hours; onions, boiled, 3 hours;
parsnips, boiled, 3 hours; potatoes, boiled or baked, 3-1/2
hours; rice, boiled, 1 hour; spinach, boiled, 2-1/2 hours;
tomatoes, raw or stewed, 2-1/2 hours; turnips, boiled, 3-1/2
hours.
Bread, Eggs, Milk, etc.—Bread, corn, 3-1/4 hours;
bread, wheat, 3-1/2 hours; eggs, raw, 2 hours; cheese, 3-1/2
hours; custard, 2-3/4 hours; eggs, soft-boiled, 3 hours; eggs,
hard-boiled or fried, 3-1/2 hours; gelatine, 2-1/2 hours;
tapioca, 2 hours.
THEMES FOR DEBATE.
Following are one hundred and fifty topics for debate. The
more usual form in their presentation is that of a direct
proposition or statement, rather than that of a question. The
opponents then debate the “affirmative” and “negative” of the
proposition. It is well to be very careful, in adopting a
subject for a debate, to so state or explain it that
misunderstandings may be mutually avoided, and quibbles on the
meaning of words prevented.
THEMES FOR DEBATE.
Which is the better for this nation, high or low import
tariffs?
Is assassination ever justifiable?
Was England justifiable in interfering between Egypt and the
Soudan rebels?
Is the production of great works of literature favored by
the conditions of modern civilized
life?
Is it politic to place restrictions upon the immigration of
the Chinese to the United States?
Will coal always constitute the main source of artificial
heat?
Has the experiment of universal suffrage proven a success?
Was Grant or Lee the greater general?
Is an income-tax commendable?
Ought the national banking system to be abolished?
Should the government lease to stockgrowers any portion of
the public domain?
Is it advisable longer to attempt to maintain both a gold
and silver standard of coinage?
Which is the more important to the student, physical science
or mathematics?
Is the study of current politics a duty?
Which was the more influential congressman, Blaine or
Garfield?
Which gives rise to more objectionable idioms and localisms
of language, New England or the West?
Was the purchase of Alaska by this government wise?
Which is the more important as a continent, Africa or South
America?
Should the government interfere to stop the spread of
contagious diseases among cattle?
Was Caesar or Hannibal the more able general?
Is the study of ancient or modern history the more important
to the student?
Should aliens be allowed to acquire property in this
country?
Should aliens be allowed to own real estate in this country?
Do the benefits of the signal service justify its costs?
Should usury laws be abolished?
Should all laws for the collection of debt be abolished?
Is labor entitled to more remuneration than it receives?
Should the continuance of militia organizations by the
several States be encouraged?
Is an untarnished reputation of more importance to a woman
than to a man?
Does home life promote the growth of selfishness?
Are mineral veins aqueous or igneous in origin?
Is the theory of evolution tenable?
Was Rome justifiable in annihilating Carthage as a
nation?
Which has left the more permanent impress upon mankind,
Greece or Rome?
Which was the greater thinker, Emerson or Bacon?
Which is the more important as a branch of education,
mineralogy or astronomy?
Is there any improvement in the quality of the literature of
to-day over that of last century?
Should the “Spoils System” be continued in American
politics?
Should the co-education of the sexes be encouraged?
Which should be the more encouraged, novelists or
dramatists?
Will the African and Caucasian races ever be amalgamated in
the United States?
Should the military or the interior department have charge
over the Indians in the United States?
Which is of more benefit to his race, the inventor or the
explorer?
Is history or philosophy the better exercise for the
mind?
Can any effectual provision be made by the State against
“hard times”?
Which is of the more benefit to society, journalism or the
law?
Which was the greater general, Napoleon or Wellington?
Should the volume of greenback money be increased?
Should the volume of national bank circulation be
increased?
Should the railroads be under the direct control of the
government?
Is the doctrine of “State rights” to be commended?
Is the “Monroe doctrine” to be commended and upheld?
Is the pursuit of politics an honorable avocation?
Which is of the greater importance, the college or the
university?
Does the study of physical science militate against
religious belief?
Should “landlordism” in Ireland be supplanted by home
rule?
Is life more desirable now than in ancient Rome?
Should men and women receive the same amount of wages for
the same kind of work?
Is the prohibitory liquor law preferable to a system of high
license?
Has any State a right to secede?
Should any limit be placed by the constitution of a State
upon its ability to contract indebtedness?
Should the contract labor system in public prisons be
forbidden?
Should there be a censor for the public press?
Should Arctic expeditions be encouraged?
Is it the duty of the State to encourage art and literature
as much as science?
Is suicide cowardice?
Has our Government a right to disfranchise the polygamists
of Utah?
Should capital punishment be abolished?
Should the law place a limit upon the hours of daily labor
for workingmen?
Is “socialism” treason?
Should the education of the young be compulsory?
In a hundred years will republics be as numerous as
monarchies?
Should book-keeping be taught in the public schools?
Should Latin be taught in the public schools?
Do our methods of government promote centralization?
Is life worth living?
Should Ireland and Scotland be independent nations?
Should internal revenue taxation be abolished?
Which is of greater benefit at the present day, books or
newspapers?
Is honesty always the best policy?
Which has been of greater benefit to mankind, geology or
chemistry?
Which could mankind dispense with at least inconvenience,
wood or coal?
Which is the greater nation, Germany or France?
Which can support the greater population in proportion to
area, our Northern or Southern States?
Would mankind be the loser if the earth should cease to
produce gold and silver?
Is the occasional destruction of large numbers of people, by
war and disaster, a benefit to the world?
Which could man best do without, steam or horse power?
Should women be given the right of suffrage in the United
States?
Should cremation be substituted for burial?
Should the government establish a national system of
telegraph?
Will the population of Chicago ever exceed that of New
York?
Should the electoral college be continued?
Will the population of St. Louis ever exceed that of
Chicago?
Should restrictions be placed upon the amount of property
inheritable?
Which is more desirable as the chief business of a
city—commerce or manufactures?
Which is more desirable as the chief business of a
city—transportation by water or by rail?
Should the rate of taxation be graduated to a ratio with the
amount of property taxed?
Will a time ever come when the population of the earth will
be limited by the earth’s capacity of food production?
Is it probable that any language will ever become
universal?
Is it probable that any planet, except the earth, is
inhabited?
Should the State prohibit the manufacture and sale of
alcoholic liquors?
Should the government prohibit the manufacture and sale of
alcoholic liquors?
Should the guillotine be substituted for the gallows?
Was Bryant or Longfellow the greater poet?
Should the jury system be continued?
Should the languages of alien nations be taught in the
public schools?
Should a right to vote in any part of the United States
depend upon a property qualification?
Can a horse trot faster in harness, or under saddle?
Should the pooling system among American railroads be
abolished by law?
Is dancing, as usually conducted, compatible with a high
standard of morality?
Should the grand jury system of making indictments be
continued?
Which should be the more highly remunerated, skilled labor
or the work of professional men?
Which is the more desirable as an occupation, medicine or
law?
Should the formation of trade unions be encouraged?
Which has been the greater curse to man, war or
drunkenness?
Which can man the more easily do without, electricity or
petroleum?
Should the law interfere against the growth of class
distinctions in society?
Which was the greater genius, Mohammed or Buddha?
Which was the more able leader, Pizarro or Cortez?
Which can to-day wield the greater influence, the orator or
the writer?
Is genius hereditary?
Is Saxon blood deteriorating?
Which will predominate in five hundred years, the Saxon or
Latin races?
Should American railroad companies be allowed to sell their
bonds in other countries?
Should Sumner’s civil rights bill be made constitutional by
an amendment?
Does civilization promote the happiness of the world?
Should land subsidies be granted to railroads by the
government?
Which is the stronger military power, England or the United
States?
Would a rebellion in Russia be justifiable?
Should the theater be encouraged?
Which has the greater resources, Pennsylvania or Texas?
Is agriculture the noblest occupation?
Can democratic forms of government be made universal?
Is legal punishment for crime as severe as it should be?
Should the formation of monopolies be prevented by the
State?
Has Spanish influence been helpful or harmful to Mexico as a
people?
Which is of more importance, the primary or the high
school?
Will the tide of emigration ever turn eastward instead of
westward?
Should the art of war be taught more widely than at present
in the United States?
Was slavery the cause of the American civil war?
Is life insurance a benefit?
How to Make 32 Kinds of Solder.—1. Plumbers’
solder.—Lead 2 parts, tin I part. 2. Tinmen’s
solder.—Lead 1 part, tin 1 part. 3. Zinc
solder.—Tin 1 part,
lead 1 to 2 parts. 4. Pewter solder. Lead 1 part, bismuth
1 to 2 parts. 5.
Spelter’s solder.—Equal parts copper and zinc. 6.
Pewterers’ soft solder.—Bismuth 2, lead 4, tin 3 parts.
7. Another.—Bismuth 1, lead I, tin 2 parts. 8. Another
pewter solder.—Tin 2 parts, lead 1 part. 9. Glaziers’
solder.—Tin 3 parts, lead 1 part. 10. Solder for
copper.—Copper 10 parts, zinc 9 parts. 11. Yellow solder
for brass or copper.—- Copper 32 lbs., zinc 29 lbs., tin
1 lb. 12. Brass solder.—Copper 61.25 parts, zinc 38.75
parts. 13. Brass solder, yellow and easily fusible.
—Copper 45, zinc 55 parts. 14. Brass solder,
white.—Copper 57.41 parts, tin 14.60 parts, zinc 27.99
parts. 15. Another solder for copper.—Tin 2 parts, lead 1
part. When the copper is thick heat it by a naked fire, if thin
use a tinned copper tool. Use muriate or chloride of zinc as a
flux. The same solder will do for iron, cast iron, or steel; if
the pieces are thick, heat by a naked fire or immerse in the
solder. 16. Black solder.—Copper 2, zinc 3, tin 2 parts.
17. Another.—Sheet brass 20 lbs., tin 6 lbs., zinc 1 lb.
18. Cold brazing without fire or lamp. —Fluoric acid 1
oz., oxy muriatic acid 1 oz., mix in a lead bottle. Put a chalk
mark each side where you want to braze. This mixture will keep
about G months in one bottle. 19. Cold soldering without fire
or lamp.—Bismuth 1/4 oz., quicksilver 1/4 oz., block tin
filings 1 oz., spirits salts 1 oz., all mixed together. 20. To
solder iron to steel or either to brass.—Tin 3 parts,
copper 39-1/2 parts, zinc 7-1/2 parts. When applied in a molten
state it will firmly unite metals first named to each other.
21. Plumbers’ solder.—Bismuth 1, lead 5, tin 3 parts, is
a first-class composition. 22. White solder for raised
Britannia ware.—Tin 100 lbs., hardening 8 lbs., antimony
8 lbs. 23. Hardening for Britannia.—(To be mixed
separately from the other ingredients.) Copper 2 lbs., tin 1
lb. 21. Best soft solder for cast Britannia ware.—Tin 8
lbs., lead 5 lbs. 25. Bismuth solder.—Tin 1, lead 3,
bismuth 3 parts. 26. Solder for brass that will stand
hammering.—Brass 78.26 parts, zinc 17.41 parts, silver
4.33 parts, add a little chloride of potassium to your borax
for a flux. 27. Solder for steel joints.—Silver 19 parts,
copper 1 part, brass 2 parts, Melt all together. 28. Hard
solder.—Copper 2 parts, zinc 1 part. Melt together. 29.
Solder for brass.—- Copper 3 parts, zinc 1 part, with
borax. 30. Solder for copper.—- Brass 6 parts, zinc 1
part, tin 1 part, melt all together well and pour out to cool.
31. Solder for platina—Gold with borax. 32. Solder for
iron.—The best solder for iron is good tough brass with a
little borax.
N. B.—In soldering, the surfaces to be joined are made
perfectly clean and smooth, and then covered with sal.
ammoniac, resin or other flux, the solder is then applied,
being melted on and smoothed over by a tinned soldering
iron.
COOKERY RECIPES
Ale to Mull.—Take a pint of good strong ale,
and pour it into a saucepan with three cloves and a little
nutmeg; sugar to your taste. Set it over the fire, and when it
boils take it off to cool. Beat up the yolks of four eggs
exceedingly well; mix them first with a little cold ale, then
add them to the warm ale, and pour it in and out of the pan
several times. Set it over a slow fire, beat it a little, take
it off again; do this three times until it is hot, then serve
it with dry toast.
Ale, Spiced.—Is made hot, sweetened with sugar
and spiced with grated nutmeg, and a hot toast is served in it.
This is the wassail drink.
Beef Tea.—Cut a pound of fleshy beef in thin
slices; simmer with a quart of water twenty minutes, after it
has once boiled and been skimmed. Season if approved.
Beef Tea.—To one pound of lean beef add one and
one-half tumblers of cold water; cut the beef in small pieces,
cover, and let it boil slowly for ten minutes, and add a little
salt after it is boiled. Excellent.
Beef Tea.—Cut lean, tender beef into small
pieces, put them into a bottle, cork and set in a pot of cold
water, then put on the stove and boil for one hour. Season to
taste.
Black Currant Cordial.—To every four quarts of
black currants, picked from the stems and lightly bruised, add
one gallon of the best whisky; let it remain four months,
shaking the jar occasionally, then drain off the liquor and
strain. Add three pounds of loaf sugar and a quarter of a pound
of best cloves, slightly bruised; bottle well and seal.
Boston Cream (a Summer Drink).—Make a syrup of
four pounds of white sugar with four quarts of water; boil;
when cold add four ounces of tartaric acid, one and a half
ounces of essence of lemon, and the whites of six eggs beaten
to a stiff froth; bottle. A wine-glass of the cream to a
tumbler of water, with sufficient carbonate of soda to make it
effervesce.
Champagne Cup.—One quart bottle of champagne,
two bottles of soda-water, one liqueur-glass of brandy, two
tablespoons of powdered sugar, a few thin strips of cucumber
rind; make this just in time for use, and add a large piece of
ice.
Chocolate.—Scrape Cadbury’s chocolate fine, mix
with a little cold water and the yolks of eggs well beaten; add
this to equal parts of milk and water, and boil well, being
careful that it does not burn. Sweeten to the taste, and serve
hot.
Coffee.—Is a tonic and stimulating beverage, of
a wholesome nature. Use the best. For eight cups use nearly
eight cups of water; put in coffee as much as you like, boil a
minute and take off, and throw in a cup of cold water to throw
the grounds to the bottom; in five minutes it will be very
clear.
Or, beat one or two eggs, which mix with ground coffee to
form a ball; nearly fill the pot with cold water, simmer gently
for half an hour, having introduced the ball; do not
boil, or you will destroy the aroma.
Coffee.—The following is a delicious dish
either for summer breakfast or dessert: Make a strong infusion
of Mocha coffee; put it in a porcelain bowl, sugar it properly
and add to it an equal portion of boiled milk, or one-third the
quantity of rich cream. Surround the bowl with pounded ice.
Currant Wine.—One quart currant juice, three
pounds of sugar, sufficient water to make a gallon.
Egg Gruel.—Boil eggs from one to three hours
until hard enough to grate; then boil new milk and thicken with
the egg, and add a little salt. Excellent in case of
nausea.
Lemon Syrup.—Pare off the yellow rind of the
lemon, slice the lemon and put a layer of lemon and a thick
layer of sugar in a deep plate; cover close with a saucer, and
set in a warm place. This is an excellent remedy for a
cold.
Lemonade.—Take a quart of boiling water, and
add to it five ounces of lump-sugar, the yellow rind of the
lemon rubbed off with a bit of sugar, and the juice of three
lemons. Stir all together and let it stand till cool. Two
ounces of cream of tartar may be used instead of the lemons,
water being poured upon it.
Raspberry Vinegar.—Fill a jar with red
raspberries picked from the stalks. Pour in as much vinegar as
it will hold. Let it stand ten days, then strain it through a
sieve. Don’t press the berries, just let the juice run through.
To every pint add one pound loaf sugar. Boil it like other
syrup; skim, and bottle when cold.
Summer Drink.—Boil together for five minutes
two ounces of tartaric acid, two pounds white sugar, three
lemons sliced, two quarts of water; when nearly cold add the
whites of four eggs beaten to a froth, one tablespoonful of
flour and half an ounce of wintergreen. Two tablespoonfuls in a
glass of water make a pleasant drink; for those who like
effervescence add as much soda as a ten-cent piece will hold,
stirring it briskly before drinking.
Blackberry Syrup.—To one pint of juice put one
pound of white sugar, one-half ounce of powdered cinnamon,
one-fourth ounce mace, and two teaspoons cloves; boil all
together for a quarter of an hour, then strain the syrup, and
add to each pint a glass of French brandy.
Tea.—When the water in the teakettle begins to
boil, have ready a tin tea-steeper; pour into the tea-steeper
just a very little of the boiling water, and then put in tea,
allowing one teaspoon of tea to each person. Pour over this
boiling water until the steeper is a little more than half
full; cover tightly and let it stand where it will keep hot,
but not to boil. Let the tea infuse for ten or fifteen minutes,
and then pour into the tea-urn, adding more boiling water, in
the proportion of one cup of water for every teaspoon of dry
tea which has been infused. Have boiling water in a water-pot,
and weaken each cup of tea
[pg 99] as desired. Do not use water
for tea that has been boiled long. Spring water is best for
tea, and filtered water next best.
Iced Tea a la Russe.—To each glass of tea add
the juice of half a lemon, fill up the glass with pounded ice,
and sweeten.
General Directions for Making Bread.—In the
composition of good bread, there are three important
requisites: Good flour, good yeast, [and here let us recommend
Gillett’s Magic Yeast Cakes. They keep good for one year in any
climate, and once used you will not do without it. All grocers
keep it] and strength to knead it well. Flour should be white
and dry, crumbling easily again after it is pressed in the
hand.
A very good method of ascertaining the quality of yeast will
be to add a little flour to a very small quantity, setting it
in a warm place. If in the course of ten or fifteen minutes it
raises, it will do to use.
When you make bread, first set the sponge with warm milk or
water, keeping it in a warm place until quite light. Then mold
this sponge, by adding flour, into one large loaf, kneading it
well. Set this to rise again, and then when sufficiently light
mold it into smaller loaves, let it rise again, then bake. Care
should be taken not to get the dough too stiff with flour; it
should be as soft as it can be to knead well. To make bread or
biscuits a nice color, wet the dough over top with water just
before putting it into the oven. Flour should always be
sifted.
Brown Bread, for those who can eat corn-meal: Two
cups Indian meal to one cup flour; one-half teacup syrup, 2-1/2
cups milk; 1 teaspoon salt; 3 teaspoons of Gillett’s baking
powder. Steam an hour and a half. To be eaten hot. It goes very
nicely with a corn-beef dinner.
Brown Bread.—Stir together wheat meal and cold
water (nothing else, not even salt) to the consistency of a
thick batter. Bake in small circular pans, from three to three
and a half inches in diameter, (ordinary tin pattypans do very
well) in a quick, hot oven. It is quite essential that it be
baked in this sized cake, as it is upon this that the raising
depends. [In this article there are none of the injurious
qualities of either fermented or superfine flour bread; and it
is so palpably wholesome food, that it appeals at once to the
common sense of all who are interested in the subject.]
Brown Bread—Take part of the sponge that has
been prepared for your white bread, warm water can be added,
mix it with graham flour (not too stiff).
Boston Brown Bread.—To make one loaf:—Rye
meal unsifted, half a pint; Indian meal sifted, one pint; sour
milk, one pint; molasses, half a gill. Add a teaspoonful of
salt, one teaspoonful of soda dissolved in a little hot water;
stir well, put in a greased pan, let it rise one hour, and
steam four hours.
Boston Brown Bread.—One and one-half cups of
graham flour, two cups of corn meal, one-half cup of molasses,
one pint of sweet milk, and one-half a teaspoon of soda; steam
three hours.
Corn Bread.—One-half pint of buttermilk,
one-half pint of sweet milk; sweeten the sour milk with
one-half teaspoon of soda; beat two eggs, whites and yolks
together; pour the milk into the eggs, then thicken with about
nine tablespoons of sifted corn meal. Put the pan on the stove
with a piece of lard the size of an egg; when melted pour it in
the batter; this lard by stirring it will grease the pan to
bake in; add a teaspoon of salt.
Excellent Bread.—Four potatoes mashed fine,
four teaspoons of salt, two quarts of lukewarm milk, one-half
cake Gillett’s magic yeast dissolved in one-half cup of warm
water, flour enough to make a pliable dough; mold with hands
well greased with lard; place in pans, and when sufficiently
light, it is ready for baking.
French Bread.—With a quarter of a peck of fine
flour mix the yolks of three and whites of two eggs, beaten and
strained, a little salt, half a pint of good yeast that is not
bitter, and as much milk, made a little warm, as will work into
a thin light dough. Stir it about, but don’t knead it. Have
ready three quart wooden dishes, divide the dough among them,
set to rise, then turn them out into the oven, which must be
quick. Rasp when done.
Graham Bread.—For one loaf, take two cups of
white bread sponge, to which add two tablespoons of brown
sugar, and graham flour to make a stiff batter; let it rise,
after which add graham flour sufficient to knead, but not very
stiff; then put it in the pan to rise and bake.
Italian Bread.—Make a stiff dough, with two
pounds of fine flour, six of white powdered sugar, three or
four eggs, a lemon-peel grated, and two ounces of fresh butter.
If the dough is not firm enough, add more flour and sugar. Then
turn it out, and work it well with the hand, cut it into round
long biscuits, and glaze them with white of egg.
Rice and Wheat Bread.—Simmer a pound of rice in
two quarts of water till soft; when it is of a proper warmth,
mix it well with four pounds of flour, and yeast, and salt as
for other bread; of yeast about four large spoonfuls; knead it
well; then set to rise before the fire. Some of the flour
should be reserved to make up the loaves. If the rice should
require more water, it must be added, as some rice swells more
than others.
Sago Bread.—Boil two lbs. of sago in three
pints of water until reduced to a quart, then mix with it half
a pint of yeast, and pour the mixture into fourteen lbs. of
flour. Make into bread in the usual way.
Steamed Bread.—Two cups corn meal; 1 cup graham
flour; 1/2 cup N. O. molasses; salt and teaspoonful of soda.
Mix soft with sour milk, or make with sweet milk and Gillett’s
baking powder. Put in tight mold in kettle of water; steam
three hours or more. This is as nice as Boston brown bread.
Use this receipt with flour instead of graham; add a cup of
beef suet, and it makes a nice pudding in the winter. Eat with
syrup or cream.
Biscuits.—Mix a quart of sweet milk with half a
cup of melted butter; stir in a pinch of salt, two teaspoonfuls
of baking powder and flour enough for a stiff batter. Have the
oven at a brisk heat. Drop the batter, a spoonful in a place,
on buttered pans. They will bake in fifteen minutes.
Cream Biscuits.—Three heaping tablespoons of
sour cream; put in a bowl or vessel containing a quart and fill
two-thirds full of sweet milk, two teaspoons cream tartar, one
teaspoon of soda, a little salt; pour the cream in the flour,
mix soft and bake in a quick oven.
French Biscuits.—Two cups of butter, two cups
of sugar, one egg (or the whites of two), half a cup of sour
milk, half a teaspoon of soda; flour to roll; sprinkle with
sugar.
Rye Biscuits.—Two cups of rye meal, one and a
half cups flour, one-third cup molasses, one egg, a little
salt, two cups sour milk, two even teaspoons saleratus.
Soda Biscuits.—To each quart of flour add one
tablespoon of shortening, one-half teaspoon of salt, and three
and a half heaping teaspoons of Gillett’s baking powder; mix
baking powder thoroughly through the flour, then add other
ingredients. Do not knead, and bake quickly. To use cream
tartar and soda, take the same proportions
[pg 100] without the baking powder,
using instead two heaping teaspoons cream tartar and one of
soda. If good they will bake in five minutes.
Tea Biscuits.—One cup of hot water, two of
milk, three tablespoons of yeast; mix thoroughly; after it is
risen, take two-thirds of a cup of butter and a little sugar
and mold it; then let it rise, and mold it into small
cakes.
Bannocks.—One pint corn meal, pour on it
boiling water to thoroughly wet it. Let it stand a few minutes;
add salt and one egg and a little sweet cream, or a tablespoon
melted butter. Make into balls and fry in hot lard.
Breakfast Cakes.—One cup milk, one pint flour,
three eggs, piece butter size of an egg, two teaspoons cream
tartar, one teaspoon soda, one tablespoon butter.
Buckwheat Cakes.—One quart buckwheat flour,
four tablespoons yeast, one tablespoon salt, one handful Indian
meal, two tablespoons molasses, not syrup. Warm water enough to
make a thin batter; beat very well and set in a warm place. If
the batter is the least sour in the morning, add a little
soda.
Quick Buckwheat Cakes.—One quart of buckwheat
flour, one-half a teacup of corn meal or wheat flour, a little
salt, and two tablespoons of syrup. Wet these with cold or warm
water to a thin batter, and add, lastly, four good-tablespoons
of Gillett’s baking powder.
Spanish Buns.—Five eggs well beaten; cut up in
a cup of warm new milk half a pound of good butter, one pound
of sifted flour, and a wineglassful of good yeast; stir these
well together; set it to rise for an hour, in rather a warm
place; when risen, sift in half a pound of white sugar, and
half a grated nutmeg; add one wineglass of wine and brandy,
mixed, one wineglass of rose-water, and one cupful of currants,
which have been cleaned thoroughly. Mix these well, pour it
into pans, and set it to rise again for half an hour. Then bake
one hour. Icing is a great improvement to their appearance.
Bath Buns.—- Take 1 lb. of flour, put it in a
dish, and make a hole in the middle, and pour in a dessert
spoonful of good yeast; pour upon the yeast half a cupful of
warm milk, mix in one-third of the flour, and let it rise an
hour. When it has risen, put in 6 ozs. of cold butter, 4 eggs,
and a few caraway seeds; mix all together with the rest of the
flour. Put it in a warm place to rise. Flatten it with the hand
on a pasteboard. Sift 6 ozs. of loaf sugar, half the size of a
pea; sprinkle the particles over the dough; roll together to
mix the sugar; let it rise in a warm place about 20 minutes.
Make into buns, and lay on buttered tins; put sugar and 9 or 10
comfits on the tops, sprinkle them with water; bake in a pretty
hot oven.
Graham Gems.—One quart of sweet milk, one cup
syrup, one teaspoon soda, two teaspoons cream tartar, little
salt; mix cream tartar in graham flour, soda in milk, and make
it as stiff with the flour as will make it drop easily from the
spoon into muffin rings.
Brown Griddle Cakes.—Take stale bread, soak in
water till soft, drain off water through colander, beat up fine
with fork, to one quart of the crumb batter, add one quart each
milk and flour, and four eggs well beaten. Mix, bake in a
griddle.
Wheat Gems.—One pint milk, two eggs, flour
enough to make a batter not very stiff, two large spoons melted
butter, yeast to raise them, a little soda and salt. Bake in
gem irons.
Johnnie Cake.—- One pint of corn meal, one
teacup of flour, two eggs, one pint of sweet milk, one
tablespoon of molasses, one tablespoon of melted butter, a
little salt, one teaspoon of soda, one teaspoon of cream of
tartar; bake in square tins.
Mush.—Indian or oatmeal mush is best made in
the following manner: Put fresh water in a kettle over the fire
to boil, and put in some salt; when the water boils, stir in
handful by handful corn or oatmeal until thick enough for use.
In order to have excellent mush, the meal should be allowed to
cook well, and long as possible while thin, and before the
final handful is added.
Fried Mush.—When desired to be fried for
breakfast, turn into an earthen dish and set away to cool. Then
cut in slices when you wish to fry; dip each piece in beaten
eggs and fry on a hot griddle.
Muffins.—One tablespoonful of butter, two
tablespoons sugar, two eggs—stir altogether; add one cup
of sweet milk, three teaspoons of baking powder, flour to make
a stiff batter. Bake twenty minutes in a quick oven.
English Pancakes.—Make a batter of two teacups
of flour, four eggs, and one quart of milk. Add, as a great
improvement, one tablespoonful of brandy with a little nutmeg
scraped in. Make the
size of frying pan. Sprinkle a little granulated sugar over the
pancake, roll it up, and send to the table hot.
Pop Overs.—Three cups of milk and three cups
flour, three eggs, a little salt, one tablespoon melted butter
put in the last thing; two tablespoons to a puff.
Rolls.—To the quantity of light bread-dough
that you would take for twelve persons, add the white of one
egg well beaten, two tablespoons of white sugar, and two
tablespoons of butter; work these thoroughly together; roll out
about half an inch thick; cut the size desired, and spread one
with melted butter and lay another upon the top of it. Bake
delicately when they have risen.
French Rolls.—One quart flour, add two eggs,
one half-pint milk, tablespoon of yeast, kneed it well; let
rise till morning. Work in one ounce of butter, and mold in
small rolls. Bake immediately.
Rusks.—Milk enough with one-half cup of yeast
to make a pint; make a sponge and rise, then add one and a half
cups of white sugar, three eggs, one-half cup of butter; spice
to your taste; mold, then put in pan to rise. When baked, cover
the tops with sugar dissolved in milk.
Waffles.—One quart of sweet or sour milk, four
eggs, two-thirds of a cup of butter, half a teaspoonful of
salt, three teaspoonfuls of baking-powder; flour enough to make
a nice batter. If you use sour milk leave out the
baking-powder, and use two teaspoons soda. Splendid.
Yeast.—In reference to yeast, we advise the use
of Magic Yeast Cakes; it keeps good a year, and works quicker
and better than other yeasts.
Suggestions in Making Cake.—It is very
desirable that the materials be of the finest quality. Sweet,
fresh butter, eggs, and good flour are the first essentials.
The process of putting together is also quite an important
feature, and where other methods are not given in this work by
contributors, it would be well for the young housekeeper to
observe the following directions:
Never allow the butter to oil, but soften it by putting in a
moderately warm place before you commence other preparations
for your cake; then put it into an earthen dish—tin, if
not new, will discolor your cake as you stir it—and add
your sugar; beat the butter and sugar to a cream, add the yolks
of the eggs, then the milk, and lastly the beaten whites of the
eggs and flour. Spices and liquors may be added after the yolks
of the eggs are put in, and fruit should be put in with the
flour.
The oven should be pretty hot for small cakes, and moderate
for larger. To ascertain if a large cake is sufficiently baked,
pierce it with a broom-straw through the center; if done, the
straw will come out free from dough; if not done, dough will
adhere to the straw. Take it out of the tin about fifteen
minutes after it is taken from the oven (not sooner), and do
not turn it over on the top to cool.
Frosting.—One pint granulated sugar, moisten
thoroughly with water sufficient to dissolve it when heated;
let it boil until it threads from the spoon, stirring often;
while the sugar is boiling, beat the whites of two eggs till
they are firm; then when thoroughly beaten, turn them into a
deep dish, and when the sugar is boiled, turn it over the
whites, beating all rapidly together until of the right
consistency to spread over the cake. Flavor with lemon, if
preferred. This is sufficient for two loaves.
Frosting, for Cake.—One cup frosting-sugar, two
tablespoons of water boiled together; take it off the stove,
and stir in the white of one egg beaten to a stiff froth; stir
all together well, then frost your cake with it, and you will
never want a nicer frosting than this.
Chocolate Frosting.—Whites of two eggs, one and
one-half cups of fine sugar, six great spoons of grated
chocolate, two teaspoons of vanilla; spread rather thickly
between layers and on top of cake. Best when freshly made. It
should be made like any frosting.
Icing.—The following rules should be observed
where boiled icing is not used:
Put the whites of your eggs in a shallow earthern dish, and
allow at least a quarter of a pound or sixteen tablespoons of
the finest white sugar for each egg. Take part of the sugar at
first and sprinkle over the eggs; beat them for about half an
hour, stirring in gradually the rest of the sugar; then add the
flavor. If you use the juice of a lemon, allow more sugar.
Tartaric and lemon-juice whitens icing. It may be shaded a
pretty pink with strawberry-juice or cranberry syrup, or
colored yellow by putting the juice and rind of a lemon in a
thick muslin bag, and squeezing it hard into the egg and
sugar.
If cake is well dredged with flour after baking, and then
carefully wiped before the icing is put on, it will not run,
and can be spread more smoothly. Put frosting on to the cake in
large spoonfuls, commencing over the center; then spread it
over the cake, using a large knife, dipping it occasionally in
cold water. Dry the frosting on the cake in a cool, dry
place.
Ice-Cream Icing, for White Cake.—Two cups
pulverized white sugar, boiled to a thick syrup; add three
teaspoons vanilla; when cold, add the whites of two eggs well
beaten, and flavored with two teaspoons of citric acid.
Icing, for Cakes.—Take ten whites of eggs
whipped to a stiff froth, with twenty large spoonfuls of
orange-flower water. This is to be laid smoothly on the cakes
after they are baked. Then return them to the oven for fifteen
minutes to harden the icing.
Icing.—One pound pulverized sugar, pour over
one tablespoon cold water, beat whites of three eggs a little,
not to a stiff froth; add to the sugar and water, put in a deep
bowl, place in a vessel of boiling water, and heat. It will
become thin and clear, afterward begin to thicken. When it
becomes quite thick, remove from the fire and stir while it
becomes cool till thick enough to spread with a knife. This
will frost several ordinary-sized cakes.
Almond Cake.—Take ten eggs, beaten separately,
the yolks from the whites; beat the yolks with half a pound of
white sugar; blanch a quarter of a pound of almonds by pouring
hot water on them, and remove the skins; pound them in a mortar
smooth; add three drops of oil of bitter almonds; and
rose-water to prevent the oiling of the almonds. Stir this also
into the eggs. Half a pound of sifted flour stirred very slowly
into the eggs; lastly, stir in the whites, which must have been
whipped to a stiff froth. Pour this into the pans, and bake
immediately three-quarters of an hour.
Cocoanut Cake.—Whip the whites of ten eggs,
grate two nice cocoanuts, and add them; sift one pound of white
sugar into half a pound of sifted flour; stir this well; add a
little rose-water to flavor; pour into pans, and bake
three-fourths of an hour.
Cocoanut Drops.—One pound each grated cocoanut
and sugar; four well beaten eggs; four tablespoonfuls of flour,
mix well, drop on pan, and bake.
Cocoanut Jumbles.—Take one cup butter, two cups
sugar, three eggs well whipped, one grated cocoanut, stirred in
lightly with the flour, which must be sufficient to stiffen to
the required consistency. Bake one to know when enough flour is
added.
Coffee Cake.—Take three eggs, two cups brown
sugar, one cup strong coffee, quarter of cup of butter, three
cups flour, one teaspoonful cream tartar, half teaspoonful each
soda and ground cinnamon and cloves, half a nutmeg grated, one
cup of raisins, stoned; beat butter and sugar to a cream, then
add eggs beaten, coffee, flour sifted, and cream tartar, well
mixed with it. Spices and raisins, then soda dissolved in
sufficient warm water to absorb it. Thoroughly mix, and bake in
round tins.
Cookies.—Two cups bright brown sugar, one cup
butter, half cup sweet milk, two eggs, one teaspoonful soda,
flour enough to roll out.
Composition Cake.—Five eggs, three cups sugar,
two cups butter, five cups flour, one wine-glass brandy, one
nutmeg grated, half pound each raisins and currants, three
teaspoonfuls Gillett’s baking powder.
Corn Starch Cake.—Two cups pulverized sugar,
one cup butter, cup corn starch, two cups sifted flour, seven
eggs (whites beaten very light), one teaspoon soda, two
teaspoons cream tartar (or two teaspoons caking powder instead
of soda and cream tartar), flavor with lemon. In putting this
together, beat butter and sugar to a light cream, dissolve corn
starch in a cup of sweet milk, leaving enough of the milk to
dissolve the soda if it is used, put cream of tartar or baking
powder in the flour, beat the whites of the eggs separate when
the butter and sugar are ready, put all the ingredients
together first, leaving the eggs and flour to the last.
Cream Cake.—Half pint cream, one tablespoon
butter rubbed into one tablespoon flour. Put the cream on the
fire. When it boils stir in the butter and flour mixed, add
half a tea cup sugar, two eggs very light, flavor with vanilla.
Spread between cakes, and frost or sugar top of cake to please
fancy.
Cinnamon Cake.—Take two cups of brown sugar,
one cup of butter, three-quarters cup of milk, half cup of
vinegar, four eggs, large tablespoon of cinnamon, four cups of
flour, one teaspoon of soda, two teaspoons cream tartar, mix
all but vinegar and soda, then add vinegar, then soda, bake in
large tin or patty pans.
Currant Cake.—Take two pounds of flour, half a
pound of butter rubbed in the flour, half a pound of moist
sugar, a few caraway seeds, three or four tablespoonfuls of
yeast, and a pint of milk made a little warm. Mix all together,
and let it stand an hour or two at the fire to rise; then beat
it up with three eggs and a half pound of
[pg 102] Put it into a tin, and bake
two hours in a moderate oven.
Cup Cake.—Cream half a cup of butter, and four
cups of sugar by beating; stir in five well-beaten eggs;
dissolve one teaspoonful of soda in a cup of good milk or
cream, and six cups of sifted flour; stir all well together,
and bake in tins.
Delicate Cake.—Mix two cups of sugar, four of
flour, half cup butter, half cup sweet milk, the whites of
seven eggs, two teaspoons cream tartar, one teaspoon soda, rub
the cream tartar in the flour and other ingredients, and flavor
to suit the taste.
Delicious Swiss Cake.—Beat the yolks of five
eggs and one pound of sifted loaf sugar well together; then
sift in one pound of best flour, and a large spoonful of anise
seed; beat these together for twenty minutes; then whip to a
stiff froth the five whites, and add them; beat all well; then
roll out the paste an inch thick, and cut them with a molded
cutter rather small; set them aside till the next morning to
bake. Rub the tins on which they are baked with yellow wax; it
is necessary to warm the tins to receive the wax; then let them
become cool, wipe them, and lay on the cakes. Bake a light
brown.
Doughnuts.—One and a half cup of sugar; half
cup sour milk, two teaspoons soda, little nutmeg, four eggs,
flour enough to roll out.
Drop Cake.—- To one pint cream, three eggs, one
pinch of salt, thicken with rye till a spoon will stand upright
in it, then drop on a well buttered iron pan which must be hot
in the oven.
Drop Cookies.—Whites of two eggs, one large cup
of milk, one cup of sugar, one-half cup of butter, two
teaspoonfuls baking-powder, flavor with vanilla, rose, or
nutmeg; flour enough for thick batter, beat thoroughly, drop in
buttered pans, dust granulated sugar on top, and bake with
dispatch.
Fruit Cake.—Take one pint each of sour milk and
sugar, two eggs, half pint melted butter, two teaspoons even
full of soda, dissolve in milk flour enough to roll out into
shape, and fry in hot lard.
Fried Cakes.—Three eggs, one cup of sugar, one
pint of new milk, salt, nutmeg, and flour enough to permit the
spoon to stand upright in the mixture; add two teaspoonfuls of
Gillett’s baking powder and beat until very light. Drop by the
dessert-spoonful into boiling lard. These will not absorb a bit
of fat, and are the least pernicious of the doughnut
family.
Fruit Cake.—Take four pounds of brown sugar,
four pounds of good butter, beaten to cream; put four pounds of
sifted flour into a pan; whip thirty-two eggs to a fine froth,
and add to the creamed butter and sugar; then take six pounds
of cleaned currants, four pounds of stoned raisins, two pounds
of cut citron, one pound of blanched almonds, crushed, but not
pounded, to a paste—a large cup of molasses, two large
spoonfuls of ground ginger, half an ounce of pounded mace, half
an ounce of grated nutmeg, half an ounce of pounded and sifted
cloves, and one of cinnamon. Mix these well together, then add
four large wineglasses of good French brandy, and lastly, stir
in the flour; beat this well, put it all into a stone jar,
cover very closely, for twelve hours; then make into six
loaves, and bake in iron pans. These cakes will keep a year, if
attention is paid to their being put in a tin case, and covered
lightly in an airy place. They improve by keeping.
Ginger Drop Cake.—Cup each sugar, molasses,
lard and boiling water, one teaspoon soda, half teaspoon cream
tartar, stir in flour until it is as thick as cake, add sugar
and salt.
Ginger Snaps.—Take one cup each of sugar,
molasses, butter, half cup sour milk, two teaspoons cream
tartar, one teaspoon soda, flour enough to roll out, cut into
size desired and bake.
Ginger Snaps.—Two cups of New Orleans molasses,
one cup of sugar, one of butter, one teaspoonful of soda, one
of cloves, one of black pepper, and two tablespoons of ginger.
These will keep good a month if you wish to keep them.
Graham Cakes.—Half a cup of butter, one-half
cup sugar, one egg, one teacup sour milk, one-half teaspoon
soda. Make a stiff batter by adding graham flour.
Good Graham Cakes.—Two cups sweet milk, one cup
sweet cream, the white of one egg beaten to froth, half a
spoonful of salt, dessert spoonful baking powder, stir in
stiffened graham flour until quite thick, bake in muffin-rings
or gem-tins, until well browned on top.
Indian Breakfast Patties.—To one pint of Indian
meal add one egg, and a little salt, pour boiling water upon
it, and fry brown immediately in pork fat. Cut open and put
butter between, and send to the table hot.
Jumbles.—Stir together till of a light brown
color, one pound sugar, one-half pound butter, then add eight
eggs beaten to a froth, add flour enough to make them stiff
enough to roll out, flavor with lemon, cut in rings half an
inch thick, bake in quick oven.
Kisses.—Beat the whites of four eggs to a
froth, stir into them half pound powdered white sugar; flavor
with lemon, continue to beat it until it will be in a heap; lay
the mixture on letter-paper, in the size and shape of half an
egg, an inch apart, then lay the paper on hard wood and place
in the oven without closing it, when they begin to look
yellowish take them out and let them cool three or four
minutes, then slip a thin knife carefully under and turn them
into your left hand, take another and join the two by the sides
next the paper, then lay them in a dish handling them gently.
They may be batted a little harder, the soft inside taken out
and jelly substituted.
Light Fruit Cake.—Take one cup butter, two cups
sugar, four of flour, four eggs, one teaspoon cream tartar,
half teaspoon soda, one cup sweet milk, one pound currants,
half pound citron.
Marble Cake, Light Part.—One and a half cups
white sugar, half cup butter, half cup sweet milk, one teaspoon
cream tartar, half teaspoon soda, whites of four eggs, two and
half cups flour.
