Among the Mushrooms

A GUIDE FOR BEGINNERS

BY

ELLEN M. DALLAS

AND

CAROLINE A. BURGIN

Copyright, 1900

By A. J. DREXEL BIDDLE

PRESS OF
DREXEL BIDDLE, PHILADELPHIA

“Have you not seen in the woods on a late autumn morning a poor
fungus or mushroom—a plant without any solidity, nay, that seemed
nothing but a soft mush or jelly—by its constant total and
inconceivably gentle pushing, manage to break its way up through the
frosty ground, and actually to lift a hard crust on its head? It is the
symbol of the power of kindness.”

Emerson.

PREFACE.

The
books which have been consulted in the preparation of this work are,
“British Fungi,” by Rev. John Stevenson; “British Fungus-Flora,” by
George Massee; “Mushrooms and their Uses,” and “Boleti of the United
States,” by Professor Charles H. Peck, State Botanist of New York;
“Moulds, Mildew and Mushrooms,” by Professor L. M. Underwood; and a
pamphlet by Mr. C. G. Lloyd, entitled “The Volvæ of the United
States.”

No attempt has been made to do more than to put in popular language the
statements of experienced botanists, and so to arrange the matter as to
aid beginners in their work.

Thanks are due to Mr. Harold Wingate for his suggestions and corrections
of the manuscript; to Mr. C. G. Lloyd for permission to print from
his photographs; to Miss Laura C. Detwiller for her paintings from
nature, which have been here reproduced; and also to Mrs. Harrison
Streeter and Miss Mary W. Nichols for their encouragement of the
undertaking and suggestions in furtherance of its success.

CONTENTS.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

INTRODUCTION.

This
book is intended for those who, though ignorant on the subject, desire
to know something about mushrooms. The first question which such an one
asks upon finding a mushroom is, “What is its name?” If there is no one
near to tell him, then follows the second inquiry, “How can I find it
out for myself?” If wild flowers were concerned, Gray’s little book,
“How the Plants Grow,” could be used; and there is also Mrs. Dana’s book
on “The Wild Flowers,” that has given so much pleasure. In the case of
mushrooms, however, but one answer can be returned to all questions:
“There is no American text-book on mushrooms, there is no manual for
beginners.”

There are many books on British fungi for students, but we want some
popular work easy to understand, with no technical expressions.

This necessity for a simple guide-book has been felt by many. Let us
give our own experience.

14

We procured a list of works on fungi, and looked for some volume not too
deep for our comprehension nor too costly for our purse. Among those we
found were “Handbook for Students” (Taylor); “Edible and Poisonous
Fungi” (Cooke), and a pamphlet by Professor Peck, “Mushrooms and Their
Uses.” This seemed to be the one that we could comprehend most easily,
and so, armed with it, and another pamphlet by Professor Underwood,
called “Suggestions to Collectors of Fleshy Fungi,” which contained a
simple key, we started out to make discoveries. We afterward procured
some publications of Mr. C. G. Lloyd, which were of great
assistance, and lastly a glossary published by the Boston Mycological
Society, a necessary addition to our library.

We found Professor Peck’s book was confined to edible mushrooms, and it
soon became too limited to satisfy our craving for further
knowledge—it incited a longing to know something of inedible
fungi.

The rest is soon told. We were advised to get either a copy of
Stevenson’s “British Fungi” or of Massee’s works. We did so, but found
them too advanced to be readily

15

used by the unlearned. Then the idea arose, How can we help others in
their difficulties? This little book is the answer. It will not be of
use to advanced students, they will only criticise and discover how much
has been left unsaid; but the beginner is more easily satisfied with the
extent of information gained, and if a taste for knowledge is encouraged
the object of this book is attained.

This explanation will also account for the use of simple terms. We find
a tiny fungus which looks like a brownish bird’s nest, with some
miniature eggs in it, or a shining white mushroom, and we are told its
name in Latin; it is described in terms meaningless to the ignorant, we
lose interest, and our attention flags. We began for pleasure and
recreation, but it became irksome and fatiguing, and the subject which
might have amused us and helped to pass many an idle hour is put aside
and abandoned. Yet this study is a most fascinating one. We all long for
pleasant subjects of thought in our leisure hours, and there can be
nothing more diverting and absorbing than the investigation of the
beautiful and familiar plants around us.

When we leave the bustling, noisy streets of

16

a city and go into the quiet fields and woods the contrast is very
great. A walk for exercise alone is often dull and tiresome. We cannot
be assured of pleasant companions, nor is there always a fine view or
picturesque scenery to reward us during our strolls, but there are
plants to be found and gathered, and when these fail us, then the
bright-hued mushrooms may arrest our attention. The discovery of new
specimens, the learning their names, the knowledge of their curious
organizations, will all add an interest to our lives. It will inspire us
with a love of nature, and open our eyes to many objects of which we
have before been unobservant. Besides this it obliges us to be accurate.
Our descriptions must be exact or they are of no use.

Let us imagine ourselves taking a stroll in the woods or down some shady
lane, and see what we can find there.

The golden-rod and asters adorn the roadsides, the odors of the sweet
gale and scented fern are wafted gratefully to our senses as we pass
along the lanes, and there, among the fallen leaves, at the very edge of
the woods, peers out a bright yellow mushroom, brighter from the
contrast to the dead leaves around, and then

17

another, close by, and then a shining white cap; further on a
mouse-colored one, gray, and silky in texture. What a contrast of
colors. What are they? By what names shall we call them?

Let us first carefully dig up the yellow one. We have brought a basket
and trowel, and can examine them thoroughly. We must dig down deep so as
not to break off the stem. There is a ring or collar around it near the
top. There is a bulb at the base, with some slight membrane attached.
The cap is orange color, almost smooth, covered with a few spots like
warts, and there are some lines on the margin. The gills are not
attached to the stem, and are white with a creamy hue. The stem is also
white, tinged faintly with yellow. We will take a penknife and divide it
into halves, cutting straight through the stem and cap. We find the stem
is filled with a spongy substance, and we can now see more clearly the
position of the gills. Our specimen measures 2 inches across the cap,
and the stem is 2 or 3 inches long. It is an Amanita, resembling the Fly
Amanita, which we will probably soon discover. Our fungus is Frost’s
Amanita, named after the botanist who first placed it on the list,
Frost. It is not among the British fungi. It is American.

18

Now let us dig up the shining white one. It is much larger than the
yellow fungus, handsome, pure-looking, with a rather slender stem. The
cap is nearly 4 inches across, the flesh is white. The stem is long,
solid, with a bulbous base. There is a wide, loose ring high up on the
stem. The membrane around the base is large and thick. The stem is scaly
and shining white like the cap. This pure-looking, handsome mushroom is
one of the most poisonous of its kind. It is called Amanita
virosa—the poisonous Amanita, from a Latin word meaning poison. We
have never found any specimen with insects on it. They seem to know its
deadly qualities and shun its acquaintance.

Let us look at the gray mushroom and see how it differs from the others.
It has no ring, its color is a soft gray or mouse color, the margin is
deeply grooved. The cap is almost flat, the flesh does not reach to the
margin, and is white. It is very smooth, but another time we might find
the same mushroom with scales upon it. The cap measures 3 inches across.
The stem tapers upward, is slender, and is 4 inches long. The gills are
free, not attached to the stem, and are swollen in the middle. They are
not very close together and are shining white. The

19

base extends deep into the ground, and is sheathed with a membrane that
is loose and easily broken off. It is a very common mushroom, and we
shall often find it, but it varies in color; it is sometimes umber,
often white, and even has a faint yellowish or greenish hue in the
centre.