Dark Part.—One cup brown sugar, half cup each
molasses, butter and sour milk, one teaspoon cream tartar, one
teaspoon soda, two and a half cups flour, yolks four eggs, half
teaspoon cloves, allspice and cinnamon.
Molasses Cookies.—Three cups New Orleans
molasses, one cup butter, one-half cup lard, one heaped
teaspoon soda, one tablespoon ginger, one cup hot water. Roll
thick. Better after standing.
Muffins.—Take two cups flour, one cup milk,
half cup sugar, four eggs, one-half teaspoon each of soda and
cream tartar, one tablespoon butter. Bake in rings.
Graham Muffins.—Mix one pint sweet milk, sift
your flour, then take half pound each Graham and wheat flour,
five or six spoonfuls melted butter, two half spoons baking
powder. Bake in rings in very quick oven.
Nut Cake.—Mix each two tablespoons of butter
and sugar, two eggs, one cup milk, three cups flour, one
teaspoon cream tartar, half teaspoon soda, pint of nuts or
almonds. Nuts may be sliced or not as suits
taste.
Oat Cakes.—Mix fine and coarse oatmeal in equal
proportions; add sugar, caraway-seeds, a dust of salt to three
pounds of meal, a heaping teaspoonful of carbonate of soda; mix
all thoroughly together, then add enough boiling water to make
the whole a stiff paste; roll out this paste quite thin, and
sprinkle meal on a griddle. Lay the cakes on to bake, or toast
them quite dry in a Dutch oven in front of the fire; they
should not scorch, but gradually dry through.
Orange Cake, the Most Delicate and Delicious Cake there
is.—Grated rind of one orange; two cups sugar; whites
of four eggs and yolks of five; one cup sweet milk; one cup
butter; two large teaspoonfuls baking powder, to be sifted
through with the flour; bake quick in jelly tins. Filling: Take
white of the one egg that was left; beat to a froth, add a
little sugar and the juice of the orange, beat together, and
spread between the layers. If oranges are not to be had, lemons
will do instead.
Plain Fruit Cake.—One pound each butter beaten
to a cream, sifted sugar, sifted flour, twelve eggs, whites and
yolks, beaten separately. Two pounds currants, three pounds of
stoned raisins chopped, one nutmeg, a little cinnamon and other
spices, half pint wine and brandy mixed, one pound citron cut
in slices and stuck in the batter after it is in the tin. Bake
slowly two to three hours.
Plain Cake.—Flour, three-quarters of a pound;
sugar, the same quantity; butter, four ounces; one egg and two
tablespoonfuls of milk. Mix all together and bake.
Puffs.—Two eggs beaten very light; one cup of
milk, one cup of flour, and a pinch of salt. The gems should be
heated while making the puffs, which are then placed in a quick
oven.
Plum Cake.—Six eggs well beaten, one pound of
sugar, the same of flour, butter and currants, four ounces of
candied peel, two tablespoonfuls of mixed spice. When it is all
mixed, add one teaspoonful of carbonate of soda, and one of
tartaric acid. Beat it all up quickly and bake directly.
Pound Cake.—Take four and a half cups flour, 3
cups each butter and sugar. Ten eggs, yolks and whites beaten
separately. Mix.
Pork Cake.—Take one pound salt pork chopped
fine, boil a few minutes in half pint water, one cup molasses,
two cups sugar, three eggs, two teaspoons soda, cinnamon,
cloves, nutmeg to taste, one pound raisins chopped fine, flour
to make a stiff batter.
Rich Shortbread.—Two pounds of flour, one pound
butter, and quarter pound each of the following
ingredients:—Candied orange and lemon peel, sifted loaf
sugar, blanched sweet almonds and caraway comfits. Cut the peel
and almonds into thin slices, and mix them with one pound and a
half of flour and the sugar. Melt the butter, and when cool,
pour it into the flour, mixing it quickly with a spoon. Then
with the hands mix it, working in the remainder of the flour;
give it one roll out till it is an inch thick, cut it into the
size you wish, and pinch round the edges. Prick the top with a
fork, and stick in some caraway comfits; put it on white paper,
and bake on tins in a slow oven.
Seed Cake.—Take half a pound of butter and
three-fourths of a pound of sugar, creamed; three eggs, beaten
lightly, and two tablespoonfuls of picked and bruised caraway
seed; dissolve half a teaspoonful of soda in a cup of new milk;
mix these well together until they are about the consistency of
cream; then sift in two pounds of flour, mix well with a knife,
and roll them out into thin cakes, about an inch in thickness.
Bake in a quick oven.
Sponge Cake.—Take sixteen eggs; separate the
whites from the yolks; beat them very lightly; sift into the
yolks one pound of flour, adding a few drops of essence of
almond or lemon, to flavor with; then add one pound and a
quarter of pulverized loaf sugar; beat this well with a knife;
then add the whites whipped to a stiff froth. Have ready the
pans, and bake.
Sponge Cake, white.—One and one-third coffee
cups of sugar; one coffee cup flour; whites of ten eggs; beat
eggs and sugar as if for frosting; add flour by degrees and
bake.
Snow Cake.—Take one pound arrow-root, half
pound white sugar, half pound butter, the whites of six eggs,
flavor with lemon, beat the butter to a cream, stir in the
sugar and arrow-root, whisk the whites of the eggs to a stiff
froth, beat for twenty minutes. Bake one hour.
Washington Cake.—One cup of sugar; 1/2 cup of
butter; 1/2 cup sweet milk; 2 eggs; 2 cups flour; 2 teaspoons
baking powder. Bake in layers as jelly cake. Jelly part: One
pint of grated apples; 1 egg; 1 cup of sugar; grated rind and
juice of one lemon; put in a vessel of some kind, and boil; put
it on the cakes hot.
Waffles.—Take one quart milk, two eggs; beat
the whites and yolks separately; four tablespoons melted
butter, two teaspoons Gillett’s baking powder, flour to make a
stiff batter. Bake in waffle irons.
Alpine Snow.—Wash cup of rice, cook till tender
in a covered dish to keep it white, when nearly done add cup
rich milk, salt to taste, stir in the beaten yolks of two eggs,
allow it to simmer for a moment, then place in a dish, beat the
whites in two tablespoons fine sugar. Put the rice in little
heaps upon the tin, intermingling with pieces of red jelly, eat
with fine sugar and cream.
Apple Charlotte.—Take two pounds of apples,
pare and core and slice them into a pan and add one pound loaf
sugar, juice of three lemons and the grated rind of one, let
these boil until they become a thick mass. Turn into a mould
and serve it cold with thick custard or cream.
Apple Cream.—One cup thick cream, one cup
sugar, beat till very smooth; then beat the whites of two eggs
and add; stew apples in water till soft; take them from the
water with a fork; steam them if you prefer. Pour the cream
over the apples when cold.
Apple Custard.—Pare tart apples, core them, put
them into a deep dish with a small piece of butter, and one
teaspoon of sugar and a little nutmeg, in the opening of each
apple, pour in water enough to cook them, when soft cool them
and pour over an unbaked custard so as to cover them and bake
until the custard is done.
Apple Fancy.—Pare and core apples, stew with
sugar and lemon peels, beat four eggs to a froth, add a cupful
of grated bread crumbs, a little sugar and nutmeg, lay the
apples in the bottom of a dish and cover with the bread crumbs,
laying a few pieces of butter over the top, bake in a quick
oven, when done turn out upside down on a flat dish, scatter
fine sugar over the top of apples, boil potatoes and beat fine
with cream, large piece butter and salt, drop on tin, make
smooth on top, score with knife, lay a thin slice of butter on
top, then put in oven till brown.
Apple Fritters.—One pint milk, three eggs, salt
to taste, as much flour as will make a batter, beat yolks and
whites of eggs separately, add yolks to milk, stir in the
whites when mixing the batter, have tender apples, pare, core,
and cut in large thin slices, around the apple, to be fried in
hot lard, ladle batter into spider, lay slice of apple in
centre of each quantity of batter, fry light brown.
Apple Snow Balls.—Pare six apples, cut them
into quarters, remove the cores, reconstruct the position of
the apples, introduce into the cavities one clove and a slice
of [pg 104] peel, have six small
pudding cloths at hand and cover the apples severally in an
upright position with rice, tying them up tight, then place
them in a large saucepan of scalding water and boil one
hour, on taking them up open the top and add a little grated
nutmeg with butter and sugar.
Arrow-Root Blanc-Mange.—Put two tablespoonfuls
of arrow-root to a quart of milk, and a pinch of salt. Scald
the milk, sweeten it, and stir in the arrow-root, which must
first be wet up with some of the milk. Boil up once.
Orange-water, rose-water or lemon-peel may be used to flavor
it. Pour into molds to cool.
Arrow-Root Custard.—Arrow-root, one
tablespoonful; milk, 1 pint; sugar, 1 tablespoonful, and 1 egg.
Mix the arrow-root with a little of the milk, cold; when the
milk boils, stir in the arrow-root, egg and sugar, previously
well beaten together. Let it scald, and pour into cups to cool.
To flavor it, boil a little ground cinnamon in the milk.
Arrow-Root Jelly.—To a dessert-spoonful of the
powder, add as much cold water as will make it into a paste,
then pour on half a pint of boiling water, stir briskly and
boil it a few minutes, when it will become a clear smooth
jelly; a little sugar and sherry wine may be added for
debilitated adults; but for infants, a drop or two of essence
of caraway seeds or cinnamon is preferable, wine being very
liable to become acid in the stomachs of infants, and to
disorder the bowels. Fresh milk, either alone or diluted with
water, may be substituted for the water.
Baked Apples.—Take a dozen tart apples, pare
and core them, place sugar and small lump of butter in centre
of each, put them in a pan with half pint of water, bake until
tender, basting occasionally with syrup while baking, when
done, serve with cream.
Chocolate Cream Custard.—Scrape quarter pound
chocolate, pour on it one teacup boiling water, and stand it by
fire until dissolved, beat eight eggs light, omitting the
whites of two, and stir them by degrees into a quart of milk
alternately with the chocolate and three tablespoons of white
sugar, put the mixture into cups and bake 10 minutes.
Charlotte Russe.—Whip one quart rich cream to a
stiff froth, and drain well on a nice sieve. To one scant pint
of milk add six eggs beaten very light; make very sweet; flavor
high with vanilla. Cook over hot water till it is a thick
custard. Soak one full ounce Coxe’s gelatine in a very little
water, and warm over hot water. When the custard is very cold,
beat in lightly the gelatine and the whipped cream. Line the
bottom of your mold with buttered paper, and the sides with
sponge cake or ladyfingers fastened together with the white of
an egg. Fill with the cream, put in a cold place or in summer
on ice. To turn out dip the mold for a moment in hot water. In
draining the whipped cream, all that drips through can be
re-whipped.
Cocoa Snow.—Grate the white part of a cocoanut
and mix it with white sugar, serve with whipped cream, or not,
as desired.
Cream and Snow.—Make a rich boiled custard, and
put it in the bottom of a dish; take the whites of eight eggs,
beat with rose-water, and a spoonful of fine sugar, till it be
a strong froth; put some milk and water into a stew-pan; when
it boils take the froth off the eggs, and lay it on the milk
and water; boil up once; take off carefully and lay it on the
custard.
Baked Custards.—Boil a pint of cream with some
mace and cinnamon; and when it is cold, take four yolks and two
whites of eggs, a little rose and orange-flower water, sack,
nutmeg, and sugar to your palate. Mix them well, and bake it in
cups.
Or, pour into a deep dish, with or without lining or rim of
paste; grate nutmeg and lemon peel over the top, and bake in a
slow oven about thirty minutes.
Gooseberry Cream.—Boil them in milk till soft;
beat them, and strain the pulp through a coarse sieve. Sweeten
cream with sugar to your taste; mix with the pulp; when cold,
place in glasses for use.
Imperial Cream.—Boil a quart of cream with the
thin rind of a lemon; stir till nearly cold; have ready in a
dish to serve in, the juice of three lemons strained with as
much sugar as will sweeten the cream; pour it into the dish
from a large tea-pot, holding it high, and moving it about to
mix with the juice. It should be made from 6 to 12 hours before
it is served.
Jumballs.—Flour, 1 lb.; sugar, 1 lb.; make into
a light paste with whites of eggs beaten fine; add 1/2 pint of
cream; 1/2 lb. of butter, melted; and 1 lb. of blanched
almonds, well beaten; knead all together, with a little
rose-water; cut into any form; bake in a slow oven. A little
butter may be melted with a spoonful of white wine and throw
fine sugar over the dish.
Lemon Puffs.—Beat and sift 1 pound of refined
sugar; put into a bowl with the juice of two lemons, and mix
them together; beat the white of an egg to a high froth; put it
into the bowl; put in 3 eggs with two rinds of lemon grated;
mix it well up, and throw sugar on the buttered papers; drop on
the puffs in small drops, and bake them in a moderately heated
oven.
Lemon Tarts.—Pare the rinds of four lemons, and
boil tender in two waters, and beat fine. Add to it 4 ounces of
blanched almonds, cut thin, 4 ozs. of lump sugar, the juice of
the lemons, and a little grated peel. Simmer to a syrup. When
cold, turn into a shallow tin tart dish, lined with a rich thin
puff paste, and lay bars of the same over, and bake
carefully.
Macaroons.—Blanch 4 ozs. of almonds, and pound
with 4 spoonfuls of orange-flower water; whisk the whites of
four eggs to a froth, then mix it, and 1 lb. of sugar, sifted
with the almonds to a paste; and laying a sheet of wafer-paper
on a tin, put it on in different little cakes, the shape of
macaroons.
Oatmeal Custard.—Take two teaspoons of the
finest Scotch oatmeal, beat it up into a sufficiency of cold
water in a basin to allow it to run freely. Add to it the yoke
of a fresh egg, well worked up; have a pint of scalding new
milk on the fire, and pour the oatmeal mixture into it,
stirring it round with a spoon so as to incorporate the whole.
Add sugar to your taste, and throw in a glass of sherry to the
mixture, with a little grated nutmeg. Pour it into a basin, and
take it warm in bed. It will be found very grateful and
soothing in cases of colds or chills. Some, persons scald a
little cinnamon in the milk they use for the occasion.
Orange Crumpets.—Cream, 1 pint; new milk, 1
pint; warm it, and put in it a little rennet or citric acid;
when broken, stir it gently; lay it on a cloth to drain all
night, and then take the rinds of three oranges, boiled, as for
preserving, in three different waters; pound them very fine,
and mix them with the curd, and eight eggs in a mortar, a
little nutmeg, the juice of a lemon or orange, and sugar to
your taste; bake them in buttered tin pans. When baked put a
little wine and sugar over them.
Orange Custards.—Boil the rind of half a
Seville orange very tender; beat it very fine in a mortar; add
a spoonful of the best brandy, the juice of a Seville orange, 4
ozs. loaf sugar, and the yolks of four eggs; beat all
[pg 105] together ten minutes; then
pour in gradually a pint of boiling cream; keep beating them
until they are cold; put them into custard cups, and set
them in an earthen dish of hot water; let them stand until
they are set, take out, and stick preserved oranges on the
top, and serve them hot or cold.
Pommes Au Riz.—Peel a number of apples of a
good sort, take out the cores, and let them simmer in a syrup
of clarified sugar, with a little lemon peel. Wash and pick
some rice, and cook it in milk, moistening it therewith little
by little, so that the grains may remain whole. Sweeten it to
taste; add a little salt and a taste of lemon-peel. Spread the
rice upon a dish, mixing some apple preserve with it, and place
the apples upon it, and fill up the vacancies between the
apples with some of the rice. Place the dish in the oven until
the surface gets brown, and garnish with spoonfuls of bright
colored preserve or jelly.
Raspberry Cream.—Mash the fruit gently, and let
it drain; then sprinkle a little sugar over, and that will
produce more juice; put it through a hair sieve to take out the
seeds; then put the juice to some cream, and sweeten it; after
which, if you choose to lower it with some milk, it will not
curdle; which it would if put to the milk before the cream; but
it is best made of raspberry jelly, instead of jam, when the
fresh fruit cannot be obtained.
Rice Fritters.—One pint of cooked rice, half
cup of sweet milk, two eggs, a tablespoon of flour, and a
little salt. Have the lard hot in the skillet, allow a
tablespoon to each fritter, fry brown on each side, then turn
same as griddle cakes. If you find the rice spatters in the
fat, add a very little more flour. You can judge after frying
one.
Rice Croquettes.—Make little balls or oblong
rolls of cooked rice; season with salt, and pepper if you like;
dip in egg; fry in hot lard.
Rice Custards.—Boil 3 pints of new milk with a
bit of lemon-peel, cinnamon, and three bay leaves; sweeten;
then mix a large spoonful of rice flour into a cup of cold
milk, very smooth; mix it with the yolks of four eggs well
beaten. Take a basin of the boiling milk, and mix with the cold
that has the rice in it; add the remainder of the boiling milk;
stir it one way till it boils; pour immediately into a pan;
stir till cool, and add a spoonful of brandy, or orange-flower
water.
Rice Flummery.—Boil with a pint of new milk, a
bit of lemon-peel, and cinnamon; mix with a little cold milk,
as much rice flour as will make the whole of a good
consistence, sweeten and add a spoonful of peach-water, or a
bitter almond beaten; boil it, observing it does not burn; pour
it into a shape or a pint basin, taken out the spice. When
cold, turn the flummery into a dish, and serve with cream,
milk, or custard round; or put a teacupful of cream into half a
pint of new milk, a glass of white wine, half a lemon squeezed,
and sugar.
Rock Cream.—Boil a teacupful of rice till quite
soft in new milk and then sweeten it with sugar, and pile it on
a dish, lay on it current jelly or preserved fruit, beat up the
whites of five eggs with a little powdered sugar and flour, add
to this when beaten very stiff about a tablespoon of rich cream
and drop it over the rice.
Strawberry and Apple Souffle.—Stew the apple
with a little lemon-peel; sweeten them, then lay them pretty
high round the inside of a dish. Make a custard of the yolks of
two eggs, a little cinnamon, sugar and milk. Let it thicken
over a slow fire, but not boil; when ready, pour it in the
inside of the apple. Beat the whites of the eggs to a strong
froth, and cover the whole. Throw over it a good deal of
pounded sugar, and brown it to a fine brown. Any fruit made of
a proper consistence does for the walls, strawberries, when
ripe, are delicious.
Strawberry Short-Cake.—First prepare the
berries by picking; after they have been well washed—the
best way to wash them is to hold the boxes under the faucet and
let a gentle stream of water run over and through them, then
drain, and pick them into an earthen bowl; now take the
potato-masher and bruise them and cover with a thick layer of
white sugar; now set them aside till the cake is made. Take a
quart of sifted flour; half a cup of sweet butter; one egg,
well beaten; three teaspoonfuls of baking-powder, and milk
enough to make a rather stiff dough; knead well, and roll with
a rolling-pin till about one inch thick; bake till a nice
brown, and when done, remove it to the table; turn it out of
the pan; with a light, sharp knife, cut it down lengthwise and
crossways; now run the knife through it, and lay it open for a
few moments, just to let the steam escape (the steam ruins the
color of the berries); then set the bottom crust on the
platter; cover thickly with the berries, an inch and a half
deep; lay the top crust on the fruit; dust thickly with
powdered sugar, and if any berry juice is left in the bowl,
pour it round the cake, not over it, and you will have a
delicious short-cake.
Snow Cream.—To a quart of cream add the whites
of three eggs, cut to a stiff froth, add four spoonfuls of
sweet wine, sugar to taste, flavor with essence of lemon. Whip
all to a froth, and as soon as it forms take it off and serve
in glasses.
Stewed Figs.—Take four ounces of fine sugar,
the thin rind of a large lemon, and a pint of cold water, when
the sugar is dissolved, add one pound turkey figs, and place
the stew-pan over a moderate fire where they may heat and swell
slowly, and stew gently for two hours, when they are quite
tender, add the juice of one lemon, arrange them in a glass
dish and serve cold.
Spanish Cream.—Dissolve in 1/2 pint of
rose-water, 1 oz. of isinglass cut small; run it through a hair
sieve; add the yolks of three or four eggs, beaten and mixed
with half a pint of cream, and two sorrel leaves. Pour it into
a deep dish, sweeten with loaf sugar powdered. Stir it till
cold, and put it into molds. Lay rings round in different
colored sweetmeats. Add, if you like, a little sherry, and a
lump or two of sugar, rubbed well upon the rind of a lemon to
extract the flavor.
Whipped Cream.—To one quart of good cream, put
a few drops of bergamot water, a little orange-flower water,
and 1/2 lb. of sugar. When it is dissolved, whip the cream to a
froth, and take it up with a skimmer; drain on a sieve, and if
for icing, let it settle half an hour before you put it into
cups or glasses. Use that which drops into the dish under the
sieve, to make it froth the better, adding two whites of eggs.
Colored powdered sugar may, if you like, be sprinkled on the
top of each.
Asparagus Omelet.—Boil a dozen of the largest
and finest asparagus heads you can pick; cut off all the green
portion, and chop it in thin slices; season with a small
teaspoonful of salt, and about one-fourth of that quantity of
soluble cayenne. Then beat up six eggs in a sufficient quantity
of new milk to make a stiffish batter. Melt in the frying-pan a
quarter of a pound of good, clean dripping, and just before you
pour on the batter place a small piece of butter in the center
of the pan. When the dripping is quite hot, pour on half your
batter, and as it begins to set, place on it the asparagus
tops, and cover over with the remainder. This omelet is
generally served on a round of buttered toast, with the crusts
removed. The batter is richer if made of cream.
Buttered Eggs.—Beat four or five eggs, yolks
and whites together, put a quarter of a pound of butter in a
basin, and then put that in boiling water, stir it till
[pg 106] then pour the butter and
the eggs into a sauce-pan; keep a basin in your hand, just
hold the sauce-pan in the other over a slow part of the
fire, shaking it one way, as it begins to warm; pour it into
a basin, and back, then hold it again over the fire,
stirring it constantly in the saucepan, and pouring it into
the basin, more perfectly to mix the egg and butter until
they shall be hot without boiling.
Serve on toasted bread; or in a basin, to eat with salt
fish, or red herrings.
Corn-Oysters.—Take a half dozen ears of sweet
corn (those which are not too old); with a sharp knife split
each row of the corn in the center of the kernel lengthwise;
scrape out all the pulp; add one egg, well beaten, a little
salt, one tablespoonful of sweet milk; flour enough to make a
pretty stiff batter. Drop in hot lard, and fry a delicate
brown. If the corn is quite young, omit the milk, using as
little flour as possible.
Cheese Omelet.—Mix to a smooth batter three
tablespoonfuls of fine flour, with half a pint of milk. Beat up
well the yolks and whites of four eggs, a little salt, and a
quarter of a pound of grated old English cheese. Add these to
the flour and milk, and whisk all the ingredients together for
half an hour. Put three ounces of butter into a frying-pan, and
when it is boiling pour in the above mixture, fry it for a few
minutes, and then turn it carefully; when it is sufficiently
cooked on the other side, turn it on to a hot dish and
serve.
Irish Stew.—Take a loin of mutton, cut it into
chops, season it with a very little pepper and salt, put it
into a saucepan, just cover it with water, and let it cook half
an hour. Boil two dozen of potatoes, peel and mash them, and
stir in a cup of cream while they are hot; then line a deep
dish with the potatoes, and lay in the cooked mutton chops, and
cover them over with the rest of the potatoes; then set it in
the oven to bake. Make some gravy of the broth in which the
chops were cooked. This is a very nice dish.
Irish Stew.—Cut off the fat of part of a loin
of mutton, and cut it into chops. Pare, wash, and slice very
thin some potatoes, two onions, and two small carrots; season
with pepper and salt. Cover with water in a stew-pan, and stew
gently till the meat is tender, and the potatoes are dissolved
in the gravy. It may be made of beef-steaks, or mutton and beef
mixed.
Macaroni, Dressed Sweet.—Boil 2 ozs. in a pint
of milk, with a bit of lemon peel, and a good bit of cinnamon,
till the pipes are swelled to their utmost size without
breaking. Lay them on a custard-dish, and pour a custard over
them hot. Serve cold.
Macaroni, as Usually Served.—Boil it in milk,
or a weak veal broth, flavored with salt. When tender, put it
into a dish without the liquor, with bits of butter and grated
cheese, and over the top grate more, and put a little more
butter. Put the dish into a Dutch oven, a quarter of an hour,
and do not let the top become hard.
Omelet.—Six eggs beaten separately, beaten
hard, two teaspoons of corn starch, two tablespoons milk,
whites of eggs, put in slow at last. Fry in butter.
Rumbled Eggs.—This is very convenient for
invalids, or a light dish for supper. Beat up three eggs with
two ounces of fresh butter, or well-washed salt butter; add a
teaspoonful of cream or new milk. Put all in a saucepan and
keep stirring it over the fire for nearly five minutes, until
it rises up like scuffle, when it should be immediately dished
on buttered toast.
Poached Eggs.—Break an egg into a cup, and put
it gently into boiling water; and when the white looks quite
set, which will be in about three or four minutes, take it up
with an egg slice, and lay it on toast and butter, or spinach.
Serve them hot; if fresh laid, they will poach well, without
breaking.
Savory Potato-Cakes.—Quarter of a pound of
grated ham, one pound of mashed potatoes, and a little suet,
mixed with the yolks of two eggs, pepper, salt and nutmeg. Roll
it into little balls, or cakes, and fry it a light brown. Sweet
herbs may be used in place of ham. Plain potato cakes are made
with potatoes and eggs only.
Tomato Toast.—Remove the stem and all the seeds
from the tomatoes; they must be ripe, mind, not over
ripe; stew them to a pulp, season with butter, pepper and
salt; toast some bread (not new bread), butter it, and then
spread the tomato on each side, and send it up to table, two
slices on each dish, the slices cut in two; and the person who
helps it must serve with two half-slices, not attempt to lift
the top slice, otherwise the appearance of the under slice will
be destroyed.
HOW TO COOK FISH
OF DIFFERENT KINDS
How to Choose Anchovies.—They are preserved in
barrels, with bay-salt; no other fish has the fine flavor of
the anchovy. The best look red and mellow, and the bones moist
and oily; the flesh should be high flavored, the liquor
reddish, and have a fine smell.
Baked Black Bass.—Eight good-sized onions
chopped fine; half that quantity of bread crumbs; butter size
of hen’s egg; plenty of pepper and salt; mix thoroughly with
anchovy sauce until quite red. Stuff your fish with this
compound and pour the rest over it, previously sprinkling it
with a little red pepper. Shad, pickerel and trout are good the
same way. Tomatoes can be used instead of anchovies, and are
more economical. If using them, take pork in place of butter,
and chop fine.
Boiled White Fish.—Lay the fish open; put it in
a dripping pan with the back down; nearly cover with water; to
one fish put two tablespoons salt, cover tightly and simmer
(not boil) one-half hour; dress with gravy, butter and pepper;
garnish with sliced eggs.
For sauce use a piece of butter the size of an egg, one
tablespoon of flour, one half pint boiling water; boil a few
minutes, and add three hard boiled eggs, sliced.
Fresh Broiled White Fish.—Wash and drain the
fish: sprinkle with pepper and lay with the inside down upon
the gridiron, and broil over fresh bright coals. When a nice
brown, turn for a moment on the other side, then take up and
spread with butter. This is a very nice way of broiling all
kinds of fish, fresh or salted. A little smoke under the fish
adds to its flavor. This may be made by putting two or three
cobs under the gridiron.
To Boil Codfish.—If boiled fresh, it is watery;
but it is excellent if salted, and hung for a day, to give it
firmness. Wash and clean the fish well, and rub salt inside of
it; tie it up, and put it on the fire in cold water; throw a
handful of salt into the fish-kettle. Boil a small fish 15
minutes; a large one 30 minutes. Serve it without the smallest
speck and scum; drain. Garnish it with lemon, horseradish, the
milt, roe, and liver. Oyster or shrimp sauce may be used.
Chowder.—Five pounds of codfish cut in squares;
fry plenty of salt pork cut in thin slices; put a layer of pork
in your kettle, then one of fish; one of potatoes in thick
slices, and one of onions in slices; plenty of pepper and
[pg 107] repeat as long as your
materials last, and finish with a layer of Boston crackers
or crusts of bread. Water sufficient to cook with, or milk
if you prefer. Cook one-half hour and turn over on your
platter, disturbing as little as possible. Clams and eels
the same way.
Clam Fritters.—Twelve clams chopped or not, one
pint milk, three eggs, add liquor from clams; salt and pepper,
and flour enough for thin batter. Fry in hot lard.
Clam Stew.—Lay the clams on a gridiron over hot
coals, taking them out of the shell as soon as open, saving the
juice; add a little hot water, pepper, a very little salt and
butter rolled in flour sufficient for seasoning; cook for five
minutes and pour over toast.
Eels, to Stew.—Of the above fish, that of the
“silver” kind is preferable to its congener, and, therefore,
ought to be procured for all cuisine purposes. Take from three
to four pounds of these eels, and let the same be thoroughly
cleansed, inside and out, rescinding the heads and tails from
the bodies. Cut them into pieces three inches in length each,
and lay them down in a stew pan, covering them with a
sufficiency of sweet mutton gravy to keep them seething over a
slow fire, when introduced into the pan, for twenty minutes.
Add to the liquor, before you place your eels into it, a
quarter of an ounce of whole black pepper, quarter of an ounce
of allspice, with one or two pieces of white ginger. Thicken
with a light admixture of flour and butter, stirring it
carefully round, adding thereto, at the same time, one gill of
good port wine, and half a gill of sweet ketchup. Lemon-peel
and salt may be added in accordance with your taste.
How to Keep Fish Sound.—To prevent meat, fish,
etc., going bad, put a few pieces of charcoal into the
sauce-pan wherein the fish or flesh is to be boiled.
How to Render Boiled Fish Firm.—Add a little
saltpetre to the salt in the water in which the fish is to be
boiled; a quarter of an ounce to one gallon.
Fish Balls.—Bone, cooked fresh, or salt fish,
add double the quantity of mashed potatoes, one beaten egg, a
little butter, pepper and salt to taste. Make in cakes or
balls; dredge with flour and fry in hot lard.
Potted Fish.—Take out the back-bone of the
fish; for one weighing two pounds take a tablespoon of allspice
and cloves mixed; these spices should be put into bags of not
too thick muslin; put sufficient salt directly upon each fish;
then roll in cloth, over which sprinkle a little cayenne
pepper; put alternate layers of fish, spice and sago in an
earthen jar; cover with the best cider vinegar; cover the jar
closely with a plate and over this put a covering of dough,
rolled out to twice the thickness of pie crust. Make the edges
of paste, to adhere closely to the sides of the jar, so as to
make it air-tight. Put the jar into a pot of cold water and let
it boil from three to five hours, according to quantity. Ready
when cold.
How to Broil or Roast Fresh Herrings.—Scale,
gut and wash; cut off the heads; steep them in salt and vinegar
ten minutes; dust them with flour, and broil them over or
before the fire, or in the oven. Serve with melted butter and
parsley.
Herrings are nice jarred, and done in the oven, with
pepper, cloves, salt, a little vinegar, a few bay-leaves, and a
little butter.
How to Fry Fresh Herrings.—Slice small onions,
and lay in the pan with the herrings; add a little butter, and
fry them. Perhaps it is better to fry the onions separately
with a little parsley, and butter or drip.
How to Pot Herrings.—Clean, cut off the heads,
and lay them close in an earthen pot. Strew a little salt
between every layer; put in cloves, mace, whole pepper, cayenne
and nutmeg; fill up the jar with vinegar, water, and a quarter
of a pint of sherry, cover, tie down; bake in an oven, and when
cold pot it for use. A few anchovies and bay leaves intermixed
will improve the flavor much.
Buttered Lobsters.—Pick the meat out, cut it,
and warm with a little brown gravy, nutmeg, salt, pepper and
butter, with a little flour. If done white, a little white
gravy and cream.
Curry Of Lobster.—Take them from the shells,
and lay into a pan, with a small piece of mace, three or four
spoonfuls of veal gravy, and four of cream; rub smooth one or
two teaspoonfuls of curry-powder, a teaspoonful of flour, and
an ounce of butter, simmer an hour; squeeze half a lemon in,
and add salt.
Lobster Chowder.—Four or five pounds of
lobster, chopped fine; take the green part and add to it four
pounded crackers; stir this into one quart of boiling milk;
then add the lobster, a piece of butter one-half the size of an
egg, a little pepper and salt, and bring it to a boil.
How to Boil Mackerel.—Rub them with vinegar;
when the water boils, put them in with a little salt, and boil
gently 15 minutes. Serve with fennel and parsley chopped, boil,
and put into melted butter, and gooseberry sauce.
Salt Mackerel.—Soak the fish for a few hours in
lukewarm water, changing the water several times; then put into
cold water loosely tied in cloths, and let the fish come to a
boil, turning off the water once, and pouring over the fish hot
water from the tea-kettle; let this just come to a boil, then
take them out and drain them, lay them on a platter, butter and
pepper them, and place them for a few moments in the oven.
Serve with sliced lemons, or with any fish sauce.
How to Fry Oysters.—Use the largest and best
oysters; lay them in rows upon a clean cloth and press another
upon them, to absorb the moisture; have ready several beaten
eggs; and in another dish some finely crushed crackers: in the
frying pan heat enough butter to entirely cover the oysters;
dip the oysters first into the eggs, then into the crackers,
rolling it or them over, that they may become well incrusted;
drop into the frying pan and fry quickly to a light brown.
Serve dry and let the dish be warm. A chafing dish is best.
Oyster Patties.—Make some rich puff paste and
bake it in very small tin patty pans; when cool, turn them out
upon a large dish; stew some large fresh oysters with a few
cloves, and a little mace and nutmeg; then add the yolk of one
egg, boiled hard and grated; add a little butter, and as much
of the oyster liquor as will cover them. When they have stewed
a little while, take them off the pan and set them to cool.
When quite cold, lay two or three oysters in each shell of puff
paste.
Oysters, Stewed.—In all cases, unless shell
oysters, wash and drain; mix half a cup of butter and a
tablespoon of corn starch; put with the oysters in a porcelain
kettle; stir until they boil; add two cups of cream or milk;
salt to taste; do not use the liquor of the oysters in either
stewing or escaloping.
Oysters Stewed.—Scald the oysters in their own
liquor, then take them out, beard them, and strain the liquor
carefully from the grit. Put into a stewpan an ounce of butter,
with sufficient flour dredged in to dry it up; add the oyster
liquor, and a blade of pounded mace, a little cayenne, and a
very little salt to taste; stir it well over a brisk fire with
a wooden spoon, and when it comes to the boil, throw in your
oysters, say a dozen and a half or a score, and a good
tablespoonful of cream, or more, if you have it at hand. Shake
the pan over the fire, and let it simmer for
[pg 108] one or two minutes, but not
any longer, and do not let it boil, or the fish will harden.
Serve in a hot dish, garnished with sippets of toasted
bread. Some persons think that the flavor is improved by
boiling a small piece of lemon-peel with the oyster liquor,
taking it out, however, before the cream is added.
Oysters Scolloped.—Beard and trim your oysters,
and strain the liquor. Melt in a stewpan, with a dredging of
flour sufficient to dry it up, an ounce of butter, and two
tablespoonfuls of white stock, and the same of cream; the
strained liquor and pepper, and salt to taste. Put in the
oysters and gradually heat them through, but be sure not to let
them boil. Have your scallop-shells buttered, lay in the
oysters, and as much liquid as they will hold; cover them well
over with bread-crumbs, over which spread, or drop, some tiny
bits of butter. Brown them in the oven, or before the fire, and
serve while very hot.
Oysters, To Pickle.—Take two hundred of the
plumpest, nicest oysters to be had, open them, saving the
liquor, remove the beards, put them, with the liquor, into a
stewpan, and let them simmer for twenty minutes over a very
gentle fire, taking care to skim them well. Take the stewpan
off the fire, take out the oysters, and strain the liquor
through a fine cloth, returning the oysters to the stewpan. Add
to a pint of the hot liquor half an ounce of mace, and half an
ounce of cloves; give it a boil, and put it in with the
oysters, stirring the spice well in amongst them. Then put in
about a spoonful of salt, three-quarters of a pint of
white-wine vinegar, and one ounce of whole pepper, and let the
oysters stand until they are quite cold. They will be ready for
use in about twelve or twenty-four hours; if to be kept longer
they should be put in wide-mouthed bottles, or stone jars, and
well drawn down with bladder. It is very important that they
should be quite cold before they are put into the bottles, or
jars.
Salmon, To Boil.—Clean it carefully, boil it
gently with salt and a little horse radish; take it out of the
water as soon as done. Let the water be warm if the fish be
split. If underdone it is very unwholesome. Serve with shrimp,
lobster, or anchovy sauce, and fennel and butter.
Salmon, To Marinate.—Cut the salmon in slices;
take off the skin and take out the middle bone; cut each slice
asunder; put into a saucepan and season with salt, pepper, 6
cloves, a sliced onion, some whole chives, a little sweet
basil, parsley, and a bay leaf; then squeeze in the juice of
three lemons, or use vinegar. Let the salmon lie in the
marinate for two hours; take it out; dry with a cloth; dredge
with flour, and fry brown in clarified butter; then lay a clean
napkin in a dish; lay the slices upon it; garnish with fried
parsley.
Salt Cod, To Dress.—Soak the cod all night in 2
parts water, and one part vinegar. Boil; and break into flakes
on the dish; pour over it boiled parsnips, beaten in a mortar,
and then boil up with cream, and a large piece of butter rolled
in a bit of flour. It may be served with egg-sauce instead of
parsnip, or boiled and served without flaking with the usual
sauce.
All Salt Fish may be done in a similar way. Pour
egg-sauce over it, or parsnips, boiled and beaten fine with
butter and cream.
How to Boil Sturgeon—Water, 2 quarts; vinegar,
1 pint; a stick of horseradish; a little lemon-peel, salt,
pepper, a bay leaf. In this boil the fish; when the fish is
ready to leave the bones, take it up; melt 1/2 lb. of butter;
add an anchovy, some mace, a few shrimps, good mushroom
ketchup, and lemon juice; when it boils, put in the dish; serve
with the sauce; garnish with fried oysters, horseradish and
lemon.
How to Broil Sturgeon.—Cut slices, rub beaten
eggs over them, and sprinkle them with crumbs of bread,
parsley, pepper and salt; wrap them in white paper, and broil
gently. Use for sauce, butter, anchovy and soy.
How to Dress Fresh Sturgeon.—Cut slices, rub
egg over them, then sprinkle with crumbs of bread, parsley,
pepper, salt; fold them in paper, and broil gently. Sauce;
butter, anchovy and soy.
How to Roast Sturgeon.—Put a piece of butter,
rolled in flour, into a stewpan with four cloves, a bunch of
sweet herbs, two onions, some pepper and salt, half a pint of
water and a glass of vinegar. Set it over the fire till hot;
then let it become lukewarm, and steep the fish in it an hour
or two. Butter a paper well, tie it round, and roast it without
letting the spit run through. Serve with sorrel and anchovy
sauce.
Trout, a-la-Genevoise—Clean the fish well; put
it into the stewpan, adding half champagne and half sherry
wine. Season it with pepper, salt, an onion, a few cloves stuck
in it, and a small bunch of parsley and thyme; put in it a
crust of French bread; set it on a quick fire. When done take
the bread out, bruise it and thicken the sauce: add flour and a
little butter, and boil it up. Lay the fish on the dish, and
pour the sauce over it. Serve it with sliced lemon and fried
bread.
How to Broil Trout—Wash, dry, tie it, to cause
it to keep its shape; melt butter, add salt, and cover the
trout with it. Broil it gradually in a Dutch oven, or in a
common oven. Cut an anchovy small, and chop some capers. Melt
some butter with a little flour, pepper, salt, nutmeg, and half
a spoonful of vinegar. Pour it over the trout and serve it
hot.
HOW TO CHOOSE
AND COOK GAME
How to Choose Ducks—A young duck should have
supple feet, breast and belly hard and thick. A tame duck has
dusky yellow feet. They should be picked dry, and ducklings
scalded.
How to Roast Ducks.—Carefully pick, and clean
the inside. Boil two or three onions in two waters; chop them
very small. Mix the onions with about half the quantity of sage
leaves, bread crumbs finely powdered, a spoonful of salt, and a
little cayenne paper; beat up the yolk of an egg, and rub the
stuffing well together. With a brisk fire roast about 35
minutes. Serve with gravy sauce.
How to Stew Ducks.—Lard two young ducks down
each side the breast; dust with flour; brown before the fire;
put into a stewpan with a quart of water, a pint of port wine,
a spoonful of walnut ketchup, the same of browning, one
anchovy, a clove of garlick, sweet herbs and cayenne pepper.
Stew till they are tender, about half an hour; skim and strain,
and pour over the duck.
How to Hash Partridge.—Cut up the partridges as
for eating; slice an onion into rings; roll a little butter in
flour; put them into the tossing pan, and shake it over the
fire till it boils; put in the partridge with a little port
wine and vinegar; and when it is thoroughly hot, lay it on the
dish with sippets round it; strain the sauce over the
partridge, and lay on the onion in rings.
How to Pot Partridge.—Clean them nicely; and
season with mace, allspice, white pepper and salt, in fine
powder. Rub every part well; then lay the breast downward in a
pan, and pack the birds as closely as you possibly can. Put a
good deal of butter on them; then cover
[pg 109] the
pan with a coarse flour paste and a paper over, tie it
close, and bake. When cold, put the birds into pots, and
cover with butter.
How to Roast Partridge.—Roast them like a
turkey, and when a little under roasted, dredge them with
flour, and baste them with butter; let them go to table with a
fine froth; put gravy sauce in the dish, and bread sauce on the
table.
How to Stew Partridge.—Truss as for roasting;
stuff the craws, and lard them down each side of the breast;
roll a lump of butter in pepper, salt and beaten mace, and put
them inside; sew up the vents; dredge them well and fry a light
brown; put them into a stewpan with a quart of good gravy, a
spoonful of sherry wine, the same of mushroom ketchup, a
teaspoonful of lemon pickle, and a little mushroom powder, one
anchovy, half a lemon, a sprig of sweet marjoram; cover the pan
close, and stew half an hour; take out, and thicken the gravy;
boil a little, and pour it over the partridge, and lay round
them artichoke buttons, boiled, and cut in quarters, and the
yolks of four hard eggs, if agreeable.
How to Roast Pheasant.—Roast them as turkey;
and serve with a fine gravy (into which put a very small bit of
garlic) and bread sauce. When cold, they may be made into
excellent patties, but their flavor should not be overpowered
by lemon.
How to Roast Plovers.—Roast the green
ones in the same way as woodcocks and quails, without drawing,
and serve on a toast. Grey plovers may be either roasted
or stewed with gravy, herbs and spice.
How to Fricassee Quails.—Having tossed them up
in a sauce-pan with a little melted butter and mushrooms, put
in a slice of ham, well beaten, with salt, pepper, cloves and
savory herbs; add good gravy, and a glass of sherry; simmer
over a slow fire; when almost done, thicken the ragout with a
good cullis, (i. e. a good broth, strained, gelatined, etc.) or
with two or three eggs, well beaten up in a little gravy.
How to Roast Quails.—Roast them without drawing
and serve on toast. Butter only should be eaten with them, as
gravy takes off the fine flavor. The thigh and the back are the
most esteemed.
How to Roast Rabbits.—Baste them with butter,
and dredge them with flour; half an hour will do them at a
brisk fire; and if small, twenty minutes. Take the livers with
a bunch of parsley, boil them, and chop them very fine
together; melt some butter, and put half the liver and parsley
into the butter; pour it into the dish, and garnish the dish
with the other half; roast them to a fine light brown.
How to Make Rabbit Taste Like a Hare.—Choose
one that is young, but full grown; hang it in the skin three or
four days; then skin it, and lay it, without washing, in a
seasoning of black pepper and allspice in a very fine powder, a
glass of port wine, and the same quantity of vinegar. Baste it
occasionally for 40 hours, then stuff it and roast it as a
hare, and with the same sauce. Do not wash off the liquor that
it was soaked in.
How to Roast Snipes—Do not draw them. Split
them; flour them, and baste with butter. Toast a slice of bread
brown; place it in the dish under the birds for the trail to
drop on. When they are done enough, take up, and lay them on
the toast; put good gravy in the dish. Serve with butter, and
garnish with orange or lemon.
Snipe Pie—Bone 4 snipes, and truss them. Put in
their inside finely chopped bacon, or other forcemeat; put them
in the dish with the breast downwards, and put forcemeat balls
around them. Add gravy made of butter, and chopped veal and
ham, parsley, pepper and shalots. Cover with nice puff paste;
close it well to keep in the gravy. When nearly done, pour in
more gravy, and a little sherry wine. Bake two or three
hours.
How to Fry Venison—Cut the meat into slices,
and make a gravy of the bones; fry it of a light brown, and
keep it hot before the fire; put butter rolled in flour into
the pan, and stir it till thick and brown; add 1/2 lb. of loaf
sugar powdered, with the gravy made from the bones, and some
port wine. Let it be as thick as cream; squeeze in a lemon;
warm the venison in it; put it in the dish, and pour the sauce
over it.
HOW TO MAKE ICE CREAMS
WATER-ICE AND JELLIES
To Mold Ices—Fill your mold as quickly as
possible with the frozen cream, wrap it up in paper, and bury
it in ice and salt, and let it remain for an hour or more to
harden. For dishing, have the dish ready, dip the mold in hot
water for an instant, wipe it, take off the top and bottom
covers, and turn it into the dish. This must be done
expeditiously. In molding ices, it is advisable not to have the
cream too stifly frozen before putting it into the mold.
Ice Cream—Take two quarts milk, one pint cream,
three eggs beaten very light, and two teaspoons of arrowroot;
boil in one-half pint milk, strain eggs, arrow-root, and flavor
to suit, then freeze.
Ginger Ice Cream—Bruise six ounces of the best
preserved ginger in a mortar; add the juice of one lemon, half
a pound of sugar, one pint of cream. Mix well; strain through a
hair sieve; freeze. One quart.
Italian Ice Cream—Rasp two lemons on some
sugar, which, with their juice, add to one pint of cream, one
glass of brandy, half a pound of sugar; freeze. One quart.
Lemon Ice Cream—Take one pint of cream, rasp
two lemons on sugar; squeeze them, and add the juice with half
a pound of sugar. Mix; freeze. One quart.
Pine-Apple Ice Cream—Take one pound of
pineapple, when peeled, bruise it in a marble mortar, pass it
through a hair sieve, add three-quarters of a pound of powdered
sugar, and one pint of cream. Freeze.
Raspberry and Currant Ice Cream—Take one pound
of raspberries, half a pound of red currants, three-quarters of
a pound of sugar, and one pint of cream. Strain, color and
freeze. One quart.
Strawberry Ice Cream—Take two pounds of fresh
strawberries, carefully picked, and, with a wooden spoon, rub
them through a hair sieve, and about half a pound of powdered
sugar, and the juice of one lemon; color with a few drops of
prepared cochineal; cream, one pint; then freeze. This will
make a reputed quart. When fresh strawberries are not in season
take strawberry jam, the juice of two lemons, cream, to one
quart. Color, strain, and freeze. Milk may be substituted for
cream, and makes good ices. If too much sugar is used, the ices
will prove watery, or, perhaps not freeze at all.
Vanilla Ice Cream—Pound one stick of vanilla,
or sufficient to flavor it to palate, in a mortar, with half a
pound of sugar; strain through a sieve upon the yolks of two
eggs, put it into a stewpan, with half a pint of milk; simmer
over a slow fire, stirring all the time, the same as custard;
when cool add one pint of cream and the juice of one lemon;
freeze. One quart.
Cherry Water-Ice—One lb. cherries, bruised in a
mortar with the stones; add the juice of two lemons, half a
pint of water, one pint of clarified sugar, one glass of
noyeau, and a little color; strain; freeze. One quart.
Lemon Water-Ice.—Take two lemons, and rasp them
on sugar, the juice of six lemons, the juice of one orange, one
pint of clarified sugar, and half a pint of water. Mix; strain
through a hair sieve; freeze. One quart.
Melon Water-Ice.—Half a lb. of ripe melon
pounded in a mortar, two ounces of orange-flower water, the
juice of two lemons, half a pint of water and one pint of
clarified sugar; strain; freeze. One quart.
Strawberry or Raspberry Water-Ice.—One pound of
scarlet strawberries or raspberries, half a pound currants,
half a pint of water, one pint of clarified sugar, and a little
color; strain and freeze. One quart.
Apple Jelly.—Cut the apples and boil in water
to cover, boil down, then strain, and take a pound of sugar to
a pint of juice, then boil fifteen minutes hard.
Apple Jelly.—Cut off all spots and decayed
places on the apples; quarter them, but do not pare or core
them; put in the peel of as many lemons as you like, about two
to six or eight dozen of the apples; fill the preserving-pan,
and cover the fruit with spring water; boil them till they are
in pulp, then pour them into a jelly-bag; let them strain all
night, do not squeeze them. To every pint of juice put one
pound of white sugar; put in the juice of the lemons you had
before pared, but strain it through muslin. You may also put in
about a teaspoonful of essense of lemon; let it boil for at
least twenty minutes; it will look redder than at first; skim
it well at the time. Put it either in shapes or pots, and cover
it the next day. It ought to be quite stiff and very clear.
Apple Jelly.—Prepare twenty golden pippins;
boil them in a pint and a half of water from the spring till
quite tender; then strain the liquor through a colander. To
every pint put a pound of fine sugar; add cinnamon, grated
orange or lemon; then boil to a jelly.
Another.—Prepare apples as before, by boiling
and straining; have ready half an ounce of isinglass boiled in
half a pint of water to a jelly; put this to the apple-water
and apple, as strained through a coarse sieve; add sugar, a
little lemon-juice and peel; boil all together, and put into a
dish. Take out the peel.
Calf’s Foot Lemon Jelly—Boil four quarts of
water with three calf’s feet, or two cow heels, till half
wasted; take the jelly from the fat and sediment, mix with it
the juice of a Seville orange and twelve lemons, the peels of
three ditto, the whites and shells of twelve eggs, sugar to
taste, a pint of raisin wine, 1 oz. of coriander seeds, 1/4 oz.
of allspice, a bit of cinnamon, and six cloves, all bruised,
after having mixed them cold. The jelly should boil fifteen
minutes without stirring; then clear it through a flannel
bag.
Cherry Jelly.—Cherries, 5 lbs.; stone them; red
currants, 2 lbs.; strain them, that the liquor may be clear;
add 2 lbs. of sifted loaf sugar, and 2 ozs. of isinglass.
Chocolate Caramel—One pint milk, half pound
butter, half pound Cadbury’s chocolate, three pounds sugar, two
spoons vanilla. Boil slowly until brittle.
Currant Jelly, Red or Black—Strip the fruit,
and in a stone jar stew them in a saucepan of water or on the
fire; strain off the liquor, and to every pint weigh 1 lb. of
loaf sugar; put the latter in large lumps into it, in a stone
or China vessel, till nearly dissolved; then put it into a
pre-serving-pan; simmer and skim. When it will jelly on a plate
put it in small jars or glasses.
Green Gooseberry Jelly—Place the berries in hot
water on a slow fire till they rise to the surface; take off;
cool with a little water, add also a little vinegar and salt to
green them. In two hours drain, and put them in cold water a
minute; drain, and mix with an equal weight of sugar; boil
slowly 20 minutes; sieve, and put into glasses.
Iceland Moss Jelly—Moss, 1/2 to 1 oz.; water, 1
quart. Simmer down to 1/2 pint. Add fine sugar and a little
lemon juice. It may be improved with 1/4 ounce of isinglass.
The moss should first be steeped in cold water an hour or
two.
Isinglass Jelly—Boil one ounce of isinglass in
a quart of water, with 1/4 ounce of Jamaica pepper-corns or
cloves, and a crust of bread, till reduced to a pint. Add
sugar. It keeps well, and may be taken in wine and water, milk,
tea, soup, etc.
Lemon Jelly Cake—Take four eggs, one cup sugar,
butter the size of an egg, one and a half cups flour, half cup
sweet milk, two teaspoons of baking powder. Jelly.—One
grated lemon, one grated apple, one egg, one cup sugar, beat
all together, put in a tin and stir till boils.
Lemon Jelly—Take one and a half packages of
gelatine, one pint cold water, soak two hours, then add two
teacups sugar, one pint boiling water; stir all together, add
the juice of two lemons or one wineglass wine, strain through a
cloth, and put in a mold.
Orange Jelly—It may be made the same as lemon
jelly, which see. Grate the rind of two Seville and of two
China oranges, and two lemons; squeeze the juice of three of
each, and strain, and add to the juice a quarter of a pound of
lump sugar, a quarter of a pint of water, and boil till it
almost candies. Have ready a quart of isinglass jelly made with
two ounces; put to it the syrup, boil it once up; strain off
the jelly, and let it stand to settle as above, before it is
put into the mold.
Quince Jelly—Cut in pieces a sufficient
quantity of quinces; draw off the juice by boiling them in
water, in which they ought only to swim, no more. When fully
done drain, and have ready clarified sugar, of which put one
spoonful to two of the juice; bring the sugar to the
souffle; add the juice, and finish. When it drops from
the skimmer it is enough; take it off, and pot it.
Jelly of Siberian Crabs—Take off the stalks,
weigh and wash the crabs. To each one and a half pounds, add
one pint of water. Boil them gently until broken, but do not
allow them to fall to a pulp. Pour the whole through a
jelly-bag, and when the juice is quite transparent weigh it;
put it into a clean preserving-pan, boil it quickly for ten
minutes, then add ten ounces of fine sugar to each pound of
juice; boil it from twelve to fifteen minutes, skim it very
clean, and pour into molds.
Siberian Crab-Apple Jelly—Mash the crab apples,
take off steins and heads, put in pot, cover with water, let
them boil to a pulp, then turn them in a flannel bag, and leave
all night to strain, then add one pound of sugar to a pint of
juice, boil ten to fifteen minutes, skim and put in jelly
glasses.
Siberian Crab Jelly—Fill a large flannel bag
with crabs. Put the bag in a preserving-pan of spring water,
and boil for about seven hours; then take out the bag, and fill
it so that all the syrup can run through, and the water that
remains in the pan; and to each pint of syrup add one pound of
loaf sugar, and boil for about an hour, and it will be a clear,
bright red jelly.
Telegraph wires have to be renewed every five or seven
years. The Western Union Telegraph Company exchange about one
thousand tons of old wire for new every year. The new wire
costs from seven to eight cents per pound, and for the old
about one-eighth of a cent a pound is
allowed.
HOW TO SELECT
AND COOK MEATS
How to Dress Bacon and Beans—When you dress
beans and bacon, boil the bacon by itself, and the beans by
themselves, for the bacon will spoil the color of the beans.
Always throw some salt into the water and some parsley nicely
picked. When the beans are done enough, which you will know by
their being tender, throw them into a colander to drain. Take
up the bacon and skin it; throw some raspings of the bread over
the top, and if you have a salamander, make it red hot, and
hold it over it to brown the top of the bacon; if you have not
one, set it before the fire to brown. Lay the beans in the
dish, and the bacon in the middle on the top, and send them to
table, with butter in a tureen.
Corned Beef—Make the following pickle: Water, 2
gallons; salt, 2-1/2 lbs.; molasses, 1/2 lb.; sugar, 1 lb.;
saltpetre, 1-1/2 ozs.; pearlash, 1/4 oz. Boil all together;
skim, and pour the pickle on about 25 lbs. of beef. Let it stay
in a few days. Boil in plenty of water when cooked to remove
the salt, and eat with it plenty of vegetables. It is nice to
eat cold, and makes excellent sandwiches.
Rolled Beef—Hang three ribs three or four days;
take out the bones from the whole length, sprinkle it with
salt, roll the meat tight and roast it. Nothing can look nicer.
The above done with spices, etc., and baked as hunters’ beef is
excellent.
Beef, Rolled to equal Hare—Take the inside of a
large sirloin, soak it in a glass of port wine and a glass of
vinegar mixed, for forty-eight hours; have ready a very fine
stuffing, and bind it up tight. Roast it on a hanging spit; and
baste it with a glass of port wine, the same quantity of
vinegar, and a teaspoonful of pounded allspice. Larding it
improves the look and flavor; serve with a rich gravy in the
dish; currant-jelly and melted butter in tureens.
Round of Beef—Should be carefully salted and
wet with the pickle for eight or ten days. The bone should be
cut out first, and the beef skewered and tied up to make it
quite round. It may be stuffed with parsley, if approved, in
which case the holes to admit the parsley must be made with a
sharp pointed knife, and the parsley coarsely cut and stuffed
in tight. As soon as it boils, it should be skimmed: and
afterwards kept boiling very gently.
Beef Steak, Stewed—Peel and chop two Spanish
onions, cut into small parts four pickled walnuts, and put them
at the bottom of a stewpan; add a teacupful of mushroom
ketchup, two teaspoonfuls of walnut ditto, one of shalot, one
of Chile vinegar, and a lump of butter. Let the rump-steak be
cut about three-quarters of an inch thick, and beat it flat
with a rolling-pin, place the meat on the top of the onions,
etc., let it stew for one hour and a half, turning it every
twenty minutes. Ten minutes before serving up, throw a dozen
oysters with the liquor strained.
Beef Steak and Oyster Sauce—Select a good,
tender rump-steak, about an inch thick, and broil it carefully.
Nothing but experience and attention will serve in broiling a
steaks; one thing, however, is always to be remembered, never
malt or season broiled meat until cooked. Have the gridiron
clean and hot, grease it with either butter, or good lard,
before laying on the meat, to prevent its sticking or marking
the meat; have clear, bright coals, and turn it frequently.
When cooked, cover tightly, and have ready nicely stewed
oysters; then lay the steak in a hot dish and pour over some of
the oysters. Serve the rest in a tureen. Twenty-five oysters
will make a nice sauce for a steak.
Fricassee of Cold Roast Beef—Cut the beef into
very thin slices; shred a handful of parsley very small, cut an
onion into quarters, and put all together into a stewpan, with
a piece of butter, and some strong broth; season with salt and
pepper, and simmer very gently a quarter of an hour; then mix
into it the yolks of two eggs, a glass of port wine, and a
spoonful of vinegar; stir it quickly, rub the dish with shalot,
and turn the fricassee into it.
Brawn—Clean a pig’s head, and rub it over with
salt and a little saltpetre, and let it lie two or three days;
then boil it until the bones will leave the meat; season with
salt and pepper, and lay the meat hot in a mold, and press and
weigh it down for a few hours. Boil another hour, covering. Be
sure and cut the tongue, and lay the slices in the middle, as
it much improves the flavor.
Calf’s Liver and Bacon—Cut the liver into
slices, and fry it first, then the bacon; lay the liver in the
dish, and the bacon upon it; serve it up with gravy, made in
the pan with boiling water, thickened with flour and butter,
and lemon juice; and, if agreeable, a little parsley and onion
may be chopped into it, or a little boiled parsley strewed over
the liver. Garnish with slices of lemon.
Nice Form of Cold Meats—Remains of boiled ham,
mutton, roast beef, etc., are good chopped fine with hard
boiled eggs, two heads of lettuce, a bit of onion, and seasoned
with mustard, oil, vinegar, and, if needed, more salt. Fix it
smoothly in a salad dish, and adorn the edges with sprigs of
parsley or leaves of curled lettuce. Keep by the ice or in a
cool place until wanted.
Fried Ham and Eggs—Cut thin slices, place in
the pan, and fry carefully. Do not burn. When done break the
eggs into the fat; pepper slightly; keep them whole; do not
turn them.
Ham Rushers may be served with spinach and poached eggs.
To Cook Ham—Scrape it clean. Do not put into
cold nor boiling water. Let the water become warm; then put the
ham in. Simmer or boil lightly for five or six hours; take out,
and shave the rind off. Rub granulated sugar into the whole
surface of the ham, so long as it can be made to receive it.
Place the ham in a baking-dish with a bottle of champagne or
prime cider. Baste occasionally with the juice, and let it bake
an hour in a gentle heat.
A slice from a nicely cured ham thus cooked is enough to
animate the ribs of death.
Or, having taken off the rind, strew bread crumbs or
raspings over it, so as to cover it; set it before the fire, or
in the oven till the bread is crisp and brown. Garnish with
carrots, parsley, etc. The water should simmer all the time,
and never boil fast.
Ham and Chicken, in Jelly—This is a nice dish
for supper or luncheon. Make with a small knuckle of veal some
good white stock. When cold, skim and strain it; melt it, and
put a quart of it into a saucepan with the well beaten whites
of three eggs; a dessert-spoonful of Chili, or a tablespoonful
of tarragon vinegar, and a little salt. Beat the mixture well
with a fork till it boils; let it simmer till it is reduced to
a little more than a pint; strain it; put half of it into a
mold; let it nearly set. Cut the meat of a roast chicken into
small thin pieces; arrange it in the jelly with some neat
little slices of cold boiled ham, and sprinkle chopped parsley
between the slices. When it has got quite cold, pour in the
remainder of the jelly, and stand the mold in cold water, or in
a cool place, so that it
[pg 112] sets speedily. Dip the mold
in boiling water to turn it out. Do not let it remain in the
water more than a minute, or it will spoil the appearance of
the dish. Garnish with a wreath of parsley.
Leg of Lamb—Should be boiled in a cloth to look
as white as possible. The loin fried in steaks and served
round, garnished with dried or fried parsley; spinach to eat
with it; or dressed separately or roasted.
Loin Of Mutton—Take off the skin, separate the
joints with the chopper; if a large size, cut the chine-bone
with a saw, so as to allow it to be carved in smaller pieces;
run a small spit from one extremity to the other, and affix it
to a larger spit, and roast it like the haunch. A loin weighing
six pounds will take one hour to roast.
Observations on Heat—In all kinds of
provisions, the best of the kind goes the farthest; it cuts out
with most advantage, and affords most nourishment. Round of
beef, fillet of veal, and leg of mutton, are joints of higher
price; but as they have more solid meat, they deserve the
preference. But those joints which are inferior may be dressed
as palatably.
In loins of meat, the long pipe that runs by the bone should
be taken out, as it is apt to taint; as also the kernels of
beef. Do not purchase joints bruised by the blows of
drovers.
Save shank bones of mutton to enrich gravies or soups.
When sirloins of beef, or loins of veal or mutton, come in,
part of the suet may be cut off for puddings, or to
clarify.
Dripping will baste anything as well as butter; except fowls
and game; and for kitchen pies, nothing else should be
used.
The fat of a neck or loin of mutton makes a far lighter
pudding than suet.
Frosted meat and vegetables should be soaked in cold
water two or three hours before using.
If the weather permit, meat eats much better for hanging two
or three days before it is salted.
Roast-beef bones, or shank bones of ham, make fine
peas-soup; and should be boiled with the peas the day before
eaten, that the fat may be taken off.
Boiled Leg of Mutton—Soak well for an hour or
two in salt and water; do not use much salt; wipe well and boil
in a floured cloth. Boil from two hours to two hours and a
half. Serve with caper sauce, potatoes, mashed turnips, greens,
oyster sauce, etc.
To preserve the gravy in the leg, do not put it in the water
till it boils; for the sudden contact with water causes a
slight film over the surface, which prevents the escape of the
gravy, which is abundant when carved.
How to Hash Mutton.—Cut thin slices of dressed
mutton, fat and lean; flour them; have ready a little onion
boiled in two or three spoonfuls of water; add to it a little
gravy and the meat seasoned, and make it hot, but not to boil.
Serve in a covered dish. Instead of onion, a clove, a spoonful
of current jelly, and half a glass of port wine will give an
agreeable flavor of venison, if the meat be fine.
Pickled cucumber, or walnut cut small, warm in it for
change.
How to Prepare Pig’s Cheek for Boiling.—Cut off
the snout, and clean the head; divide it, and take out the eyes
and the brains; sprinkle the head with salt, and let it drain
24 hours. Salt it with common salt and saltpetre; let it lie
nine days if to be dressed without stewing with peas, but less
if to be dressed with peas, and it must be washed first, and
then simmer till all is tender.
Pig’s Feet and Ears.—Clean carefully, and soak
some hours, and boil them tender; then take them out; boil some
vinegar and a little salt with some of the water, and when cold
put it over them. When they are to be dressed, dry them, cut
the feet in two, and slice the ears; fry, and serve with
butter, mustard and vinegar. They may be either done in batter,
or only floured.
Pork, Loin Of.—Score it, and joint it, that the
chops may separate easily; and then roast it as a loin of
mutton. Or, put it into sufficient water to cover it; simmer
till almost enough; then peel off the skin, and coat it with
yolk of egg and bread crumbs, and roast for 15 or 20 minutes,
till it is done enough.
How to Pickle Pork.—Cut the pork in such pieces
as will lie in the pickling tub; rub each piece with saltpetre;
then take one part bay salt, and two parts common salt, and rub
each piece well; lay them close in the tub, and throw salt over
them.
Some use a little sal prunnella, and a little sugar.
Pork Pie, to Eat Cold.—Raise a common boiled
crust into either a round or oval form, which you choose, have
ready the trimmings and small bits of pork cut off a sweet
bone, when the hog is killed, beat it with a rolling-pin,
season with pepper and salt, and keep the fat and lean
separate, put it in layers quite close to the top, lay on the
lid, cut the edge smooth, round, and pinch it; bake in a
slow-soaking oven, as the meat is very solid. Observe, put no
bone or water in the pork pie; the outside pieces will be hard
if they are not cut small and pressed close.
How to Roast a Leg of Pork.—Choose a small leg
of fine young pork; cut a slit in the knuckle with a sharp
knife; and fill the space with sage and onion chopped, and a
little pepper and salt. When half done, score the skin in
slices, but don’t cut deeper than the outer rind.
Apple sauce and potatoes should be served to eat with
it.
Pork, Rolled Neck of.—Bone it; put a forcemeat
of chopped sage, a very few crumbs of bread, salt, pepper and
two or three berries of allspice over the inside; then roll the
meat as tight as you can, and roast it slowly, and at a good
distance at first.
Chine of Pork.—Salt three days before cooking.
Wash it well; score the skin, and roast with sage and onions
finely shred. Serve with apple sauce.—The chine is often
sent to the table boiled.
How to Collar Pork.—Bone a breast or spring of
pork; season it with plenty of thyme, parsley and sage; roll it
hard; put in a cloth, tie both ends, and boil it; then press
it; when cold, take it out of the cloth, and keep it in its own
liquor.
Pork as Lamb.—Kill a young pig of four or five
months old: cut up the forequarter for roasting as you do lamb,
and truss the shank close. The other parts will make delicate
pickled pork; or steaks, pies, etc.
Pork Sausages.—Take 6 lbs. of young pork, free
from gristle, or fat; cut small and beat fine in a mortar. Chop
6 lbs. of beef suet very fine; pick off the leaves of a
hand-full of sage, and shred it fine; spread the meat on a
clean dresser, and shake the sage over the meat; shred the rind
of a lemon very fine, and throw it, with sweet herbs, on the
meat; grate two nutmegs, to which put a spoonful of pepper, and
a large spoonful of salt: throw the suet over, and mix all well
together. Put it down close in the pot; and when you use it,
roll it up with as much egg as will make it roll smooth.
Sausage Rolls.—One pound of flour, half a pound
of the best lard, quarter of a pound of butter, and the yolks
of three eggs well beaten. Put the flour into a dish, make a
hole in the middle of it, and rub in about one ounce of the
lard, then the yolks of the eggs, and enough water to mix the
whole into a smooth paste. Roll it out about an
[pg 113] inch thick; flour your
paste and board. Put the butter and lard in a lump into the
paste, sprinkle it with flour, and turn the paste over it;
beat it with a rolling-pin until you have got it flat enough
to roll; roll it lightly until very thin; then divide your
meat and put it into two layers of paste, and pinch the
ends. Sausage rolls are now usually made small. Two pounds
of sausage meat will be required for this quantity of paste,
and it will make about two and a half dozen of rolls. Whites
of the eggs should be beaten a little, and brushed over the
rolls to glaze them. They will require from twenty minutes
to half an hour to bake, and should be served on a dish
covered with a neatly-folded napkin.
Spiced Beef.—Take a round of an ox; or young
heifer, from 20 to 40 lbs. Cut it neatly, so that the thin
flank end can wrap nearly round. Take from 2 to 4 ounces
salpetre, and 1 ounce of coarse sugar, and two handfuls of
common salt. Mix them well together and rub it all over. The
next day salt it well as for boiling. Let it lie from two to
three weeks, turning it every two or three days. Take out of
the pickle, and wipe it dry. Then take cloves, mace, well
powdered, a spoonful of gravy, and rub it well into the beef.
Roll it up as tightly as possible; skewer it, and tie it up
tight. Pour in the liquor till the meat is quite saturated, in
which state it must be kept.
Stewed Beef.—Take five pounds of buttock, place
it in a deep dish; half a pint of white wine vinegar, three bay
leaves, two or three cloves, salt and pepper; turn it over
twice the first day, and every morning after for a week or ten
days. Boil half a pound or a quarter of a pound of butter, and
throw in two onions, chopped very small, four cloves, and some
pepper-corns; stew five hours till tender and a nice light
brown.
How to Boil Tongue.—If the tongue be a dry one,
steep in water all night. Boil it three hours. If you prefer it
hot, stick it with cloves. Clear off the scum, and add savory
herbs when it has boiled two hours; but this is optional. Rub
it over with the yolk of an egg; strew over it bread crumbs;
baste it with butter; set it before the fire till it is of a
light brown. When you dish it up, pour a little brown gravy, or
port wine sauce mixed the same way as for venison. Lay slices
of currant jelly around it.
How to Fricassee Tripe.—Cut into small square
pieces. Put them into the stewpan with as much sherry as will
cover them, with pepper, ginger, a blade of mace, sweet herbs
and an onion. Stew 15 minutes. Take out the herbs and onion,
and put in a little shred of parsley, the juice of a small
lemon, half an anchovy cut small, a gill of cream and a little
butter, or yolk of an egg. Garnish with lemon.
How to Fry Tripe.—Cut the tripe into small
square pieces; dip them in yolks of eggs, and fry them in good
dripping, till nicely brown; take out and drain, and serve with
plain melted butter.
Veal Cutlets, Maintenon.—Cut slices about three
quarters of an inch thick, beat them with a rolling-pin, and
wet them on both sides with egg; dip them into a seasoning of
bread crumbs, parsley, thyme, knotted marjoram, pepper, salt
and a little nutmeg grated; then put them in papers folded
over, and broil them; and serve with a boat of melted butter,
with a little mushroom ketchup.
Veal Cutlets.—Another way.—Prepare as
above, and fry them; lay into a dish, and keep them hot; dredge
a little flour, and put a bit of butter into the pan; brown it,
then pour some boiling water into it and boil quickly; season
with pepper, salt and ketchup and pour over them.
Another Way.—Prepare as before, and dress the
cutlets in a dutch oven; pour over them melted butter and
mushrooms.
Fillet Of Veal.—Veal requires a good, bright
fire for roasting. Before cooking, stuff with a force-meat,
composed of 2 ozs. of finely-powdered bread crumbs, half a
lemon-peel chopped fine, half a teaspoonful of salt, and the
same quantity of mixed mace and cayenne pepper, powdered
parsley, and some sweet herbs; break an egg, and mix all well
together. Baste your joint with fresh butter, and send it to
table well browned. A nice bit of bacon should be served with
the fillet of veal, unless ham is provided.
Veal Patties.—Mince some veal that is not quite
done with a little parsley, lemon-peel, a scrape of nutmeg, and
a bit of salt; add a little cream and gravy just to moisten the
meat; and add a little ham. Do not warm it till the patties are
baked.
Veal Pie.—Take some of the middle, or scrag, of
a small neck; season it; and either put to it, or not, a few
slices of lean bacon or ham. If it is wanted of a high relish,
add mace, cayenne, and nutmeg, to the salt and pepper; and also
force-meat and eggs; and if you choose, add truffles, morels,
mushrooms, sweet-bread, cut into small bits, and cocks’-combs
blanched, if liked. Have a rich gravy ready, to pour in after
baking. It will be very good without any of the latter
additions.
Common Veal Pie.—Cut a breast of veal into
pieces; season with pepper and salt, and lay them in the dish.
Boil hard six or eight yolks of eggs, and put them into
different places in the pie; pour in as much water as will
nearly fill the dish; put on the lid, and bake. Lamb Pie
may be done this way.
Stewed Veal.—Cut the veal as for small cutlets;
put into the bottom of a pie-dish a layer of the veal, and
sprinkle it with some finely-rubbed sweet basil and chopped
parsley, the grated rind of one lemon with the juice, half a
nut-meg, grated, a little salt and pepper; and cut into very
small
pieces a large spoonful of butter; then another layer of
slices of veal, with exactly the same seasoning as before; and
over this pour one pint of Lisbon wine and half a pint of
cold water; then cover it over very thickly with grated
stale bread; put this in the oven and bake slowly for
three-quarters of an hour, and brown it. Serve it in a
pie-dish hot.
Breast of Veal Stuffed—Cut off the gristle of a
breast of veal, and raise the meat off the bones, then lay a
good force-meat, made of pounded veal, some sausage-meat,
parsley, and a few shalots chopped very fine, and well seasoned
with pepper, salt, and nutmeg; then roll the veal tightly, and
sew it with fine twine to keep it in shape, and prevent the
force-meat escaping; lay some slices of fat bacon in a
stew-pan, and put the veal roll on it; add some stock, pepper,
salt, and a bunch of sweet herbs; let it stew three hours, then
cut carefully out the twine, strain the sauce after skimming it
well, thicken it with brown flour; let it boil up once, and
pour it over the veal garnish with slices of lemon, each cut in
four. A fillet of veal first stuffed with force-meat can be
dressed in the same manner, but is must first be roasted, so as
to brown it a good color; and force-meat balls, highly
seasoned, should be served round the veal.
HOW TO MAKE PIES
OF VARIOUS KINDS
Beef-Steak Pie—Prepare the steaks as stated
under Beefsteaks, and when seasoned and rolled with fat
in each, [pg 114] put them in a dish with
puff paste round the edges; put a little water in the dish,
and cover it with a good crust.
Chicken Pie—Cut the chicken in pieces, and boil
nearly tender. Make a rich crust with an egg or two to make it
light and puffy. Season the chicken and slices of ham with
pepper, salt, mace, nutmeg, and cayenne. Put them in layers,
first the ham, chicken, force-meat balls, and hard eggs in
layers. Make a gravy of knuckle of veal, mutton bones, seasoned
with herbs, onions, pepper, etc. Pour it over the contents of
the pie, and cover with paste. Bake an hour.
Cocoanut Pie—Take a teacup of cocoanut, put it
into a coffee-cup, fill it up with sweet milk, and let it soak
a few hours. When ready to bake the pie, take two
tablespoonfuls of flour, mix with milk, and stir in
three-fourths of a cup of milk (or water); place on the stove,
and stir until it thickens. Add butter the size of a walnut,
while warm. When cool, add a little salt, two eggs, saving out
the white of one for the top. Sweeten to taste. Add the
cocoanut, beating well. Fill the crust and bake. When done,
have the extra white beaten ready to spread over the top.
Return to the oven and brown lightly.
Cream Pie—Take eight eggs, eight ounces pounded
sugar, eight ounces flour, put all together into a stew-pan
with two glasses of milk, stir until it boils, then add quarter
pound of butter, and quarter pound of almonds, chopped fine;
mix well together, make paste, roll it out half an inch thick,
cut out a piece the size of a teaplate, put in a baking tin,
spread out on it the cream, and lay strips of paste across each
way and a plain broad piece around the edge, egg and sugar the
top and bake in a quick oven.
Fish Pie—Pike, perch and carp may be made into
very savory pies if cut into fillets, seasoned and baked in
paste, sauce made of veal broth, or cream put in before
baking.
Game Pie—Divide the birds, if large, into
pieces or joints. They may be pheasants, partridges, etc. Add a
little bacon or ham. Season well. Cover with puff paste, and
bake carefully. Pour into the pie half a cupful of melted
butter, the juice of a lemon, and a glass of sherry, when
rather more than half baked.
Giblet Pie—Clean the giblets well; stew with a
little water, onion, pepper, salt, sweet herbs, till nearly
done. Cool, and add beef, veal or mutton steaks. Put the liquor
of the stew to the giblets. Cover with paste, and when the pie
is baked, pour into it a large teacupful of cream.
Lamb Pasty—Bone the lamb, cut it into square
pieces; season with salt, pepper, cloves, mace, nutmeg, and
minced thyme; lay in some beef suet, and the lamb upon it,
making a high border about it; then turn over the paste close,
and bake it. When it is enough, put in some claret, sugar,
vinegar, and the yolks of eggs, beaten, together. To have the
sauce only savory, and not sweet, let it be gravy only, or the
baking of bones in claret.
Salmon Pie.—Grate the rind of one small lemon,
or half a large one; beat the yolks of 2 eggs; 4 tablespoons of
sugar; beat all together; add to this 1/2 pint of cold water,
with 1-1/2 tablespoons of flour in it; rub smooth so there will
be no lumps; beat the whites of two eggs to a stiff froth; stir
this in your pie-custard before you put it in the pan. Bake
with one crust, and bake slowly.
Salmon Pie—Grate the rind of a lemon into the
yolks of three fresh eggs; beat for five minutes, adding three
heaping tablespoonfuls of granulated sugar; after squeezing in
the juice of the lemon add half a teacupful of water; mix all
thoroughly, and place in a crust the same as made for custard
pie; place in oven and bake slowly. Take the whites of the
three eggs, and beat to a stiff froth, adding two
tablespoonfuls of pulverized sugar, and juice of half a lemon;
after the pie bakes and is cool, place the frosting on top, and
put into a hot oven to brown.
Mince-Meat—There are various opinions as to the
result of adding meat to the sweet ingredients used in making
this favorite dish. Many housewives think it an improvement,
and use either the under-cut of a well-roasted surloin of beef
or a boiled fresh ox-tongue for the purpose. Either of these
meats may be chosen with advantage, and one pound, after it has
been cooked, will be found sufficient; this should be freed
from fat, and well minced. In making mince-meat, each
ingredient should be minced separately and finely before it is
added to the others. For a moderate quantity, take two pounds
of raisins (stoned), the same quantity of currants, well washed
and dried, ditto of beef suet, chopped fine, one pound of
American apples, pared and cored, two pounds of moist sugar,
half a pound of candied orange-peel, and a quarter of a pound
of citron, the grated rinds of three lemons, one grated nutmeg,
a little mace, half an ounce of salt, and one teaspoonful of
ginger. After having minced the fruit separately, mix all well
together with the hand; then add half a pint of French brandy
and the same of sherry. Mix well with a spoon, press it down in
jars, and cover it with a bladder.
Good Mince Pies.—Six pounds beef; 5 pounds
suet; 5 pounds sugar; 2 ounces allspice; 2 ounces cloves; 3/4
pound cinnamon; 1/2 pint molasses; 1-1/4 pounds seedless
raisins; 2 pounds currants; 1/2 pound citron chopped fine; 1
pound almonds, chopped fine; 2 oranges; 1 lemon-skin, and all
chopped fine; 2 parts chopped apples to one of meat; brandy and
cider to taste.
Mock Mince Pies.—One teacup of bread; one of
vinegar; one of water; one of raisins; one of sugar; one of
molasses; one half-cup of butter; one teaspoon of cloves; one
of nutmeg; one of cinnamon. The quantity is sufficient for
three pies. They are equally as good as those made in the usual
way.
Potato Pasty.—Boil and peel and mash potatoes
as fine as possible; mix them with salt, pepper, and a good bit
of butter. Make a paste; roll it out thin like a large puff,
and put in the potato; fold over one half, pinching the edges.
Bake in a moderate oven.
Potato Pie.—Skin some potatoes and cut them in
slices; season them; and also some mutton, beef, pork or veal,
and a lump of butter. Put layers of them and of the meat. A few
eggs boiled and chopped fine improves it.
Veal and Ham Pie.—Cut about one pound and a
half of veal into thin slices, as also a quarter of a pound of
cooked ham; season the veal rather highly with white pepper and
salt, with which cover the bottom of the dish; then lay over a
few slices of ham, then the remainder of the veal, finishing
with the remainder of the ham; add a wineglassful of water, and
cover with a good paste, and bake; a bay-leaf will be an
improvement.
Vinegar Pie.—Five tablespoons vinegar, five
sugar, two flour, two water, a little nutmeg. Put in dish and
bake.
HOW TO MAKE PRESERVES
OF VARIOUS KINDS
Apple Jam.—Fill a wide jar nearly half full of
water; cut the apples unpeeled into quarters, take out the
core, then fill the jar with the apples; tie a paper over it,
and put it into a slow oven. When quite soft and cool, pulp
[pg 115] them through a sieve. To
each pound of pulp put three-quarters of a pound of crushed
sugar, and boil it gently until it will jelly. Put it into
large tart dishes or jars. It will keep for five or more
years in a cool, dry place. If for present use, or a month
hence, half a pound of sugar is enough.
Apple Marmalade.—Scald apples till they will
pulp from the core; then take an equal weight of sugar in large
lumps, just dip them in water, and boil it till it can be well
skimmed, and is a thick syrup, put to it the pulp, and simmer
it on a quick fire a quarter of an hour. Grate a little
lemon-peel before boiled, but if too much it will be
bitter.
Barberry Jam.—The barberries for this preserve
should be quite ripe, though they should not be allowed to hang
until they begin to decay. Strip them from the stalks; throw
aside such as are spotted, and for one pound of fruit allow
eighteen ounces well-refined sugar; boil this, with about a
pint of water to every four pounds, until it becomes white, and
falls in thick masses from the spoon; then throw in the fruit,
and keep it stirred over a brisk fire for six minutes only;
take off the scum, and pour it into jars or glasses. Sugar four
and a half pounds; water a pint and a quarter, boil to candy
height; barberries four pounds; six minutes.
How to Preserve Blackcurrants.—Get the currants
when they are dry, and pick them; to every 1-1/4 lbs. of
currants put 1 lb. of sugar into a preserving pan, with as much
juice of currants as will dissolve it; when it boils skim it,
and put in the currants, and boil them till they are clear; put
them into a jar, lay brandy paper over them, tie them down, and
keep in a dry place. A little raspberry juice is an
improvement.
Cherry Jam.—Pick and stone 4 lbs. of May-duke
cherries; press them through a sieve; then boil together half a
pint of red currant or raspberry juice, and 3/4 lb. of white
sugar, put the cherries into them while boiling; add 1 lb. of
fine white sugar. Boil quickly 35 minutes, jar, and cover
well.
Cherry Marmalade.—Take some very ripe cherries;
cut off the stalks and take out the stones; crush them and boil
them well; put them into a hand sieve, and force them through
with a spatula, till the whole is pressed through and nothing
remains but the skins; put it again upon the fire to dry; when
reduced to half weigh it, and add an equal weight of sugar;
boil again; and when it threads between the fingers, it is
finished.
How to Preserve Currants for Tarts.—Let the
currants be ripe, dry and well picked. To every 1-1/4 lbs. of
currants put 1 lb. of sugar into a preserving pan with as much
juice of currants as will dissolve it; when it boils skim it,
and put in the currants; boil till clear; jar, and put
brandy-paper over; tie down; keep in a dry place.
How to Preserve Grapes.—Into an air-tight cask
put a layer of bran dried in an oven; upon this place a layer
of grapes, well dried, and not quite ripe, and so on
alternately till the barrel is filled; end with bran, and close
air-tight; they will keep 9 or 10 months. To restore them to
their original freshness, cut the end off each bunch stalk, and
put into wine, like flowers. Or,
Bunches of grapes may be preserved through winter by
inserting the end of the stem into a potato. The bunches should
be laid on dry straw, and turned occasionally.
How to Preserve Green Gages.—Choose the largest
when they begin to soften; split them without paring; strew
upon them part of the sugar. Blanch the kernels with a sharp
knife. Next day pour the syrup from the fruit, and boil it with
the other sugar six or eight minutes gently; skim and add the
plums and kernels. Simmer till clear, taking off the scum; put
the fruit singly into small pots, and pour the syrup and
kernels to it. To candy it, do not add the syrup, but observe
the directions given for candying fruit; some may be done each
way.
Green Gage Jam.—Peel and take out the stones.
To 1 lb. of pulp put 3/4 lb. loaf sugar; boil half an hour; add
lemon juice.