So far we have only looked at Amanitas. They are conspicuous, and the
large rings and colors are striking and interesting to the novice; but
look at that clay bank that borders on our road, and perhaps we may
discover some Boleti. Even a beginner in the study of mushrooms can tell
the difference between a boletus and those we have been examining. Here
are two or three mushrooms growing together. What is there different
about them? We see no ring, no membrane around the base of stem, and
what are these tubes beneath the cap so unlike the gills of the others?
They have the appearance somewhat of a sponge. These are the pores or
tubes that contain the spores. Let us divide the fungus. At the first
touch of the knife, through the stem, the color begins to change, and in
a moment stem, tubes, and cap turn to a bright blue. We can see the
color steal along, at first faintly, and then deepen into a darker blue.
The cap

20

is a light brownish yellow color, 2 inches broad, covered with woolly
scales. The tubes are free from the stem. They have been white, but are
changing to yellow. The mouths or openings of the tubes are becoming
bluish-green. The stem is swollen in the middle. It is covered with a
bloom. It is stuffed with a pith, and tapers toward the apex. It is like
the cap in color, and measures 1½ inch in length. The mouths of the
tubes are round. This is Boletus cyanescens, or the bluing Boletus, as
named by Professor Peck in his work on Boleti. He says it grows more in
the North, and sometimes is much larger than the one we found.

We turn to the bank in hopes of discovering another, and see, instead,
what appears to be a mass of jelly half-hidden in the clay, and in the
midst some bright scarlet cherries, or at least something that resembles
them. We take the trowel and loosen them from the earth, and there,
among the gelatinous matter, we find small round balls as large as a
common marble, covered by a bright red skin. When cut in half we see
they are filled with a pure white substance, like the inside of a young
puff-ball. This is quite a discovery. We must look in our books for its
name. It is not in our British

21

manual, but we learn from Professor Peck that it is called Calostoma
cinnabarinus. Calostoma is a Greek word meaning beautiful mouth, and
cinnabarinus is taken from cinnabaris, which means dragon’s-blood. We
are not responsible for the names given to plants, but cannot help
wishing that some might be changed or shortened.

We could go on prolonging our search, and describe many wonderful fungi,
so easily found on a summer day, but as our object is to excite
curiosity and interest and not fatigue the reader, we will here pause,
and afterward arrange the descriptions of mushrooms in a separate
section. The ones we have described may be found in the Middle States
and in New England.

MUSHROOMS.

ANTIQUITY OF
FUNGI.

Fungi
have existed from early geological ages. They flourished in the
Carboniferous period, when the enormous beds of coal were formed, a
space of time that occupied many millions of years. Bessey says that the
oldest known member of the order of membrane fungi, Hymenomycetes, was
called by the name of “Polyporites Bowmanii.” During the Tertiary period
members of the genera now known under the names of Lenzites, Polyporus,
and Hydnum were all in existence. It is interesting to know that even
before the Tertiary period the undergrowth consisted of ferns and fleshy
fungi. What a time of delight for the botanist! But there were no human
beings in those days to roam amongst that luxuriant undergrowth, and
only the fossil remains in the deposits of coal and peat are left to
tell of their former existence.

MANNER OF
GROWTH.

Fungi are either solitary, grow in clusters, in groups, or in rings and
arcs of circles.

The species called the Fairy mushroom, Marasmius oreades, is the most
familiar of all those that grow in rings. Besides this there is the
Horse mushroom, Agaricus arvensis; the Chantarelle, Cantharellus
cibarius; the Giant mushroom, Clitocybe maximus, and St. George’s
mushroom, Tricholoma gambosa. The latter species is reproduced in rings
every year. It is a popular saying that when the ring is unbroken there
will be a plentiful harvest the following season. It is an early
mushroom, appearing in April. It derives its name from the fact of its
appearing about April 23d, which is St. George’s day in the English
calendar. Besides these mushrooms there is another Tricholoma,
T. tigrinus, the Tiger mushroom, which sometimes appears in
circles. The word tigrinus means a tiger. The cap is variegated with
dark brown spots, hence the name. Then there is the Limp Clitocybe,
C. flaccida, so called because flaccida means limp. It also appears
in rings (according to Stevenson), while the stems are united under the
soil.

25

The waxy Clitocybe, C. laccata, is not spoken of as having that
mode of growth in circles, but we have seen many of these mushrooms
appearing in arcs of circles, and forming almost perfect rings,
particularly after showers of rain, and always on the sides of
roads.

Many fairy rings have lasted for years and are very old. We have read of
one, in the county of Essex, England, that measured 120 feet across. The
grass that covered it was coarse and of a dark green color. What causes
these fairy rings? An explanation is given in a newspaper extract from
“Knowledge,” in which it is said: “A patch of spawn arising from a
single spore or a number of spores spreads centrifugally in every
direction, and forms a common circular felt, from which the fruit arises
at its extreme edge; the soil in the inner part of the disc is
exhausted, and the spawn dies or becomes effete there, while it spreads
all around in an outward direction and produces another crop whose spawn
spreads again. The circle is thus continually enlarged, and extends
indefinitely until some cause intervenes to destroy it. The peculiarity
of growth first arises from a tendency of certain fungi to assume a
circular form.”

26

The perplexing mushroom, Hypholoma perplexum, often grows in clusters,
and so does the inky Coprinus, C. atramentarius, also the
glistening Coprinus, C. micaceus. The honey-colored mushroom,
Armillaria melloea, is often found in crowded clusters, and this growth
is common to many fungi.

ODOR.

Many mushrooms have distinct odors and are distinguished by this
feature. The genus Marasmius may be known by the garlic-like smell
peculiar to it, but it never has a mealy perfume. There is one species,
the disgusting mushroom, M. impudicus, that Stevenson says has a
strong, unpleasant odor; this is also the case in two other species, the
ill-odored mushroom, M. fœtidus, and the penetrating mushroom,
M. perfurans.

The Chantarelle, Cantharellus cibarius, has the smell of a ripe apricot,
a delicious odor and easily detected. One of the Lepiotas, the tufted
Lepiota, L. cristata, has a powerful smell of radishes. Some
Tricholomas have a strong odor of new meal. The fragrant Clitocybe,
C. odora, has the smell of anise.

[opp. 26]


Coprinus atramentarius.
Photographed by C. G. Lloyd.

27

There is a very small white, scaly mushroom, never more than an inch
across the cap, and with a stem hardly two inches high, that has the
distinction of possessing the strongest smell of all the membrane fungi
(Hymenomycetes). It is called the narcotic Coprinus, C. narcoticus,
and it derives its name from its odor. It is very fragile and grows on
heaps of manure.

DURATION.

There is another Coprinus, the radiating Coprinus, C. radiatus, so
called from the radiating folds on the cap, that may carry off the honor
of being the shortest-lived of all the membrane fungi. Stevenson says
“it withers up with a breath.” It is often overlooked, as it perishes
after sunrise. It grows in troops, and is perhaps the most tender of all
mushrooms.

The genus Marasmius, belonging to the white spored Agarics, has the
power of reviving under moisture after withering, so it may represent a
genus that endures longest. None of the fleshy fungi have long
lives.

USES.

Besides the uses of fungi as scavengers of creation, there are some
which have a commercial

28

value and yield an article called “amadou.” This is a French word, used
for a sort of tinder or touch-wood, an inflammable substance which is
prepared from a fungus,1 Boletus igniarius, and grows upon the cherry, ash and
other trees. It is made by steeping it in a strong solution of saltpetre
and cutting it in small pieces. It is also called German tinder. Thomé
says that Boletus laricis and Polyporus fomentarius yield the “amadou”
of commerce. Then, again, the birch Polyporus, P. betulinus, is
used for razor strops. We need not say anything on the uses of fungi as
articles of food. This subject has been exhausted by many able
mycologists, and, excepting the mere mention of some mushrooms that are
edible, the authors have abstained from this part of the subject.

HABITAT.

It is interesting to observe where different mushrooms love to dwell.
Some are always found on roadsides, as if seeking the notice of
passers-by. These are the Clitocybes and Stropharia, and many of the
cup-fungi, while the Boleti take shelter in clay banks and hide in

29

every cranny and nook that they can find. Russulas are seen in open
woods, rising out of the earth, also the Lactarius, which seems to like
the shade of trees. The Cortinarius also prefers their shelter. The
Coprinus loves the pastures and fields, near houses and barns, and
dwells in groups upon the lawns. The Hypholoma grows in clusters on the
stumps of trees. Marasmius is found among dead twigs and leaves. The
white Amanitas flourish in woods and open ground. There are some, like
Pleurotus, that grow in trunks of trees, and make their way through
openings in the bark. Every dead tree or branch in the forest is crowded
with all species of Polyporus, while carpets, damp cellars, plaster
walls and sawdust are favorite abodes of many fungi.

STRUCTURE AND
GROWTH.

Mushrooms consist wholly of cells. These cells do not contain either
starch or the green coloring-matter, called chlorophyll, which exists in
other plants. They are either parasites or scavengers, and sometimes
both. The food of fungi must form a part of some animal or plant. When
they commence to grow it is by the division

30

of cells, not laterally, but in one direction, upward. As the mushroom
grows the stem lengthens, the cap expands and bursts the veil that
surrounds it, and gradually gains its perfect shape.

Every mushroom has a spore-bearing layer of cells, which is called the
hymenium. This hymenium is composed of a number of swollen, club-shaped
cells, called basidia, and close to them, side by side, are sterile,
elongated cells, named paraphyses. In the family called Hymenomycetes
there are mixed with these, and closely packed together, one-celled
sterile structures named cystidia.

The basidia are called mother-cells because they produce the spores.

There is one great group of fungi called Basidiomycetes, so named from
having their stalked spores produced on basidia.

The basidia are formed on the end of threadlike branched bodies which
grow at the apex, and are called hyphæ. On top of the basidia are minute
stalk-like branches, called sterigmata (singular sterigma), and each
branch carries a naked spore. They are usually four in number. This
group of Basidiomycetes is divided into (1) Stomach fungi
(Gasteromycetes),

31

(2) Spore sac fungi (Ascomycetes), and (3) Membrane fungi
(Hymenomycetes).

MYCELIUM.

The Mycelium is commonly called the spawn of mushrooms.

It is the vegetative part of the fungus, and is composed of minute,
cylindrical, thread-like branching bodies called hyphæ. When we wish to
cultivate mushrooms we plant the spawn not the spores. The thread-like
branches permeate the earth or whatever the mushroom grows upon. The
color of the mycelium is generally white, but it may also be yellow or
red. Its structural details are only visible through a microscope.

Every fungus does not bear the spores exposed upon the cap nor
underneath it. The first group of Gasteromycetes, or “Stomach fungi,” as
Professor Peck has called them in his work on “Mushrooms and Their
Uses,” have the spore-bearing surface enclosed in a sac-like envelope in
the interior of the plant. The genus Lycoperdon belongs to this group,
and it contains the puff-balls so common in this country.

32

In the second group, Ascomycetes, or “Spore sac fungi,” the spores are
produced in delicate sacs called asci. The fruit-bearing part is often
cup-shaped, disc-like, or club-shaped, thicker at the top or covered
with irregular swellings and depressions like the human brain.

The Morels and Helvellas belong to this group. One often meets with
mushrooms of the former genus in the spring, and they are striking and
interesting looking fungi. There are many of both genera that are
edible. They will be described in detail later.

Botanists have classified Agarics by means of the color of the spores,
and it is the only sure way of determining to what class they belong. We
propose in this work also to enumerate the mushrooms according to the
color of the pileus or cap, and give a list, with a description of each,
after this arrangement. This, of course, is merely superficial, but may
interest and attract a beginner in the study of fungi. This list will be
placed at the end of the book.

The descriptions will be preceded by a classification according to color
of spores, some hints to students, and aids to learning which have been
found useful to others.

It is appalling to a beginner when he first

33

reads the long list of names of classes, genera, and species, as the
latter are so closely allied in resemblance. One has not always the time
nor inclination to condense facts for himself, nor to collect necessary
information so as to remember it most easily, all which has to be done
in the absence of an American manual or textbook. A great deal has been
written for us, it is true, by experienced botanists, but a general and
comprehensive work has yet to be compiled.

Before we begin our list of fungi, let us learn what a mushroom is, and
know something of its component parts. A mushroom consists of a stem and
a cap, or pileus. The cap is the most conspicuous part. The color varies
from white and the lightest hues of brown up to the brightest yellow and
scarlet. Its size is from an eighth of an inch to sixteen inches and
more in diameter. The surface is smooth or covered with little grains
(granular) or with minute scales (squamulose) shining like satin, or
kid-like in its texture. It may be rounded and depressed (concave),
elevated (convex), level (plane), or with a little mound in the centre
(umbonate). It may be covered with warts, marked with lines (striate),
or zoned with circles.

34

The margin may be acute or obtuse, rolled backward or upward (revolute),
or rolled inward (involute); it may be thick or thin.

THE STEM.

The stem is the stalk that supports the cap. It is sometimes attached to
one side, and then it is said to be lateral or between the centre and
side, and it is called eccentric; when it is in the middle, or nearly
so, it is central.

It is either solid, fleshy, stuffed with pith, or hollow, fibrous, firm
and tough (cartilaginous). It is often brittle and breaks easily, or it
will not divide evenly in breaking. Its color and size both vary, like
the cap. It may taper toward the base, or toward the apex, be even or
cylindrical. Its surface may be smooth (glabrous), covered with scales
(squamulose), rough (scabrous), dotted, lacerated, or be marked with a
network of veins (reticulated). The base may be bulbous, or only swollen
(incrassated), and it may root in the ground.

THE GILLS.

The gills or lamellæ are the radiating parts, like knife blades, that
extend from the centre

36

to the margin underneath the cap. They contain the spores. The group of
mushrooms that have gills are called Agaracini or Agarics. The gills
vary in color; sometimes they change color when mature. When they are
close together they are called crowded, and when far apart distant.
There are often smaller gills between the others, and sometimes they are
two-forked (bifurcate), and are connected by veins.

They are narrow or wide, swell out in the middle (ventricose), are
curved like a bow (arcuate), and have a sudden wave or sinus in the edge
near the stem (sinuate).

There are various modes of attachment to the stem. Where the gills are
not attached to it they are called free; slightly so, adnexed; and when
wholly fastened they are adnate. They may run down on the stem, and are
then called decurrent.

[opp. 36]


Amanita vaginata
(breaking from volva).
Photographed by C. G. Lloyd.

THE SPORES.

The color of the spores can be seen by cutting off the cap, and laying
it gills downward, on a sheet of paper, two or three hours or more. The
impression will remain on the paper. It is better to use blue paper, so
that the white spores

37

can be seen more clearly. The Agarics are divided into classes according
to the color of the spores, so it is of great importance to examine
them. The shape and size of the spores can only be learned by the use of
a microscope. We have not attempted in this elementary work to do more
than mention them.

THE VOLVA AND VEIL.

The universal veil or volva is a thin covering which encloses the entire
young plant. The cap grows and expands and bursts this veil into
fragments. That part of the veil which breaks away from the cap, called
the secondary veil, forms the annulus or ring. It resembles a collar,
and is generally fastened to the stem. It is not always permanent or
fixed in one place. It may disappear when the plant is mature. It is
often fragile, loose and torn, and sometimes is movable on the stem.

The name volva is particularly given to that part of the universal veil
which remains around the base of the stem, either sheathing it or
appressed closely to it, or in torn fragments. The volva and ring, or
annulus, are not always present in mushrooms. The rupture of the

38

veil often causes a part of it to remain on the cap in the shape of
warts or scales. These may disappear as the plant grows older, and are
sometimes washed off by a heavy rain.

THE TUBES OR PORES.

There is a group of fungi called Polyporei, which have tubes or pores
instead of gills. They are placed under the pileus just as the gills are
situated, and contain the spores. The length of the tubes varies. The
mouths or openings are also of different shapes and sizes. They are
sometimes round, and at other times irregular. The color of the mouths
is often different from the tubes, and changes when mature. The mouths,
too, are sometimes stuffed when young. The attachment to the pileus is
to be noted. They may be free or easily detached, depressed around the
stem or fastened to it (adnate.)

CLASSIFICATION OF
FUNGI.

The
color of both gills and tubes is an important feature in the
classification of fungi.

We have now arrived at a point where the amateur may become wearied at
the reading of long names and the enumeration of classes and genera.
Stevenson has said in his preface to his work on British Fungi that
“there is no royal road to the knowledge of fungi,” and if we become
enough interested to pursue the subject we will probably discover it at
this point. We will try and make this part as simple as possible, and
only mention those genera which are most common.