Transparently Beautiful Marmalade.—Take 3 lbs.
bitter oranges; pare them as you would potatoes; cut the skin
into fine shreds, and put them into a muslin bag; quarter all
the oranges; press out the juice. Boil the pulp and shreds in
three quarts of water 2-1/2 hours, down to three pints; strain
through a hair sieve. Then put six pounds of sugar to the
liquid, the juice and the shreds, the outside of two lemons
grated, and the insides squeezed in; add three cents worth of
isinglass. Simmer altogether slowly for 15 or 20 minutes.
Tomato Marmalade.—Take ripe tomatoes in the
height of the season; weigh them, and to every pound of
tomatoes add one pound of sugar. Put the tomatoes into a large
pan or small tub, and scald them with boiling water, so as to
make the skin peel off easily; When you have entirely removed
the skin, put the tomatoes (without any water) into a
preserving kettle, wash them, and add the sugar, with one ounce
of powdered ginger to every three pounds of fruit, and the
juice of two lemons, the grated rind of three always to every
three pounds of fruit. Stir up the whole together, and set it
over a moderate fire. Boil it gently for two or three hours;
till the whole becomes a thick, smooth mass, skimming it well,
and stirring it to the bottom after every skimming. When done,
put it warm into jars, and cover tightly. This will be found a
very fine sweetmeat.
How to Preserve Green Peas.—Shell, and put them
into a kettle of water when it boils; give them two or three
warms only, and pour them in a colander. Drain, and turn them
out on a cloth, and then on another to dry perfectly. When dry
bottle them in wide mouthed bottles; leaving only room to pour
clarified mutton suet upon them an inch thick, and for the
cork. Rosin it down; and keep in the cellar, or in the earth,
as directed for gooseberries. When they are to be used, boil
them till tender, with a bit of butter, a spoonful of sugar,
and a bit of mint.
How to Preserve Green Peas for Winter
Use.—Carefully shell the peas; then place them in the
canister, not too large ones; put in a small piece of alum,
about the size of a horse-bean to a pint of peas. When the
canister is full of peas, fill up the interstices with water,
and solder on the lid perfectly air-tight, and boil the
canisters for about twenty minutes; then remove them to a cool
place, and by the time of January they will be found but little
inferior to fresh, new-gathered peas. Bottling is not so good;
at least, we have not found it so; for the air gets in, the
liquid turns sour, and the peas acquire a bad taste.
How to Keep Preserves.—Apply the white of an
egg, with a brush, to a single thickness of white tissue paper,
with which covers the jars, lapping over an inch or two. It
will require no tying, as it will become, when dry,
inconceivably tight and strong, and impervious to the air.
Quinces for the Tea-table.—Bake ripe quinces
thoroughly; when cold, strip off the skins, place them in a
glass dish, and sprinkle with white sugar, and serve them with
cream. They make a fine looking dish for the tea-table, and a
more luscious and inexpensive one than the same fruit made into
sweetmeats. Those who once taste the fruit thus prepared, will
probably desire to store away a few bushels in the fall to use
in the above manner.
Pickled Pears.—Three pounds of sugar to a pint
of vinegar, spice in a bag and boil, then cook the pears in the
vinegar till done through.
Boiled Pears.—Boil pears in water till soft,
then add one pound of sugar to three pounds of fruit.
Pickled Citron.—One quart vinegar, two pounds
sugar, cloves and cinnamon each one tablespoon, boil the citron
tender in water, take them out and drain, then put them in the
syrup and cook till done.
How to Preserve Raspberries.—Take raspberries
that are not too ripe, and put them to their weight in sugar,
with a little water. Boil softly, and do not break them; when
they are clear, take them up, and boil the syrup till it be
thick enough; then put them in again, and when they are cold,
put them in glasses or jars.
Raspberry Jam.—One pound sugar to four pounds
fruit, with a few currants.
Spiced Currants.—Six pounds currants, four
pounds sugar, two tablespoons cloves and two of cinnamon, and
one pint of vinegar; boil two hours until quite thick.
Stewed Pears—Pare and halve or quarter a dozen
pears, according to their size; carefully remove the cores, but
leave the sloths on. Place them in a clean baking-jar, with a
closely fitting lid; add to them the rind of one lemon, cut in
strips, and the juice of half a lemon, six cloves, and whole
allspice, according to discretion. Put in just enough water to
cover the whole, and allow half a pound of loaf-sugar to every
pint. Cover down close, and bake in a very cool oven for five
hours, or stew them very gently in a lined saucepan from three
to four hours. When done, lift them out on a glass dish without
breaking them; boil up the syrup quickly for two or three
minutes; let it cool a little, and pour it over the pears. A
little cochineal greatly enhances the appearance of the fruit;
you may add a few drops of prepared cochineal; and a little
port wine is often used, and much improves the flavor.
How to Preserve Whole Strawberries—Take equal
weights of the fruit and refined sugar, lay the former in a
large dish, and sprinkle half the sugar in fine powder over,
give a gentle shake to the dish that the sugar may touch the
whole of the fruit; next day make a thin syrup with the
remainder of the sugar, and instead of water allow one pint of
red currant juice to every pound of strawberries; in this
simmer them until sufficiently jellied. Choose the largest
scarlets, or others when not dead ripe.
How to Preserve Strawberries in Wine—Put a
quantity of the finest large strawberries into a
gooseberry-bottle, and strew in three large spoonfuls of fine
sugar; fill up with Madeira wine or fine sherry.
Preserved Tomatoes—One pound of sugar to one
pound of ripe tomatoes boiled down; flavor with lemon.
HOW TO BOIL, BAKE AND STEAM
PUDDINGS
Amber Pudding—Put a pound of butter into a
saucepan, with three quarters of a pound of loaf sugar finely
powdered; melt the butter, and mix well with it; then add the
yolks of fifteen eggs well beaten, and as much fresh candied
orange as will add color and flavor to it, being first beaten
to a fine paste. Line the dish with paste for turning out; and
when filled with the above, lay a crust over, as you would a
pie, and bake in a slow oven. It is as good cold as hot.
Baked Apple Pudding—Pare and quarter four large
apples; boil them tender with the rind of a lemon, in so little
water, that when done, none may remain; beat them quite fine in
a mortar; add the crumbs of a small roll, four ounces of butter
melted, the yolks of five, and whites of three eggs, juice of
half a lemon, and sugar to taste: beat all together, and lay it
in a dish with paste to turn out.
Boiled Apple Pudding—Suet, 5 ozs.; flour, 8
ozs.; chop the suet very fine, and roll it into the flour. Make
it into a light paste with water. Roll out. Pare and core 8
good sized apples; slice them; put them on the paste, and
scatter upon them 4 lb. of sugar; draw the paste round the
apples, and boil two hours or more, in a well floured cloth.
Serve with melted butter sweetened.
Swiss Apple Pudding—Butter a deep dish; put
into it a layer of bread crumbs; then a layer of finely chopped
suet; a thick layer of finely chopped apples, and a thick layer
of sugar. Repeat from the first layer till the dish is full,
the last layer to be finger biscuits soaked in milk. Cover it
till nearly enough; then uncover, till the top is nicely
browned. Flavor with cinnamon, nutmeg, etc., as you please.
Bake from 30 to 40 minutes.
Apple and Sago Pudding—Boil a cup of sago in
boiling water with a little cinnamon, a cup of sugar, lemon
flavoring; cut apples in thin slices, mix them with the sago;
after it is well boiled add a small piece of butter: pour into
a pudding dish and bake half an hour.
Apple Pudding—Pare and stew three pints of
apples, mash them, and add four eggs, a quarter of a pound of
butter, sugar and nutmeg, or grated lemon. Bake it on a short
crust.
Apple Potatoe Pudding.—Six potatoes boiled and
mashed fine,add a little salt and piece of butter, size of an
egg, roll this out with a little flour, enough to make a good
pastry crust which is for the outside of the dumpling, into
this put peeled and chopped apples, roll up like any apple
dumpling, steam one hour, eat hot with liquid sauce.
Arrow-root Pudding.—Take 2 teacupfuls of
arrowroot, and mix it with half a pint of old milk; boil
another half pint of milk, flavoring it with cinnamon, nutmeg
or lemon peel, stir the arrowroot and milk into the boiling
milk. When cold, add the yolks of 3 eggs beaten into 3 ozs. of
sugar. Then add the whites beaten to a stiff broth, and bake in
a buttered dish an hour. Ornament the tops with sweetmeats, or
citron sliced.
Aunt Nelly’s Pudding—Half a pound of flour,
half pound of treacle, six ounces of chopped suet, the juice
and peel of one lemon, 4 tablespoonfuls of cream, two or three
eggs. Mix and beat all together. Boil in a basin (previously
well buttered) four hours.—For sauce, melted butter, a
wine-glassful of sherry, and two or three tablespoonfuls of
apricot jam.
Baked Indian Pudding.—Two quarts sweet milk; 1
pint New Orleans molasses; 1 pint Indian meal: 1 tablespoonful
butter; nutmeg or cinnamon. Boil the milk; pour it over the
meal and molasses; add salt and spice; bake three hours. This
is a large family pudding.
Batter, to be used with all Sorts of Roasting
Meat.—Melt good butter; put to it three eggs, with
the whites well beaten up, and warm them together, stirring
them continually. With this you may baste any roasting meat,
and then sprinkle bread crumbs thereon; and so continue to make
a crust as thick as you please.
Batter, for Frying Fruit, Vegetables, etc.—Cut
four ounces of fresh butter into small pieces, pour on it half
a pint of barley water, and when dissolved, add a pint of cold
water; mix by degrees with a pound of fine dry flour, and a
small pinch of salt. Just before it is used,
[pg 117] stir into it the whites of
two eggs beaten to a solid froth; use quickly, that the
batter may be light.
Beef Steak Pudding.—Take some fine rump steaks;
roll them with fat between; and if you approve a little shred
onion. Lay a paste of suet in a basin, and put in the chopped
steaks; cover the basin with a suet paste, and pinch the edges
to keep the gravy in. Cover with a cloth tied close, let the
pudding boil slowly for two hours.
Baked Beef Steak Pudding.—Make a batter of
milk, two eggs and flour, or, which is much better, potatoes
boiled and mashed through a colander; lay a little of it at the
bottom of the dish; then put in the steaks very well seasoned;
pour the remainder of the batter over them, and bake it.
Beef Steak Pudding.—Prepare a good suet crust,
and line a cake-tin with it; put in layers of steak with
onions, tomatoes, and mushrooms, chopped fine, a seasoning of
pepper, salt and cayenne, and half a cup of water before you
close it. Bake from an hour and a half to two hours, according
to the size of the pudding and serve very hot.
Black Cap Pudding..—Make a batter with milk,
flour and eggs; butter a basin; pour in the batter, and 5 or 6
ounces of well-cleaned currants. Cover it with a cloth well
floured, and tie the cloth very tight. Boil nearly one hour.
The currants will have settled to the bottom; therefore dish it
bottom upwards. Serve with sweet sauce and a little rum.
Oswego Blanc Mange.—Four tablespoonfuls or
three ounces of Oswego prepared corn to one quart of milk.
Dissolve the corn to some of the milk. Put into the remainder
of the milk four ounces of sugar, a little salt, apiece of
lemon rind, or cinnamon stick, and heat to near boiling.
Then add the mixed corn, and boil (stirring it briskly) four
minutes; take out the rind, and pour into a mold or cup, and
keep until cold. When turned out, pour round it any kind of
stewed or preserved fruits, or a sauce of milk and sugar.
Nice Blanc-Mange.—Swell four ounces of rice in
water; drain and boil it to a mash in good milk, with sugar, a
bit of lemon peel, and a stick of cinnamon. Take care it does
not burn, and when quite soft pour it into cups, or into a
shape dipped into cold water. When cold turn it out, garnish
with currant jelly, or any red preserved fruit. Serve with
cream or plain custard.
Boiled Batter Pudding.—Three eggs, one ounce of
butter, one pint of milk, three tablespoonfuls of flour, a
little salt. Put the flour into a basin, and add sufficient
milk to moisten it; carefully rub down all the lumps with a
spoon, then pour in the remainder of the milk, and stir in the
butter, which should be previously melted; keep beating the
mixture, add the eggs and a pinch of salt, and when the batter
is quite smooth, put into a well-buttered basin, tie it down
very tightly, and put it into boiling water; move the basin
about for a few minutes after it is put into the water, to
prevent the flour settling in any part, and boil for one hour
and a quarter. This pudding may also be boiled in a floured
cloth that has been wetted in hot water; it will then take a
few minutes less than when boiled in a basin. Send these
puddings very quickly to table, and serve with sweet sauce,
wine-sauce, stewed fruit, or jam of any kind; when the latter
is used, a little of it may be placed round the dish in small
quantities, as a garnish.
Bread and Butter Pudding..—Butter a dish well,
lay in a few slices of bread and butter, boil one pint of milk,
pour out over two eggs well beaten, and then over the bread and
butter, bake over half hour.
Simple Bread Pudding.—Take the crumbs of a
stale roll, pour over it one pint of boiling milk, and set it
by to cool. When quite cold, beat it up very fine with two
ounces of butter, sifted sugar sufficient to sweeten it; grate
in Haifa nutmeg, and add a pound of well-washed currants, beat
up four eggs separately, and then mix them up with the rest,
adding, if desired, a few strips of candied orange peel. All
the ingredients must be beaten up together for about half an
hour, as the lightness of the pudding depends upon that. Tie it
up in a cloth, and boil for an hour. When it is dished, pour a
little white wine sauce over the top.
Christmas Plum Pudding.—Suet, chopped small,
six ounces; raisins, stoned, etc., eight ounces; bread crumbs,
six ounces; three eggs, a wine glass of brandy, a little nutmeg
and cinnamon pounded as fine as possible, half a teaspoonful of
salt, rather less than half pint milk, fine sugar, four ounces;
candied lemon, one ounce; citron half an ounce. Beat the eggs
and spice well together; mix the milk by degrees, then the rest
of the ingredients. Dip a fine, close, linen cloth into boiling
water, and put in a sieve (hair), flour it a little, and tie up
close. Put the pudding into a saucepan containing six quarts of
boiling water; keep a kettle of boiling water alongside, and
fill up as it wastes. Be sure to keep it boiling at least six
hours. Serve with any sauce; or arrow-root with brandy.
Christmas Pudding.—Suet 1-1/2 lbs., minced
small; currants, 1 1/2 lbs., raisins, stoned, 1/4 lb.; sugar, 1
lb.; ten eggs, a grated nutmeg; 2 ozs. citron and lemon peel; 1
oz. of mixed spice, a teaspoonful of grated ginger, 1/2 lb. of
bread crumbs, 1/2 lb. of flour, 1 pint of milk, and a wine
glassful of brandy. Beat first the eggs, add half the milk,
beat all together, and gradually stir in all the milk, then the
suet, fruit, etc., and as much milk to mix it very thick. Boil
in a cloth six or seven hours.
Cottage Pudding.—One pint sifted flour, three
tablespoons melted butter, 2 eggs, one cup sweet milk, two
teaspoonfuls cream tartar, one teaspoon soda, mix and bake.
Cream Pudding.—Cream, 1 pint; the yolks of
seven eggs, seven tablespoonfuls of flour, 2 tablespoonfuls of
sugar, salt, and a small bit of soda. Rub the cream with the
eggs and flour; add the rest, the milk last, just before
baking, and pour the whole into the pudding dish. Serve with
sauce of wine, sugar, butter, flavored as you like.
Crumb Pudding.—The yolks and whites of three
eggs, beaten separately, one ounce moist sugar, and sufficient
bread crumbs to make it into a thick but not stiff mixture; a
little powdered cinnamon. Beat all together for five minutes,
and bake in a buttered tin. When baked, turn it out of the tin,
pour two glasses of boiling wine over it, and serve. Cherries,
either fresh or preserved, are very nice mixed in the
pudding.
Damson Pudding.—Four or five tablespoonfuls of
flour, three eggs beaten, a pint of milk, made into batter.
Stone 1-1/2 lbs., of damsons, put them and 6 ozs. of sugar into
the batter, and boil in a buttered basin for one hour and a
half.
Egg Pudding.—It is made chiefly of eggs. It is
nice made thus:—Beat well seven eggs; mix well with 2
ozs. of flour, pint and a half of milk, a little salt; flavor
with nutmeg, lemon juice, and orange-flour water. Boil 1-1/4
hours in a floured cloth. Serve with wine sauce sweetened.
Excellent Family Plum Pudding.—Grate
three-quarters of a pound of a stale loaf, leaving out the
crusts; chop very fine three-quarters of a pound of firm beef
suet (if you wish your pudding less rich, half a pound will
do); mix well together with a quarter of a pound of flour; then
add a pound of currants, well washed and well dried; half a
pound of raisins, stoned, and the peel of a lemon, very finely
shred and cut; four ounces of candied peel, either
[pg 118] lemon, orange or citron, or
all mingled (do not cut your peel too small or its flavor is
lost); six ounces of sugar, a small teaspoonful of salt,
three eggs, well beaten; mix all thoroughly together with as
much milk as suffices to bring the pudding to a proper
consistency, grate in a small nutmeg, and again stir the
mixture vigorously. If you choose, add a small glass of
brandy. Butter your mold or basin, which you must be sure to
fill quite full, or the water will get in and spoil your
handiwork; have your pudding cloth scrupulously clean and
sweet, and of a proper thickness; tie down securely, and
boil for seven or even eight hours.
Extra Pudding.—Cut light bread into thin
slices. Form into the shape of a pudding in a dish. Then add a
layer of any preserve, then a slice of bread, and repeat till
the dish is full. Beat four or five eggs, and mix well with a
pint of milk; then pour it over the bread and preserve, having
previously dusted the same with a coating of rice flour. Boil
twenty-five minutes.
Fig Pudding.—Procure one pound of good figs,
and chop them very fine, and also a quarter of a pound of suet,
likewise chopped as fine as possible; dust them both with a
little flour as you proceed—it helps to bind the pudding
together; then take one pound of fine bread crumbs, and not
quite a quarter of a pound of sugar; beat two eggs in a
teacupful of milk, and mix all well together. Boil four hours.
If you choose, serve it with wine or brandy sauce, and ornament
your pudding with blanched almonds. Simply cooked, however, it
is better where there are children, with whom it is generally a
favorite. We forgot to say, flavor with a little allspice or
nutmeg, as you like; but add the spice before the milk and
eggs.
Gelatine Pudding.—Half box gelatine dissolved
in a large half pint boiling water, when cold stir in two
teacups sugar, the juice of three lemons, the whites of four
eggs beaten to a froth, put this in a mold to get stiff, and
with the yolks of these four eggs, and a quart of milk make
boiled custard, flavor with vanilla, when cold pour the custard
round the mold in same dish.
Gooseberry Pudding.—One quart of scalded
gooseberries; when cold rub them smooth with the back of a
spoon. Take six tablespoonfuls of the pulp, half a pound of
sugar, quarter of a pound of melted butter, six eggs, the rind
of two lemons, a handful of grated bread, two tablespoonfuls of
brandy. Half an hour will bake it.
Ground Rice Pudding.—Boil one pint of milk with
a little piece of lemon peel, mix quarter pound of rice,
ground, with half pint milk, two ounces sugar, one ounce
butter, add these to the boiling milk. Keep stirring, take it
off the fire, break in two eggs, keep stirring, butter a pie
dish, pour in the mixture and bake until set.
Ice Pudding.—Put one quart of milk in a stew
pan with half pound of white sugar, and stick of vanilla, boil
it ten minutes, mix the yolks of ten eggs with a gill of cream,
pour in the milk, then put it back again into the stew pan, and
stir till it thickens (do not let it boil), strain it into a
basin and leave it to cool. Take twelve pounds of ice, add two
pounds of salt, mix together, cover the bottom of a pail, place
the ice pot in it and build it around with the ice and salt,
this done pour the cream into the pot, put on the cover, and do
not cease turning till the cream is thick, the mold should be
cold, pour in the cream, 3 or 4 pieces of white paper, wetted
with cold water, are placed on it before the cover is placed
on. Cover with ice till wanted, dip in cold water and turn out,
fruit may be put in when put in the mold.
Indian Pudding.—Indian meal, a cupful, a little
salt, butter, 1 oz.; molasses 3 ozs., 2 teaspoonfuls of ginger,
or cinnamon. Put into a quart of boiling milk. Mix a cup of
cold water with it; bake in a buttered dish 50 minutes.
Kidney Pudding.—If kidney, split and soak it,
and season that or the meat. Make a paste of suet, flour and
milk; roll it, and line a basin with some; put the kidney or
steak in, cover with paste, and pinch round the edge. Cover
with a cloth and boil a considerable time.
Lemon Dumplings.—Two tablespoonfuls of flour;
bread crumbs, 1/2 lb.; beef suet, 6 ozs.; the grated rind of a
large lemon, sugar, pounded, 4 ozs.; 4 eggs well beaten, and
strained, and the juice of three lemons strained. Make into
dumplings, and boil in a cloth one hour.
Lemon Pudding.—Three tablespoons powdered
crackers, eight tablespoons sugar, six eggs, one quart milk,
butter size of an egg, the juice of one lemon and grated rind.
Stir it first when put in oven.
Macaroni Pudding.—Take an equal quantity of ham
and chicken, mince fine, half the quantity of macaroni which
must be boiled tender in broth, two eggs beaten, one ounce
butter, cayenne pepper and salt to taste, all these ingredients
to be mixed thoroughly together, put in molds and boil two
hours.
Marrow Pudding.—Pour a pint of cream boiling
hot on the crumbs of a penny loaf, or French roll; cut 1 lb. of
beef marrow very thin; beat 4 eggs well; add a glass of brandy,
with sugar and nutmeg to taste, and mix all well together. It
may be either boiled or baked 40 or 50 minutes; cut 2 ozs. of
citron very thin, and stick them all over it when you dish it
up.
Another way.—Blanch 1/2 lb. of almonds; put
them in cold water all night; next day beat them in a mortar
very fine, with orange or rose water. Take the crumbs of a
penny loaf, and pour on the whole a pint of boiling cream;
while it is cooling, beat the yolks of four eggs, and two
whites, 15 minutes; a little sugar and grated nutmeg to your
palate. Shred the marrow of the bones, and mix all well
together, with a little candied orange cut small; bake,
etc.
Meat and Potato Pudding.—Boil some mealy
potatoes till ready to crumble to pieces; drain; mash them very
smooth. Make them into a thickish batter with an egg or two,
and milk, placing a layer of steaks or chops well-seasoned with
salt and pepper at the bottom of the baking dish; cover with a
layer of batter, and so alternately, till the dish is full,
ending with batter at the top. Butter the dish to prevent
sticking or burning. Bake of a fine brown color.
Nesselrode Pudding.—Prepare a custard of one
pint of cream, half a pint of milk, the yolks of six eggs, half
a stick of vanilla, one ounce of sweet almonds, pounded, and
half a pound of sugar; put them in a stewpan over a slow fire,
and stir until the proper consistence, being careful not to let
it boil; when cold, add a wine-glass of brandy; partially
freeze, and add two ounces of raisins
and half a pound of preserved fruits, cut small. Mix well,
and mold. (Basket shape generally used.)
Potato Pudding.—Take 1/2 lb. of boiled
potatoes, 2 ozs. of butter, the yolks and whites of two eggs, a
quarter of a pint of cream, one spoonful of white wine, a
morsel of salt, the juice and rind of a lemon; beat all to a
froth; sugar to taste. A crust or not, as you like. Bake it. If
wanted richer, put 3 ozs. more butter, sweetmeats and almonds,
and another egg.
Prince of Wales Pudding.—Chop four ounces of
apples, the same quantity of bread crumbs, suet, and currants,
well washed and picked; two ounces of candied lemon, orange,
and citron, chopped fine; five ounces pounded loaf sugar; half
a nutmeg, grated. Mix all
[pg 119] together with four eggs.
Butter well and flour a tin, put in the mixture, and place a
buttered paper on the top, and a cloth over the paper. If
you steam it the paper is sufficient. It will take two hours
boiling. When you dish it, stick cut blanched almonds on it,
and serve with wine sauce.
Pudding.—One cup sugar, half cup milk, one egg,
two tablespoons melted butter, two cups flour, two teaspoons
baking powder, a little nutmeg, bake in a dish and when sent to
the table, put raspberry jam under same with wine sauce.
Baked Pudding.—Three tablespoonfuls of Oswego
Prepared Corn to one quart of milk. Prepare, and cook the same
as Blanc-Mange. After it is cool, stir up with it
thoroughly two or three eggs well beaten, and bake half
an hour. It is very good.
Boiled Pudding.—Three tablespoonfuls of Oswego
Prepared Corn to one quart of milk. Dissolve the corn in some
of the milk, and mix with it two or three eggs, well beaten,
and a little salt. Heat the remainder of the milk to near
boiling, add the above preparation, and boil four minutes,
stirring it briskly. To be eaten warm with a sauce. It is
delicious.
Queen Pudding.—One pint of bread crumbs, one
quart milk, one cup sugar, yolks four eggs, a little butter,
bake half an hour, then put over the top a layer of fruit, then
white of eggs beaten to a froth with sugar; to be eaten cold
with cream.
Plain Rice Pudding.—Wash and pick some rice;
throw among it some pimento finely pounded, but not much; tie
the rice in a cloth and leave plenty of room for it to swell.
When done, eat it with butter and sugar, or milk. Put lemon
peel if you please.
It is very good without spice, and eaten with salt and
butter.
ANOTHER.—Put into a very deep pan half a pound of rice
washed and picked; two ounces of butter, four ounces of sugar,
a few allspice pounded, and two quarts of milk. Less butter
will do, or some suet. Bake in a slow oven.
Rich Rice Pudding—Boil 1/2 lb. of rice in
water, with a bit of salt, till quite tender; drain it dry; mix
it with the yolks and whites of four eggs, a quarter of a pint
of cream, with 2 ozs. of fresh butter melted in the latter; 4
ozs. of beef suet or marrow, or veal suet taken from a fillet
of veal, finely shred, 3/4 lb. of currants, two spoonfuls of
brandy, one of peach-water, or ratafia, nutmeg, and a grated
lemon peel. When well mixed, put a paste round the edge, and
fill the dish. Slices of candied orange, lemon, and citron, if
approved. Bake in a moderate oven.
Rice Pudding with Fruit—Swell the rice with a
very little milk over the fire; then mix fruit of any kind with
it (currants, gooseberries, scalded, pared, and quartered
apples, raisins, or black currants); put one egg into the rice
to bind it; boil it well, and serve with sugar.
Roman Pudding—Oil a plain tin mold, sprinkle it
with vermicelli, line it with a thin paste; have some boiled
macaroni ready cut in pieces an inch long; weigh it, and take
the same weight of Parmesan cheese, grated; boil a rabbit, cut
off all the white meat in slices, as thin as paper, season with
pepper, salt, and shalot; add cream sufficient to moisten the
whole, put it into the mold, and cover it with paste; bake in a
moderate oven for an hour, turn the pudding out of the mold,
and serve it with a rich brown gravy.
Sago Pudding—Boil 4 ozs. of sago in water a few
minutes; strain, and add milk, and boil till tender. Boil lemon
peel and cinnamon in a little milk, and strain it to the sago.
Put the whole into a basin; break 8 eggs; mix it well together,
and sweeten with moist sugar; add a glass of brandy, and some
nutmeg; put puff paste round the rim of the dish, and butter
the bottom. Bake three quarters of an hour.
Spanish Pudding—To one pint of water, put two
ounces of butter, and a little salt, when it boils add as much
flour as will make it the consistency of hasty pudding. Keep it
well stirred, after it is taken off the fire and has stood till
quite cold, beat it up with three eggs, add a little grated
lemon peel and nutmeg, drop the butter with a spoon into the
frying pan with boiling lard, fry quickly, put sugar over them
when sent to the table.
Suet Dumplings—Shred 1 lb. of suet; mix with
1-1/4 lbs. flour, 2 eggs beaten separately, a little salt, and
as little milk as will make it. Make it into two small balls.
Boil 20 minutes. The fat of loins or necks of mutton finely
shred makes a more delicate dumpling than suet.
Suet Pudding—Take six spoonfuls of flour, 1 lb.
of suet, shred small, 4 eggs, a spoonful of beaten ginger, a
spoonful of salt, and a quart of milk. Mix the eggs and flour
with a pint of milk very thick, and with the seasoning, mix in
the rest of the milk with the suet. Boil two hours.
Tapioca Pudding.—Put 1/4 lb. of tapioca into a
sauce pan of cold water; when it boils, strain it to a pint of
new milk; boil till it soaks up all the milk, and put it out to
cool. Beat the yolks of four eggs, and the whites of two, a
tablespoonful of brandy, sugar, nutmeg, and 2 ounces of butter.
Mix all together; put a puff paste round the dish, and send it
to the oven. It is very good boiled with melted butter, wine
and sugar.
Vermicelli Pudding.—Boil 4 ounces of vermicelli
in a pint of new milk till soft, with a stick or two of
cinnamon. Then put in half a pint of thick cream, 1/4 lb. of
butter, the same of sugar, and the yolks of 4 eggs. Bake
without paste in an earthen dish.
Another.—Simmer 2 ounces of vermicelli in a cupful of
milk till tender; flavor it with a stick or two of cinnamon or
other spice. Beat up three eggs, 1 ounce of sugar, half a pint
of milk and a glass of wine. Add to the vermicelli. Bake in a
slow oven.
HOW TO PUT UP PICKLES
AND MAKE CATSUPS
How to Pickle Beet Roots.—Beet roots are a very
pretty garnish for made dishes, and are thus pickled. Boil the
roots till they are tender, then take off the skins, cut them
in slices, gimp them in the shape of wheels, or what form you
please, and put them into a jar. Take as much vinegar as you
think will cover them, and boil it with a a little mace, a race
of ginger sliced, and a few slices of horseradish. Pour it hot
upon your roots and tie them down.
Chow-Chow.—Two quarts of small white onions,
two quarts of gherkins, two quarts of string beans, two small
cauliflowers, half a dozen ripe, red peppers, one-half pound
mustard seed, one-half pound whole pepper, one pound ground
mustard, and, as there is nothing so adulterated as ground
mustard, it’s better to get it at the druggist’s; twenty or
thirty bay leaves (not bog leaves, as some one of the ladies
facetiously remarked), and two quarts of good cider, or wine
vinegar. Peel the onions, halve the cucumbers, string the
beans, and cut in pieces the cauliflower. Put all in a wooden
tray, and sprinkle well with salt. In the morning wash and
drain thoroughly, and put all into the cold vinegar, except the
red peppers. Let boil twenty
[pg 120] minutes slowly, frequently
turning over. Have wax melted in a deepish dish, and, as you
fill and cork, dip into the wax. The peppers you can put in
to show to the best advantage. If you have over six jars
full, it’s good to put the rest in a jar and eat from it for
every dinner. Some add a little turmeric for the yellow
color.
Corn, Green, Pickling.—When the corn is a
little past the tenderest roasting ear state, pull it, take off
one thickness of the husk, tie the rest of the husk down at the
silk end loosely, place the ears in a clean cask compactly
together, and put on a brine to cover them of about two-thirds
the strength of meat pickle. When ready to use in winter, soak
in cold water over night, and if this does not appear
sufficient, change the water and freshen still more. Corn,
prepared in this way, is excellent, very much resembling fresh
corn from the stalk.
Indian Pickle.—One gallon of the best vinegar,
quarter of a pound of bruised ginger, quarter of a pound of
shalots, quarter of a pound of flour of mustard, quarter of a
pound of salt, two ounces of mustard seed, two ounces of
turmeric, one ounce of black pepper, ground fine, one ounce of
cayenne. Mix all together, and put in cauliflower sprigs,
radish pods, French beans, white cabbage, cucumber, onions, or
any other vegetable; stir it well two or three days after any
fresh vegetable is added, and wipe the vegetable with a dry
cloth. The vinegar should not be boiled.
How to Pickle Mushrooms.—Buttons must be rubbed
with a bit of flannel and salt; and from the larger take out
the red inside, for when they are black they will not
do, being too old. Throw a little salt over, and put them into
a stewpan with some mace and pepper; as the liquor comes out,
shake them well, and keep them over a gentle fire till all of
it be dried into them again; then put as much vinegar into the
pan as will cover them, give it one warm, and turn all into a
glass or stone jar. They will keep two years, and are
delicious.
Pickle Sauce.—Slice green tomatoes, onions,
cabbage, cucumbers, and green peppers. Let all stand covered
with salt over night. Wash, drain and chop fine. Be careful to
keep as dry as possible. To two quarts of the hash, add four
tablespoons of American mustard seed and two of English; two
tablespoonfuls ground allspice, one of ground cloves, two
teaspoonfuls of ground black pepper, one teaspoonful of celery
seed. Cover with sharp vinegar, and boil slowly an hour. Put
away in stone jar, and eat when wanted.
Pickled Eggs.—At the season of the year when
eggs are plentiful, boil some four or six dozen in a capacious
saucepan, until they become quite hard. Then, after carefully
removing the shells, lay them in large-mouthed jars, and pour
over them scalding vinegar, well seasoned with whole pepper,
allspice, a few races of ginger, and a few cloves or garlic.
When cold, bung down closely, and in a month they are fit for
use. Where eggs are plentiful, the above pickle is by no means
expensive, and is a relishing accompaniment to cold meat.
How to Pickle Red Cabbage.—Slice it into a
colander, and sprinkle each layer with salt; let it drain two
days, then put it into a jar, with boiling vinegar enough to
cover it, and put in a few slices of beet-root. Observe to
choose the purple red-cabbage. Those who like the flavor of
spice will boil some pepper-corns, mustard-seed, or other
spice, whole, with the vinegar. Califlower in branches,
and thrown in after being salted, will color a beautiful
red.
ANOTHER.—Choose a sound large cabbage; shred it
finely, and sprinkle it with salt, and let it stand in a dish a
day and night. Then boil vinegar (from a pint) with ginger,
cloves, and cayenne popper. Put the cabbage into jars, and pour
the liquor upon it when cold.
Spiced Tomatoes.—Eight pounds tomatoes, four
pounds of sugar, one quart vinegar, one tablespoon each of
cloves, cinnamon and allspice, make a syrup of the sugar and
vinegar. Tie the spice in a bag and put, in syrup, take the
skins off the tomatoes, and put them in the syrup, when scalded
through skim them out and cook away one-half, leave the spices
in, then put in your tomatoes again and boil until the syrup is
thick.
Tomato Lilly.—Prepare one peck of green
tomatoes by slicing and laying them in a jar over night, with a
little salt, than chop them and cook in water until you think
them sufficiently tender then take them up in a colander and
drain nicely, then take two large cabbages, chop and cook same
as tomatoes, then chop six green peppers and add one quart
vinegar, put all in kettle together and boil a short time; add
fresh vinegar and spice with one ounce each cinnamon and
cloves, one pound sugar and half pint molasses. Onions can be
used instead of cabbage if preferred.
How to Pickle Walnuts.—When a pin will go into
them, put a brine of salt and water boiled, and strong enough
to bear an egg, being quite cold first. Let them soak six days;
then change the brine, let them stand six more; then drain, and
pour over them in a jar a pickle of the best vinegar, with
plenty of pepper, pimento, ginger, mace, cloves, mustard-seed
and horseradish; all boiled together, but cold. To every
hundred of walnuts put six spoonfuls of mustard-seed, and two
or three heads of garlic or shalot, but the latter is least
strong. In this way they will be good for several years, if
closely covered. They will not be fit to eat under six months.
This pickle makes good ketchup.
A Good Ketchup.—Boil one bushel of tomatoes
until soft enough to rub through a sieve. Then add to the
liquid a half gallon of vinegar, 1-1/2 pints salt, 2 ounces of
cloves, 1/4 pound allspice, 3 ounces good cayenne pepper, five
heads of garlic, skinned and separated, 1 pound of sugar. Boil
slowly until reduced to one-half. It takes about one day. Set
away for a week, boil over once, and, if too thick, thin with
vinegar; bottle and seal as for chow-chow.
How to Keep Ketchup Twenty Years.—Take a gallon
of strong stale beer, 1 lb. of anchovies, washed from the
pickle; 1 lb. of shalots, 1/2 oz. of mace, 1/2 oz. of cloves,
1/4 oz. whole pepper, 1/2 oz. of ginger, 2 quarts of large
mushroom flaps, rubbed to pieces; cover all close, and simmer
till it is half wasted, strain, cool, then bottle. A spoonful
of this ketchup is sufficient for a pint of melted butter.
Mushroom Ketchup.—Sprinkle mushroom flaps,
gathered in September, with common salt, stir them occasionally
for two or three days; then lightly squeeze out the juice, and
add to each gallon bruised cloves and mustard seed, of each,
half an ounce; bruised allspice, black pepper, and ginger, of
each, one ounce; gently heat to the boiling point in a covered
vessel, macerate for fourteen days, and strain; should it
exhibit any indication of change in a few weeks, bring it again
to the boiling point, with a little more spice.
Oyster Ketchup:—Beard the oysters; boil them up
in their liquor; strain, and pound them in a mortar; boil the
beards in spring water, and strain it to the first oyster
liquor; boil the pounded oysters in the mixed liquors, with
beaten mace and pepper. Some add a very little mushroom
ketchup, vinegar, or lemon-juice; but the less the natural
flavor is overpowered the better; only spice is necessary for
its preservation. This oyster ketchup will
[pg 121] keep perfectly good longer
than oysters are ever out of season.
Tomato Ketchup.—Put them over the fire crushing
each one as you drop it into the pot; let them boil five
minutes; take them off, strain through a colander, and then
through a sieve, get them over the fire again as soon as
possible, and boil down two-thirds, when boiled down add to
every gallon of this liquid one ounce of cayenne pepper, one
ounce of black pepper, one pint vinegar, four ounces each of
cinnamon and mace, two spoonfuls salt.
Very Fine Walnut Ketchup.—Boil a gallon of the
expressed juice of green tender walnuts, and skim it well; then
put in 2 lbs. of anchovies, bones and liquor, 2 lbs. shalots, 1
oz. each of cloves, mace, pepper, and one clove of garlic. Let
all simmer till the shalots sink; then put the liquor into a
pan till cold; bottle and divide the spice to each. Cork
closely, and tie a bladder over. It will keep twenty years, but
is not good the first. Be very careful to express the juice at
home; for it is rarely unadulterated, if bought.
HOW TO ROAST, BOIL, OR BROIL
POULTRY
How to Roast Chickens.—Pluck carefully, draw
and truss them, and put them to a good fire; singe, dust, and
baste them with butter. Cover the breast with a sheet of
buttered paper; remove it ten minutes before it is enough; that
it may brown. A chicken will take 15 to 20 minutes. Serve with
butter and parsley.
How to Boil Chickens.—Fasten the wings and legs
to the body by threads tied round. Steep them in skim milk two
hours. Then put them in cold water, and boil over a slow fire.
Skim clean. Serve with white sauce or melted butter sauce, or
parsley and butter.—Or melt 1 oz. of butter in a cupful
of milk; add to it the yolk of an egg beat up with a little
flour and cream; heat over the fire, stirring well.
Geese (a la mode).—Skin and bone the goose;
boil and peel a dried tongue, also a fowl; season with pepper,
salt and mace, and then roll it round the tongue; season the
goose in the same way, and lay the fowl and tongue on the
goose, with slices of ham between them. Beef marrow rolled
between the fowl and the goose, will greatly enrich it. Put it
all together in a pan, with two quarts of beef gravy, the bones
of the goose and fowl, sweet herbs and onion; cover close, and
stew an hour slowly; take up the goose; skim off the fat,
strain, and put in a glassful of good port wine, two
tablespoonfuls of ketchup, a veal sweetbread cut small, some
mushrooms, a piece of butter rolled in flour, pepper and salt;
stew the goose half an hour longer; take up and pour the ragout
over it. Garnish with lemon.
How to Roast Pigeons.—Take a little pepper and
salt, a piece of butter, and parsley cut small; mix and put the
mixture into the bellies of the pigeons, tying the necks tight;
take another string; fasten one end of it to their legs and
rumps, and the other to a hanging spit, basting them with
butter; when done, lay them in a dish, and they will swim with
gravy.
How to Boil Pigeons.—Wash clean; chop some
parsley small; mix it with crumbs of bread, pepper, salt and a
bit of butter; stuff the pigeons, and boil 15 minutes in some
mutton broth or gravy. Boil some rice soft in milk; when it
begins to thicken, beat the yolks of two or three eggs, with
two or three spoonfuls of cream, and a little nutmeg; mix well
with a bit of butter rolled in flour.
How to Broil Pigeons.—After cleaning, split the
backs, pepper and salt them, and broil them very nicely; pour
over them either stewed or pickled mushrooms, in melted butter,
and serve as hot as possible.
Scalloped Cold Chickens..—Mince the meat very
small, and set it over the fire, with a scrape of nutmeg, a
little pepper and salt, and a little cream, for a few minutes,
put it into the scallop shells, and fill them with crumbs of
bread, over which put some bits of butter, and brown them
before the fire. Veal and ham eat well done the same way, and
lightly covered with crumbs of bread, or they may be put on in
little heaps.
How to Roast Turkey.—The sinews of the legs
should be drawn whichever way it is dressed. The head should be
twisted under the wing; and in drawing it, take care not to
tear the liver, nor let the gall touch it.
Put a stuffing of sausage-meat; or, if sausages are to be
served in a dish a bread stuffing. As this makes a large
addition to the size of the bird, observe that the heat of the
fire is constantly to that part; for the breast is often not
done enough. A little strip of paper should be put on the bone
to hinder it from scorching while the other parts roast. Baste
well and froth it up. Serve with gravy in the dish, and plenty
of bread-sauce in a sauce-tureen. Add a few crumbs, and a
beaten egg to the stuffing of sausage-meat.
SAUCES FOR MEATS, FISH, ETC.
Anchovy Sauce.—Chop one or two anchovies,
without washing, put to them some flour and butter, and a
little water; stir it over the fire till it boils once or
twice. If the anchovies are good, they will dissolve.
Essence Of Anchovies.—Take two dozen of
anchovies, chop them, and without the bone, but with some of
their liquor strained, add to them sixteen large spoonfuls of
water; boil gently till dissolved, which will be in a few
minutes—when cold, strain and bottle it.
Apple Sauce.—Pare, core, and quarter half a
dozen good sized apples, and throw them into cold water to
preserve their whiteness. Boil them in a saucepan till they are
soft enough to mash—it is impossible to specify any
particular time, as some apples cook much more speedily than
others. When done, bruise them to a pulp, put in a piece of
butter as large as a nutmeg, and sweeten them to taste. Put
into saucepan only sufficient water to prevent them burning.