Mushrooms may be divided into three great classes:

I. Gasteromycetes, or “Stomach fungi,” where the spores are
produced within the plant.

II. Ascomycetes, or “Spore sac fungi,” where the spores are produced in
delicate sacs called asci.

III. Hymenomycetes, or “Membrane fungi,”

40

where the spores are produced on the lower surface of the cap.

Class III.
HYMENOMYCETES, OR MEMBRANE FUNGI.

This class is divided into six orders:

  1. Gill-bearing mushrooms, Agarics, or Agaricini.

  2. Fungi with pores or tubes, Polyporei.

  3. Fungi with awl-shaped teeth or spines, Hydnei.

  4. Fungi with an even spore-bearing or slightly wrinkled surface,
Thelephorei.

  5. Plants, club-shaped and simple, or bush-like and branched,
Clavariei.

  6. Gelatinous plants, irregularly expanded, Tremellinei.

The first order, the Agarics, contains most of the well-known mushrooms,
as well as most of the edible ones. They have been divided into
different classes according to the color of the spores. In a great many
cases the color is the same as that of the gills; but this is not always
the case, especially in the young plants. The Agarics are divided into
four sections:

  1. White spores, Leucosporæ.

41

  2. Rosy, salmon or pinkish spores, Rhodosporæ.

  3. Brown or ochraceous spores, Ochrosporæ.

  4. Dark purplish or black spores, Melanosporæ.

There are an infinite number of mushrooms we shall not mention. The
study of fungi has only begun in this country, and there is an immense
vista for future students. The amateur or beginner may be well satisfied
if after one summer spent in studying mushrooms he can remember the
distinguishing types of the various genera, and can say with certainty,
“This is a Russula, or this a Cortinarius, or this a Tricholoma.” He
will then feel he has taken one important step in this “royal road.”

DISTINCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF GENERA OF
HYMENOMYCETES.

Order 1.
AGARICS.

The names of the genera are all derived from Greek and Latin words.
Stevenson, in his book on British Fungi, has given the original words
and also their meanings. We take the liberty of copying the English term
only, and will place it beside the name of each genus.

Section 1.
WHITE SPORES, OR LEUCOSPORÆ.

The first genus we will mention is:

HYGROPHORUS, from a word meaning moist.

This genus contains plants growing on the ground. They soon decay. The
cap is sticky or watery, the gills often branched. It has a peculiarity
in the fact that the hymenial cells, or the layer of mother cells,
contained in the gills, change into a waxy mass, at length removable
from the trama. The trama is that substance which extends with and is
like in structure to the layer of mother cells.1 It lies between the two layers of gills
in Agarics. The gills seem full of watery juice, and they are more or
less decurrent, i. e., extend down the stem. This genus
contains many bright-colored and shining species.

We are obliged to refer to the hymenial layer in this place, though the
beginner will scarcely understand the meaning of the term. The
distinguishing peculiarity of this genus consists in the cells changing
to a waxy mass. In the chapter on the structure of mushrooms we have

43

tried to explain something about the cells and the Hymenium.

LACTARIUS = milk.

This genus is fleshy, growing on the ground; the cap is often depressed
in the centre. The gills are adnato-decurrent, that is, partly attached
and prolonged down the stem. They are waxy, rather rigid and acute at
the edge. The distinctive feature is the milk that flows when the gills
are cut. Sometimes the milk changes color.

RUSSULA = red.

This genus grows on the ground, is fleshy, and soon decays. The cap is
depressed, or becomes so at a later stage of growth. The stem is
polished, generally white, and is very brittle. The gills are rigid,
fragile, with an acute edge, and mostly equal in length. Some species
exude watery drops. It contains many species of beautiful colors.

CANTHARELLUS = vase or cup.

The principal characteristic of this genus consists in the fold-like
nature of its gills. The gills are thick, with an obtuse edge, and are

44

branched and decurrent. The genus is fleshy, soft, and putrescent, and
has no veil. Some plants grow on the ground and others on mosses.

MARASMIUS = to wither.

The genus is tough and dry, not decaying, but shrivelling, and reviving
when wet. The stem is tough (cartilaginous.) The gills are rather
distant, the edge acute and entire. The plants often have a peculiar
smell and taste, like garlic. They are small and thin, commonly growing
on the outside of another plant (epiphytal) on the ground, on putrid
leaves, or on roots of grasses.

AMANITA.

The origin of this name is doubtful. Galen, an ancient Greek physician,
is said to have given the name to some edible fungi (Stevenson). It is
distinguished as the only genus that has both volva and ring. The
young plant is enveloped by a universal veil which bursts at maturity.
The volva around the base of the stem is formed by the splitting or
bursting of the veil, and its different modes of rupture mark the
several species. It is sometimes

45

shaped very prettily, and has the appearance of a cup around the stem.
It contains many poisonous as well as edible mushrooms.

LEPIOTA = a scale.

This genus has a universal veil. The gills are free. Sometimes the ring,
or annulus, is movable on the stem. The cap is often covered with warts,
or the skin torn into scales, and the stem sometimes inserted in a cup
or socket.

ARMILLARIA = ring or bracelet.

There is no universal veil in this genus, only a partial one that forms
a ring, or sometimes only indicating the ring by scales. The species
usually grow on the ground.

TRICHOLOMA = from two Greek words, hair and
fringe.

This genus is especially noted for its sinuate gills. They have a tooth
next to the stem. All grow on the ground and are fleshy. There are
sometimes fibrils which adhere to the margin of the cap, the remains of
the veil. There are no plants in this genus that are considered
poisonous.

CLITOCYBE = a declivity.

The gills in this genus are attenuated behind and are attached to stem
(adnate) or run down it (decurrent.) The cap is generally plano
depressed or funnel-shaped (infundibuliform). Some are fragrant; the
odor resembles fresh apricots.

COLLYBIA = a small coin.

The stem in this genus is tough or stuffed with a pith, and covered with
a cartilaginous rind. The margin of the cap is smooth and turned under
at first (involute). The gills are soft, free, or only adnexed behind.
The plants grow on the outside of wood and leaves, even on fungi, but
are often rooted on the ground, and do not dry up. The gills are
sometimes brightly colored.

MYCENA = a fungus.

In this genus also the stem is cartilaginous, the cap is sometimes
bell-shaped (campanulate) and slender. The plants are generally small
and fragile. The cap is from ⅛ to 1½ inch broad. The stem is sometimes
filiform, and they grow on stumps and sticks, dead wood, twigs and
leaves. They may be found

47

early in the season, but oftener from August to November.

[opp. 46]


Omphalia alboflava.
Photographed by C. G. Lloyd.

OMPHALIA = depressed.

The stem in this genus is cartilaginous. The gills run down the stem.
The cap is somewhat membranaceous. It is oftener depressed and
funnel-shaped. The gills are often branched. The species grow in moist
places. The plants are generally small. The largest only measure 2
inches, the smallest only ½ inch across the cap.

PLEUROTUS = side and an ear.

In this genus the stem is sometimes wanting, or it grows on the side, or
between the centre and margin (eccentric). The plants rarely grow on the
ground. They are irregular and fleshy or membranaceous. The time of
growth is generally in the autumn. There are a few edible species.

Section 2.
RHODOSPORÆ, RED OR PINK SPORES.

In this section of Agarics the spores are red, pink, or salmon
color.

PLUTEUS = a penthouse.

This genus has neither volva nor ring. The gills are rounded behind and
free, entirely separate from stem, white, then flesh-colored, but often
tinged with yellow. The cuticle is sometimes covered with fibres, or
with a bloom upon it (pruinose). The apex of the stem is inserted in the
cap like a peg, and in this it resembles the Lepiotas. The species grow
on or near trunks, appear early, and last until late in the season.

ENTOLOMA = within and fringe.

This genus resembles Tricholoma, which belongs to the white-spored
Agarics and Hebeloma, which is rosy-spored. The species grow on the
ground, and are found chiefly after rain. The stem is fleshy or fibrous,
soft, sometimes waxy. The cap has the margin incurved, the gills have a
tooth (sinuate), and are adnexed to the stem. Some species smell of
fresh meal.

Section 3.
OCHROSPORÆ, BROWN OR OCHRACEOUS SPORES.

CORTINARIUS = a veil.

This genus has a veil resembling a cobweb. The gills generally become
cinnamon-colored. They grow on the ground in woods, during late summer
and autumn. Some of our most beautiful mushrooms belong to this group.
The veil is not persistent, and soon disappears.

PHOLIOTA = a scale.

This genus mostly grows on trunks. The partial or secondary veil takes
the form of a ring. The cap is often covered with scales.

INOCYBE = fibre and head.

This genus is distinguished by the silky fibrilose covering of the cap,
which never has a distinct pellicle, and by the veil which is lasting
and of like nature to the fibrils of the cap. All grow upon the
ground.

HEBELOMA = youth and fringe.

In this genus the margin of the cap is at first incurved. The gills are
attached with a tooth,

50

with the edge more or less of a different color, often whitish. The stem
is fleshy, fibrous, somewhat mealy at the apex. They grow on the ground
and are strong-smelling, appear early in the autumn, and continue until
late in the season.

PAXILLUS = a small stake.

This genus is fleshy, putrescent; at first the cap has the margin turned
under (involute), then it unfolds gradually and dilates. There are some
species of both Tricholoma and Clitocybe that resemble it. The gills
separate easily from the cap, and in this it is similar to the Boleti,
where the tubes separate also with ease.

Section 4.
MELANOSPORÆ, DARK PURPLE OR BLACK SPORES.

PSALLIOTA = a ring or collar.

The common mushroom Agaricus campestris belongs to this group. The gills
are rounded behind and free, the stem has a collar. There are many
edible mushrooms in this genus. They grow in pastures, and the larger
ones are called Champignons. In former times when one spoke of eating
mushrooms the species A.

51

campestris, or campester, was always the one denoted.

STROPHARIA = a sword belt.

This genus has a ring. The gills are generally attached to the stem;
some species grow on the ground, and some grow on other fungi. They are
sometimes bell-shaped and then flattened, often with a mound or
umbo.

HYPHOLOMA = web and fringe.

The veil in this genus is woven in a web which adheres to the margin of
the cap. The cap is more or less fleshy, and the margin at first
incurved. The gills are attached or have a tooth. There is no ring. The
plants grow in tufts on wood, or at the base of trees in the autumn.

PSILOCYBE = naked and head.

The cap in this genus is fleshy, smooth, and the margin at first
incurved. Gills turn dusky purple. The stem is cartilaginous, hollow or
stuffed. No veil is visible. They grow on the ground.

PSATHYRA = friable.

The cap is conical and soft, the margin at first straight, and then
pressed to the stem. The plants are slender, fragile and moist. Gills
become purple. They grow on the ground, or on trunks of trees.

COPRINUS = dung.

In this genus the spores are black. It has two distinctive features:
one, that the gills cohere at first, and are not separated when young;
and the other, that they dissolve into an inky fluid. The gills are also
scissile, that is, they can be split, and are linear and swollen in the
middle. The plants last but a short time. Some are edible.

Order 2.
POLYPOREI, OR TUBE-BEARING FUNGI.

We now pass to the next order, the Polyporei. We will mention four
genera:

BOLETUS.

The name is that of a fungus much prized for its delicacy by the Romans,
and is derived

53

from a Greek word meaning a clod, which denotes the round figure of the
plant.

The Boleti grow on the ground, are fleshy and putrescent with central
stems. The tubes are packed closely together and are easily
separated.

FISTULINA = a pipe.

In this genus the tubes are free and distinct from one another. They are
somewhat fleshy and grow upon wood.

POLYPORUS = many pores.

The pores or tubes in this genus are not separate from one another. They
are persistent fungi, most of them growing upon wood.

DAEDALEA = curiously wrought.

The name of this genus is derived from Daedalus, who constructed the
labyrinth at Crete, in which the monster Minotaur was kept. It was one
of the seven wonders of the world.

These fungi grow on wood, and become hard. The pores are firm when fully
grown; they are sinuous and labyrinthine.

Order 3.
HYDNEI, OR SPINE-BEARING FUNGI.

The name is derived from a word meaning a spine. This order contains
many genera, two of which we will mention, Hydnum and Tremellodon.

HYDNUM.

Hydnum is derived from a Greek word, the name of an edible fungus. The
plants in this genus are furnished with spines or teeth, instead of
gills or tubes, and these contain the spores. The species are divided
according to the stem. In some it is central and grows on the ground, in
others it is lateral, and the cap is semicircular (dimidiate), and
others again have no stem. There are some species that have no cap, and
the spines are either straight or oblique. There are a few that are
edible, but generally they have a bitter taste. However, some writers
say that Hydnum repandum, or the spreading Hedgehog, is “delicious.”
This mushroom and the one named “Medusa’s head,” H. caput Medusæ,
are perhaps the most conspicuous of the order. The latter is very large.
Its color is at first white, then becoming ashy gray. The spines on the
upper surface are twisted, while

55

the lower ones are long and straight. It grows on trunks of trees. In
the spreading Hydnum the margin of the cap is arched and irregular. It
grows on the ground.

TREMELLODON = jelly and a tooth.

The fungi in this genus are gelatinous. The cap is nearly semicircular
in shape, sometimes fan-shaped and rounded in front. The spines or teeth
are soft, white and delicate. We found one specimen in the month of
September in the mountains of the State of New York.

Order 4.
THELEPHOREI, OR EVEN SURFACE FUNGI.

In this order the lower surface of the cap is smooth and even, or
slightly wrinkled. It is divided into several genera, only two of which
we will enumerate, Craterellus and Stereum.

CRATERELLUS = a bowl.

The species called the “horn of plenty,” Craterellus cornucopioides,
belongs to this genus, and is often found. Stevenson says it is common.
It is trumpet-shaped (tubiform).

56

The cap is of a dingy black color, and the stem is hollow, smooth, and
black. We found quite a small specimen, the pileus not more than 1½ inch
broad, but it may measure 3 inches. The spore-bearing surface was of an
ash color. The margin of the cap was wavy, and it was hollow right
through to the base. It was only 2 inches high, and there was scarcely
any stem.

STEREUM = hard.

The genus Stereum is woody and leathery in nature, somewhat zoned, and
looks like some Polyporci. It grows on wood, on stumps, and on dead
wood.

Order 5.
CLAVARIEI, OR CLUB FUNGI.

This order contains several genera, but one only will be mentioned, that
of Clavaria.

CLAVARIA = club.

The common name often given to this genus is “Fairy Clubs.” We have
described several species in our list of fungi, and will only say that
these are fleshy fungi, either simple or branched. The expression
fleshy, so often met

57

with in these pages, is used in speaking of plants when they are
succulent and composed of juicy, cellular tissue. They do not become
leathery. In the genus Clavaria the fungi have no caps, but they have
stems. There are a few edible species. One can scarcely walk any
distance without seeing some species of Clavaria. They are conspicuous,
sometimes attractive looking, and interesting in their variety.

The genus Cortinarius, one of the order of Agarics, has been already
described, but it contains so many species that it deserves especial
mention.

They are difficult to define. The genus has been subdivided by botanists
into tribes which it may be well to enumerate. We have followed
Stevenson’s arrangement.

He divides Cortinarius into six tribes.

  1. Phlegacium = clammy moisture. In this tribe the cap is fleshy
and sticky (viscous), while the stem is firm and dry. In all Cortinarii
the gills become cinnamon-colored. There are many large-sized mushrooms
in this tribe, the cap sometimes measuring 6 inches across.

  2. Myxacium = mucous. This tribe has the stem sticky (viscous),
and the universal veil is

58

glutinous. The cap is fleshy but thin. Gills attached to stem and
decurrent.

  3. Inoloma = fibre and fringe. It contains distinguished species.
The cap is at first silky, with innate scales or fibrils, is equally
fleshy and dry. The stem is fleshy and rather bulbous.

  4. Dermocybe = skin and head. The cap and stem are both thinner
in this tribe than in Inoloma. The pileus becomes thin when old, and is
dry, not moist. It is at first silky. The color of the gills is
changeable, which makes it hard to distinguish the species.