Some persons put the apples in a stone jar placed in boiling
water; there is then no danger of their catching.
Apple Sauce for Goose or Roast Pork.—Pare,
core, and slice some apples, and put them in a strong jar, into
a pan of water. When sufficiently boiled, bruise to a pulp,
adding a little butter, and a little brown sugar.
A Substitute for Cream.—Beat up the whole of a
fresh egg in a basin, and then pour boiling tea over it
gradually to prevent its curdling; it is difficult from the
taste, to distinguish it from rich cream.
Bechamel Sauce.—Put a few slices of ham into a
stew-pan, a few mushrooms, two or three shalots, two cloves,
also a bay leaf and a bit of butter. Let them stand a few
hours. Add a little water, flour and milk or cream; simmer
forty minutes. Scalded parsley, very fine may be added.
Bread Sauce.—Break three-quarters of a pound of
stale bread into small pieces, carefully excluding any
[pg 122] crusty and outside bits,
having previously simmered till quite tender, an onion, well
peeled and quartered in a pint of milk. Put the crumbs into
a very clean saucepan, and, if you like the flavor, a small
teaspoonful of sliced onion, chopped, or rather minced, as
finely as possible. Pour over the milk, taking away the
onion simmered in it, cover it up, and let it stand for an
hour to soak. Then, with a fork, beat it quite smooth, and
seasoned with a very little powdered mace, cayenne and salt
to taste, adding one ounce of butter; give the whole a boil,
stirring all the time, and it is ready to serve. A small
quantity of cream added at the last moment, makes the sauce
richer and smoother. Common white pepper may take the place
of cayenne, a few peppercorns may be simmered in the milk,
but they should be extracted before sending to table.
Bread Sauce.—Grate some old bread into a basin;
pour boiling new milk over it; add an onion with five cloves
stuck in it, with pepper and salt to taste. Cover it and simmer
in a slow oven. When enough, take out the onion and cloves;
beat it well, and add a little melted butter. The addition of
cream very much improves this sauce.
Caper Sauce.—Melt some butter, chop the capers
fine, boil them with the butter. An ounce of capers will be
sufficient for a moderate size sauce-boat. Add, if you like, a
little chopped parsley, and a little vinegar. More vinegar, a
little cayenne, and essence of anchovy, make it suitable for
fish.
As a substitute for capers, some use chopped pickled
gherkins.
Essence Of Celery.—Soak the seeds in spirits of
wine or brandy; or infuse the root in the same for 24 hours,
then take out, squeezing out all the liquor, and infuse more
root in the same liquor to make it stronger. A few drops will
flavor broth, soup, etc.
Celery Sauce.—Wash well the inside leaves of
three heads of celery; cut them into slices quarter inch thick,
boil for six minutes, and drain; take a tablespoonful of flour,
two ounces of butter, and a teacupful of cream; beat well, and
when warm, put in the celery and stir well over the fire about
twelve minutes. The sauce is very good
for boiled fowl, etc.
Cocoa Sauce.—Scrape a portion of the kernel of
a Cocoa nut, adding the juice of three lemons, a teaspoonful of
the tincture of cayenne pepper, a teaspoonful of shallot
vinegar, and half a cupful of water. Gently simmer for a few
hours.
Egg Sauce.—Boil two eggs hard, half chop the
whites, put in the yolks, chop them together, but not very
fine, put them with 1/4 lb. of good melted butter.
Egg Sauce.—Four eggs boiled twelve minutes,
then lay them in fresh water, cold, pull off the shells, chop
whites and yolks separately, mix them lightly, half pint melted
butter, made in proportion of quarter pound of butter, to a
large tablespoon flour, four of milk and hot water, add
powdered mace or nutmeg, to be eaten with pork, boiled, or
poultry, use chicken gravy or the water the chicken were boiled
in.
Horseradish Sauce.—Perhaps a good receipt for
horseradish sauce, which is so excellent with both hot and cold
beef, but which we do not always see served up with either. Two
tablespoonfuls of mustard, the same of vinegar, three
tablespoonfuls of cream or milk and one of pounded white sugar,
well beaten up together with a small quantity of grated
horseradish. This is, of course, to be served up cold.
Mint Sauce.—Pick, mash and chop fine green
spearmint, to two tablespoons of the minced leaves, put eight
of vinegar, adding a little sugar. Serve cold.
Mint Sauce.—Wash fresh gathered mint; pick the
leaves from the stalks; mince them very fine, and put them into
a sauce-boat with a teaspoonful of sugar and four
tablespoonfuls of vinegar. It may also be made with dried mint
or with mint vinegar.
Onion Sauce.—Peel the onions, and boil them
tender; squeeze the water from them, then chop them, and add to
them butter that has been melted, rich and smooth, as will be
hereafter directed, but with a little good milk instead of
water; boil it up once, and serve it for boiled rabbits,
partridge, scrag, or knuckle of veal, or roast mutton. A turnip
boiled with the onions makes them milder.
Quin’s Fish Sauce.—Half a pint of mushroom
pickle, the same of walnut, six long anchovies pounded, six
cloves of garlic, three of them pounded; half a spoonful of
cayenne pepper; put them into a bottle, and shake well before
using. It is also good with beefsteaks.
Sauce for Cold Partridges, Moor-Game,
Etc.—Pound four anchovies and two cloves of garlic in
a mortar; add oil and vinegar to the taste. Mince the meat, and
put the sauce to it as wanted.
Sauce for Ducks.—Serve a rich gravy in the
dish; cut the breast into slices, but don’t take them off; cut
a lemon, and put pepper and salt on it, then squeeze it on the
breast, and pour a spoonful of gravy over before you help.
Sauce for Fowl of any Sort.—Boil some veal
gravy, pepper, salt, the juice of a Seville orange and a lemon,
and a quarter as much of port wine as of gravy; pour it into
the dish or a boat.
Sauce for Hot or Cold Roast Beef.—Grate, or
scrape very fine, some horseradish, a little made mustard, some
pounded white sugar and four large spoonfuls of vinegar. Serve
in a saucer.
Sauce for Salmon.—Boil a bunch of fennel and
parsley chop them small, and put into it some good melted
butter. Gravy sauce should be served with it; put a little
brown gravy into a saucepan, with one anchovy, a teaspoonful of
lemon pickle, a tablespoonful of walnut pickle, two spoonfuls
of water in which the fish was boiled, a stick of horseradish,
a little browning, and salt; boil them four minutes; thicken
with flour and a good lump of butter, and strain through a hair
sieve.
Sauce for Savoury Pies.—Take some gravy, one
anchovy, a sprig of sweet herbs, an onion, and a little
mushroom liquor; boil it a little, and thicken it with burnt
butter, or a bit of butter rolled in flour; add a little port
wine, and open the pie, and put it in. It will serve for lamb,
mutton, veal or beef pies.
Sauce for a Turkey.—Open some oysters into a
basin, and wash them in their own liquor, and as soon as
settled pour into a saucepan; add a little white gravy, a
teaspoonful of lemon pickle; thicken with flour and butter;
boil it three or four minutes; add a spoonful of thick cream,
and then the oysters; shake them over the fire till they are
hot, but do not let them boil.
Sauce for Wild Fowl.—Simmer a teacupful of port
wine, the same quantity of good meat gravy, a little shalot, a
little pepper, salt, a grate of nutmeg and a bit of mace, for
ten minutes; put in a bit of butter and flour, give it all one
boil, and pour it through the birds. In general they are not
stuffed as tame, but may be done so if liked.
French Tomato Sauce.—Cut ten or a dozen
tomatoes into quarters, and put them into a saucepan, with four
onions, sliced, a little parsley, thyme, a clove, and a quarter
of a pound of butter; then set the saucepan on the fire,
[pg 123] stirring occasionally for
three-quarters of an hour; strain the sauce through a
horse-hair sieve, and serve with the directed articles.
Tomato Sauce.—Take 12 tomatoes, very red and
ripe; take off the stalks, take out the seeds, and press out
the water. Put the expressed tomatoes into a stewpan, with
1-1/2 ozs. of butter, a bay leaf, and a little thyme; put it
upon a moderate fire, stir it into a pulp; put into it a good
cullis, or the top of broth, which will be better. Rub it
through a search, and put it into a stewpan with two spoonfuls
of cullis; put in a little salt and cayenne.
ANOTHER.—Proceed as above with the seeds and water.
Put them into a stewpan, with salt and cayenne, and three
tablespoonfuls of beef gravy. Set them on a slow stove for an
hour, or till properly melted. Strain, and add a little good
stock; and simmer a few minutes.
White Sauce.—One pound of knuckle of veal, or
any veal trimmings, or cold white meat, from which all brown
skin has been removed; if meat has been cooked, more will be
required. It is best to have a little butcher’s meat fresh,
even if you have plenty of cold meat in the larder; any chicken
bones greatly improve the stock. This should simmer for five
hours, together with a little salt, a dozen white peppercorns,
one or two small onions stuck with cloves, according to taste,
a slice or two of lean ham, and a little shred of celery and a
carrot (if in season) in a quart of water. Strain it, and skim
off all the fat; then mix one dessert-spoonful of flour in a
half pint of cream; or, for economy’s sake, half milk and half
cream, or even all good new milk; add this to the stock, and if
not salt enough, cautiously add more seasoning. Boil all
together very gently for ten minutes, stirring all the time, as
the sauce easily burns and very quickly spoils. This stock,
made in large quantities, makes white soup; for this an old
fowl, stewed down, is excellent, and the liquor in which a
young turkey has been boiled is as good a foundation as can be
desired.
Economical White Sauce.—Cut up fine one carrot,
two small onions, and put them into a stewpan with two ounces
of butter, and simmer till the butter is nearly absorbed. Then
mix a small teacupful of flour in a pint of new milk, boil the
whole quietly till it thickens, strain it, season with salt and
white pepper or cayenne, and it is ready to serve. Or mix well
two ounces of flour with one ounce of butter; with a little
nutmeg, pepper and salt; add a pint of milk, and throw in a
strip of lemon peel; stir well over the fire till quite thick,
and strain.
Wine Sauce.—One and 1/2 cups sugar, three
quarters cup of wine, a large spoonful flour, and a large piece
of butter.
HOW TO MAKE SOUPS
AND BROTHS
Artichoke Soup.—Take Jerusalem artichokes
according to the quantity of soup required to be made, cut them
in slices, with a quarter of a pound of butter, two or three
onions and turnips, sliced into a stewpan, and stew over a very
slow fire till done enough, and thin it with good veal stock.
Just before you serve, at the last boil, add a quarter of a
pint of good cream. This is an excellent soup. Season to taste
with a little salt and cayenne. As it is necessary to vary
soups, we shall give you a few to choose from according to
season and taste. All brown soups must be clear and thin, with
the exception of mock turtle, which must be thickened with
flour first browned with butter in a stewpan. If the flour is
added without previous browning, it preserves a raw taste that
by no means improves the flavor.
Asparagus Soup.—Three or four pounds of veal
cut fine, a little salt pork, two or three bunches of asparagus
and three quarts of water. Boil one-half of the asparagus with
the meat, leaving the rest in water until about twenty minutes
before serving; then add the rest of the asparagus and boil
just before serving; add one pint of milk; thicken with a
little flour, and season. The soup should boil about three
hours before adding the last half of the asparagus.
Beef Broth.—Put two pounds of lean beef, one
pound of scrag of veal, one pound of scrag of mutton, sweet
herbs, and ten peppercorns, into a nice tin saucepan, with five
quarts of water; simmer to three quarts, and clear from the fat
when cold. Add one onion, if approved.
Soup and broth made of different meats are more supporting,
as well as better flavored.
To remove the fat, take it off, when cold, as clean as
possible; and if there be still any remaining, lay a bit of
clean blotting or cap paper on the broth when in the basin, and
it will take up every particle.
Beef Soup.—Cut all the lean off the shank, and
with a little beef suet in the bottom of the kettle, fry it to
a nice brown; put in the bones and cover with water; cover the
kettle closely; let it cook slowly until the meat drops from
the bones; strain through a colander and leave it in the dish
during the night, which is the only way to get off all the fat.
The day it is wanted for the table, fry as brown as possible a
carrot, an onion, and a very small turnip sliced thin. Just
before taking up, put in half a tablespoonful of sugar, a blade
of mace, six cloves, a dozen kernels of allspice, a small
tablespoonful of celery seed. With the vegetables this must
cook slowly in the soup an hour; then strain again for the
table. If you use vermicelli or pearl barley, soak in
water.
Dr. Liebig’s Beef Tea.—When one pound of lean
beef, free from fat, and separated from the bones, in a
finely-chopped state in which it is used for mince-meat, or
beef-sausages, is uniformly mixed with its own weight of cold
water, slowly heated till boiling, and the liquid, after
boiling briskly for a minute or two, is strained through the
towel from the coagulated albumen and the fibrine, now become
hard and horny, we obtain an equal weight of the most aromatic
soup, of such strength as cannot be obtained even by boiling
for hours from a piece of flesh. When mixed with salt and the
other additions by which soup is usually seasoned, and tinged
somewhat darker by means of roasted onions, or burnt bread, it
forms the very best soup which can, in any way, be prepared
from one pound of flesh.
Brown Gravy Soup.—Shred a small plate of
onions, put some dripping into a frying-pan and fry the onions
till they are of a dark brown; then, having about three pounds
of beef cut up in dice, without fat or bone, brown that in a
frying-pan. Now get a sauce-pan to contain about a gallon, and
put in the onions and meat, with a carrot and a turnip cut
small, and a little celery, if you have it; if not, add two
seeds of celery; put three quarts, or three and a half quarts
of water to this, and stir all together with a little pepper
and salt; simmer very slowly, and skim off what rises; in three
or four hours the soup will be clear. When served, add a little
vermicelli, which should have previously been boiled in water;
the liquid should be carefully poured off through a sieve. A
large quantity may be made in the same proportions. Of course,
the meat and onions must be stirred whilst frying, and
constantly turned; they should be of a fine brown, not black,
and celery-seed will give a flavor, it is so strong.
Carrot Soup.—Put some beef bones, with four
quarts of the liquor in which a leg of mutton or beef has been
[pg 124] boiled, two large onions, a
turnip, pepper and salt into a sauce-pan, and stew for three
hours. Have ready six large carrots, scraped and cut thin,
strain the soup on them, and stew them till soft enough to
pulp through a hair sieve or coarse cloth, then boil the
pulp with the soup, which is to be as thick as pea-soup. Use
two wooden spoons to rub the carrots through. Make the soup
the day before it is to be used. Add cayenne. Pulp only the
red part of the carrot, and not the yellow.
Clam Soup.—Cut salt pork in very small squares
and fry light brown; add one large or two small onions cut very
fine, and cook about ten minutes; add two quarts water and one
quart of raw potatoes, sliced; let it boil; then add one quart
of clams. Mix one tablespoonful of flour with water, put it
with one pint of milk, and pour into the soup, and let it boil
about five minutes. Butter, pepper, salt. Worcestershire sauce
to taste.
Croutons.—These are simply pieces of bread
fried brown and crisp, to be used in soups.
Game Soups.—Cut in pieces a partridge,
pheasant, or rabbit; add slices of veal, ham, onions, carrots,
etc. Add a little water, heat a little on slow fire, as gravy
is done; then add some good broth, boil the meat gently till it
is done. Strain, and stew in the liquor what herbs you
please.
Game Soup.—In the season for game, it is easy
to have good game soup at very little expense, and very nice.
Take the meat from off the bones of any cold game left, pound
it in a mortar and break up the bones, and pour on them a quart
of any good broth, and boil for an hour and a half. Boil and
mash six turnips, and mix with the pounded meat, and then pass
them through a sieve. Strain the broth, and stir in the mixture
of meat and turnips which has been strained through the sieve;
keep the soup-pot near the fire, but do not let it boil. When
ready to dish the soup for table, beat the yolks of five eggs
very lightly, and mix with them half a pint of good cream. Set
the soup on to boil, and, as it boils, stir in the beaten eggs
and cream, but be careful that it does not boil after they are
stirred in, as the egg will curdle. Serve hot.
Julienne Soup.—Put a piece of butter the size
of an egg into the soup-kettle; stir until melted. Cut three
young onions small; fry them a nice brown; add three quarts of
good clear beef-stock, a little mace, pepper and salt; let it
boil an hour; add three young carrots and three turnips cut
small, a stalk of celery cut fine, a pint of French beans, a
pint of green peas; let this boil two hours; if not a bright,
clear color, add a spoonful of soy. This is a nice summer
soup.
Lobster Soup.—One large lobster or two small
ones; pick all the meat from the shell and chop fine; scald one
quart of milk and one pint of water, then add the lobster, one
pound of butter, a teaspoonful of flour, and salt and red
pepper to taste. Boil ten minutes and serve hot.
Mock Turtle Soup.—One soup-bone, one quart of
turtle beans, one large spoonful of powdered cloves, salt and
pepper. Soak the beans over night, put them on with the
soup-bone in nearly six quarts of water, and cook five or six
hours. When half done, add the cloves, salt and pepper; when
done, strain through a colander, pressing the pulp of the beans
through to make the soup the desired thickness, and serve with
a few slices of hard-boiled egg and lemon sliced very thin. The
turtle beans are black and can only be obtained from large
groce.
Oyster Soup.—Take one quart of water, one
teacup of butter, one pint of milk, two teaspoons of salt, four
crackers rolled fine, and one teaspoon of pepper; bring to full
boiling heat as soon as possible, then add one quart of
oysters; let the whole come to boiling heat quickly and remove
from the fire.
Oyster Soup.—Pour one quart of boiling water
into a skillet; then one quart of good rich milk; stir in one
teacup of rolled cracker crumbs; season with pepper and salt to
taste. When all come to boil, add one quart of good fresh
oysters; stir well, so as to keep from scorching; then add a
piece of good sweet butter about the size of an egg; let it
boil up once, then remove from the fire immediately; dish up
and send to table.
Ox Tail Soup.—Take two ox tails and two whole
onions, two carrots, a small turnip, two tablespoonfuls of
flour, and a little white pepper; add a gallon of water, let
all boil for two hours; then take out the tails and cut the
meat into small pieces, return the bones to the pot for a short
time, boil for another hour, then strain the soup, and rinse
two spoonfuls of arrow-root to add to it with the meat cut from
the bones, and let all boil for a quarter of an hour.
Scotch Broth.—Take one-half teacup barley, four
quarts cold water; bring this to the boil and skim; now put in
a neck of mutton and boil again for half an hour, skim well the
sides of the pot also; have ready two carrots, one large onion,
a small head of cabbage, one bunch parsley, one sprig of celery
top; chop all these fine, add your chopped vegetables, pepper
and salt to taste. This soup takes two hours to cook.
Soup and Bouille.—Stew a brisket of beef with
some turnips, celery, leeks and onions, all finely cut. Put the
pieces of beef into the pot first, then the roots, and half a
pint of beef gravy, with a few cloves. Simmer for an hour. Add
more beef gravy, and boil gently for half an hour.
Royal Soup.—Take a scrag or knuckle of veal,
slices of undressed gammon of bacon, onions, mace, and a small
quantity of water; simmer till very strong, and lower it with a
good beef broth made the day before, and stewed till the meat
is done to rags. Add cream, vermicelli, almonds and a roll.
Various Soups.—Good soups may be made from
fried meats, where the fat and gravy are added to the boiled
barley; and for that purpose, fat beef steaks, pork steaks,
mutton chops, etc. should be preferred, as containing more of
the nutritious principle. When nearly done frying, add a little
water, which will produce a gravy to be added to the barley
broth; a little wheat flour should be dredged in also; a
quantity of onions, cut small, should also be fried with the
fat, which gives the soup a fine flavor, assisted by seasoning,
etc.
Soups may be made from broiled meats. While the fat beef
steak is doing before the fire, or mutton chop, etc., save the
drippings on a dish, in which a little flour, oatmeal, with cut
onions, etc., are put.
Grand Consomme Soup.—Put into a pot two
knuckles of veal, a piece of a leg of beef, a fowl, or an old
cock, a rabbit, or two old partridges; add a ladleful of soup,
and stir it well; when it comes to a jelly, put in a sufficient
quantity of stock, and see that it is clear; let it boil,
skimming and refreshing it with water; season it as the above;
you may add, if you like, a clove of garlic; let it then boil
slowly or simmer four or five hours; put it through a towel,
and use it for mixing in sauces or clear soups.
Julienne Soup.—Take some carrots and turnips,
and turn them riband-like; a few heads of celery, some leeks
and onions, and cut them in lozenges, boil them till they are
cooked, then put them into clear gravy soup. Brown
thickening.—N.B. You may, in summer time, add green peas,
asparagus tops, French beans, some lettuce or
sorrel.
Soup and Soups.—It is not at all necessary to
keep a special fire for five hours every day in order to have
at dinner a first course of soup. Nor need a good, savory,
nutritious soup for a family of five cost more than 10 cents.
There is no use hurling any remarks about “swill-pails.” Every
housekeeper who knows anything of her kitchen and dining-room
affairs, knows there are usually nice clean fragments of roasts
and broils left over, and that broth in which lamb, mutton,
beef, and fowls have been boiled is in existence, and that
twice a week or so there is a bowl of drippings from roasted
meats. All these when simmered with rice, macaroni, or
well-chosen vegetables, and judiciously seasoned, make good
soups, and can be had without a special fire, and without
sending to the butcher’s for special meats. We name a few of
the soups we make, and beg leave to add that they are pretty
well received. We make them in small quantities, for nobody
with three additional courses before him wants to eat a
quart of soup, you know!
1.—One pint of good gravy, three cups boiling water, a
slice of turnip, and half an onion cut in small bits, two
grated crackers. Simmer half an hour.
2.—On ironing day cut off the narrow ends from two or
three sirloin steaks, chop them into morsels and put in a
stewpan with a little salt, a tablespoonful of rice and a pint
of cold water, and simmer slowly for three hours. Then add
water enough to make a quart of soup, a tablespoonful of tomato
catsup, and a little browned flour mixed with the yolk of an
egg.
3.—Pare and slice very thin four good sized potatoes,
pour over them two cups of boiling water, and simmer gently
until the potatoes are dissolved. Add salt, a lump of nice
butter, and a pint of sweet milk with a dust of pepper. Let it
boil up once, and serve. You wouldn’t think it, but it is real
good, and children cry for it.
4.—One pint meat broth, one pint boiling water, slice
in an onion, or a parsnip, or half a turnip—or all three
if liked—boil until the vegetables are soft, add a little
salt if needed, and a tablespoonful of Halford sauce.
5.—Let green corn, in the time of green corn, be
grated, and to a pint of it put a pint of rich milk, a pint of
water, a little butter, salt and pepper. Boil gently for
fifteen or twenty minutes.
Split Pea Soup.—Take beef bones or any cold
meats, and two pounds of corned pork; pour on them a gallon of
hot water, and let them simmer three hours, removing all the
scum. Boil one quart of split peas two hours, having been
previously soaked, as they require much cooking: strain off the
meat and mash the peas into the soup; season with black pepper,
and let it simmer one hour; fry two or three slices of bread a
nice brown, cut into slices and put into the bottom of the
tureen, and on them pour the soup.
Tomato Soup.—Boil chicken or beef four hours;
then strain; add to the soup one can of tomatoes and boil one
hour. This will make four quarts of soup.
Tomato Soup without Meat.—One quart of
tomatoes, one quart of water, one quart of milk. Butter, salt
and pepper to taste. Cook the tomatoes thoroughly in the water,
have the milk scalding (over water to prevent scorching). When
the tomatoes are done add a large teaspoonful of salaratus,
which will cause a violent effervescence. It is best to set the
vessel in a pan before adding it to prevent waste. When the
commotion has ceased add the milk and seasoning. When it is
possible it is best to use more milk than water, and cream
instead of butter. The soup is eaten with crackers and is by
some preferred to oyster soup. This recipe is very valuable for
those who keep abstinence days.
Turkey Soup.—Take the turkey bones and cook for
one hour in water enough to cover them; then stir in a little
dressing and a beaten egg. Take from the fire, and when the
water has ceased boiling add a little butter with pepper and
salt.
Veal Gravy.—Put in the stewpan bits of lard,
then a few thin slices of ham, a few bits of butter, then
slices of fillet of veal, sliced onions, carrots, parsnips,
celery, a few cloves upon the meat, and two spoonfuls of broth;
set it on the fire till the veal throws out its juices; then
put it on a stronger fire till the meat catches to the bottom
of the pan, and is brought to a proper color; then add a
sufficient quantity of light broth, and simmer it upon a slow
fire till the meat is well done. A little thyme and mushrooms
may be added. Skim and sift it clear for use.
Veal Soup.—To a knuckle of veal of 6 pounds,
put 7 or 9 quarts of water; boil down one-half; skim it well.
This is better to do the day before you prepare the soup for
the table. Thicken it by rubbing flour, butter, and water
together. Season with salt and mace. When done
add
one pint new milk; let it just come to a boil; then pour
into a soup dish, lined with macaroni well cooked.
Vegetable Soup.—Pare and slice five or six
cucumbers; and add to these as many cos lettuces, a sprig or
two of mint, two or three onions, some pepper and salt, a pint
and a half of young peas and a little parsley. Put these, with
half a pound of fresh butter, into a saucepan, to stew in their
own liquor, near a gentle fire, half an hour, then pour two
quarts of boiling water to the vegetables, and stew them two
hours; rub down a little flour into a teacupful of water, boil
it with the rest twenty minutes, and serve it.
Vermicelli Soup.—Boil tender 1/2 lb. of
vermicelli in a quart of rich gravy; take half of it out, and
add to it more gravy; boil till the vermicelli can be pulped
through a sieve. To both put a pint of boiling cream, a little
salt, and 1/4 lb. of Parmesan cheese. Serve with rasped bread.
Add two or three eggs, if you like.
Brown Vermicelli Soup.—Is made in the same
manner, leaving out the eggs and cream, and adding one quart of
strong beef gravy.
HOW TO COOK VEGETABLES
How to Boil Artichokes.—If the artichokes are
very young, about an inch of the stalk can be left; but should
they be full grown, the stalk must be cut quite close. Wash
them well and put them into strong salt and water to soak for a
couple of hours. Pull away a few of the lower leaves, and snip
off the points of all. Fill a saucepan with water, throw some
salt into it, let it boil up, and then remove the scum from the
top; put the artichokes in, with the stalks upward, and let
them boil until the leaves can be loosened easily; this will
take from thirty to forty minutes, according to the age of the
artichokes. The saucepan should not be covered during the time
they are boiling. Rich, melted butter is always sent to the
table with them.
New Mode to Dress Asparagus.—Scrape the grass,
tie it up in bundles, and cut the ends off an even length. Have
ready a saucepan, with boiling water, and salt in proportion of
a heaped saltspoonful to a quart of water. Put in the grass,
standing it on the bottom with the green heads out of the
water, so that they are not liable to be boiled off. If the
water boils too fast, dash in a little cold water. When the
grass has boiled a quarter of an hour it will be sufficiently
done; remove it from the saucepan, cut off the ends down to the
edible part, arrange it on a dish in
[pg 126] a round pyramid, with the
heads toward the middle of the dish, and boil some eggs
hard; cut them in two, and place them round the dish quite
hot. Serve melted butter in a sauce-tureen; and those who
like it rub the yoke of a hard egg into the butter, which
makes a delicious sauce to the asparagus.
How to Boil Asparagus.—Scrape the asparagus;
tie them in small bunches; boil them in a large pan of water
with salt in it; before you dish them up toast some slices of
bread, and then dip them in the boiling water; lay the
asparagus on the toasts; pour on them rich melted butter, and
serve hot.
Ragout of Asparagus.—Cut small asparagus like
green peas; the best method is to break them off first; then
tie them in small bunches to cut, boil them till half done;
then drain them, and finish with butter, a little broth, herbs,
two cloves, and a sprig of savory. When done, take out the
cloves, herbs, etc., mix two yolks of eggs, with a little
flour, and broth, to garnish a first course dish. But if you
intend to serve it in a second course mix cream, a little salt,
and sugar.
French Beans, a la Creme.—Slice the beans and
boil them in water with salt. When soft, drain. Put into a
stewpan two ounces of fresh butter, the yolks of three eggs,
beaten up into a gill of cream, and set over a slow fire. When
hot, add a spoonful of vinegar, simmer for five minutes.
To Preserve French Beans for Winter.—Pick them
young, and throw into a little wooden keg a layer of them three
inches deep; then sprinkle them with salt, put another layer of
beans, and do the same as high as you think proper, alternately
with salt, but not too much of this. Lay over them a plate, or
cover of wood, that will go into the keg, and put a heavy stone
on it. A pickle will rise from the beans and salt. If they are
too salt, the soaking and boiling will not be sufficient to
make them pleasant to the taste.
Stewed Beans.—Boil them in water in which a
lump of butter has been placed; preserve them as white as you
can; chop a few sweet herbs with some parsley very fine; then
stew them in a pint of the water in which the leaves have been
boiled, and to which a quarter of a pint of cream has been
added; stew until quite tender, then add the beans, and stew
five minutes, thickening with butter and flour.
How to Boil Broccoli.—Peel the thick skin of
the stalks, and boil for nearly a quarter of an hour, with a
little bit of soda, then put in salt, and boil five minutes
more. Broccoli and savoys taste better when a little bacon is
boiled with them.
How to boil Cabbage.—Cut off the outside
leaves, and cut it in quarters; pick it well, and wash it
clean; boil it in a large quantity of water, with plenty of
salt in it; when it is tender and a fine light green, lay it on
a sieve to drain, but do not squeeze it, it will take off the
flavor; have ready some very rich melted butter, or chop it
with cold butter. Greens must be boiled the same way. Strong
vegetables like turnips and cabbage, etc., require much
water.
Cabbage Salad.—Three eggs well beaten, one cup
of vinegar, two tablespoons of mustard, salt and pepper, one
tablespoon of butter; let this mixture come to a boil, when
cool add seven tablespoons of cream, half a head of cabbage
shaved fine.
How to Boil Cauliflowers.—Strip the leaves
which you do not intend to use, and put the cauliflowers into
salt and water some time to force out snails, worms, etc. Boil
them twelve minutes on a drainer in plenty of water, then add
salt, and boil five or six minutes longer. Skim well while
boiling. Take out and drain. Serve with melted butter, or a
sauce made of butter, cream, pepper and salt.
How to Fry Cauliflowers.—Wash as before. Boil
twenty or thirty minutes; cut it into small portions, and cool.
Dip the portions twice into a batter made of flour, milk and
egg, and fry them in butter. Serve with gravy.
Cucumbers for Immediate Use.—Slice, sprinkle
with salt; let them stand several hours, drain, and then put to
them sliced onions, vinegar to cover them, and salt, pepper,
etc. Cayenne pepper and ground mustard render them
wholesome.
Stewed Celery.—Wash and clean six or eight
heads of celery, let them be about three inches long; boil
tender and pour off all the water; beat the yolks of four eggs,
and mix with half a pint of cream, mace and salt; set it over
the fire with the celery, and keep shaking until it thickens,
then serve hot.
Cold Slaw.—Half a head of cabbage cut very
fine, a stalk of celery cut fine—or teaspoon of celery
seed—or, a tablespoon of celery essence, four hard-boiled
eggs, whites chopped very fine, a teaspoon of mustard, a
tablespoon of butter and the yolks of the boiled eggs, salt and
pepper, mix well; take an egg well beaten and stir in a cup of
boiling vinegar, pour over and cover for a few minutes.
Egg-Plant.—Slice the egg-plant an eighth of an
inch in thickness, pare it, and sprinkle salt over it an hour
before cooking; then drain off all the water, beat up the yolk
of an egg, clip the slices first in the egg, and then in crumbs
of bread; fry a nice brown. Serve hot, and free from fat.
How to Cook Egg-Plant.—Cut the egg-plant in
slices half an inch thick, sprinkle a thin layer of salt
between the slices, and lay them one over the other; and let
them stand an hour. This draws out the bitter principal from
the egg-plant, and also a part of the water. Then lay each
slice in flour, put in hot fat and fry it brown on both sides.
Or boil the egg-plant till tender, remove the skin, mash fine,
mix with an equal quantity of bread or cracker crumbs, and
salt, pepper and bake half an hour. This makes a delightful
dish, and a very digestible one, as it has so little oily
matter in it.
How to Broil Mushrooms.—Pare some large, open
mushrooms, leaving the stalks on, paring them to a point; wash
them well, and turn them on the back of a drying sieve to
drain. Put into a stewpan two ounces of butter, some chopped
parsley, and shalots, then fry them for a minute on the fire;
when melted, place your mushroom stalks upward on a saucepan,
then pour the butter and parsley over all the mushrooms; pepper
and salt them well with black pepper put them in the oven to
broil; when done, put a little good stock to them, give them a
boil and dish them, pour the liquor over them, adding more
gravy, but let it be put in hot.
How to Pickle Onions.—Take two quarts of the
small white round onions. Scald them in very strong salt and
water. Just let them boil. Strain, peel, place in jars; cover
them with the best white wine vinegar. In two days pour all the
vinegar off, and boil it half an hour, with a teaspoonful of
cayenne pepper, 1 oz. of ginger, 16 cloves, 1/2 oz. ground
mustard, 2 ozs. mustard seed. When cold, pour upon the onions.
Some persons prefer the vinegar boiling hot.
How to Fricassee Parsnips.—Boil in milk till
they are soft, then cut them lengthwise in bits two or three
inches long, and simmer in a white sauce, made of two
[pg 127] spoonfuls of broth, and a
bit of mace, half a cupful of cream, a bit of butter, and
some flour, pepper and salt.
How to Mash Parsnips.—Boil them tender, scrape
then mash them in a stewpan with a little cream, a good piece
of butter, and pepper and salt.
How to Stew Parsnips.—Boil them tender; scrape
and cut into slices; put them into a saucepan with cream
enough; for sauce, a piece of butter rolled in flour, and a
little salt; shake the saucepan often, when the cream boils,
pour them into a dish.
How to Boil Peas.—Peas should not be shelled
long before they are wanted, nor boiled in much water; when the
water boils, put them in with a little salt (some add a little
loaf sugar, but if they are sweet of themselves, it is
superfluous); when the peas begin to dent in the middle they
are boiled enough. Strain, and put a piece of butter in the
dish, and stir. A little mint should be boiled with the
peas.
Puree Of Potatoes.—This differs from mashed
potatoes only in the employment of more milk and butter, and in
the whole being carefully reduced to a perfectly smooth, thick,
cream-like mixture. Where economy is a great object, and where
rich dishes are not desired, the following is an admirable mode
of mashing potatoes: Boil them till thoroughly done, having
added a handful of salt to the water, then dry them well, and
with two forks placed back to back beat the whole up until no
lumps are left. If done rapidly, potatoes thus cooked are
extremely light and digestible.
How to Boil Potatoes.—Boil in a saucepan
without lid, with only sufficient water to cover them; more
would spoil them, as the potatoes contain much water, and it
requires to be expelled. When the water nearly boils pour it
off, and add cold water, with a good portion of salt. The cold
water sends the heat from the surface to the center of the
potato, and makes it mealy. Boiling with a lid on often
produces cracking.
New Potatoes.—Should be cooked soon after
having been dug; wash well, and boil.
The Irish, who boil potatoes to perfection, say they should
always be boiled in their jackets; as peeling them for
boiling is only offering a premium for water to run through the
potato, and rendering it sad and unpalatable; they should be
well washed, and put into cold water.
New Potatoes.—Have them as freshly dug as may
be convenient; the longer they have been out of the ground the
less well-flavored they are. Well wash them, rub off the skins
with a coarse cloth or brush, and put them into boiling water,
to which has been added salt, at the rate of one heaped
teaspoonful to two quarts. Let them boil till tender—try
them with a fork; they will take from ten or fifteen minutes to
half an hour, according to size. When done, pour away the
water, and set by the side of the fire, with the lid aslant.
When they are quite dry, have ready a hot vegetable dish, and
in the middle of it put a piece of butter the size of a
walnut—some people like more—heap the potatoes
round it and over it, and serve immediately. We have seen very
young potatoes, no larger than a marble, parboiled, and then
fried in cream till they are of a fine auburn color; or else,
when larger, boiled till nearly ready, then sliced and fried in
cream, with pepper, salt, a very little nutmeg, and a flavoring
of lemon juice. Both make pretty little supper dishes.
Potatoes Roasted under the Meat.—These are very
good; they should be nicely browned. Half boil large mealy
potatoes; put into a baking dish, under the meat roasting;
ladle the gravy upon them occasionally. They are best done in
an oven.
Potato Ribbons.—Cut the potatoes into slices,
rather more than half an inch thick, and then pare round and
round in very long ribbons. Place them in a pan of cold water,
and a short time before wanted drain them from the water. Fry
them in hot lard, or good dripping, until crisp and browned;
dry them on a soft cloth, pile them on a hot dish, and season
with salt and cayenne.
Potato Rolls.—Boil three lbs. of potatoes;
crush and work them with two ozs. of butter and as much milk as
will cause them to pass through a colander; take half a pint of
yeast and half a pint of warm water; mix with the potatoes;
pour the whole upon 5 lbs. of flour; add salt; knead it well;
if too thick, put to it a little more milk and warm water;
stand before the fire for an hour to rise; work it well and
make it into rolls. Bake it half an hour.
Potato Rissoles.—Boil the potatoes floury; mash
them, seasoning them with salt and a little cayenne; mince
parsley very fine, and work up with the potatoes, adding
eschalot, also chopped small. Bind with yolk of egg, roll into
balls, and fry with fresh butter over a clear fire. Meat shred
finely, bacon or ham may be added.
Potato Sautees.—These are even more agreeable
with meat than fried potatoes. Cold boiled potatoes are sliced
up, and tossed up in a saucepan with butter, mixed with a
little chopped parsley, till they are lightly browned. Pure
goose or other dripping is by many cooks preferred to butter
for this purpose.
Potato Souffles.—The delicious blistered
potatoes are prepared as follows: The potatoes, if small, are
simply cut in halves; if large, cut in three or more slices;
these are fried in the usual way, but are taken out before they
are quite done, and set aside to get cold; when wanted they are
fried a second time, but only till they are of a light golden
color, not brown.
Tomatoes.—Cut ripe tomatoes into slices, put
them in a buttered dish with some bread crumbs, butter, pepper
and salt, and bake till slightly brown on top.
Forced Tomatoes.—Prepare the following
forcemeat: Two ounces of mushrooms, minced small, a couple of
shalots, likewise minced, a small quantity of parsley, a slice
of lean ham, chopped fine, a few savory herbs, and a little
cayenne and salt. Put all these ingredients into a saucepan
with a lump of butter, and stew all together until quite
tender, taking care that they do not burn. Put it by to cool,
and then mix with them some bread crumbs and the well beaten
yolks of two eggs. Choose large tomatoes, as nearly of the same
size as possible, cut a slice from the stalk end of each, and
take out carefully the seeds and juice; fill them with the
mixture which has already been prepared, strew them over with
bread and some melted butter, and bake them in a quick oven
until they assume a rich color. They are a good accompaniment
to veal or calf’s head.
To Mash Turnips.—Boil them very tender. Strain
till no water is left. Place in a saucepan over a gentle fire,
and stir well a few minutes. Do not let them burn. Add a little
cream, or milk, or both, salt butter and pepper. Add a
tablespoonful of fine sugar. Stir and simmer five minutes
longer.
To Boil or Stew Vegetable Marrow.—This
excellent vegetable may be boiled as asparagus. When boiled,
divide it lengthways into two, and serve it upon a toast
accompanied by melted butter; or when nearly boiled, divide it
as above, and stew gently in gravy like cucumbers. Care should
be taken to choose young ones not exceeding six inches in
length.
HOW TO CALCULATE.
PRACTICAL RULES, SHORT METHODS, AND PROBLEMS USED IN
BUSINESS COMPUTATIONS.
Rapidity and accuracy in making estimates and in figuring
out the result of business transactions is of the greatest
necessity to the man of business. A miscalculation may involve
the loss of hundreds or thousands of dollars, in many cases,
while a slow and tedious calculation involves loss of time and
the advantage which should have been seized at the moment. It
is proposed in the following pages to give a few brief methods
and practical rules for performing calculations which occur in
every-day transactions among men, presuming that a fair
knowledge of the ordinary rules of arithmetic has previously
been attained.
ADDITION.
To be able to add up long columns of figures rapidly and
correctly is of great value to the merchant. This requires not
only a knowledge of addition, but in order to have a correct
result, one that can be relied upon, it requires concentration
of the mind. Never allow other thoughts to be flitting through
the mind, or any outside matter to disturb or draw it away from
the figures, until the result is obtained. Write the tens to be
carried each time in a smaller figure underneath the units, so
that afterwards any column can be added over again without
repeating the entire operation. By the practice of addition the
eye and mind soon become accustomed to act rapidly, and this is
the art of addition. Grouping figures together is a valuable
aid in rapid addition, as we group letters into words in
reading.
| 862 \ |
| 538 / |
| 674 \ |
| 843 / |
| ____ |
| 2917 |
Thus, in the above example, we do not say 3 and 4 are 7 and
8 are 15 and 2 are 17, but speak the sum of the couplet, thus 7
and 10 are 17, and in the second column, 12 and 9 are 21. This
method of grouping the figures soon becomes easy and reduces
the labor of addition about one-half, while those somewhat
expert may group three or more figures, still more reducing the
time and labor, and sometimes two or more columns may be added
at once, by ready reckoners.
Another method is to group into tens when it can be
conveniently done, and still another method in adding up long
columns is to add from the bottom to the top, and whenever the
numbers make even 10, 20, 30, 40 or 50, write with pencil a
small figure opposite, 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5, and then proceed to add
as units. The sum of these figures thus set out will be the
number of tens to be carried to the next column.
| 62 | 2 | 8 | |
| 3 | 52 | 41 | |
| 2 | 8 | 4 | |
| 9 | 6 | 2 | |
| 72 | 1 | 82 | |
| 8 | 32 | 5 | |
| 5 | 2 | 7 | |
| 11 | 3 | 21 | |
| 5 | 8 | 8 | |
| _________________ | |||
| 5 | 0 | 2 | 8 |
SHORT METHODS OF MULTIPLICATION.
For certain classes of examples in multiplication short
methods may be employed and the labor of calculation reduced,
but of course for the great bulk of multiplications no
practical abbreviation remains. A person having much
multiplying to do should learn the table up to twenty, which
can be done without much labor.
To multiply any number by 10, 100, or 1000, simply annex
one, two, or three ciphers, as the case may be. If it is
desired to multiply by 20, 300, 5000, or a number greater than
one with any number of ciphers annexed, multiply first by the
number and then annex as many ciphers as the multiplier
contains.
TABLE.
5 cents equal 1/20 of a dollar.
10 cents equal 1/10 of a dollar.
12-1/2 cents equal 1/8 of a dollar.
16-2/3 cents equal 1/6 of a dollar.
20 cents equal 1/5 of a dollar.
25 cents equal 1/4 of a dollar.
33-1/3 cents equal 1/3 of a dollar.
50 cents equal 1/2 of a dollar.
Articles of merchandise are often bought and sold by the
pound, yard, or gallon, and whenever the price is an equal part
of a dollar, as seen in the above table, the whole cost may be
easily found by adding two ciphers to the number of pounds or
yards and dividing by the equivalent in the table.
Example. What cost 18 dozen eggs at 16-2/3c per
dozen?
| 6 | ) | 1 | 8 | 0 | 0 |
| _ | _ | _ | _ | _ | |
| $ | 3 | . | 0 | 0 |
Example. What cost 10 pounds butter at 25c per
pound?
| 4 | ) | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| _ | _ | _ | _ | _ | |
| $ | 2 | . | 5 | 0 |
Or, if the pounds are equal parts of one hundred and the
price is not, then the same result may be obtained by dividing
the price by the equivalent of the quantity as seen in the
table; thus, in the above case, if the price were 10c and the
number of pounds 25, it would be worked just the same.
Example. Find the cost of 50 yards of gingham at 14c
a yard.
| 2 | ) | 1 | 4 | 0 | 0 |
| _ | _ | _ | _ | _ | |
| $ | 7 | . | 0 | 0 |
When the price is one dollar and twenty-five cents, fifty
cents, or any number found in the table, the result may be
quickly found by finding the price for the extra cents, as in
the above examples, and then adding this to the number of
pounds or yards and calling the result dollars.
Example. Find the cost of 20 bushels potatoes at
$1.12-1/2 per bushel.
| 8 | ) | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| 2 | 5 | 0 | |||
| _ | _ | _ | _ | _ | |
| $ | 2 | 2 | . | 5 | 0 |
If the price is $2 or $3 instead of $1, then the number of
bushels must first be multiplied by 2 or 3, as the case may
be.
Example. Find the cost of 6 hats at $4.33-1/3
apiece.
| 3 | ) | 6 | 0 | 0 | |
| 4 | |||||
| _ | _ | _ | _ | _ | _ |
| 2 | 4 | . | 0 | 0 | |
| 2 | . | 0 | 0 | ||
| _ | _ | _ | _ | _ | _ |
| $ | 2 | 6 |
When 125 or 250 are multipliers add three ciphers and divide
by 8 and 4 respectively.
To multiply a number consisting of two figures by 11, write
the sum of the two figures between them.
Example. Multiply 53 by 11. Ans. 583.
If the sum of the two numbers exceeds 10 then the units only
must be placed between and the tens figure carried and added to
the next figure to the left.
Example. Multiply 87 by 11. Ans. 957.
FRACTIONS.
Fractional parts of a cent should never be despised. They
often make fortunes, and the counting of all the fractions may
constitute the difference between the rich and the poor man.
The business man readily understands the value of the
fractional part of a bushel, yard, pound, or cent, and
calculates them very sharply, for in them lies perhaps his
entire profit.
TO REDUCE A FRACTION TO ITS SIMPLEST FORM.
Divide both the numerator and denominator by any number that
will leave no remainder and repeat the operation until no
number will divide them both.
Example. The simplest form of 36/45 is found by
dividing by 9 = 4/5.
To reduce a whole number and a fraction, as 4-1/2, to
fractional form, multiply the whole number by the denominator,
add the numerator and write the result over the denominator.
Thus, 4 X 2 = 8 + = 9 placed over 2 is 9/2.
TO ADD FRACTIONS.
Reduce the fractions to like denominators, add their
numerators and write the denominator under the result.
Example. Add 2/3 to 3/4.
2/3 = 8/12, 3/4 = 9/12, 8/12 + 9/12 = 17/12 = 1-5/12.
Ans.
TO SUBTRACT FRACTIONS.
Reduce the fractions to like denominators, subtract the
numerators and write the denominators under the result.
Example. Find the difference between 4/5 and 3/4.
4/5 = 16/20, 3/4 = 15/20, 16/20 – 15/20 = 1/20. Ans.
TO MULTIPLY FRACTIONS.
Multiply the numerators together for a new numerator and the
denominators together for a new denominator.
Example. Multiply 7/8 by 5/6.
7/8 x 5/6 = 35/48. Ans.
TO DIVIDE FRACTIONS.
Multiply the dividend by the divisor inverted.
Example. Divide 7/8 by 5/6.
7/8 X 6/5 = 42/40. Reduced to simple form by dividing by 2
is 21/20 = 1-1/20.
Ans.
TO MULTIPLY MIXED NUMBERS.
When two numbers are to be multiplied, one of which contains
a fraction, first multiply the whole numbers together, then
multiply the fraction by the other whole number, add the two
results together for the correct answer.
Example. What cost 5-1/3 yards at 18c a yard?
| 1 | 8 | c | ||||||||||||
| 5 | – | 1 | / | 3 | ||||||||||
| _ | _ | _ | _ | _ | _ | |||||||||
| 1 | 8 | x | 5 | = | 9 | 0 | ||||||||
| 1 | 8 | x | 1 | / | 3 | = | 6 | |||||||
| _ | _ | _ | _ | _ | _ | |||||||||
| 9 | 6 | c |
When both numbers contain a fraction,
First, multiply the whole numbers together,
Second, multiply the, lower whole number by the upper
fraction;
Third, multiply the upper whole number by the lower
fraction;
Fourth, multiply the fractions together;
Fifth, add all the results for the correct answer.
Example. What cost 12-2/3 pounds of butter at 18-3/4c
per pound?
| 1 | 8 | – | 3 | / | 4 | |||||||||||||||
| 1 | 2 | – | 2 | / | 3 | |||||||||||||||
| _ | _ | _ | _ | _ | _ | _ | _ | |||||||||||||
| 1 | 8 | x | 1 | 2 | = | 2 | 1 | 6 | ||||||||||||
| 1 | 2 | x | 3 | / | 4 | = | 9 | |||||||||||||
| 1 | 8 | x | 2 | / | 3 | = | 1 | 2 | ||||||||||||
| 3 | / | 4 | x | 2 | / | 3 | = | 6 | / | 1 | 2 | = | 1 | / | 2 | |||||
| _ | _ | _ | _ | _ | _ | _ | _ | |||||||||||||
| $ | 2 | . | 3 | 7 | – | 1 | / | 2 |
Common fractions may often be changed to decimals very
readily, and the calculations thereby made much easier.
TO CHANGE COMMON FRACTIONS TO DECIMALS.
Annex one or more ciphers to the numerator and divide by the
denominator.
Example. Change 3/4 to a decimal. Ans..75.
We add two ciphers to the 3, making it 300, and divide by 4,
which gives us.75. In the same way 1/2 =.5, or 3/4 =.75, and so
on. When a quantity is in dollars and fractions of a dollar,
the fractions should always be thus reduced to cents and
mills.
TWENTY THOUSAND THINGS WORTH KNOWING.
RELATIVE HARDNESS OF WOODS.
Taking shell bark hickory as the highest standard of our
forest trees, and calling that 100, other trees will compare
with it for hardness as follows:
| Shell Bark Hickory | 100 |
| Pignut Hickory | 96 |
| White Oak | 84 |
| White Ash | 77 |
| Dogwood | 75 |
| Scrub Oak | 73 |
| White Hazel | 72 |
| Apple Tree | 70 |
| Red Oak | 69 |
| White Beech | 65 |
| Black Walnut | 65 |
| Black Birch | 62 |
| Yellow Oak | 60 |
| Hard Maple | 56 |
| White Elm | 58 |
| Red Cedar | 56 |
| Wild Cherry | 55 |
| Yellow Pine | 54 |
|
Chestnut | 52 |
| Yellow Poplar | 51 |
|
Butternut | 43 |
| White Birch | 43 |
| White Pine | 30 |
Timber intended for posts is rendered almost proof against
rot by thorough seasoning, charring and immersion in hot coal
tar.
The slide of Alpnach, extending from Mount Pilatus to Lake
Lucerne, a distance of 8 miles, is composed of 25,000 trees,
stripped of their bark, and laid at an inclination of 10 to 18
degrees. Trees placed in the slide rush from the mountain into
the lake in 6 minutes.
The Alps comprise about 180 mountains, from 4,000 to 15,732
feet high, the latter being the height of Mount Blanc, the
highest spot in Europe. The summit is a sharp ridge, like the
roof of a house, consisting of nearly vertical granite rocks.
The ascent requires 2 days, 6 or 8 guides are required, and
each guide is paid 100 francs ($20.00). It was ascended by two
natives, Jacques Belmat and Dr. Packard, August 8, 1786, at 6
a.m. They staid up 30 minutes, with the thermometer at 14
degrees below the freezing point. The provisions froze in their
pockets; their faces were frost-bitten, lips swollen, and their
sight much weakened, but they soon recovered on their descent.
De Saussure records in his ascent August 2, 1760, that the
color of the sky was deep blue; the stars were visible in the
shade; the barometer sunk to 16.08 inches (being 27.08 in
Geneva) the thermometer was 26-1/2 degrees, in the sun 29
degrees (being 87 degrees at Geneva). The thin air works the
blood into a high fever, you feel as if you hardly touched the
ground, and you scarcely make yourself heard. A French woman,
Mademoiselle d’Angeville, ascended in September, 1840, being
dragged up the last 1,200 feet by guides, and crying out: “If I
die, carry me to the top.” When there, she made them lift her
up, that she might boast she had been higher than any man in
Europe. The ascent of these awful solitudes is most perilous,
owing to the narrow paths, tremendous ravines, icy barriers,
precipices, etc. In many places every step has to be cut in the
ice, the party being tied to each other by ropes, so that
[pg 131] if one slips he may be held
up by the rest, and silence is enforced, lest the noise of
talking should dislodge the avalanches of the Aiguille du
Midi. The view from the mountain is inexpressibly grand. On
the Alps the limit of the vine is an elevation of 1,600
feet; below 1,000 feet, figs, oranges and olives are
produced. The limit of the oak is 3,800 feet, of the
chestnut 2,800 feet, of the pine 6,500 feet, of heaths
and furze to 8,700 and 9,700 feet; and perpetual snow exists
at an elevation of 8,200 feet.
On the Andes, in lat. 2 degrees, the limit of perpetual snow
is 14,760 feet; in Mexico, lat. 19 degrees, the limit is 13,800
feet; on the peak of Teneriffe, 11,454 feet; on Mount Etna,
9,000 feet; on the Caucasus, 9,900 feet; in the Pyrenees, 8,400
feet; in Lapland, 3,100 feet; in Iceland, 2,890 feet. The
walnut ceases to grow at an elevation of 3,600 feet; the yellow
pine at 6,200 feet; the ash at 4,800 feet, and the fir at 6,700
feet. The loftiest inhabited spot on the globe is the Port
House of Ancomarca, on the Andes, in Peru, 16,000 feet above
the level of the sea. The 14th peak of the Himalayas, in Asia,
25,659 feet high, is the loftiest mountain in the world.
Lauterbrunnen is a deep part of an Alpine pass, where the
sun hardly shines in winter. It abounds with falls, the most
remarkable of which is the Staubbach, which falls over the Balm
precipice in a drizzling spray from a height of 925 feet; best
viewed in the morning sun or by moonlight. In general, it is
like a gauze veil, with rainbows dancing up and down it, and
when clouds hide the top of the mountain, it seems as poured
out of the sky.
In Canada, the falls of Montmorenci are 250 feet high, the
falls of Niagara (the Horse Shoe Falls) are 158 feet high and
2,000 feet wide, the American Falls are 164 feet high and 900
feet wide. The Yosemite Valley Falls are 2,600 feet high, and
the Ribbon Falls of the Yosemite are 3,300 feet high. The
waterfall of the Arve, in Bavaria, is 2,000 feet.
THE PERIODS OF GESTATION are the same in the horse
and ass or eleven months each, camel 12 months, elephant 2
years, lion 5 months, buffalo 12 months, in the human female 9
months, cow 9 months, sheep 5 months, dog 9 weeks, cat 8 weeks,
sow 16 weeks, she wolf from 90 to 95 days. The goose sits 30
days, swans 42, hens 21, ducks 30, peahens and turkeys 28,
canaries 14, pigeons 14, parrots 40 days.
AGES OF ANIMALS, ETC.—Elephant 100 years and
upward, Rhinoceros 20, Camel 100, Lion 25 to 70, Tigers,
Leopards, Jaguars and Hyenas (in confinement) about 25 years,
Beaver 50, deer 20, wolf 20, Fox 14 to 16, Llamas 15, Chamois
25, Monkeys and Baboons 16 to 18 years, Hare 8, Squirrel 7,
Rabbit 7, Swine 25, Stag under 50, Horse 30, Ass 30, Sheep
under 10, Cow 20, Ox 30, Swans, Parrots and Ravens 200, Eagle
100, Geese 80, Hens and Pigeons 10 to 16, Hawks 36 to 40,
Cranes 24, Blackbird 10 to 12, Peacock 20, Pelican 40 to 50,
Thrush 8 to 10, Wren 2 to 3, Nightingale 15, Blackcap 15,
Linnet 14 to 23, Goldfinch 20 to 24, Redbreast 10 to 12,
Skylark 10 to 30, Titlark 5 to 6, Chaffinch 20 to 24, Starling
10 to 12, Carp 70 to 150, Pike 30 to 40, Salmon 16, Codfish 14
to 17, Eel 10, Crocodile 100, Tortoise 100 to 200, Whale
estimated 1,000, Queen Bees live 4 years, Drones 4 months,
Working Bees 6 months.
The melody of singing birds ranks as follows: The
nightingale first, then the linnet, titlark, sky lark and wood
lark. The mocking bird has the greatest powers of imitation,
the robin and goldfinch are superior in vigorous notes.
The condor of Peru has spread wings 40 feet, feathers 20
feet, quills 8 inches round.
In England, a quarter of wheat, comprising 8 bushels, yields
14 bushels 2-1/2 pecks, divided into seven distinct kinds of
flour, as follows: Fine flour, 5 bushels 3 pecks; bran, 3
bushels; twenty-penny, 3 bushels; seconds, 2 pecks; pollard, 2
bushels; fine middlings, 1 peck; coarse ditto, 1 peck.
The ancient Greek phalanx comprised 8,000 men, forming a
square battalion, with spears crossing each other, and shields
united.
The Roman legion was composed of 6,000 men, comprising 10
cohorts of 600 men each, with 300 horsemen.
The ancient battering ram was of massive timber, 60 to 100
feet long, fitted with an iron head. It was erected under
shelter to protect the 60 or 100 men required to work it. The
largest was equal in force to a 36-lb. shot from a cannon.
Pile Driving on Sandy Soils.—The greatest force will
not effect a penetration exceeding 15 feet.
Various Sizes of Type.—It requires 205 lines of
Diamond type to make 12 inches, of Pearl 178, of Ruby 166, of
Nonpareil 143, of Minion 128, of Brevier 112-1/2, of Bourgeois
102-1/2, of Long Primer 89, of Small Pica 83, of Pica 71-1/2,
of English 64.
Wire ropes for the transmission of power vary in size from
3/8 to 7/8 inch diam. for from 3 to 300 horse power; to promote
flexibility, the rope, made of iron, steel, or copper wire, as
may be preferred, is provided with a core of hemp, and the
speed is 1 mile per minute, more or less, as desired. The rope
should run on a well-balanced, grooved, cast iron wheel, of
from 4 to 15 feet diam., according as the transmitted power
ranges from 3 to 300 horse; the groove should be well cushioned
with soft material, as leather or rubber, for the formation of
a durable bed for the rope. With good care the rope will last
from 3 to 5 years.
Cannon balls go furthest at an elevation of 30 degrees, and
less as the balls are less; the range is furthest when fired
from west to east in the direction of the earth’s motion, which
for the diurnal rotation on its axis, is at the rate of 1,037
miles per hour, and in its orbit, 66,092 miles.
The air’s resistance is such that a cannon ball of 3 lbs.
weight, diameter, 2.78 ins. moving with a velocity of 1,800
feet per second, is resisted by a force equal to 156 lbs.
Bricklayers ascend ladders with loads of 90 lbs., 1 foot per
second. There are 484 bricks in a cubic yard, and 4,356 in a
rod.
A power of 250 tons is necessary to start a vessel weighing
3,000 tons over greased slides on a marine railway, when in
motion, 150 tons only is required.
A modern dredging machine, 123 ft. long, beam 26 ft.,
breadth over all, 11 ft., will raise 180 tons of mud and clay
per hour, 11 feet from water-line.
In tanning, 4 lbs. of oak bark make 1 lb. of leather.
Flame is quenched in air containing 3 per cent, of carbonic
acid; the same percentage is fatal to animal life.
100 parts of oak make nearly 23 of charcoal; beech 21, deal
19, apple 23.7, elm 23, ash 25, birch 24, maple 22.8, willow
18, poplar 20, red pine 22.10, white pine 23. The charcoal used
in gunpowder is made from willow, alder, and a few other woods.
The charred timber found in the ruins of Herculaneum has
undergone no change in 1,800 years.
Four volumes of nitrogen and one of oxygen compose
atmospheric air in all localities on the globe.
Air extracted from pure water, under an air pump, contains
34.8 per cent. of oxygen. Fish breathe this air, respiring
about 35 times per minute. The oxhydrogen lime light may be
seen from mountains at the distance of 200 miles round.
Lightning is reflected 150 to 200
miles.
1,000 cubic feet of 13 candle gas is equivalent to over 7
gals. of sperm oil, 52.9 lbs. of tallow candles, and over 44
lbs. of sperm candles.
The time occupied by gas in traveling from a gas well (in
Pennsylvania) through 32 miles of pipe was 22 minutes, pressure
at the well was 55 lbs. per inch, pressure at discharge 49
lbs.
At birth, the beats of the pulse are from 165 to 104, and
the inspirations of breath from 70 to 23. From 15 to 20, the
pulsations are from 90 to 57, the inspirations, from 24 to 16;
from 29 to 50, the pulsations are 112 to 56, the inspirations
23 to 11. In usual states it is 4 to 1. The action of the heart
distributes 2 ozs. of blood from 70 to 80 times in a
minute.
The mean heat of the human body is 98 degs. and of the skin
90 degs. Tea and coffee are usually drank at 110 degs. The
deepest coal mine in England is at Killingworth, near
Newcastle, and the mean annual temperature at 400 yards below
the surface is 77 degrees, and at 300 yards 70 degrees, while
at the surface it is but 48 degrees, being 1 degree of increase
for every 15 yards. This explains the origin of hot springs,
for at 3,300 yards the heat would be equal to boiling water,
taking 20 yards to a degree. The heat of the Bath waters is 116
degrees, hence they would appear to rise 1,320 yards.
Peron relates that at the depth of 2,144 feet in the sea the
thermometer falls to 45 degrees, when it is 86 degrees at the
surface.
Swemberg and Fourier calculate the temperature of the
celestial spaces at 50 degrees centigrade below freezing.
In Northern Siberia the ground is frozen permanently to the
depth of 660 feet, and only thaws to the extent of 3 or 4 feet
in summer. Below 660 feet internal heat begins.
River water contains about 30 grs. of solid matter in every
cubic foot. Fresh water springs of great size abound under the
sea. Perhaps the most remarkable springs exist in California,
where they are noted for producing sulphuric acid, ink, and
other remarkable products.
St. Winifred’s Well, in England, evolves 120 tons of water
per minute, furnishing abundant water power to drive 11 mills
within little more than a mile.
The French removed a red granite column 95 feet high,
weighing 210 tons, from Thebes, and carried it to Paris. The
display of costly architectural ruins at Thebes is one of the
most astonishing to be seen anywhere in the world. The ruins
and costly buildings in old Eastern countries, are so vast in
their proportions and so many in number that it would require
volumes to describe them.
Babel, now called Birs Nimroud, built at Babylon by Belus,
was used as an observatory and as a temple of the Sun. It was
composed of 8 square towers, one over the other, in all 670
feet high, and the same dimensions on each side on the
ground.
The Coliseum at Rome, built by Vespasian for 100,000
spectators, was in its longest diameter 615-5 feet, and in the
shortest 510, embraced 5-1/2 acres, and was 120 feet high.
Eight aqueducts supplied ancient Rome with water, delivering 40
millions of cubit feet daily. That of Claudia was 47 miles long
and 100 feet high, so as to furnish the hills. Martia was 41
miles, of which 37 were on 7,000 acres 70 feet high. These vast
erections would never have been built had the Romans known that
water always rises to its own level.
The Temple of Diana, at Ephesus, was 425 feet long and 225
feet broad, with 127 columns, 60 feet high, to support the
roof. It was 220 years in building.
Solomon’s Temple, built B.C. 1014, was 60 cubits or 107 feet
in length, the breadth 20 cubits or 36 feet, and the height 30
cubits or 54 feet. The porch was 36 feet long and 18 feet
wide.
The largest one of the Egyptian pyramids is 543 feet high,
693 feet on the sides, and its base covers 11 acres. The layers
of stones are 208 in number. Many stones are over 30 feet long,
4 broad and 3 thick.
The Temple of Ypsambul, in Nubia, is enormously massive and
cut out of the solid rock. Belzoni found in it 4 immense
figures, 65 feet high, 25 feet over the shoulders, with a face
of 7 feet and the ears over 3 feet.
Sesostris erected in the temple in Memphis immense statues
of himself and his wife, 50 feet high, and of his children, 28
feet.
In the Temple of the Sun, at Baalbec, are stones more than
60 feet long, 24 feet thick and 16 broad, each embracing 23,000
cubic feet, cut, squared, sculptured, and transported from
neighboring quarries. Six enormous columns are each 72 feet
high, composed of 3 stones 7 feet in diameter. Sesostris is
credited with having transported from the mountains of Arabia a
rock 32 feet wide and 240 feet long.
The engineering appliances used by the ancients in the
movement of these immense masses are but imperfectly understood
at the present day.
During modern times, a block of granite weighing 1,217 tons,
now used as the pedestal of the equestrian statute of Peter the
Great, at St. Petersburg, was transported 4 miles by land over
a railway, and 13 miles in a vast caisson by water. The railway
consisted of two lines of timber furnished with hard metal
grooves; between these grooves were placed spheres of hard
brass about 6 inches in diameter. On these spheres the frame
with its massive load was easily moved by 60 men, working at
capstans with treble purchase blocks.
In 1716 Swedenborg contrived to transport (on rolling
machines of his own invention) over valleys and mountains, 2
galleys, 5 large boats and 1 sloop, from Stromstadt to Iderfjol
(which divides Sweden from Norway on the South), a distance of
14 miles, by which means Charles XII. was able to carry on his
plans, and under cover of the galleys and boats to transport on
pontoons his heavy artillery to the very walls of
Frederickshall.
Belzoni considered the tract between the first and second
cataract of the Nile as the hottest on the globe, owing to
there being no rain. The natives do not credit the phenomenon
of water falling from above. Hence it is that all monuments are
so nicely preserved. Buckingham found a building left
unfinished about 4,000 years ago, and the chalk marks on the
stones were still perfect.
Pompey’s Pillar is 92 feet high, and 27-1/2 round at the
base.
Water is the absolute master, former and secondary agent of
the power of motion in everything terrestrial. It is the
irresistible power which elaborates everything, and the waters
contain more organized beings than the land.
Rivers hold in suspension 100th of their volume (more or
less) of mud, so that if 36 cubic miles of water (the estimated
quantity) flow daily into the sea, 0.36 cubic miles of soil are
daily displaced. The Rhine carries to the sea every day 145,980
cubic feet of mud. The Po carries out the land 228 feet per
annum, consequently Adria which 2,500 years ago was on the sea,
is now over 20 miles from it.
The enormous amount of alluvium deposited by the Mississippi
is almost incalculable, and constantly renders necessary
extensive engineering operations in order to remove the
impediments to navigation.
As an exponent of the laws of friction, it may be stated
that a square stone weighing 1,080 lbs. which required a force
of 758 lbs. to drag it along the floor of a quarry, roughly
chiseled, required only a force of 22 lbs. to move it when
mounted on a platform and rollers over a plank
floor.
The flight of wild ducks is estimated at 90 miles per hour,
that of the swift at 200 miles, carrier pigeons 38 miles,
swallows 60 miles, migratory birds have crossed the
Mediterranean at a speed of 120 miles per hour.
The Nile has a fall of 6 ins. in 1,000 miles. The rise of
the river commences in June, continuing until the middle of
August, attaining an elevation of from 24 to 26 feet, and
flowing the valley of Egypt 12 miles wide. In 1829 it rose to
26 cubits, by which 30,000 persons were drowned. It is a
terrible climate to live in, owing to the festering heat and
detestable exhalations from the mud, etc., left on the retiring
of the Nile, which adds about 4 inches to the soil in a
century, and encroaches on the sea 16 feet every year. Bricks
have been found at the depth of 60 feet, showing the vast
antiquity of the country. In productiveness of soil it is
excelled by no other in the world.
How to Splice a Belt in Order to Make it Run Like an Endless
Belt.—Use the toughest yellow glue prepared in the
ordinary way, while hot, stirring in thoroughly about 20 per
cent of its weight of tannic acid, or extract of tan bark.
Apply to the splice and quickly clamp together. The splice
should be made of scarfed edges extending 3 to 6 inches back,
according to thickness of belt. The surface to be perfectly
clean and free from oil.
How Many Pounds of Coal it Requires to Maintain Steam of
One-Horse Power per Hour.—Anthracite 1-1/2 to 5 pounds,
according to the economy of boiler and engine. Bituminous and
anthracite coal are very nearly equal for equal qualities. They
both vary from 7 to 10 pounds of water evaporated per pound of
coal from a temperature of 212 degrees.
A Formula for Collodio-bromide Emulsion that is
Rapid.—Ether s.g. 0.720, 4 fluid ounces; alcohol s.g.
0.820, 2-1/2 fluid ounces; pyroxyline, 40 grains; castile soap
dissolved in alcohol, 30 grains; bromide of ammonium and
cadmium, 56 grains.
How to Deaden the Noise of Steam While Blowing off Through a
Wrought Iron Stand Pipe.—The sound may be much modified
by enlarging the end of the pipe like a trumpet or cone; which
should be long, 20 or 30 times the diameter of the pipe,
opening to 4 or 5 times its initial size.
Why Fusible Plugs are Put in the Crown Sheet of Locomotive
Boilers.—To save the crown sheet from burning in case of
low water, when the plug melts and lets the steam and water
into the fire chamber to dampen and put out the fire as well as
to make an alarm. They may also be employed on other forms of
boilers, and are much used in connection with whistles for
low-water alarms only. Boilers should not be blown out for
cleaning with fire under them or while the walls (if set in
brick) are hot enough to do damage to the iron shell.
Locomotive boilers may be blown out very soon after the fire is
entirely removed. All brick-set boilers should be left several
hours after the fire is drawn before blowing off for
cleaning.
How to Lace a Quarter Turn Belt so as to Have an Equal
Strain on Both Edges of the Belt.—Begin on the outside of
the belt at the middle, pass one end of the lacing through one
end of the belt and bring it out through the corresponding hole
of the other end of the belt, laying it diagonally off to the
left. Now pass the other end of the lacing through the hole
last used, and carry it over the first strand of the lacing on
the inside of the belt, passing it through the first hole used,
and lay it diagonally off to the right. Now proceed to pass the
lacing through the holes of the belt in a zigzag course,
leaving all the strands inside the belt parallel with the belt,
and all the strands outside the belt oblique. Pass the lace
twice through the holes nearest the edge of the belt, then
return the lace in the reverse order toward the center of the
belt, so as to cross all the oblique strands, and make all the
inside strands double. Finally pass the end of the lacing
through the first hole used, then outward through an awl hole,
then hammering it down to cause it to hold. The left side is to
be laced in a similar way.
A Useful Hint to Draughtsmen.—To strain drawing paper
on a board, cut the paper to the size required, lay it on the
board face downwards and thoroughly wet the surface with a damp
sponge or brush, then turn it over and wet the face in the same
way; roll it up tightly and let it stay so for five or six
minutes, unroll it, and turn up the edges about an inch all
around. Take liquid glue (Jackson’s is the best) and apply it
carefully to the edges, then turn them down, and with a paper
knife press them to the board all around. Put the board in an
inclined position where it is not too dry or warm, or the paper
will dry too fast and tear. If it is allowed to dry slowly the
surface will be perfectly even and smooth, and a pleasure to
draw upon.
Joints for Hot Water Pipes.—Sal-ammoniac, 2 oz.;
sublimed sulphur, 1 oz.; cast-iron filings, 1 lb. Mix in a
mortar, and keep the powder dry. When it is to be used, mix it
with twenty times its weight of clean iron filings, and grind
the whole in a mortar. Wet with water until it becomes of
convenient consistence. After a time it becomes as hard and
strong as any part of the metal.
When the Process of Galvanizing Iron was First
Known.—A. The process of coating iron with zinc, or zinc
and tin, is a French invention, and was patented in England in
1837.
A Timber Test.—The soundness of timber may be
ascertained by placing the ear close to one end of the log,
while another person delivers a succession of smart blows with
a hammer or mallet upon the opposite end, when a continuance of
the vibrations will indicate to an experienced ear even the
degree of soundness. If only a dull thud meets the ear, the
listener may be certain that unsoundness exists.
Useful Hints and Recipes.—Following is a comparative
statement of the toughness of various woods.—Ash, 100;
beech, 85; cedar of Lebanon, 84; larch, 83; sycamore and common
walnut, each, 68; occidental plane, 66; oak, hornbeam and
Spanish mahogany, each, 62; teak and acacia, each, 58; elm and
young chestnut, 52.
An
ingenious device for stretching emery cloth for use in
the workshop consists of a couple of strips of wood about 14
in. long, hinged longitudinally, and of round, half-round,
triangular, or any other shape in cross section. On the inside
faces of the wood strips are pointed studs, fitting into holes
on the opposite side. The strip of emery cloth is laid on to
one set of the studs, and the file, as it is called, closed,
which fixes the strip on one side. It is then similarly fixed
on the other side, and thus constitutes what is called an emery
file and which is a handy and convenient arrangement for
workshop use.
Method of making Artificial Whetstones.—Gelatine of
good quality is dissolved in its own weight of water, the
operation being conducted in a dark room. To the solution one
and a half per cent. of bichromate of potash is added, which
has previously been dissolved in a little water. A quantity of
very fine emery, equal to nine times the weight of the
gelatine, is
intimately mixed with the gelatine solution.
Pulverized flint may be substituted for emery. The mass is
molded into any desired shape, and is then consolidated by
heavy pressure. It is dried by exposure to strong sunlight for
several hours.
How to Toughen Paper.—A plan for rendering paper as
tough as wood or leather has been recently introduced; it
consists in mixing chloride of zinc with the pulp in the course
of manufacture. It has been found that the greater the degree
of concentration of the zinc solution, the greater will be the
toughness of the paper. It can be used for making boxes and for
roofing.
How to Mend a Broken File.—There is no tool so easily
broken as the file that the machinist has to work with, and is
about the first thing that snaps when a kit of tools gets upset
upon the cross-beam of a machine or a tool board from the bed
of an engine lathe. It cannot even be passed from one workman
to another without being broken, if the file is a new one or
still good for anything, if an apprentice has got anything to
do with it, and they are never worth mending, however great may
be their first cost, unless the plaster of Paris and lime
treatment can make a perfect weld without injuring the steel or
disturbing the form of the teeth. Steel that is left as hard as
a file is very brittle, and soft solder can hold as much on a
steady pull if it has a new surface to work from. Take a file,
as soon as it is broken, and wet the break with zinc dissolved
in muriatic acid, and then tin over with the soldering iron.
This must be done immediately as soon as the file is broken, as
the break begins to oxydize when exposed to the air. and in an
hour or two will gather sufficient to make it impossible for
the parts to adhere. Heat the file as warm as it will bear
without disturbing its temper as soon as well tinned, and press
the two pieces firmly together, squeezing out nearly all the
solder, and hold in place until the file cools. This can be
done with very little to trim off, and every portion of the
break fitting accurately in place. Bring both pieces in line
with each other, and, for a file, it is as strong in one place
as in another, and is all that could be asked for under the
very best of welding treatment.
What will Fasten Pencil Markings, to Prevent
Blurring.—Immerse paper containing the markings to be
preserved in a bath of clear water, then flow or immerse in
milk a moment; hang up to dry. Having often had recourse to
this method, in preserving pencil and crayon drawings, I will
warrant it a sure cure.
How to Transfer Newspaper Prints to Glass.—First coat
the glass with dammar varnish, or else with Canada balsam,
mixed with an equal volume of oil of turpentine, and let it dry
until it is very sticky, which takes half a day or more. The
printed paper to be transferred should be well soaked in soft
water, and carefully laid upon the prepared glass, after
removing surplus water with blotting paper, and pressed upon
it, so that no air bubbles or drops of water are seen
underneath. This should dry a whole day before it is touched;
then with wetted fingers begin to rub off the paper at the
back. If this be skillfully done, almost the whole of the paper
can be removed, leaving simply the ink upon the varnish. When
the paper has been removed, another coat of varnish will serve
to make the whole more transparent. This recipe is sold at from
$3 to $5 by itinerants.
A Liquid Cement for Cementing Leather, that Will Not be
Affected by the Action of Water.—A good cement for
splicing leather is gutta percha dissolved in carbon
disulphide, until it is of the thickness of treacle; the parts
to be cemented must first be well thinned down, then pour a
small quantity of the cement on both ends, spreading it well so
as to fill the pores of the leather; warm the parts over a fire
for about half a minute, apply them quickly together, and
hammer well. The bottle containing the cement should be tightly
corked, and kept in a cool place.
The Quickest and Best Way to Drill Holes for Water Pipes in
Rough Plate Glass.—Use a hardened (file temper) drill,
with spirits of turpentine and camphor to make the drill bite.
A broken file in a breast brace will do good work if a power
drill is not obtainable.
A Recipe for Making Printers’ Inks.—For black ink:
Take of balsam of copaiba (pure), 9 ounces; lamp black, 3
ounces; indigo and Prussian blue, of each half an ounce; Indian
red, 3/4 ounce; yellow soap (dry), 3 ounces; grind the mixture
to an impalpable smoothness by means of a stone and muller.
Canada balsam may be substituted for balsam of copaiba where
the smell of the latter is objectionable, but the ink then
dries very quickly. The red inks are similarly made by using
such pigments as carmine, lakes, vermilion, chrome yellow, red
lead, orange red, Indian red and Venetian red.
A Cement to Stick White Metal Tops on Glass
Bottles.—One of the best cap cements consists of resin, 5
ounces; beeswax, 1 ounce; red ocher or Venetian red in powder,
1 ounce. Dry the earth thoroughly on a stove at a temperature
above 212° Fah. Melt the wax and resin together, and stir
in the powder by degrees. Stir until cold, lest the earthy
matter settle to the bottom.
The Correct Meaning of the Tonnage of a Vessel.—The
law defines very carefully how the tonnage of different vessels
shall be calculated. An approximate rule for finding the gross
tonnage is to multiply the length of keel between
perpendiculars by the breadth of vessel and depth of hold, all
in feet, and dividing the product by 100. It is generally
assumed that 40 cubic feet shall constitute a ton, and the
tonnage of a vessel is considered to be the multiple of this
ton, which most closely corresponds with the internal capacity
of the vessel.
A Recipe for Re-inking Purple Type Ribbons.—Use:
Aniline violet, 1/4 ounce; pure alcohol, 15 ounces;
concentrated glycerine, 15 ounces. Dissolve the aniline in the
alcohol, and add the glycerine.
The Process of Giving a Tempered-Blue Color to the Steel
Plate and Malleable Iron Castings of a Roller Skate.—In
order to obtain an even blue, the work must have an even
finish, and be made perfectly clean. Arrange a cast-iron pot in
a fire so as to heat it to the temperature of melted lead, or
just below a red heat. Make a flat bottom basket of wire or
wire cloth to sit in the iron box, on which place the work to
be blued, as many pieces as you may find you can manage, always
putting in pieces of about the same thickness and size, so that
they will heat evenly. Make a bail to the basket, so that it
can be easily handled. When the desired color is obtained, dip
quickly in hot water to stop the progress of the bluing, for an
instant only, so that enough heat may be retained to dry the
articles. A cover to the iron box may sometimes be used to
advantage to hasten the heating. Another way, much used, is to
varnish the work with ultramarine varnish, which may be
obtained from the varnish makers.
Cement to Mend Iron Pots and Pans.—Take two parts of
sulphur and one part, by weight, of fine black lead; put the
sulphur in an old iron pan, holding it over the fire until it
begins to melt, then add the lead; stir well until all is mixed
and melted; then pour out on an iron plate or smooth stone.
When cool, break into small pieces. A sufficient quantity of
this compound being placed upon the crack of the iron pot to be
mended, can be soldered by a hot iron in the same way a
tinsmith solders his sheets. If there is a small hole in the
pot, drive a copper rivet in it, and then solder over it with
this cement. The Best Method of Rendering Basement Walls
Damp-Proof.—Construct on the outside an area wall so that
the earth does not rest directly against the main wall of the
house, but only against the outside wall or casing of the area.
To form such an area, build a wall half or one brick thick
parallel to and some 2 or 3 inches from the
[pg 135] main wall, and form at the
bottom a channel or gutter connected with the drains, so
that any moisture or water finding its way in through the
outer casing may be conducted away and will not therefore
penetrate into the building. Thoroughly ventilate the areas
by means of air bricks or other suitable connections with
the outer air, and connect with one another by making
through connections underneath the floor joists. Be very
careful that the main wall is laid on a good and efficient
damp course. The top of the space between the area and main
walls may be covered in all around the building with
bricks—ornamented or otherwise, as preferred—on
a line just above the ground. Another plan of effecting the
same object is to dispense with the area wall and in
building the brick work to cover the whole of the work on
the outside with a thick layer of bituminous asphalt. The
plaster on the inside is in this case often rendered in
nearly neat Portland cement.
How to Caseharden Large Pieces of Steel.—A box of cast
or wrought iron should be provided large enough to hold one or
two of the pieces, with sufficient room all around to pack well
with the casehardening materials, which may be leather scrap,
hoof shavings, or horn shavings, slightly burned and
pulverized, which may be mixed with an equal quantity of
pulverized charcoal. Pack the pieces to be casehardened in the
iron box so as not to touch each other or the box. Put an iron
cover on the box and lute with clay. Heat gradually in a
furnace to a full red, keep at an even temperature for from 2
to 4 hours, raise the heat to a cherry red during the last
hour, then remove the cover and take out the pieces and plunge
endwise vertically in water at shop temperature; 2 per cent. of
hydrochloric acid in the water improves its tempering qualities
and gives the metal an even gray color.
A Good and Cheap Preparation to Put on Friction
Matches.—The igniting composition varies with different
makers. The following recipes may be taken as fairly
representative, the first being the best: 1. Phosphorus by
weight, 1/2 part; potassium chlorate, 4 parts; glue, 2 parts;
whiting, 1 part; finely powdered glass, 4 parts; water, 11
parts. 2. Phosphorus by weight, 2 parts; potassium chlorate, 5
parts; glue, 3 parts; red lead, 1-1/2 parts; water, 12 parts.
3. A German mixture for matches. Potassium chlorate, 7.8 parts;
lead hyposulphite, 2.6 parts; gum arabic, 1 part.
To Find How Much Tin Vessels Will Hold.—For the
contents of cylinders: Square the diameter, and multiply the
product by 0.7854. Again, multiply by the height (all in
inches). Divide the product by 231 for gallons. For the frustum
of a cone: Add together the squares of the diameters of large
and small ends; to this add the product of the diameter of the
two ends. Multiply this sum by 0.7854. Multiply this product by
the height (all in inches). Then divide by 231 for the number
of gallons.
A Useful Recipe.—For stopping the joints between
slates or shingles, etc., and chimneys, doors, windows, etc., a
mixture of stiff white-lead paint, with sand enough to prevent
it from running, is very good, especially if protected by a
covering of strips of lead or copper, tin, etc., nailed to the
mortar joints of the chimneys, after being bent so as to enter
said joints, which should be scraped out for an inch in depth,
and afterward refilled. Mortar protected in the same way, or
even unprotected, is often used for the purpose, but it is not
equal to the paint and sand. Mortar a few days old (to allow
refractory particles of lime to slack), mixed with blacksmith’s
cinders and molasses, is much used for this purpose, and
becomes very hard and effective.
Test for Hard or Soft Water.—Dissolve a small quantity
of good soap in alcohol. Let a few drops fall into a glass of
water. If it turns milky, it is hard; if not, it is soft.
Test for Earthy Matters or Alkali in Water.—Take
litmus paper dipped in vinegar, and if, on immersion, the paper
returns to its true shade, the water does not contain earthy
matter or alkali. If a few drops of syrup be added to a water
containing an earthy matter, it will turn green.
Test for Carbonic Acid in Water.—Take equal parts of
water and clear lime water. If combined or free carbonic acid
is present, a precipitate is seen, to which, if a few drops of
muriatic acid be added, an effervescence commences.
Test for Magnesia in Water.—Boil the water to a
twentieth part of its weight, and then drop a few grains of
neutral carbonate of ammonia into a glass of it, and a few
drops of phosphate of soda. If magnesia be present, it will
fall to the bottom.
Test for Iron in Water.—1. Boil a little nutgall and
add to the water. If it turns gray or slate, black iron is
present. 2. Dissolve a little prussiate of potash, and, if iron
is present, it will turn blue.
Test for Lime in Water.—Into a glass of water put two
drops of oxalic acid and blow upon it. If it gets milky, lime
is present.
Test for Acid in Water.—Take a piece of litmus paper.
If it turns red, there must be acid. If it precipitates on
adding lime water, it is carbonic acid. If a blue sugar paper
is turned red, it is a mineral acid.
Value of Manufactured Steel.—A pound of very fine
steel wire to make watch springs of, is worth about $4; this
will make 17,000 springs, worth $7,000.