  5. Telamonia = lint. Pileus moist; at first smooth or sprinkled
with superficial whitish fibres of the veil. Flesh thin, or becoming so
abruptly at the margin; the veil is somewhat double, which is a
distinguishing characteristic of this tribe.

  6. Hygrocybe = moist and head. Cap in this tribe is smooth or
only covered with white superficial fibrils, not gluey, but moist when
fresh, and changing color when dry. Flesh thin.

Class I.
GASTEROMYCETES, OR STOMACH FUNGI.

The Basidia-bearing fungi, or Basidiomycetes, are divided into three
classes, as has been already stated. The third class, Hymenomycetes, or
Membrane fungi, has been described, but there remain two other groups of
which we will now speak more fully. They may be considered too difficult
for beginners, and we would not venture to enter further into the
subject were it not that some of the most familiar fungi belong to these
classes—such as Puff-balls, Morels, and Helvellas.

The first class, called the Gasteromycetes, or Stomach fungi, matures
its spores on the inside of the plant. The distinction between this
class and that of the Membrane fungi, which ripens its spores on the
outside, may be more readily understood by one familiar with the
structure of the fig, whose flowers are situated on the interior of its
pear-shaped, hollow axis, which is the fruit.

We will divide the Stomach fungi into four orders—1, the
thick-skinned fungi (Sclerodermæ); 2, the Bird’s-nest fungi (Nidulariæ);

60

3, the Puff-balls (Lycoperdons); 4, the Stink horns (Phalloidæ.)

Order 1.
SCLERODERMÆ, THE THICK-SKINNED FUNGI.

Our attention will be confined to only one genus, and, indeed, one
species of this family. We often see in our walks what at a first glance
look like potatoes lying along the road, and the suggestion arises that
some careless boy has been losing potatoes from his basket on his way
home from the country store. We stoop to pick them up, and find them
rooted to the ground and covered with warts and scales. We cut them open
and find them a purplish-black color inside. It is a mass of closely
packed unripe spores. In a few days the upper part of the outside
covering decays, bursts open, and the ripe spores escape. This is called
the common hard-rind fungus, or Scleroderma vulgare.

Order 2.
NIDULARIÆ, THE BIRD’S-NEST FUNGI.

This is again divided into three genera. The Crucible (crucibulum), the
Cup (Cyathus), the Bird’s-nest proper (Nidularia.)

61

We often find on a wood-pile or a fallen tree some of the members of the
Bird’s-nest family. It is fascinating to examine them in their various
stages of development. First we see a tiny buff knot, cottony in texture
and closely covered; next, another rather larger, with its upper
covering thrown aside, displaying the tiny eggs, which prompts one to
look around for the miniature mother bird; then we find a nest empty
with the fledglings flown. The characteristic that distinguishes the
Bird’s-nest fungi from others consists in the fact that the spores are
produced in small envelopes that do not split open, and which are
enclosed in a common covering, called the peridium. One species is known
by the fluted inside of the covering, which is quite beautiful. They are
all small and grow in groups.

Order 3.
LYCOPERDONS, THE PUFF-BALLS.

The Lycoperdons contain several genera, among which we select the
Puff-balls proper and the Earth stars.

What child is there who lives in the country and does not know the
Puff-ball? With what gusto he presses it and watches what he calls

62

the smoke pouring from the chimney. Indeed, the outpouring of myriads of
spores in its ripe stage does suggest smoke from a chimney. The
puff-ball, when young, is of a firm texture, nearly round, grayish, or
brownish outside, but of a pure white within. There are several genera,
but we have selected two—1, Lycoperdon; and 2, Earth Star, or
Geaster.

LYCOPERDON = the puff-ball.

The puff-balls vary greatly in size, the smallest measure ½ inch up to
the largest, about 15 inches. Professor Peck describes them thus:
“Specimens of medium size are 8 to 12 inches in diameter. The largest in
the State Museum is about 15 inches in the dry state. When fresh it was
probably 20 inches or more. The color is whitish, afterward yellowish or
brownish. The largest size was called the Giant Puff-ball (Calvatia
bovista).”

GEASTER = the earth star.

These vary greatly in size. The small ones grow on pine needles on the
ground or among leaves. Some are mounted on pedicels, some are sessile
or seated directly on the earth, but

63

the family likeness is so pronounced that even the novice need not be
doubtful as to the name of the fungus when found. There are two species
that have slender, elongated stems. The name is well chosen. In moist
weather the points expand and roll back or lie flat on the earth. Then
the round puff-ball in the centre is plainly seen.

In dry weather the star-like divisions are rigidly turned in and cover
closely the round portion. “When dry it is sometimes rolled about by the
wind; when it is wet by the rain or abundant dew it absorbs the moisture
and spreads itself out, and rests from its journey, again to take up its
endless wandering as sun and rain appear to reduce it once more to a
ball and set it rolling.” (Underwood.)

Order 4.
PHALLOIDS, THE STINK HORN FUNGI.

We come now to the fourth and last order of the Stomach fungi
(Gasteromycetes) that we shall mention. In spite of their appellation
these fungi are strikingly beautiful, but their odor is most offensive.
They grow in woods, and are also found in cellars. Their history has
been carefully investigated by mycologists,

64

and the novice will find many beautiful illustrations in various works.
In their early stage they are enclosed in an egg-shaped veil (volva),
having a gelatinous inner layer. Some are bright-colored, others are
pure white, and the stems of one species look as if covered with lace
work. The most familiar one, Phallus impudicus, “the fetid wood witch,”
we have placed in the list of fungi at the end of this book, with its
description.

Class II.
ASCOMYCETES, OR SPORE SAC FUNGI.

This is the second division of the Basidia-bearing fungi. It includes
all the fungi that have the spores enveloped in delicate sacs called
asci. It is divided into several orders, but we will only mention the
one which contains the most familiar plants. This order is named the
Disc-like fungi (Discomycetes). In this the spore-bearing surface is on
the upper or outside surface of the mushroom cap. It is divided into
many genera, of which we shall mention three—the Cup fungi, or
Pezizas, the Morels or Morchellas, and the Yellowish fungi or
Helvellas.

PEZIZAS = the Cup fungi.

These form a very large group, mostly growing on decaying plants. They
are typically disc-shaped or cup-shaped, and when young are closed or
nearly so, opening when mature. They vary in size from minute species to
large fleshy ones, 3 to 4 inches in diameter. They are generally small,
thin, and tough. They grow on twigs, leaves, dead wood, or on the
ground. Many are stemless. They are both solitary and densely clustered.
The color varies from pale brown to a dark gray, resembling, when moist,
india-rubber cloth, and then, again, there are many of brilliant
hues—red and orange. Some are erect, some are split down at the
side like the ear of a hare. The Cup fungi are found in August and
September, growing near ditches, and by the roadside where there is
moisture. The ear-shaped Pezizas somewhat resemble the Jew’s ear, and
the beginner might easily confound them. This latter fungus belongs to
the third class of membrane fungi (Hymenomycetes), and it is included in
the descriptions of fungi.

THE MORELS or MORCHELLAS = the honey-combed
fungi.

The collector during the months of April and May will enjoy a new
experience when he first finds a fungus of a bright brown color, deeply
pitted, spongy looking, cone-shaped or nearly round; its head supported
on an erect, white stem. He will probably find it on a grassy hillside
or along a running brook under some forest trees. He has perhaps seen
its picture and at once exclaims, “my first Morel.” He will notice its
peculiar honey-combed depression, and then cutting it open will find
both the head and the stem hollow. Where are the spores? There are no
gills as in the Agarics, nor are they concealed in a covering
(peridium), as in the Puff-balls, but they are contained in delicate
sacs on the cap. The exterior surface of the cap is the spore-bearing
portion, and the spores are developed in their sacs, but only seen under
a microscope.

HELVELLA = the yellowish mushroom.

This genus may be readily recognized by the form of the cap, which is
lobed and irregularly

67

waved and drooping, often attached to the stem. They grow on the ground
in the woods, and sometimes on rotten wood. The genus comprises the
largest of the Disc fungi known, some species weighing over a pound.
Cicero mentions the Helvellas as a favorite dish of the Romans.