Horses in Norway have a very sensible way of taking their
food, which perhaps might be beneficially followed here. They
have a bucket of water put down beside their allowance of hay.
It is interesting to see with what relish they take a sip of
the one and a mouthful of the other alternately, sometimes only
moistening their mouths, as a rational being would do while
eating a dinner of such dry food. A broken-winded horse is
scarcely ever seen in Norway, and the question is if the mode
of feeding has not something to do with the preservation of the
animal’s respiratory organs.
The Process of Fastening Rubber Rolls on Clothes
Wringer.—1. Clean shaft thoroughly between the shoulders
or washers, where the rubber goes on, 2. Give the shaft a coat
of copal varnish, between the shoulders, and let it dry. 3.
Give shaft coat of varnish and wind shaft tightly as possible
with five-ply jute twine at once, while varnish is green, and
let it dry for about six hours. 4. Give shaft over the twine a
coat of rubber cement, and let it dry for about six hours. 5.
Give shaft over the twine a second coat of rubber cement, and
let it dry for about six hours. 6. Remove washer on the short
end of shaft, also the cogwheel if the shaft has cogs on both
ends. 7. See that the rubber rolls are always longer than the
space between the washers where the rubber goes on, as they
shrink or take up a little in putting on the shaft. 8. Clean
out the hole or inside of roll with benzine, using a small
brush or swab. 9. Put the thimble or pointer on the end of
shaft that the washer has been removed from, and give shaft
over the twine and thimble another coat of cement, and stand
same upright in a vise. 10. Give the inside or hole of roll a
coat of cement with a small rod or stick. 11. Pull or force the
roll on the shaft as quickly as possible with a jerk, then
rivet the washer on with a cold chisel.
[pg 136] 12. Let roll stand and get
dry for two or three days before using same. Cement for use
should be so thick that it will run freely; if it gets too
thick, thin it with benzine or naphtha.
How to Make Effervescing Solution of Citrate of
Magnesia.—Dissolve citric acid 400 grains in water 2,000
grains, add carbonate of magnesia 200 grains; stir until
dissolved. Filter into a 12-ounce bottle containing syrup of
citric acid 1,200 grains. Add boiled and filtered water to fill
bottle, drop in bicarbonate of potash in crystals 30 grains and
immediately cork. Shake until bicarbonate of potash is
dissolved. The syrup of citric acid is made from citric acid 8
parts, water 8 parts, spirit of lemon 4 parts, syrup 980
parts.
A Receipt for Making the Black Cement that is Used for
Filling Letters after They are Cut out in Brass.—Mix
asphaltum, brown japan and lampblack into a putty-like mass,
fill in the spaces, and finally clean the edges with
turpentine.
Useful Workshop Hints.—Clean and oil leather belts
without taking them off their pulleys. If taken off they will
shrink. Then a piece must be put into them and removed again
after the belt has run a few days. The decay of stone, either
in buildings or monuments, may be arrested by heating and
treating with paraffin mixed with a little creosote. A common
“paint burner” may be used to heat the stone. Set an engine
upon three or four movable points, as upon three cannon balls.
Connect with steam, and exhaust by means of rubber hose. If the
engine will run up to speed without moving itself back and
forth, then that engine will run a long time with little
repair. If it shakes itself around the room, then buy another
engine. Safely moving a tall mill chimney has been accomplished
several times. Chimneys which have been caused to lean slightly
through settling of the foundation may be straightened up again
by sawing out the mortar between courses of brick at the base.
A chimney 100 ft. high and 12 ft. square at the base will be
varied over 8 in. at the top by the removal of 1 in. at the
base. When you begin to fix up the mill for cold weather, don’t
forget to put a steam trap in each and every steam pipe which
can be opened into the atmosphere for heating purposes. For
leading steam joints, mix the red lead or litharge with common
commercial glycerine, instead of linseed oil. Put a little
carbolic acid in your glue or paste pot. It will keep the
contents sweet for a long time. Look well to the bearings of
your shafting engine and machines. Sometimes 25, 30, 40 and
even 50 per cent. of your power is consumed through lack of
good oil. When you buy a water wheel, be sure to buy one small
enough to run at full gate while the stream is low during the
summer months. If you want more power than the small wheel will
give, then put in two or more wheels of various sizes. When it
becomes necessary to trim a piece of rubber, it will be found
that the knife will cut much more readily if dipped in water.
When forging a chisel or other cutting tool, never upset the
end of the tool. If necessary cut it off, but don’t try to
force it back into a good cutting edge. In tubular boilers the
handholes should be often opened, and all collections removed
from over the fire. When boilers are fed in front, and are
blown off through the same pipe, the collection of mud or
sediment in the rear end should be often removed. Nearly all
smoke may be consumed without special apparatus, by attending
with a little common sense to a few simple rules. Suppose we
have a battery of boilers, and “soft coal” is the fuel. Go to
the first boiler, shut the damper nearly up, and fire up
one-half of the furnace, close the door, open damper, and go to
the next boiler and repeat the firing. By this method nearly,
if not quite, all the smoke will be consumed. A coiled spring
inserted between engine and machinery is highly beneficial
where extreme regularity of power is required. It is well known
that a steam engine, in order to govern itself, must run too
fast and too slow in order to close or open its valves; hence
an irregularity of power is unavoidable.
A “Paste” Metal Polish for Cleaning and Polishing
Brass.—Oxalic acid 1 part, iron peroxide 15 parts,
powdered rottenstone 20 parts, palm oil 60 parts, petrolatum 4
parts. See that solids are thoroughly pulverized and sifted,
then add and thoroughly incorporate oil and petrolatum.
Cough Candy or Troches.—Tincture of squills 2 ounces,
camphorated tincture of opium and tincture of tolu of each 1/4
ounce, wine of ipecac 1/2 ounce, oil of gautheria 4 drops,
sassafras 3 drops, and of anise seed oil 2 drops. The above
mixture is to be put into 5 pounds of candy which is just ready
to take from the fire; continue the boiling a little longer, so
as to form into sticks.
How to Oxidize Silver.—For this purpose a pint of
sulphide of potassium, made by intimately mixing and heating
together 2 parts of thoroughly dried potash and 1 part of
sulphur powder, is used. Dissolve 2 to 3 drachms of this
compound in 1-3/4 pints of water, and bring the liquid to a
temperature of from 155 degrees to 175 degrees Fah., when it is
ready for use. Silver objects, previously freed from dust and
grease with soda lye and thorough rinsing in water, plunged
into this bath are instantly covered with an iridescent film of
silver sulphide, which in a few seconds more becomes blue
black. The objects are then removed, rinsed off in plenty of
fresh water, scratch brushed, and if necessary polished.
Useful Household Recipes.—To purify water in glass
vessels and aquariums, it is recommended to add to every 100
grammes of water four drops of a solution of one gramme of
salicylic acid in 300 grammes of water. The Norsk
Fiskeritidende, published at Bergen, Norway, says that
thereby the water may be kept fresh for three months without
being renewed. A cement recommended as something which can
hardly be picked to pieces is made as follows:—Mix equal
parts of lime and brown sugar with water, and be sure the lime
is thoroughly air-slacked. This mortar is equal to Portland
cement, and is of extraordinary strength. For a few weeks’
preservation of organic objects in their original form,
dimensions and color, Professor Grawitz recommends a mixture
composed of two and a half ounces of chloride of sodium, two
and three-quarters drachms of saltpetre, and one pint of water,
to which is to be added three per cent. of boric acid. To
varnish chromos, take equal quantities of linseed oil and oil
of turpentine; thicken by exposure to the sun and air until it
becomes resinous and half evaporated; then add a portion of
melted beeswax. Varnishing pictures should always be performed
in fair weather, and out of any current of cold or damp air. A
fireproof whitewash can be readily made by adding one part
silicate of soda (or potash) to every five parts of whitewash.
The addition of a solution of alum to whitewash is recommended
as a means to prevent the rubbing off of the wash. A coating of
a good glue size made by dissolving half a pound of glue in a
gallon of water is employed when the wall is to be papered. The
most nourishing steam bath that can be applied to a person who
is unable to sweat and can take but little food in the
stomach:—Produce the sweating by burning alcohol under a
chair in which the person sits, with blanket covering to hold
the heat. Use caution and but little alcohol. Fire it in a
shallow iron pan or old saucer.
Own Your Own Homes.—Every man, whether he is a working
man in the common acceptation of the word or not,
[pg 137] feels a deep interest in
the management of the affairs of the city, county and State
in which he lives whenever he owns a home. He is more
patriotic, and in many ways is a better citizen than the man
who simply rents, and who has but little if any assurance of
how long it will be before he can be ordered to move; to
which may be added in many cases the saving of more money.
Of course it requires some economy to lay up a sufficient
amount of money to purchase and pay for a home; but this
very fact, if properly carried out after the home is
acquired, may be the instrument of furnishing the means to
commence and prosecute a business upon your own
responsibility. True, in some cases it will require more
economy, perhaps, than we are now practicing. But the
question with every man, and especially if he is the head of
a family, is, Can he afford it? That is, can he afford to
live up his wages as fast as he earns them, without laying
up anything for the future? If he is the head of a family,
he is obliged to pay rent, and it does not require very many
years of rent paying to make up an amount sufficient to
purchase and pay for a comfortable home. You have to pay the
rent. This you say you cannot avoid and be honest. Well, you
cannot be honest with your family unless you make a
reasonable attempt to provide them a home of their own in
case anything should happen to you. And the obligation to do
this should be as strong as the one to pay rent or provide
the other necessaries for the comfort of your family. When
you own a home you feel a direct interest in public affairs
that otherwise you might consider were of little
interest.
A Formula for Nervous Headache.—Alcohol dilut., 4
ounces; Olei cinnamon, 4 minims; Potas. bromid., 5 drachms;
Extr. hyoscyam., fl., 1-1/2 drachms; Fiat lotio. One to two
teaspoonfuls, if required.
How Beeswax is Refined and Made Nice and Yellow.—Pure
white wax is obtained from the ordinary beeswax by exposure to
the influence of the sun and weather. The wax is sliced into
thin flakes and laid on sacking or coarse cloth, stretched on
frames, resting on posts to raise them from the ground. The wax
is turned over frequently and occasionally sprinkled with soft
water if there be not dew and rain sufficient to moisten it.
The wax should be bleached in about four weeks. If, on breaking
the flakes, the wax still appears yellow inside, it is
necessary to melt it again and flake and expose it a second
time, or even oftener, before it becomes thoroughly bleached,
the time required being mainly dependent upon the weather.
There is a preliminary process by which, it is claimed, much
time is saved in the subsequent bleaching; this consists in
passing melted wax and steam through long pipes, so as to
expose the wax as much as possible to the action of the steam;
thence into a pan heated by a steam bath, where it is stirred
thoroughly with water and then allowed to settle. The whole
operation is repeated a second and third time, and the wax is
then in condition to be more readily bleached.
How to Remove a Wart From the Hand.—Take of salicylic
acid, 30 grains; ext. cannabis indic., 10 grains; collodion,
1/2 ounce. Mix and apply.
Recipe for Making Camphor Ice in Small Quantities for Home
Use.—Melt together over a water bath white wax and
spermaceti, each 1 ounce; camphor, 2 ounces, in sweet almond
oil, 1 pound; then triturate until the mixture has become
homogeneous, and allow one pound of rosewater to flow in slowly
during the operation.
Recipe for Making Instantaneous Ink and Stain
Extractor.—Take of chloride of lime 1 pound, thoroughly
pulverized, and four quarts soft water. The foregoing must be
thoroughly shaken when first put together. It is required to
stand twenty-four hours to dissolve the chloride of lime; then
strain through a cotton cloth, after which add a teaspoonful of
acetic acid to every ounce of the chloride of lime water.
Removing Paint Spots From Wood.—To take spots of paint
off wood, lay a thick coating of lime and soda mixed together
over it, letting it stay twenty-four hours; then wash off with
warm water, and the spot will have disappeared.
Polishing Plate Glass.—To polish plate glass and
remove slight scratches, rub the surface gently, first with a
clean pad of fine cotton wool, and afterwards with a similar
pad covered over with cotton velvet which has been charged with
fine rouge. The surface will acquire a polish of great
brilliancy, quite free from any scratches.
Recipe for a Good Condition Powder.—Ground ginger 1
pound, antimony sulphide 1 pound, powdered sulphur 1 pound,
saltpetre. Mix altogether and administer in a mash, in such
quantities as may be required.
Recipe to Make Violet Ink.—Ordinary aniline violet
soluble in water, with a little alcohol and glycerine, makes an
excellent ink.
Recipe to Make Good Shaving Soap.—Either 66 pounds
tallow and 34 pounds cocoanut oil, or 33 pounds of tallow and
the same quantity of palm oil and 34 pounds cocoanut oil,
treated by the cold process, with 120 pounds caustic soda lye
of 27 deg. Baume, will make 214 pounds of shaving soap.
How to Make a Starch Enamel for Stiffening Collars, Cuffs,
etc.—Use a little gum arabic thoroughly dissolved in the
starch.
A Good Cough Syrup.—Put 1 quart hoarhound to 1 quart
water, and boil it down to a pint; add two or three sticks of
licorice and a tablespoonful of essence of lemon. The Cause of
the Disease Called “Hives,” also Its Cure.—The trouble is
caused by a perversion of the digestive functions, accompanied
by a disturbance of the circulation. It is not attended with
danger, and is of importance only from the annoyance which it
causes. Relief may be obtained in most instances by the use of
cream tartar daily to such extent as to move the bowels
slightly. Make a strong solution, sweeten it pleasantly, and
take a teaspoonful, say after each meal, until the effect above
mentioned is produced, and continue the treatment until the
hives cease to be troublesome.
A Bedbug Poison.—Set in the center of the room a dish
containing 4 ounces of brimstone. Light it, and close the room
as tight as possible, stopping the keyhole of the door with
paper to keep the fumes of the brimstone in the room. Let it
remain for three or four hours, then open the windows and air
thoroughly. The brimstone will be found to have also bleached
the paint, if it was a yellowish white. Mixtures such as equal
parts of turpentine and kerosene oil are used; filling up the
cracks with hard soap is an excellent remedy. Benzine and
gasoline will kill bedbugs as fast as they can reach them. A
weak solution of zinc chloride is also said to be an effectual
banisher of these pests.
A Preparation by Which You can Take a Natural Flower and Dip
It in, That Will Preserve It.—Dip the flowers in melted
paraffine, withdrawing them quickly. The liquid should only be
just hot enough to maintain its fluidity and the flowers should
be dipped one at a time, held by the stalks, and moved about
for an instant to get rid of air bubbles. Fresh cut specimens
free from moisture make excellent specimens in this way.
What Causes Shaking Asp Leaves to be always in a
Quiver?—The wind or vibration of the air only causes the
quiver of the aspen
leaf.
What “Sozodont” is Composed of.—Potassium carbonate,
1/2 ounce; honey, 4 ounces; alcohol, 2 ounces; water, 10
ounces; oil of wintergreen and oil of rose, to flavor,
sufficient.
What is Used to Measure Cold below 35 Degrees
Fahrenheit?—Metallic thermometers are used to measure
lowest temperatures, alcohol being quite irregular.
Is the Top Surface of Ice on a Pond, the Amount of Water let
in and out being the Same Day by Day, on a Level with the Water
Surface or above it?—Ice is slightly elastic, and when
fast to the shore the central portion rises and falls with
slight variations in water level, the proportion above and
below water level being as is the weight of ice to the weight
of water it displaces.
Of the Two Waters, Hard and Soft, Which Freezes the Quicker;
and in ice Which Saves the Best in Like Packing?—Soft
water freezes the quickest and keeps the best.
Does Water in Freezing Purify Itself?—It clears itself
from chemicals; does not clear itself from mechanical mixtures
as mud and clay.
A Receipt to Remove Freckles from the Face without Injury to
the Skin.—A commonly used preparation for this purpose
is: Sulpho-carbolate of zinc, 2 parts; distilled glycerine, 25
parts; rose water, 25 parts; scented alcohol, 5 parts. To be
applied twice daily for from half an hour to an hour, and then
washed off with cold water.
What will Remove Warts Painlessly?—Touch the wart with
a little nitrate of silver, or with nitric acid, or with
aromatic vinegar. The silver salt will produce a black, and the
nitric acid a yellow stain, either of which will wear off in a
short while. The vinegar scarcely discolors the skin. A Good
Receipt to Prevent Hair Coming Out.—Scald black tea, 2
ounces, with I gallon of boiling water, strain and add 3 ounces
glycerine, tincture cantharides 1/2 ounce, bay rum 1 quart. Mix
well and perfume. This is a good preparation for frequent use
in its effect both on the scalp and hair, but neither will be
kept in good condition without care and attention to general
health.
Deaths from Diphtheria per 100,000 Inhabitants in the Chief
Cities of the World.—Amsterdam, 265; Berlin, 245; Madrid,
225; Dresden, 184; Warsaw, 167; Philadelphia, 163; Chicago,
146; Turin, 127; St. Petersburg, 121; Bucharest, 118; Berne,
115; Munich, 111; Stockholm, 107; Malines, 105; Antwerp, 104;
New York, 91; Paris, 85; Hamburg, 76; Naples, 74; Lisbon, 74;
Stuttgart, 61; Rome, 56; Edinburgh, 50; Buda-Pesth, 50; The
Hague, 45; Vienna, 44; London, 44; Christiania, 43; Copenhagen,
42; Suburbs of Brussels, 36; City of Brussels, 35.
A Receipt for Marshmallows, as Made by
Confectioners.—Dissolve one-half pound of gum arabic in
one pint of water, strain, and add one-half pound of fine
sugar, and place over the fire, stirring constantly until the
syrup is dissolved, and all of the consistency of honey. Add
gradually the whites of four eggs well beaten. Stir the mixture
until it becomes somewhat thin and does not adhere to the
finger. Flavor to taste, and pour into a tin slightly dusted
with powdered starch, and when cool divide into small
squares.
A Receipt for Making Compressed Yeast.—This yeast is
obtained by straining the common yeast in breweries and
distilleries until a moist mass is obtained, which is then
placed in hair bags, and the rest of the water pressed out
until the mass is nearly dry. It is then sewed up in strong
linen bags for transportation.
How to Tell the Age of Eggs.—We recommend the
following process (which has been known for some time, but has
been forgotten) for finding out the age of eggs, and
distinguishing those that are fresh from those that are not.
This method is based upon the decrease in the density of eggs
as they grow old. Dissolve two ounces of kitchen salt in a pint
of water. When a fresh-laid egg is placed in this solution it
will descend to the bottom of the vessel, while one that has
been laid on the day previous will not quite reach the bottom.
If the egg be three days old it will swim in the liquid, and if
it is more than three days old it will float on the surface,
and project above the latter more and more in proportion as it
is older.
A Recipe for Making Court Plaster.—Isinglass 125
grains, alcohol 1-3/4 fluid ounces, glycerine 12 minims, water
and tincture of benzoin each sufficient quantity. Dissolve the
isinglass in enough water to make the solution weigh four fluid
ounces. Spread half of the latter with a brush upon successive
layers of taffeta, waiting after each application until the
layer is dry. Mix the second half of the isinglass solution
with the alcohol and glycerine, and apply in the same manner.
Then reverse the taffeta, coat it on the back with tincture of
benzoin, and allow it to become perfectly dry. There are many
other formulas, but this is official. The above quantities are
sufficient to make a piece of court plaster fifteen inches
square.
One of the Very Best Scouring Pastes Consists
of—Oxalic acid, 1 part; Iron peroxide, 15 parts; Powdered
rottenstone, 20 parts; Palm oil, 60 parts; Petrolatum, 4 parts.
Pulverize the oxalic acid and add rouge and rottenstone, mixing
thoroughly, and sift to remove all grit; then add gradually the
palm oil and petrolatum, incorporating thoroughly. Add oil of
myrbane, or oil of lavender to suit. By substituting your red
ashes from stove coal, an inferior representative of the
foregoing paste will be produced.
How to Manufacture Worcestershire Sauce.—A. Mix
together 1-1/2 gallons white wine vinegar, 1 gallon walnut
catsup, 1 gallon mushroom catsup, 1/2 gallon Madeira wine, 1/2
gallon Canton soy, 2-1/2 pounds moist sugar, 19 ounces salt, 3
ounces powdered capsicum, 1-1/2 ounces each of pimento and
coriander, 1-1/2 ounces chutney, 3/4 ounce each of cloves, mace
and cinnamon, and 6-1/2 drachms assafoetida dissolved in pint
brandy 20 above proof. Boil 2 pounds hog’s liver for twelve
hours in 1 gallon of water, adding water as required to keep up
the quantity, then mix the boiled liver thoroughly with the
water, strain it through a coarse sieve. Add this to the
sauce.
A Good Receipt for Making Honey, Without Using Honey as One
of the Ingredients,—5 lbs. white sugar, 2 lbs. water,
gradually bring to a boil, and skim well. When cool add 1 lb.
bees’ honey, and 4 drops peppermint. To make of better quality
add less water and more real honey.
What the Chemical Composition of Honey is.—Principally
of saccharine matter and water, about as follows: Levulose
33-1/2 to 40 per cent., dextrose 31-3/4 to 39 per cent., water
20 to 30 per cent., besides ash and other minor
constituents.
How to Clean Carpets on the Floor to Make Them Look
Bright.—To a pailful of water add three pints of oxgall,
wash the carpet with this until a lather is produced, which is
washed off with clean water.
How to Take Out Varnish Spots from Cloth.—Use
chloroform or benzine, and as a last resource spirits of
turpentine, followed after drying by benzine.
Flour Paste for all Purposes.—Mix 1 pound rye flour in
lukewarm water, to which has been added one teaspoonful of
pulverized alum; stir until free of lumps. Boil in the regular
way, or slowly pour on boiling water, stirring all the time
until the paste becomes stiff. When cold add a full quarter
pound of common strained honey, mix well (regular bee honey, no
patent mixture).
How to Make Liquid Glue.—Take a wide mouthed bottle,
and dissolve in it 8 ounces beet glue in 1/2 pint water, by
setting it in a vessel of water, and heating until dissolved.
Then add slowly 2-1/2 ounces strong nitric acid 36 deg. Baume,
stirring all the while. Effervescence takes place, with
generation of fumes. When all the acid has been added, the
liquid is allowed to cool. Keep it well corked, and it will be
ready for use at any time.
How the World is Weighed and Its Density and Mass
Computed.—The density, mass, or weight of the earth was
found by the observed force of attraction of a known mass of
lead or iron for another mass; or of a mountain by the
deflection of a torsion thread or plumb line. In this manner
the mean density of the earth has been found to be from 4.71 to
6.56 times the weight of water, 5.66 being accredited as the
most reliable. The weight of a cubic foot of water being known,
and the contents of the earth being computed in cubic feet, we
have but to multiply the number of cubic feet by 5.66 times the
weight of 1 cubic foot of water to obtain the weight of the
earth in pounds, or units of gravity at its surface, which is
the unit usually used. Another method of determining the mean
density of the earth is founded on the change of the intensity
of gravity in descending deep mines.
A Theory as to the Origin of Petroleum.—Professor
Mendelejef has recently advanced the theory that petroleum is
of purely mineral origin and that the formation of it is going
on every day. He has, moreover, succeeded in producing
artificial petroleum by a reaction that he describes, and he
states that it is impossible to detect any difference between
the natural product and the manufactured article. His theory is
as follows:
Infiltration of water, reaching a certain depth, come
into contact with incandescent masses of carburets of metals,
chiefly of iron, and are at once decomposed into oxygen and
hydrogen. The oxygen unites with the iron, while the hydrogen
seizes on the carbon and rises to an upper level, where the
vapors are condensed in part into mineral oil, and the rest
remains in a state of natural gas. The petroleum strata are
generally met with in the vicinity of mountains, and it may be
granted that geological upheavals have dislocated the ground in
such a way as to permit of the
admission of water to great depths. If the center of the
earth contains great masses of metallic carburets, we may, in
case this theory is verified, count upon an almost
inexhaustible source of fuel for the day when our coal deposits
shall fail us.
How Vaseline is Purified.—The residuum from which
vaseline is made is placed in settling tanks heated by steam,
in order to keep their contents in a liquid state. After the
complete separation of the fine coke it is withdrawn from these
tanks and passed through the bone black cylinders, during which
process the color is nearly all removed, as well as its
empyreumatic odor.
The Latest and Best Process Employed by Cutters and Others
in Etching Names and Designs on Steel.—Take copper
sulphate, sulphate of alum and sodium chloride, of each 2
drachms, and strong acetic acid 1-1/2 ounces, mixed together.
Smear the metal with yellow soap and write with a quill pen
without a split.
The History of the Discovery of Circulation of the Blood
recapitulated, divides itself naturally into a series of
epoch-making periods: 1. The structure and functions of the
valves of the heart, Erasistratus, B.C. 304. 2. The arteries
carry blood during life, not air, Galen, A.D. 165. 3. The
pulmonary circulation, Servetus, 1553. 4. The systemic
circulation, Cæsalpinus, 1593. 5. The pulmonic and
systemic circulations, Harvey, 1628. 6. The capillaries,
Malpighi, 1661.
How to Make Hand Fire Grenades.—Make your hand
grenades. Fill ordinary quart wine bottles with a saturated
solution of common salt, and place them where they will do the
most good in case of need. They will be found nearly as
serviceable as the expensive hand grenades you buy. Should a
fire break out, throw them with force sufficient to break them
into the center of the fire. The salt will form a coating on
whatever object the water touches, and make it nearly
incombustible, and it will prove effectual in many cases, where
a fire is just starting, when the delay in procuring water
might be fatal.
How the Kind of White Metal is Made That is Used in the
Manufacture of Cheap Table Ware.—How same can be hardened
and still retain its color? The following are formulas for
white metal. Melt together: (a) Tin 82, lead 18,
antimony 5, zinc 1, copper 4 parts. (b) Brass 32, lead
2, tin 2, zinc 1 part. For a hard metal, not so white, melt
together bismuth 6 parts, zinc 3 parts, lead 13 parts. Or use
type metal—lead 3 to 7 parts, antimony 1 part.
What Metal Expands Most, for the Same Change in
Temperature?—For one degree Centigrade the following are
coefficients of linear expansion: aluminum, 0.0000222; silver,
0.0000191 to 0.0000212; nickel. 0.0000128; copper, 0.0000167 to
0.0000178; zinc, 0.0000220 to 0.0000292; brass, 0.0000178 to
0.0000193; platinum, 0.0000088.
Heavy Timbers.—There are sixteen species of trees in
America, whose perfectly dry wood will sink in water. The
heaviest of these is the black iron wood (confalia feriea) of
Southern Florida, which is more than 30 per cent. heavier than
water. Of the others, the best known are lignum vitæ
(gualacum sanctum) and mangrove (chizphora mangle). Another is
a small oak (quercus gsisea) found in the mountains of Texas,
Southern New Mexico and Arizona, and westward to the Colorado
desert, at an elevation of 5,000 to 10,000 feet. All the
species in which the wood is heavier than water belong to
semi-tropical Florida or the arid interior Pacific region.
Highest Point Reached by Man was by balloon 27,000 feet.
Travelers have rarely exceeded 20,000 feet, at which point the
air from its rarity is very debilitating.
Has a Rate of Speed Equal to Ninety Miles an Hour, ever Been
Attained by Railroad Locomotive?—It is extremely doubtful
if any locomotive ever made so high a speed. A mile in 48
seconds is the shortest time we have heard of. A rate of 70 to
75 miles per hour has been made on a spurt, on good straight
track. The Grant Locomotive Works could make such an engine.
Sixty miles an hour for a train is considered a very high rate
of speed, and is seldom attained in practice for more than a
short run.
The Fastest Boat in the World.—Messrs. Thornycroft
& Co., of Chiswick, in making preliminary trials of a
torpedo boat built by them for the Spanish navy, have obtained
a speed which is worthy of special record. The boat is
twin-screw, and the principal dimensions are: Length 147 ft. 6
in., beam 14 ft. 6 in., by 4 ft. 9 in. draught. On a trial at
Lower Hope, on April 27, the remarkable mean speed of 26.11
knots was attained, being equal to a speed of 30.06 miles an
hour, which is the highest speed yet attained by any vessel
afloat.
Staining and Polishing Mahogany.—Your best plan will
be to scrape off all the old polish, and well glass paper; then
oil with linseed oil both old and new parts. To stain the new
pieces, get half an ounce of bichromate of potash, and pour a
pint of boiling water over it; when cold bottle it. This, used
with care, will stain the new or light parts as dark as you
please, if done as follows:—wipe off the oil clean, and
apply the solution with a piece of rag, held firmly in the
hand, and just moistened with the stain. Great care is required
to prevent the stain running over
[pg 140] the old part, for any place
touched with it will show the mark through the polish when
finished. You can vary the color by giving two or more coats
if required. Then repolish your job altogether in the usual
way. Should you wish to brighten up the old mahogany, use
polish dyed with Bismarck brown as follows:—Get three
pennyworth of Bismarck brown, and put it into a bottle with
enough naphtha or methylated spirits to dissolve it. Pour a
few drops of this into your polish, and you will find that
it gives a nice rich red color to the work, but don’t dye
the polish too much, just tint it.
Value of Eggs for Food and Other Purposes.—Every
element that is necessary to the support of man is contained
within the limits of an egg shell, in the best proportions and
in the most palatable form. Plain boiled, they are wholesome.
It is easy to dress them in more than 500 different ways, each
method not only economical, but salutary in the highest degree.
No honest appetite ever yet rejected an egg in some guise. It
is nutriment in the most portable form, and in the most
concentrated shape. Whole nations of mankind rarely touch any
other animal food. Kings eat them plain as readily as do the
humble tradesmen. After the victory of Muhldorf, when the
Kaiser Ludwig sat at a meal with his burggrafs and great
captains, he determined on a piece of luxury—”one egg to
every man, and two to the excellently valiant Schwepperman.”
Far more than fish—for it is watery diet—eggs are
the scholar’s fare. They contain phosphorus, which is brain
food, and sulphur, which performs a variety of functions in the
economy. And they are the best of nutriment for children, for,
in a compact form, they contain everything that is necessary
for the growth of the youthful frame. Eggs are, however, not
only food—they are medicine also. The white is the most
efficacious of remedies for burns, and the oil extractable from
the yolk is regarded by the Russians as an almost miraculous
salve for cuts, bruises and scratches. A raw egg, if swallowed
in time, will effectually detach a fish bone fastened in the
throat, and the white of two eggs will render the deadly
corrosive sublimate as harmless as a dose of calomel. They
strengthen the consumptive, invigorate the feeble, and render
the most susceptible all but proof against jaundice in its more
malignant phase. They can also be drunk in the shape of that
“egg flip” which sustains the oratorical efforts of modern
statesmen. The merits of eggs do not even end here. In France
alone the wine clarifiers use more than 80,000,000 a year, and
the Alsatians consume fully 38,000,000 in calico printing and
for dressing the leather used in making the finest of French
kid gloves. Finally, not to mention various other employments
for eggs in the arts, they may, of course, almost without
trouble on the farmer’s part, be converted in fowls, which, in
any shape, are profitable to the seller and welcome to the
buyer. Even egg shells are valuable, for aliopath and homeopath
alike agree in regarding them as the purest of carbonate of
lime.
History of Big Ships.—In the history of mankind
several vessels of extraordinary magnitude have been
constructed, all distinctively styled great, and all
unfortunately disastrous, with the honorable exception of
Noah’s Ark. Setting aside this antediluvian craft, concerning
the authenticity of whose dimensions authorities differ, and
which, if Biblical measures are correct, was inferior in size
to the vessel of most importance to modern shipowners, the
great galley, constructed by the great engineer Archimedes for
the great King Hiero II., of Syracuse, is the first
illustration. This ship without a name (for history does not
record one) transcended all wonders of ancient maritime
construction. It abounded statues and painting, marble and
mosaic work. It contained a gymnasium, baths, a garden, and
arbored walks. Its artillery discharged stones of 3 cwt., and
arrows 18 ft. in length. An Athenian advertising poet, who
wrote a six-line puff of its glories, received the royal reward
of six thousand bushels of corn. Literary merit was at a higher
premium in the year 240 B.C., than it is to-day. The great ship
of antiquity was found to be too large for the accommodation of
the Syracusan port, and famine reigning in Egypt, Hiero, the
charitably disposed, embarked a cargo of ten thousand huge jars
of salted fish, two million pounds of salted meat, twenty
thousand bundles of different clothes, filled the hold with
corn, and consigned her to the seven mouths of the Nile, and
since she weighed anchor nothing more has been heard of her
fate. The next great ship worthy of mention is the mythical
Saracen encountered in the Mediterranean Sea by the crusading
fleet of Richard Coeur de Lion, Duke of Guienne and King of
England, which, after much slaughter and damage incident to its
infidel habit of vomiting Greek fire upon its adversaries, was
captured and sunk. Next in rotation appears the Great Harry,
built by Henry VIII., of England, and which careened in harbor
during the reign of his successor, under similar circumstances
to those attending the Royal George in 1782—a
dispensation that mysteriously appears to overhang a majority
of the ocean-braving constructions which, in defiance of every
religious sailor’s superstition that the lumber he treads is
naturally female, are christened by a masculine or neutral
title. In the year 1769, Mark Isambard Brunel, the Edison of
his age, as his son was the Ericsson of that following,
permitted himself to be born at Hacqueville; near Rouen,
France, went to school, to sea, and into politics; compromised
himself in the latter profession, and went to America in 1794,
where he surveyed the canal now connecting Lake Champlain with
the Hudson River at Albany, N.Y. There he turned architect,
then returned to Europe, settled, married, and was knighted in
England. He occupied eighteen years of his life in building an
unproductive tunnel beneath the river Thames at London;
invented a method of shuffling cards without using the hands,
and several of her devices for dispensing with labor, which,
upon completion, were abandoned from economical motives. On his
decease, his son and heir, I.K. Brunel, whose practical
experience in the Thames Tunnel job, where his biographers
assert he had occasion more than once to save his life by
swimming, qualified him to tread in his father’s shoes, took up
his trade. Brunel, Jr., having demonstrated by costly
experiments, to the successful proof, but thorough
exasperation, of his moneyed backers, that his father’s theory
for employing carbonic acid gas as a motive power was
practicable enough, but too expensive for anything but the
dissipation of a millionaire’s income, settled down to the
profession of engineering science, in which he did as well as
his advantages of education enabled him. Like all men in
advance of their time, when he considered himself the victim of
arbitrary capitalists ignoring the bent of his genius, he did
his best work in accordance with their stipulations. He
designed the Great Western, the first steamship (paddle-wheel)
ever built to cross the Atlantic; and the Great Britain, the
original ocean screw steamer. Flushed with these successes,
Brunei procured pecuniary support from speculative fools, who,
dazzled by the glittering statistical array that can be adduced
in support of any chimerical venture, the inventor’s repute,
and their unbaked experience, imagined that the alluring Orient
was ready to yield, like over-ripe fruit, to their shadowy
grasp; and tainted as he evidently was with hereditary mania,
Brunel resolved to seize the illusionary immortality that he
fondly imagined to be within his reach.
[pg 141] There was not much the
matter with the brain of Brunel, Jr., but that little was
enough; a competent railroad surveyor, a good bridge
builder, he needed to be held within bounds when handling
other people’s funds; for the man’s ambition would have lead
him to undertake to bridge the Atlantic. He met with the
speculators required in this very instance of the
constructors of the Great Eastern. This monstrous ship has
been described so often, that it would be a cruelty to our
readers to inflict the story upon them again.
Natural Gas the Fuel of the Future.—The house of the
near future will have no fireplace, steam pipes, chimneys, or
flues. Wood, coal oil, and other forms of fuel are about to
disappear altogether in places having factories. Gas has become
so cheap that already it is supplanting fuels. A single jet
fairly heats a small room in cold weather. It is a well known
fact that gas throws off no smoke, soot, or dirt. In a brazier
filled with chunks of colored glass, and several jets placed
beneath, the glass soon became heated sufficiently to
thoroughly warm a room 10×30 feet in size. This design does
away with the necessity for chimneys, since there is no smoke;
the ventilation may be had at the window. The heat may be
raised or lowered by simply regulating the flow of gas. The
colored glass gives all the appearance of fire; there are black
pieces to represent coal, red chunks for flames, yellowish
white glass for white heat, blue glass for blue flames, and
hues for all the remaining colors of spectrum. Invention
already is displacing the present fuels for furnaces and
cooking ranges and glass, doing away with delay and such
disagreeable objects as ashes, kindling wood, etc. It has only
been within the past few years that natural gas has been
utilized to any extent, in either Pennsylvania, New York or
Ohio. Yet its existence has been known since the early part of
the century. As far back as 1821, gas was struck in Fredonia,
Chautauqua county, N.Y., and was used to illuminate the village
inn when Lafayette passed through the place some three years
later. Not a single oil well of the many that have been sunk in
Pennsylvania has been entirely devoid of gas, but even this
frequent contact with what now seems destined to be the fuel of
the future bore no fruit of any importance until within the
past few years. It had been used in comparatively small
quantities previous to the fall of 1884, but it was not until
that time that the fuel gave any indication of the important
role it was afterward to fill. At first ignored, then
experimented with, natural gas has been finally so widely
adopted that to-day, in the single city of Pittsburgh, it
displaces daily 10,000 tons of coal, and has resulted in
building cities in Ohio and the removal thereto of the glass
making industries of the United States. The change from the
solid to the gaseous fuel has been made so rapidly, and has
effected such marked results in both the processes of
manufacture and the product, that it is no exaggeration to say
that the eyes of the entire industrial world are turned with
envious admiration upon the cities and neighborhoods blessed
with so unique and valuable a fuel. The regions in which
natural gas is found are for the most part coincident with the
formations producing petroleum. This, however, is not always
the case; and it is worthy of notice that some districts which
were but indifferent oil-producers are now famous in gas
records. The gas driller, therefore, usually confines himself
to the regions known to have produced oil, but the selection of
the particular location for a well within these limits appears
to be eminently fanciful. The more scientific generally select
a spot either on the anticlinal or synclinal axis of the
formation, giving preference to the former position. Almost all
rock formations have some inclination to the horizon, and the
constant change of this inclination produces a series of waves,
the crests of which are known as anticlines, and the troughs as
synclines. Many drillers suppose that the gas seeks the
anticlines and the oil the synclines, but others, equally
long-headed, discard entirely all theory of this kind, and
drill wherever it may be most convenient or where other
operators have already demonstrated the existence of gas. It
will surprise many of our readers to know that the divining
rod, that superstitious relic of the middle ages, is still
frequently called upon to relieve the operator of the trouble
of a rational decision. The site having been selected, the
ordinary oil-drilling outfit is employed to sink a hole of
about six inches in diameter until the gas is reached. In the
neighborhood of Pittsburgh, this is usually found at a depth of
1,300 to 1,500 feet, in what is known as the Third Oil Sand, a
sandstone of the Devonian period. Where the gas comes from
originally is an open question. When the driller strikes gas,
he is not left in any doubt of the event, for if the well be
one of any strength, the gas manifests itself by sending the
drill and its attachments into the air, often to a height of a
hundred feet or more. The most prolific wells are appropriately
called “roarers.” During the progress of the drilling, the well
is lined with iron piping. Occasionally this is also blown out,
but as a rule the gas satisfies itself with ejecting the drill.
When the first rush of gas has thrown everything movable out of
its way, the workmen can approach, and chain the giant to his
work. The plant at the well is much simpler than one would
suppose. An elbow joint connects the projecting end of the well
piping with a pipe leading to a strong sheet-iron tank. This
collects the salt water brought up with the gas. Ordinarily,
about half a barrel accumulates in twenty four hours. A safety
valve, a pressure indicator, and a blow-off complete the
outfit. When the pressure exceeds a prescribed limit, the valve
opens, and the gas escapes into the blow-off. This is usually
30 feet high or more, and the gas issuing from the top is
either ignited or permitted to escape into the atmosphere. The
pipe line leading from the tank to the city is of course placed
underground. Beyond a little wooden house, the blow-off, and a
derrick, the gas farms differ little in appearance from those
producing less valuable crops. The pressure of the gas at the
wells varies considerably. It is generally between 100 and 325
pounds. As much as 750 pounds per square inch has been
measured, and in many cases the actual pressure is even greater
than this, but, as a rule, it is not permitted to much exceed
20 atmospheres in any receiver or pipe. The best investment for
parties of small means that we know of is in town lots in North
Baltimore, Ohio. It is on the main line of the B. & O.
Railroad and the center of the oil and natural gas discoveries
in Ohio. Property is bound to double in value. For further
information, address, W.A. Rhodes, North Baltimore, Ohio.
Hints on House Building.—Gas pipes should be run with
a continuous fall towards the meter, and no low places. The gas
meter should be set in a cool place, to keep it from
registering against you; but if a “water meter,” it should be
protected from freezing. Cupboards, wardrobes, bookcases, etc.,
generally afford receptacles for dust on their tops. This may
be avoided by carrying them clear up to the ceiling. When this
is not done, their tops should be sheeted over flush with the
highest line of their cornices, so that there may be no sunken
lodging-place for dust. Furring spaces between the furring and
the outer walls should be stopped off at each floor line with
brick and mortar “fire stops;” and the same with hollow
interior partition walls. Soil pipes should never have T
branches; always curves, or Y branches. Water pipes
should be run in a continuous grade, and have a stop and waste
cock at the lowest point, so as to be entirely emptied when
desired. [pg 142] Furnaces should have as few
joints as possible, and the iron fire-pot is better lined
with fire-brick. There should be no damper in the smoke
pipe; but the ash-door should shut air-tight when desired.
There should be provision for the evaporation of water in
the hot-air pipe. “Air boxes” should never be of wood. All
air boxes should be accessible from one end to the other, to
clean them of dust, cobwebs, insects, etc. Horizontal
hot-air flues should not be over 15 feet long. Parapets
should be provided with impervious coping-stones to keep
water from descending through the walls. Sewer pipes should
not be so large as to be difficult to flush. The oval
sections (point down) are the best. Soil-pipes should have a
connection with the upper air, of the full diameter of the
pipe to be ventilated. Stationary wash-tubs of wood are apt
to get soaked up with organic matter and filth. Stationary
washstands in bedrooms should have small traps; underneath
each should be a leaden tray to protect ceilings in case of
leakage, breakage or accidental overflow. This tray should
have an overflow, and this overflow should be trapped, if
connected with the foul-pipe system (which it should
not be if possible to arrange it otherwise). Flues
should have a smooth parging or lining, or they will be apt
to draw with difficulty. Gas pipes of insufficient diameter
cause the flames to burn with unsteady, dim light. Made
ground is seldom fit for immediate building; and never for
other than isolated structures. Ashes, street-sweepings,
garbage, rotten vegetation, and house refuse are unfit
filling for low ground on which it is intended to build.