THE TRUFFLE = delicacy.

It will be well to finish this section with the mention of the Truffle.
It may yet be found in the United States, but hitherto its place of
growth has been on the continent of Europe, and especially in France,
where it forms an article of commerce, and is highly prized as food. It
is subterranean, and requires for its discovery a higher sense of smell
than man possesses. It is generally found by the hog and the dog, who
are trained to help the truffle hunters. There are some species in our
country that resemble it, and grow underneath the ground. One, found in
the Southern States, called Rhizopogon, grows in sandy soil. This
species, however, does not belong to Class II., but to Class I., the
Gasteromycetes, or Stomach fungi. It is not likely that the beginner
will find this mushroom, so no description will be given.

GENERAL HELPS TO THE
MEMORY.

There are certain facts which if committed to memory will be of great
help to beginners in classifying mushrooms. There are distinctive
features belonging to different genera, which will be enumerated as
follows. These facts apply to the order of Agarics, containing the
largest number of familiar mushrooms. They have been placed in tables
for the convenience of the beginner, and are arranged without regard to
family relationship.

Mushrooms Containing both Volva and Ring
(Annulus).

There is only one genus that has both volva and ring. Amanita.

Mushrooms with Ring and no Volva.

  1. Pholiota.

  2. Annularia.

  3. Stropharia.

  4. Psalliota.

  5. Armillaria.

  6. Lepiota.

Mushrooms that have the stem attached on the side
(lateral)
or between Margin and Centre (eccentric).

  1. Crepidotus.

  2. Claudopus.

  3. Pleurotus.

Mushrooms with tough or cartilaginous Stems.

  1. Psathyra.

  2. Nolanea.

  3. Mycena.

  4. Marasmius.

  5. Naucoria.

  6. Leptonia.

  7. Omphalia.

  8. Collybia.

  9. Psilocybe.

10. Galera.

Mushrooms, Stemless.

  1. Schizophyllum.

  2. Trogia.

  3. Lenzites.

Mushrooms that have the Cap bell-shaped
(campanulate)
and Marked with Lines (striate).

  1. Psathyra.

  2. Galera.

  3. Nolanea.

  4. Mycena.

Mushrooms with Gills attached to Stem and a
Ring.

  1. Stropharia.

  2. Armillaria.

  3. Pholiota.

Mushrooms Having Gills with serrated edge.

  1. Lentinus.

Mushrooms with Free Gills not attached to Stem.

  1. Chitonia.

  2. Psalliota.

  3. Pluteolus.

  4. Pluteus.

  5. Volvaria.

  6. Lepiota.

  7. Amanita.

Mushrooms with emarginate sinuate Gills, or with
notch near to Stem.

  1. Hypholoma.

  2. Tricholoma.

  3. Hebeloma.

  4. Entoloma.

Mushrooms that are corky and leathery.

  1. Lenzites.

  2. Lentinus.

  3. Schizophyllum.

  4. Panus.

Mushrooms with Gills running down Stem more or less
(decurrent).

  1. Gomphidius.

  2. Paxillus.

  3. Tubaria (some species).

  4. Flammula (some adnate).

  5. Eccilia (truly decurrent).

  6. Clitopilus (somewhat decurrent).

  7. Panus (some species decurrent).

  8. Lentinus (mostly decurrent).

  9. Cantharellus.

10. Hygrophorus (mostly decurrent).

11. Pleurotus (some decurrent).

72

12. Omphalia (truly decurrent).

13. Clitocybe (decurrent or adnate).

14. Lactarius (decurrent or adnato-decurrent).

Mushrooms that are deliquescent or turn into inky
fluid.

  1. Coprinus.

  2. Bolbitius.

It will also be useful to the beginner to see a list of Agarics
classified according to botanists by the color of their spores.

CLASSIFICATION OF AGARICS BY COLOR OF SPORES.

  1. Leucosporæ (white spores).

  2. Rhodosporæ (rosy or salmon spores).

  3. Ochrosporæ (ochraceous spores).

  4. Melanosporæ (dark purple or black spores).

Leucosporæ, or White Spores.

  1. Amanita.

  2. Lepiota.

  3. Armillaria.

  4. Tricholoma.

73

  5. Clitocybe.

  6. Collybia.

  7. Mycena.

  8. Omphalia.

  9. Pleurotus.

10. Trogia.

11. Hygrophorus.

12. Lactarius.

13. Russula.

14. Cantharellus.

15. Marasmius.

16. Lentinus.

17. Panus.

18. Xerotus.

19. Schizophyllum.

20. Lenzites.

21. Arrhenia (pallid spores).

Rhodosporæ, Rosy or Salmon Spores.

  1. Volvaria.

  2. Pluteus.

  3. Enteloma.

  4. Leptonia.

  5. Nolanea.

  6. Eccilia.

  7. Claudopus.

  8. Clitopilus.

Ochrosporæ, or Ochraceous Spores.

  1. Pholiota.

  2. Inocybe.

  3. Hebeloma.

  4. Flammula.

  5. Naucoria.

  6. Pluteolus.

  7. Galera.

  8. Tubaria.

  9. Crepidotus.

10. Cortinarius.

11. Acetabularia.

12. Paxillus (spores are ferruginous or dingy white).

13. Bolbitius (ferruginous spores).

Melanosporæ, Dark Purple or Black Spores.

  1. Chitonia.

  2. Psalliota.

  3. Stropharia.

  4. Hypholoma.

  5. Psilocybe.

  6. Psathyra.

  7. Panæolus.

  8. Psathyrella.

75

  9. Coprinus.

10. Gomphidius.

11. Anellaria.

Having arranged these lists of mushrooms by their different
characteristics, and then by the color of the spores, we will give a
list of fungi familiar to most persons, classified according to the
colors of the cap. The far greater number have been analyzed by the
writers, and a full description is given to enable the beginner more
easily to identify them.

The reader will notice that in the lists of fungi given above there are
certain genera not elsewhere mentioned in this book. He will understand
that it is inadvisable in a short primer to allude to all the genera
that exist. It was, however, impossible to give a complete table without
including them in it.

[opp. 76]


Russula pectinata.
Photographed by C. G. Lloyd.

DESCRIPTIONS OF FUNGI, ARRANGED
ACCORDING TO COLOR OF CAP ONLY.

[opp. 100]


Amanita vaginata.
Photographed by C. G. Lloyd.

[opp. 128]

DESCRIPTIONS OF SOME FAMILIAR
MUSHROOMS WITHOUT REGARD TO COLOR.

Here
follows a list of fungi that we constantly see, but which cannot be
classified by the color of the cap.

POLYPOREI, PORE-BEARING FUNGI.

FISTULINA HEPATICA = liver.
The Beefsteak Fungus.

This species grows on trees, oaks or chestnuts, in hot weather.
Cap is of a dark-red color, which probably suggested the name. It
is generally 2 to 6 inches broad, but often grows to an immense size.
The surface is rough, the flesh thick, viscid above, soft when young,
when old tough, covered with tenacious fibres. Stem short and
thick. Pores at first pallid or yellowish-pink when young; they
become brownish ochraceous when old. It is changeable in

132

form, is sometimes sessile (without a stem), or it has a short lateral
stem.

The genus Fistulina, to which this mushroom belongs, has the under
surface of the cap covered with minute hollow pores, which are separate
from one another and stand side by side. The shape varies. It is
sometimes long, shaped like a tongue, or roundish. It is
peculiar-looking. It is considered good for food and nourishing, but the
taste is said to be rather acid. The specimens we found varied from 2 to
5 inches in diameter. They were of a dark-red color, and were tough and
old. They grew upon a tree in a large forest, and were not found
anywhere else.

POLYPORUS BETULINUS = birch.
The Birch Polyporus.