Cobble pavements are admirably adapted to soaking-up and
afterwards emitting unwholesome matters. Asphalt has none of
this fault. Wood is pernicious in this respect. “Gullies” in
cellar floors should be properly trapped; and this does
not mean that they shall have bell-traps nor
siphon-traps with shallow water-seal. Cellar windows should
be movable to let in air, and should have painted
wire-screens to keep out cats, rats, etc. New walls are
always damp. Window sills should project well out beyond the
walls, and should be grooved underneath so as to throw the
water clear of the walls. Cracks in floors, between the
boards, help the accumulation of dirt and dust, and may
harbor vermin. Narrow boards of course have narrower
interstitial cracks than wide boards do. “Secret nailing” is
best where it can be afforded. Hot-air flues should never be
carried close to unprotected woodwork. Electric bells, when
properly put up and cared for, are a great convenience in a
house; but when they don’t work, they are about as
aggravating as the law allows. Cheap pushbuttons cause a
great deal of annoyance. Silver-plated faucets and trimmings
blacken with illuminating and sewer gases. Nickel-plating is
perhaps a less pleasing white, but is cheaper and does not
discolor readily. Windows are in most respects a great
blessing; but there may be too much of a good thing. It is
unreasonable to expect that one grate or stove or furnace
can heat a whole county. Don’t attempt it. If you have too
many windows on the “cold side” of a house, give them double
sashes (not double panes), and “weather-strip” them.
Unpainted trimmings should be of hardwood. Yellow pine
finishes up well. Butternut is brighter than walnut. Cherry
makes a room cheerful. Walnut is dull and dismal.
The Forests of the World.—The rapid exhaustion of the
forests of the world, and more particularly of the once great
reserves of timber in the United States and Canada, renders it
inevitable that, in a very few years indeed, iron must
supersede wood for a variety of uses. The drain upon the
world’s resources in timber is prodigious. Every year
92,000,000 railway sleepers are used in America alone, while to
supply firewood for the whole of the States, fourteen times the
quantity of wood consumed by the railways is annually required.
At the computation of the most recent statistics there were
441,000,000 of acres of woodland in the United States; but
since over 50,000,000 of acres are cut down yearly, this great
area of timber will be non-existent in less than twenty years,
unless replanting upon a very extensive scale be at once
undertaken. Already efforts are being made in this direction,
and not long since some 4,000,000 of saplings were planted in a
single day in Kansas and the neighboring States. But since the
daily consumption is even greater than this, it is obvious that
the work of replanting must be undertaken systematically if it
is to keep pace, even approximately, with the destruction. In
France and Germany, where the forests are national property,
forestry has been elevated to the status of an exact science;
but the timber lands of those countries are small indeed
compared with those in the United States.
A Church Built from a Single Tree.—A redwood tree
furnished all the timber for the Baptist church in Santa Rosa,
one of the largest church edifices in the country. The interior
of the building is finished in wood, there being no plastered
walls. Sixty thousand shingles were made from the tree after
enough was taken for the church. Another redwood tree, cut near
Murphy’s Mill, about ten years ago, furnished shingles that
required the constant labor of two industrious men for two
years before the tree was used up.
Trees That Sink.—Of the more than four hundred species
of trees found in the United States there are said to be
sixteen species whose perfectly dry wood will sink in water.
The heaviest of these is the black ironwood of southern
Florida, which is more than thirty per cent. heavier than
water. Of the others, the best known are the lignum vitæ
and mangrove; another is a small oak found in the mountains of
western Texas, southern New Mexico, and Arizona, and westward
to Colorado, at an elevation of 5,000 to 10,000 feet.
Artificial Wood.—You can produce an artificial fire
and waterproof wood in the following manner. More or less
finely divided wood shavings, straw, tan, etc., singly or
mixed, are moistened with a weak solution of zinc chloride of
about 1.026 sp. gr., and allowed to dry. They are then treated
with a basic solution of magnesium chloride of 1.725 to 1.793
sp. gr., and pressed into moulds. The materials remain ten to
twelve hours under pressure, during which time they harden
while becoming heated. After being dried for several days in a
warm, airy place, they are placed for ten or twelve hours into
a strong solution of zinc chloride of about 1.205 sp. gr., and
finally dried again. The product is stated to be workable like
hardwood, and to be capable of taking a fine polish after being
tooled. It is fireproof and inpermeable to water, and weak acid
or alkaline solutions, and not affected by the humidity of the
atmosphere, being well suited to decorative purposes, as it
will not warp and fly like wood, but retain its form.
How to Stain Wood.—The following are recipes for
staining wood, which are used in large establishments with
great success: Light Walnut—Dissolve 3 oz. permanganate
of potash in six pints of water, and paint the wood twice with
the solution. After the solution has been left on the wood for
from five to ten minutes, the wood is rinsed, dried, oiled, and
finally polished. Light Mahogany—1 oz. finely cut alkanet
root, 2 ozs. powdered aloe, and 2 ozs. powdered dragon’s blood
are digested with 26 ozs. of strong spirits of wine in a corked
bottle, and left in a moderately warm place for four days. The
solution is then filtered off, and the clear filtrate is ready
for use. The wood which is to be stained is first passed
through nitric acid, then dried, painted over with the
alcoholic extract, dried,
[pg 143] oiled and polished. Dark
Walnut.—3 ozs. permanganate of potash are dissolved in
six pints of water, and the wood is painted twice with this
solution. After five minutes the wood is washed, and grained
with acetate of iron (the ordinary iron liquor of the dyer)
at 20° Tw. Dry, oil and polish as usual. Gray—1
oz. nitrate of silver is dissolved in 45 ozs. water, and the
wood painted twice with the solution; afterwards the wood is
submitted to the action of hydrochloric acid, and finally
washed with ammonia. It is then dried in a dark place, oiled
and polished. This is said to give remarkably good results
on beech, pitch pine and poplar. Black—7 ozs. logwood
are boiled with three pints of water, filtered, and the
filtrate mixed with a solution containing 1 oz. of sulphate
of copper (blue copperas). The mixture is left to clear, and
the clear liquor decanted while still hot. The wood is
placed in this liquor for twenty-four hours; it is then
exposed to the air for twenty-four hours, and afterwards
passed through a hot bath of nitrate of iron of 6° Tw.
If the black, after this treatment, should not be
sufficiently developed, the wood has to be passed again
through the first logwood bath.
The Highest Chimney in the World.—The highest chimney
in the world is said to be that recently completed at the lead
mines in Mechernich. It is 134 meters (439 ft. 6 in.) high, was
commenced in 1884, and was carried up 23 meters before the
frost set in; building was again resumed on the 14th of last
April, and it was completed last September. The foundation,
which is of dressed stone, is square, measuring 11 meters (33
ft.) on each side, and is 3.50 meters (11 ft. 6 in.) deep; the
base is also square, and is carried up 10 meters (33 ft.) above
the ground. The chimney-stack is of circular section, 7.50
meters (24 ft. 6 in.) diameter at the bottom, and tapering to
3.50 meters diameter (11 ft. 6 in.) at the top, and is 120.50
meters (395 ft.) high.
How to Measure Round Tanks.—Square the diameter of the
tank, and multiply by.7854, which gives the area; then multiply
area by depth of tank, and the cubic contents will be found.
Allow 6-1/4 gallons for each cubic foot.
The Largest Buildings in the World.—Where is the
largest building in the world situated? The answer to this
question must depend upon what the term “building” is held to
represent. The Great Wall of China, 1,280 miles in length, wide
enough to allow six horsemen to ride abreast along it, and with
an average height of 20 ft., may fairly be called a building;
so, too, may be called the Great Pyramid of Egypt. The
question, however, was not meant to include such works as
these. Some have supposed that the Vatican at Rome, with its
eight grand staircases, 200 smaller staircases, 20 courts, and
11,000 apartments, is the largest building in the world; but
surely this is a collection of palaces rather than a single
building. The same objection applies to the famous monastery of
the Escurial in the province of Madrid, with its seven towers,
fifteen gateways, and 12,000 windows and doors, and to many
other vast piles. For the largest single building extant, we
must look to St. Peter’s at Rome, within which our great
cathedral, St. Paul’s, could easily stand. St. Peter’s occupies
a space of 240,000 sq. ft., its front is 400 ft. broad, rising
to a height of 180 ft.; the length of the interior is 600 ft.,
its breadth 442 ft. It is capable of holding 54,000 people,
while its piazza, in its widest limits, holds 624,000. It is
only by degrees that one is able to realize its vast size. St.
Peter’s holds 54,000 persons; Milan Cathedral, 37,000; St.
Paul’s, Rome, 32,000; St. Paul’s, London, 25,600; St. Petronio,
Bologna, 24,400; Florence Cathedral, 24,300; Antwerp Cathedral,
24,000; St. Sophia, Constantinople, 23,000; Notre Dame, Paris,
21,000; Pisa Cathedral, 13,000; St. Stephen’s, Vienna, 12,400;
Auditorium, Chicago, 12,000; St. Mark’s, Venice, 7,000.
The Biggest Bell in the World.—There is a bell in the
Temple of Clars, at Kinto, Japan, which is larger than the
great bell of Moscow, or any other. It is covered with Chinese
and Sanskrit characters which Japanese scholars have not yet
succeeded in translating. There is no record of its casting.
Its height is 24 ft., and at the rim it has a thickness of 16
in. It has no clapper, but is struck on the outside by a kind
of wooden battering-ram. We are unable to obtain any more exact
particulars as to the dimensions of this bell in order to
determine whether or no it really does excel the “Monarch” of
Moscow, which weighs about 193 tons, is 19 ft. 3 in. in height,
60 ft. 9 in. in circumference, and 2 ft. thick. There is
another huge bell at Moscow, and those at Amazapoora, in
Burmah, and at Pekin are far bigger than any we have in this
country. Our biggest bell is “Great Paul,” which was cast at
Loughborough in 1881, and which weighs 17-1/2 tons. Taking
purity, volume, and correctness of note into account, it is
probably the finest bell in Europe.
The Oldest Cities in the World.—They are the
following:—Argos, Athens and Thebes, in Greece; Crotona
and Rome, in Italy; Cadiz and Saguntum, in Spain;
Constantinople, in Turkey, and Marseilles, in France, which was
founded by a colony of Greeks 580 B.C. The age of these cities
varies from twenty-four to twenty-seven centuries.
How to Manufacture Oil of Apple, or Essence of
Apple.—The essence of apple is composed of aldehyde 2
parts; chloroform, acetic ether and nitrous ether and oxalic
acid each 1 part; glycerin 4 parts;
amyl valerianic ether 10 parts.
A Formula for the Manufacture of Artificial
Cider.—Imitation cider consists of 25 gallons soft water,
25 pounds New Orleans sugar; 1 pint yeast; two pounds tartaric
acid. Put all the ingredients into a clean cask, and stir them
up well after standing twenty-four hours with the bung out.
Then bung the cask up tight, add 3 gallons spirits, and let it
stand forty-eight hours, after which time it will be ready for
use. Champagne cider can be prepared by taking 10 gallons of
cider, old and clear. Put this in a strong, iron-bound cask
pitched inside (like beer casks); add 2-1/2 pints clarified
white plain syrup; then dissolve in it 5 ounces tartaric acid;
keep the bung ready in hand, then add 7-1/2 ounces of potassium
bicarbonate; bung it as quickly and as well as possible.
Recipe for Making Instantaneous Ink and Stain
Extractor.—Take of chloride of lime 1 pound, thoroughly
pulverized, and 4 quarts soft water. The foregoing must be
thoroughly shaken when first put together. It is required to
stand twenty-four hours to dissolve the chloride of lime; then
strain through a cotton cloth, after which add a teaspoonful of
acetic acid to every ounce of the chloride of lime water.
Wood, which is a more unyielding material, acts with
tremendous force when wetted, and advantage has been taken of
this fact in splitting blocks of granite. This process is
largely adopted in Dartmoor. After a mass of granite has been
rent from the mountain by blasting, it is measured in every
direction to see how best to divide it into smaller blocks.
These are traced out by straight lines on the surface, and a
series of holes are drilled at short intervals along this line.
Wedges of dry wood are then tightly driven into the holes and
wetted, and the combined action of the swelling wood splits the
block in the direction required, and without any destructive
violence. The same process is then carried out upon the other
faces, and the roughly-shapen block finished with the hammer
and chisel.
The Weight and Value of a Cubic Foot of Solid Gold or
Silver.—A cubic foot of gold weighs about 19,300 ounces,
and gold is worth $20.67 per ounce. Silver is worth $1.29 per
ounce, and a cubic foot weighs 10,500 ounces. Consequently the
cubic foot of gold would be worth $398,931, and the silver
$13,545.
To Remove Spots on Brass.—Sulphuric acid will remove
spots from brass that will not yield to oxalic acid. It may be
applied with a brush, but great care must be taken that no drop
of the acid shall come in contact with the clothes or skin, as
it is ruinous to garments and cuticle. Bath brick or
rottenstone may be used for polishing.
A Formula to Make a Good Shoe Dressing.—Gum shellac,
1/2 pound; alcohol, 3 quarts; dissolve, and add camphor, 1-1/2
ounces; lampblack, 2 ounces. The foregoing will be found to
give an excellent gloss, and is especially adapted to any
leather, the surface of which is roughened by wear.
Receipts for Dyeing Cotton Fabric Red, Blue and
Ecru.—Red: Muriate of tin, two-thirds cupful, add water
to cover goods; raise to boiling heat; put in goods one hour;
stir often; take out, empty kettle, put in clean water with
Nicaragua wood one pound; steep one-half hour at hand heat,
then put in goods and increase heat one hour, not boiling. Air
goods, and dip one hour as before. Wash without soap. Blue: For
three pounds goods, blue vitriol 4 ounces; boil few minutes,
then dip goods three hours; then pass them through strong lime
water. Ecru: Continue the foregoing operation for blue by
passing the goods through a solution of prussiate of
potash.
MOTION OF WAVES.—The progressive motion of a wave on
the water exactly corresponds in speed with that of a pendulum
whose length is equal to the breadth of the wave; the same law,
gravity, governs both.
LIGHT OF THE SUN.—A photometric experiment of Huygens,
resumed by Wollaston, a short time before his death, teaches us
that 20,000 stars the same size as Sirius, the most brilliant
in the firmament, would need to be agglomerated to shed upon
our globe a light equal to that of the sun.
Land Cultivation in Japan.—The entire arable land of
the Japanese empire is officially put at only 11,215,000 acres;
but it is so fertile and thoroughly cultivated that it feeds a
population of 37,000,000, about that of France. Rice is one of
the principal crops, and of this some 200,000,000 bushels are
raised annually.
Old London Bridge.—As early as the year 978 there was
a wooden bridge where London bridge now stands. This was
replaced by another in 1014, and another in 1209. The present
London bridge was erected in 1831, and may be considered the
oldest existing bridge over the river.
The Shortest Method of Removing Silver from Plated Ware
Before Replating.—Dip the article in nitric acid; this
will remove the silver.
A Formula for White Metal.—Copper, 69.8 parts; nickel,
19.8 parts; zinc, 5.5 parts; cadmium, 4.7 parts. It takes a
fine polish.
Curiosities of Metal Working.—At a recent meeting of
scientific men, a speaker produced an anklet worn by East
Indian women. This is a flat curb chain about one inch broad,
with the links very close, and weighing about ten or twelve
ounces. It is composed of a species of brass composed of copper
and lead, without any trace of silver, zinc, or tin. Such
anklets are sold for a few pence, and they are cast all at
once, complete as an endless chain. The links show no sign of
having been united in any way. How it was possible to produce
such a casting as this passed his comprehension, and he hoped
that some one who had seen them made would explain the nature
of the process. From the East much that was curious in
metallurgical art came. Cast-iron was, he believed, first made
purposely in China. It was, however, frequently produced
unintentionally, when wrought-iron was made direct from the ore
in little furnaces about as big as a chimney-pot. It was found
among the cinders and ash of the
charcoal-fire in grains or globules, which were not only
like shot, but were actually used as shot by the natives. He
showed what he believed was the only specimen in England of
this cast-iron, in a bottle. He next referred to the celebrated
Damascene blades of Indian swords, and explained that these
blades were an intimate mixture of wrought-iron and hard steel,
which must have required great skill, time and patience for its
production. One pattern,
in particular, known as “Mary’s Ladder,” showed wonderful
finish and accuracy. Concerning the tempering of these
blades little was known; but it was stated that it was
affected by a long-continued hammering, or rather tapping,
of the blade while cold.
How Many Tons of Coal a Large Steamship Consumes in a
Day.—”Ocean steamers are large consumers of coal. The
Orient line, with their fleet of ships running to Australia
every two weeks, may be mentioned. The steamship Austral went
from London to Sydney in thirty-five days, and consumed on the
voyage 3,641 tons of coal; Her coal bunkers hold 2,750 tons.
The steamship Oregon consumes over 330 tons per day on her
passage from Liverpool to New York; her bunkers will hold
nearly 4,000 tons. The Stirling Castle last year brought home
in one cargo 2,200 tons of tea, and consumed 2,800 tons of coal
in doing so. Immense stocks of coal are kept at various coaling
stations. St. Vincent, Madeira, Port Said, Singapore and
others; the reserve at the latter place is about 20,000 tons.
It is remarkable with what rapidity these steamers are coaled;
for instance, the Orient steamship last year took in over 1,100
tons at Port Said in five hours.”
What a Man Eats.—A French statistician has just
ascertained that a human being of either sex who is a moderate
eater and who lives to be 70 years old consumes during his life
a quantity of food which would fill twenty ordinary railway
baggage cars. A “good eater,” however, may require as many as
thirty.
An Australian Railway Viaduct.—The Werribee Viaduct,
in the colony of Victoria, is the longest work of the kind in
Australia. The structure consists of lattice-girder work. It is
1,290 feet in length, and runs to a height of 125 feet above
the level of the Werribee river. The viaduct has fifteen spans
each of 60 feet, and thirteen spans of 30 feet. The total cost
of the bridge was £600,000.
The Sharpening of Tools.—Instead of oil, which
thickens and smears the stone, a mixture of glycerine and
spirit is recommended. The proportions of the composition vary
according to the class of tool to be sharpened. One with a
relatively large surface is best sharpened with a clear fluid,
three parts of glycerine being mixed with one part of spirit. A
graver having a small cutting surface only requires a small
pressure on the stone, and in such cases the glycerine should
be mixed with only two or three drops of spirit.
Recipes for Plumbers.—Chloride of zinc, so much used
in soldering iron, has, besides its corrosive qualities, the
drawback of being unwholesome when used for soldering
[pg 145] the iron tins employed to
can fruit, vegetables and other foods. A soldering mixture
has been found which is free from these defects. It is made
by mixing one pound of lactic acid with one pound of
glycerine and eight pounds of water. A wooden tank may be
rendered capable of withstanding the effects of nitric or
sulphuric acids by the following methods:—Cover the
inside with paraffin; go over the inside with a sadiron
heated to the temperature used in ironing clothes. Melt the
paraffin under the iron so as to drive it into the wood as
much as possible, then with a cooler iron melt on a coat
thick enough to completely cover the wood. For brassing
small articles: To one quart water add half an ounce each of
sulphate copper and protochloride of tin. Stir the articles
in the solution until the desired color is obtained. Use the
sulphate of copper alone for a copper color. A good cement
for celluloid is made from one part shellac dissolved in one
part of spirit of camphor and three to four parts of ninety
per cent. alcohol. The cement should be applied warm, and
the broken parts securely held together until the solvent
has entirely evaporated. Tin and tin alloys, after careful
cleansing from oxide and grease, are handsomely and
permanently bronzed if brushed over with a solution of one
part of sulphate of copper (bluestone) and one part of
sulphate of iron (copperas) in twenty parts of water. When
this has dried, the surface should be brushed with a
solution of one part of acetate of copper (verdigris) in
acetic acid. After several applications and dryings of the
last named, the surface is polished with a soft brush and
bloodstone powder. The raised portions are then rubbed off
with soft leather moistened with wax in turpentine, followed
by a rubbing with dry leather.
Protecting Water-Pipes Against Frost.—A device has
been brought forward for protecting water-pipes against
freezing, the arrangement being based upon the fact that water
in motion will remain liquid at a lower temperature than water
at rest. One end of a copper rod, placed outside the building,
is secured to a bracket, and the other end is attached to one
arm of a weighted elbow lever; to the other arm of the lever is
secured a rod which passes into the building and operates a
valve in the water-pipe. By means of turn buckles the length of
the copper rod can be adjusted so that before the temperature
reaches the point at which there would be danger of the water
in the pipes freezing the valve will be opened to allow a flow
of water; beyond this point the valve opening will increase and
the flow become more rapid as the cold becomes more intense,
and as the temperature rises the valve is closed. This plan
sets up a current in the pipes, which replaces the water as it
grows cold by the warmer water from the main.
Destructive Work of Barnacles.—Unless some paint can
be found which is proof against barnacles, it may be necessary
to sheath steel vessels with an alloy of copper. An attempt has
been made to cover the hulls with anti-corrosive paint and
cover this with an outside coat which should resist the attack
of barnacles. Somehow the barnacles eat their way through the
paint and attach themselves to the hull. The vast item of
expense attached to the dry-docking of steel ships makes this
matter a not unimportant one. The barnacles interfere greatly
with the speed of a vessel, and in a cruiser speed is of prime
importance. They attach themselves in an incredibly short time
to a steel hull, and it is not long before their effect can be
noted by a comparison of the reading of the log.
How to Frost Glass.—Two ounces of spirits of salts,
two ounces of oil of vitriol, one ounce of sulphate of copper,
one ounce of gum arabic, mixed together and dabbed on with a
brush; or this:—Dab your squares regularly over with
putty; when dry go over them again—the imitation will be
executed. Or this:—Mix Epsom salts with porter and apply
it with a brush. Or this one:—Grind and mix white lead in
three-fourths of boiled oil, and one-fourth of spirits of
turpentine, and, to give the mixture a very drying quality, add
sufficient quantities of burnt white vitriol and sugar of lead.
The color must be made exceedingly thin, and put on the panes
of glass with a large painting-brush in as even a manner as
possible. When a number of the panes are thus painted take a
dry duster, quite new, dab the ends of the bristles on the
glass in quick succession till you give it a uniform
appearance; repeat this operation till the work appears very
soft, and it will then appear like ground glass. When the
windows require fresh painting, get the old coat off first by
using strong pearlash water.
How to Preserve Posts.—Wood can be made to last longer
than iron in the ground, if prepared according to the following
recipe:—Take boiled linseed oil and stir in pulverized
coal to the consistency of paint. Put a coat of this over the
timber, and there is not a man that will live to see it
rot.
What Diamond Dyes and Paints Are Made of.—Solutions of
the aniline colors.
What the Ingredients Are of Soapine and Pearline.—They
consist of partly effloresced sal soda mixed with half its
weight of soda ash. Some makers add a little yellow soap,
coarsely powdered, to disguise the appearance, and others a
little carbonate of ammonium or borax.
How Many Thousand Feet of Natural Gas are Equal in
Heat-Creating Power to One Ton Anthracite Coal.—About
40,000 cubic feet.
SUSTAINING POWER OF ICE.
The sustaining power of ice at various degrees of thickness
is given in the following paragraphs:
At a thickness of two inches, will support a man.
At a thickness of four inches, will support man on
horseback.
At a thickness of six inches, will support teams with
moderate loads.
At a thickness of eight inches, will support heavy
loads.
At a thickness of ten inches, will support 1,000 pounds to
the square foot.
THE EXPANSIVE POWER OF WATER.
It is a well known, but not less remarkable fact, that if
the tip of an exceedingly small tube be dipped into water, the
water will rise spontaneously in the tube throughout its whole
length. This may be shown in a variety of ways; for instance,
when a piece of sponge, or sugar, or cotton is just allowed to
touch water, these substances being all composed of numberless
little tubes, draw up the water, and the whole of the piece
becomes wet. It is said to suck up or imbibe the
moisture. We see the same wonderful action going on in nature
in the rising of the sap through the small tubes or pores of
the wood, whereby the leaves and upper portions of the plant
derive nourishment from the ground.
This strange action is called “capillary,” from the
resemblance the minute tubes bear to a hair, the Latin of which
is capillus. It is, moreover, singular that the
absorption of the water takes place with great force. If a dry
sponge be enclosed tightly in a vessel, it will expand when
wetted, with sufficient force to burst it, unless very
strong.
London Water Supply.—The quantity of water consumed in
London amounts to about 145,000,000 gallons a day. If this
quantity could be collected together, it would form a lake 700
yards long, 200 wide, and with a uniform depth of 20 feet.
A Protection for Embankments.—Engineers often have
considerable trouble with the loose soil of newly-made
embankments, so apt to slip or be washed away before they are
covered with vegetation. According to a French railway
engineer, the best plan is to sow the banks with the double
poppy. Several months elapse before grasses and clovers develop
their feeble roots, but the double poppy germinates in a few
days, and in a fortnight has grown sufficiently to afford some
protection to the slope, while at the end of three or four
months the roots, which are ten or twelve inches in length, are
found to have interlaced so as to retain the earth far more
firmly than those of any grass or grain. Although the double
poppy is an annual, it sows itself after the first year.
A Cheap Concrete.—A kind of concrete made without
cement is composed of 8 parts of sand, gravel and pebbles, 1
part of burnt and powdered common earth, 1 part of pulverized
clinkers and cinders, and 1-1/2 parts of unslacked hydraulic
lime. These materials are thoroughly incorporated while dry
into a homogeneous mixture, which is then wetted up and well
beaten. The result of this is a hard and solid mass, which sets
almost immediately, becoming exceedingly strong after a few
days. It may be made still stronger by the addition of a small
proportion—say 1 part—of cement.
Marking Tools.—To mark tools, first coyer the article
to be marked with a thin coating of tallow or beeswax, and with
a sharp instrument write the name in the tallow. Clear with a
feather, fill the letters with nitric acid, let it remain from
one to ten minutes, then dip in water and run off, and the
marks will be etched into the steel or iron.
How to Prevent Chisel Handles Splitting.—All
carpenters know how soon the butt-end of chisel handles split
when daily exposed to the blow of a mallet or hammer. A remedy
suggested by a Brooklyn man consists simply of sawing or
cutting off the round end of the handle so as to make it flat,
and attaching by a few nails on the top of it two discs of sole
leather, so that the end becomes similar to the heel of the
boot. The two thicknesses of leather will prevent all further
splitting, and if, in the course of time, they expand and
overlap the wood of the handle, they are simply trimmed off all
around.
The Largest Wheel of Its Kind Ever Made in the
World.—The greatest wheel of its kind in the world, a
very wonder in mechanism, was built for the Calumet and Hecla
Mining Company of Lake Superior, Mich., for the purpose of
lifting and discharging the “tailings,” a waste from the copper
mines, into the lake. Its diameter is 54 feet; weight in active
operation, 200 tons. Its extreme dimensions are 54 feet in
diameter. Some idea of its enormous capacity can be formed from
the fact that it receives and elevates sufficient sand every
twenty-four hours to cover an acre of ground a foot deep. It is
armed on its outer edge with 432 teeth, 4.71 inches pitch and
18 inches face. The gear segments, eighteen in number, are made
of gun iron, and the teeth are machine-cut, epicycloidal in
form. It took two of the most perfect machines in the world 100
days and nights to cut the teeth alone, and the finish is as
smooth as glass. The wheel is driven by a pinion of gun iron
containing 33 teeth of equal pitch and face and runs at a speed
of 600 feet per minute at the inner edge, where it is equipped
with 448 steel buckets that lift the “tailings” as the machine
revolves and discharges them into launders that carry them into
the lake. The shaft of the wheel is of gun iron, and its
journals are 22 inches in diameter by 3 feet 4 inches long. The
shaft is made in three sections and is 30 inches in diameter in
the center. At a first glance the great wheel looks like an
exaggerated bicycle wheel, and it is constructed much on the
same principle, with straining rods that run to centers cast on
the outer sections of the shaft. The steel buckets on either
side of the gear are each 4 feet 5-1/2 inches long and 21
inches deep, and the combined lifting capacity of the 448,
running at a speed of 600 feet per minute, will be 3,000,000
gallons of water and 2,000 tons of sand every twenty-four
hours. The mammoth wheel is supported on two massive adjustable
pedestals of cast iron weighing twelve tons each, and its cost
at the copper mines before making a single revolution,
$100,000.
Strength of Brick Walls.—The question of strength of
brick walls is often discussed, and differences of opinion
expressed. The following is one of the rules given:—For
first-class buildings, with good workmanship, the general
average should not exceed a greater number of feet in height
than three times its thickness of wall in inches, and the
length not to exceed double the height, without lateral
supports of walls, buttresses, etc., as follows for safety:
| THICKNESS; | SAFE HEIGHT; | LENGTH. |
|---|---|---|
| 8-1/2 inch walls | 25 feet | 50 feet. |
| 13 inch walls | 40 feet | 80 feet. |
| 17 inch walls | 55 feet | 110 feet. |
| 22 inch walls | 66 feet | 130 feet. |
| 26 inch walls | 78 feet | 150 feet. |
Where the lengths must exceed these proportions, as in
depots, warehouses, etc., the thickness should be increased, or
lateral braces instituted as frequently as practicable.
Qualities of Building Stone.—The principal qualities
of a good building stone are—(1) Strength, (2) hardness,
(3) durability, (4) appearance, (5) facility for working. There
are also other minor points; but stone possessing one or more
of the above qualities, according to the purpose for which it
is required, may be regarded as good for that purpose.
Strength of Stone.—Stone should only be subjected to a
compressive strain. It is occasionally subject to a cross
strain, as in lintels over doors and windows; these are,
however, contrary to the true principles of construction, and
should not be allowed except a strong relieving arch is turned
over them. The strength of stone in compression is about 120
tons per square foot for the weakest stones, and about 750 tons
per square foot for the strongest. No stones are, however,
subjected to anything like this amount of compressive force; in
the largest buildings it does not amount to more than twelve or
fourteen tons per square foot.
Hardness of Stone.—This is of more importance than its
strength, especially in pavements or steps, where it is subject
to great wear; also in plinths and quoins of buildings where it
is desired to preserve a good face and sharp arris. The order
of strength and hardness of stone is—(1) Basalt, (2)
granite, (3) limestone, (4) sandstone. Granite, seinite, and
gneiss take the first, place for strength, hardness and
durability, but they will not stand a high temperature. “Stones
which are of a fine, uniform grain, compact texture and deep
color are the strongest; and when the grain, color, and texture
are the same, those are the
[pg 147] strongest which are the
heaviest; but otherwise the strength does not increase with
the specific gravity.” Great hardness is objectionable when
the stone has to be worked with a chisel, owing to the labor
required to work it. Hard stones, also, generally wear
smooth, and become polished, which makes them unsuitable for
some purposes. Brittleness is a defect which frequently
accompanies hardness, particularly in coarse-grained stones;
it prevents them from being worked to a true surface, and
from receiving a smooth edge at the angles. Workmen call
those hard stones which can only be sawn into slabs by the
grit saw, and those soft which can be separated by a common
saw.
Expansion of Stone by Heat.—Rocks are expanded by heat
and contracted by cooling. Variation in temperature thus causes
some building stones to alternately expand and contract, and
this prevents the joints of masonry from remaining close and
tight. In the United States with an annual thermometric range
of more than 90 deg. Fah., this difficulty led to some
experiments on the amount of expansion and contraction in
different kinds of building stones. It was found that in
fine-grained granite the rate of expansion was .000004825 for
every degree Fah., of increment of heat; in white crystalline
marble it was .000005668; and in red sandstone .000009532, or
about twice as much as in granite. In Western America, where
the climate is remarkably dry and clear, the thermometer often
gives a range of more than 80 deg. in twenty-four hours. This
great difference of temperature produces a strain so great that
it causes rocks to crack or peel off in skins or irregular
pieces, or in some cases, it disintegrates them into sand. Dr.
Livingstone found in Africa (12 deg. S. lat., 34 deg. E. long.)
that surfaces of rock which during the day were heated up to
137 deg. Fah. cooled so rapidly by radiation at night that
unable to stand the strain of contraction, they split and threw
off sharp angular fragments from a few ounces to 100 lbs. or
200 lbs. in weight. According to data obtained from Adie
“Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin.,” xiii., p. 366, and Totten the
expansion of ordinary rocks ranges from about 2.47 to 9.63
millionths for 1 deg. Fah.
BLUNDERS AND ABSURDITIES IN ART.
In looking over some collections of old pictures, it is
surprising what extraordinary
anachronisms, blunders, and absurdities are often
discoverable.
In the gallery of the convent of Jesuits at Lisbon, there is
a picture representing Adam in paradise, dressed in blue
breeches with silver buckles, and Eve with a striped petticoat.
In the distance appears a procession of Capuchin monks bearing
the cross.
In a country church in Holland there is a painting
representing the sacrifice of Isaac, in which the painter has
depicted Abraham with a blunderbus in his hand, ready to shoot
his son. A similar edifice in Spain has a picture of the same
incident, in which the patriarch is armed with a pistol.
At Windsor there is a painting by Antonio Verrio, in which
the artist has introduced the portraits of himself, Sir Godfrey
Kneller, and May, the surveyor of the works of that period, all
in long periwigs, as spectators of Christ healing the sick.
A painter of Toledo, having to represent the three wise men
of the East coming to worship on the nativity of Christ,
depicted three Arabian or Indian kings, two of them white and
one black, and all of them in the posture of kneeling. The
position of the legs of each figure not being very distinct, he
inadvertently painted three black feet for the negro king, and
three also between the two white kings; and he did not discover
his error until the picture was hung up in the cathedral.
In another picture of the Adoration of the Magi, which was
in the Houghton Hall collection, the painter, Brughel, had
introduced a multitude of little figures, finished off with
true Dutch exactitude, but one was accoutred in boots and
spurs, and another was handing in, as a present, a little model
of a Dutch ship.
The same collection contained a painting of the stoning of
Stephen, the martyr, by Le Soeur, in which the saint was
attired in the habit of a Roman Catholic priest at high
mass.
A picture by Rubens, in the Luxembourg, represents the
Virgin Mary in council, with two cardinals and the god Mercury
assisting in her deliberations.
A STOPPAGE OF THE FALLS OF NIAGARA.
The following remarkable account of the stoppage of Niagara
Falls, appeared in the Niagara Mail at the time of the
occurrence: “That mysterious personage, the oldest inhabitant,
has no recollection of so singular an occurrence as took place
at the Falls on the 30th of March, 1847. The ‘six hundred and
twenty thousand tons of water each minute’ nearly ceased to
flow, and dwindled away into the appearance of a mere milldam.
The rapids above the falls disappeared, leaving scarcely enough
on the American side to turn a grindstone. Ladies and gentlemen
rode in carriages one-third of the way across the river towards
the Canada shore, over solid rock as smooth as a kitchen floor.
The Iris says: ‘Table Rock, with some two hundred yards
more, was left dry; islands and places where the foot of man
never dared to tread have been visited, flags placed upon come,
and mementoes brought away. This unexpected event is attempted
to be accounted for by an accumulation of ice at the lower
extremity of Fort Erie, which formed a sort of dam between Fort
Erie and Buffalo.'”
WONDERS OF MINUTE WORKMANSHIP.
In the twentieth year of Queen Elizabeth, a blacksmith named
Mark Scaliot, made a lock consisting of eleven pieces of iron,
steel and brass, all which, together with a key to it, weighed
but one grain of gold. He also made a chain of gold, consisting
of forty-three links, and, having fastened this to the
before-mentioned lock and key, he put the chain about the neck
of a flea, which drew them all with ease. All these together,
lock and key, chain and flea, weighed only one grain and a
half.
Oswaldus Norhingerus, who was more famous even than Scaliot
for his minute contrivances, is said to have made 1,600 dishes
of turned ivory, all perfect and complete in every part, yet so
small, thin and slender, that all of them were included at once
in a cup turned out of a pepper-corn of the common size.
Johannes Shad, of Mitelbrach, carried this wonderful work with
him to Rome, and showed it to Pope Paul V., who saw and counted
them all by the help of a pair of spectacles. They were so
little as to be almost invisible to the eye.
Johannes Ferrarius, a Jesuit, had in his posession cannons
of wood, with their carriages, wheels, and all other military
furniture, all of which were also contained in a pepper-corn of
the ordinary size.
An artist, named Claudius Callus, made for Hippolytus
d’Este, Cardinal of Ferrara, representations of sundry birds
setting on the tops of trees, which, by hydraulic art and
secret conveyance of water through the trunks and branches of
the trees, were made to sing and clap their wings; but, at the
sudden appearance of an owl out of a bush of the same artifice,
they immediately became all mute and
silent.
CURIOUS DISSECTION OF THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS.
| SHOWING THE NUMBER OF BOOKS, CHAPTERS, VERSES, WORDS, LETTERS, ETC. | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| In the Old Testament. | In the New Testament. | Total. | |||
| Books | 39 | Books | 27 | 66 | |
| Chapters | 929 | Chapters | 260 | 1,189 | |
| Verses | 23,814 | Verses | 7,959 | 81,178 | |
| Words | 692,489 | Words | 281,258 | 773,697 | |
| Letters | 2,728,100 | Letters | 838,880 | 3,566,480 | |
Apocrypha—chapters, 183; verses, 6,081; words,
152,185.
The middle chapter and the least in the Bible is Psalm
cxvii.
The middle verse is the 8th of Psalm cxviii.
The middle line is in 16th verse, 4th chapter, 2 Chronicles.
The word and occurs in the Old Testament 35,543 times;
in the New Testament, 10,684 times.
The word Jehovah occurs 6,855 times.
OLD TESTAMENT.
The middle book is Proverbs.
The middle chapter is Job xxix.
The middle verse would be in the 2d of Chronicles, 20th
chapter, between the 17th and 18th verses.
The least verse is the 1st of Chronicles, 1st chapter, and
1st verse.
NEW TESTAMENT.
The middle book is 2 Thessalonians.
The middle chapter is between the 13th and 14th of
Romans.
The middle verse is the 17th of Acts xvii.
The shortest verse is the 35th of John xi.
The 21st verse of the 7th chapter of Ezra contains all the
letters of the alphabet.
The 19th chapter of 2 Kings, and the 37th of Isaiah, are
alike.
It is stated that the above calculation took three years to
complete.
REMARKABLE INSCRIPTION.
The following singular inscription is to be seen carved on a
tomb situated at the entrance of the church of San Salvador, in
the city of Oviedo. The explanation is that the tomb was
erected by a king named Silo, and the inscription is so written
that it can be read 270 ways by beginning with the large S in
the center. The words are Latin, “Silo princeps fecit.”
Besides this singular inscription, the letters H. S. E. S.
S. T. T. L. are also carved on the tomb, but of these no
explanation is given. Silo, Prince of Oviedo, or King of the
Asturias, succeeded Aurelius in 774, and died in 785. He was,
therefore, a contemporary of Charlemagne. No doubt the above
inscription was the composition of some ingenious and learned
Spanish monk.
CURIOUS CALCULATIONS.
CONSUMPTION OF AIR IN ACTIVITY AND REPOSE.
Dr. Radclyffe Hall makes the following interesting statement
with regard to the amount of air we consume in repose, and at
different degrees of activity: When still, we use 500 cubic
inches of air in a minute; if we walk at the rate of one mile
an hour, we use 800; two miles, 1,000; three miles an hour,
1,600; four miles an hour, 2,300. If we run at six miles an
hour, we use 3,000 cubic inches; trotting a horse, 1,750;
cantering, 1,500.
THE VALUE OF LABOR.
Cast iron of the value of £1 sterling is worth,
converted into ordinary machinery, £4; in larger
ornamented work, £45; in buckles and similar kinds of
fancy work, £600; in neck chains, £1,300. Bar iron
of the value of £1 sterling is worth, in the form of
knives, £36; needles, £70; penknife blades,
£950; polished
buttons and buckles, £890; balance
springs of watches, £5,000.
INTEREST OF MONEY.
Dr. Price, in the second edition of his “Observations on
Reversionary Payments,” says: “It is well known to what
prodigious sums money improved for some time at compound
interest will increase. A penny so improved from our Saviour’s
birth, as to double itself every fourteen years—or, what
is nearly the same, put out at five per cent. compound interest
at our Saviour’s birth—would by this time have increased
to more money than could be contained in 150 millions of
globes, each equal to the earth in magnitude, and all solid
gold. A shilling, put out at six per cent. compound interest
would, in the same time, have increased to a greater sum in
gold than the whole solar system could hold, supposing it a
sphere equal in diameter to the diameter of Saturn’s orbit. And
the earth is to such a sphere as half a square foot, or a
quarto page, to the whole surface of the earth.”
WONDERS OF SCIENCE.
A grain of gold has been found by Muncke to admit of being
divided into ninety-fire thousand millions of visible
parts; that is, by the aid of a microscope magnifying one
thousand times. A sovereign is thus capable of division into
ten millions of millions of visible particles, being ten
thousand times as many such particles as there are men, women
and children in all the world.
SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION.—Liebig, in his
“Familiar Letters on Chemistry,” has proved the unsoundness of
spontaneous combustion. Yet Dr. Lindley gives nineteen
instances of something akin, or the rapid ignition of the human
body by contact with flame as a consequence of the saturation
of its tissues by alcohol.
VIBRATIONS OF THE AIR.—If a person stand
beneath a railway girder-bridge with an open umbrella over his
head, when a train is passing, the vibration of the air will be
distinctly felt in the hand which grasps the umbrella, because
the outspread surface collects and concentrates the waves into
the focus of the handle.
THE EARTH’S CENTER.—All bodies weigh less the
further removed they are from the center of the earth. A block
of stone weighing 700 pounds upon the sea-shore, will weigh
only 699 pounds if carried up a mountain three miles high. A
pendulum oscillates more quickly at the poles than at the
equator, because the earth is flatter by twenty-six miles at
the poles—that is, the “bob” of the pendulum is that much
nearer the earth’s center, and therefore heavier, and so swings
more quickly.