We shall meet a great many fungi on our walks that belong to the genus
Polyporus. They are generally leathery (coriaceous) fungi, and many grow
on wood. A few are edible, but are not recommended as food. The species
P. betulinus is found on living and dead birch trees. The specimens
we found grew in great quantities, of all sizes, from 1½ to 6 inches
broad. They were at first pure white, and then

133

assumed a brownish tinge. The edges were obtuse, the caps fleshy, then
corky, smooth, the upper ends not regular, oblique in the form of an
umbo or little knob, the pellicles or outside layers thin and easily
separated. Pores short, small, unequal, at length separating. The shape
of the fungus is peculiar, a sort of semi-circular outline that may be
called dimidiate. The margins were involute. They protruded from a split
in the bark of a dead birch tree which lay prostrate on the ground,
several feet in length, and it was literally covered with the fungi,
some an inch wide and snow white, and the largest 5 or 6 inches in
width, and of a brownish-gray tinge. These specimens became as hard as
wood after they had been kept for some time. The thin skin peeled off
easily and disclosed the snowy flesh beneath.

POLYPORUS PERENNIS = perennial.
The Perennial Polyporus.

Cap is cinnamon-colored, then of a date brown, leathery, tough,
funnel-shaped, becoming smooth, zoned. Pores minute, angular,
acute, at first sprinkled with a white bloom, then naked and torn.
Stem slightly firm,

134

thickened downward, velvety. This is a common species, and one meets
with it everywhere on the ground, and on stumps, from July to January.
The cap is 1½ to 2 inches broad, and the stem 1 inch long.

POLYPORUS PICIPES = pitch and foot.
The Black-stemmed Polyporus.

Cap pallid color, then turning chestnut, often a pale yellowish
livid color, with the disc chestnut, fleshy, leathery, rigid, tough,
even, smooth, depressed at disc or behind. Flesh white. Stem
eccentric and lateral, equal, firm, at first velvety, then naked, and
dotted black up to the pores. Pores decurrent, round, very small,
rather slender, white, then slightly pale and yellowish. This fungus
grows on the trunks of trees, and is found as late as the middle of
winter.

POLYPORUS SULPHUREUS = brimstone.
The Sulphury Polyporus.

This mushroom gains its name from the color of its pores, which are of a
bright sulphur color. It grows in tufted layers (cæspitose), sometimes 1
to 2 feet long, and it cannot be mistaken.

135

Cap may measure 8 inches in breadth, and is of a reddish-yellow
color, overlapping like the shingles of a roof (imbricated). It is wavy
and rather smooth. Flesh light yellowish, then white, splitting open.
Pores are minute, even, sulphur yellow. They retain their color
much better than the pileus. The plants are generally without a stem,
but there may be a short stem, which is lateral. They grow in clusters,
all fastened together and one above the other, and of all sizes. We saw
this fungus first in a dense woods, where its bright color at once
attracted our notice. It was growing in a large cluster, closely packed
one over the other. It is said to be good for food when young and
tender.

POLYPORUS LUCIDUS = bright.
The Shining Polyporus.

One can never mistake this fungus. Its surface looks as if covered with
varnish, rather wrinkled, a bright dark-red color, and its shape is
varied and singular. We have seen it sometimes shaped like a fan, and
like a lady’s high comb, or in some fantastic form. Stevenson says it is
a light yellow color and then becomes blood red chestnut. It is first
corky, then

136

woody. Stem lateral, equal, varnished, shining, of the same color
as cap. Pores are long, very small, white and then cinnamon
color. It grows on and about stumps during the summer. Cap is
from 2 to 6 inches broad, and the stem 6 to 10 inches long, and 1 or
more thick.

POLYPORUS VERSICOLOR = changeable.
The Changeable Polyporus.

This species is also common. It is found on dead wood, in all forms and
colors. Cap variegated with different-colored zones; leathery,
thin, rigid, depressed behind, becoming velvety. Pores minute,
round, acute and torn, white, turning pale or yellow.

POLYPORUS ELEGANS = elegant.
The Elegant Polyporus.

Cap 2 to 4 inches broad, of one color, pallid, ochraceous or
orange, shining, equally fleshy, and then hardened, becoming woody,
flattened, even, smooth. Flesh white. Stem eccentric or lateral,
even, smooth, pallid at first, abruptly black and rooting at the base.
Pores plane, minute, somewhat round, yellowish-white, pallid.

137

The cap differs in shape from others that have been described; it is not
funnel-shaped nor streaked, and is scarcely depressed, and the flesh is
thick to the margin. It grows on trunks of trees from July to
November.

CLAVARIEI, OR CLUB-SHAPED FUNGI.

We now come to another order, Clavariei, of which the first genus is
Clavaria, from a word meaning a club. They are fleshy fungi, not
coriaceous. They have no distinct stem and generally grow on the ground.
We will mention a few of those we often see. They somewhat resemble
coral in growth but not in color.

CLAVARIA STRICTA = to draw tight.
The Constricted Clavaria.

This Clavaria grows on trunks of trees. It is of a pale yellowish color,
becoming a dusky brown (fuscous) when bruised. The base is about 3 lines
long, thick and much branched. The branches and branchlets are tense and
straight, crowded, adpressed and acute. Stevenson says that this species
is uncommon in Great Britain.

CLAVARIA FLAVA = yellow.
The Pale Yellow Clavaria.

Stevenson does not mention this species, so it may be peculiar to this
country. Stem is short and stout, thick, and abruptly dissolves
into a dense mass of erect branches nearly parallel. The tips are yellow
but fade when old. It branches below and the stems are whitish. Flesh
white. It is recommended as well flavored and edible.

CLAVARIA PISTILLARIS = a pestle.
The Large Club Clavaria.

This species belongs to the largest of the unbranched kind. It is
generally 3 to 5 inches high, and ½ to ⅔ of an inch thick at top. Light
yellow color, then reddish, and dingy brown in decay. It is smooth and
the flesh soft and white. It is rounded at the top and club-shaped. It
tapers downward toward the base. Stevenson gives the height from 6 to 12
inches, but Professor Peck says he has not seen it as large in this
country. It is found in open grassy places. It was late in the autumn
when we discovered it. (Edible.)

CLAVARIA INEQUALIS = unequal.
The Unequal Clavaria.

This fungus is yellow and fragile. The clubs are alike in color, simple
or forked, and variable. It is common in woods and pastures. We found it
in September in the woods, rather wrinkled in appearance. It is not
classed among the edible species.

TYPHULA = reed mace.

One may sometimes see among the dead leaves in the woods, minute slender
bodies with thread-like stems, springing up from the ground, 2 to 3
inches high, of a white color and cylindrical in shape. They look like
slender stems from which the blossoms have been plucked. They are called
Typhula. They grow on dead leaves, on mosses, or on dead herbaceous
stems. The name is taken from the Cat Tail family, the Typhaceae, which
they somewhat resemble in miniature.

SCHIZOPHYLLUM COMMUNE = to split, a leaf and
common.
The Common Schizophyllum.

There is but one species given by Stevenson of this genus, and, as the
name demonstrates, it is common, at least in this country. In Great
Britain it is rare. It grows on dead wood and logs. It has zones, either
of gray or white color, and it is turned up at the edge (revolute).
There is no flesh, and the pileus is dry. The gills are branched
fan-wise. It is not a typical Agaric, but is more like some Polyporei.
The gills are split longitudinally at the edge, and the two lips
commonly turn backward (revolute).

HIRNEOLA AURICULA JUDAE.
The Jew’s Ear.

There is one species belonging to the order Tremellodon that is quite
common. It is called the Jew’s ear. It is a very peculiar-looking
fungus, shaped somewhat like the human ear, of all sizes, and grows in
great quantities in the same place. It looks as if it were composed of a
thick jelly, and becomes soft and tremulous when damp. Its color is
dark, sometimes

141

almost black. It is tough and cup-shaped, with ridges across it like an
ear. The generic name, Hirneola, means a jug, and the specific name,
Auricula Judae, a Jew’s ear.

GASTEROMYCETES, OR STOMACH FUNGI.

SCLERODERMA VULGARE = hard, skin, common.
The Common Hard-skinned Mushroom.

This species closely resembles the common potato in shape and color. It
generally measures 2 to 3 inches across, and is of a pale brown color.
It grows close on the earth, is folded toward the base, and firm in
texture. The cuticle is covered with warts or scales.

CRUCIBULUM VULGARE = crucible, common.
The Common Crucible.

This little fungus is about ¼ of an inch across. It resembles a tiny
bird’s-nest with eggs in it. At first it looks like a cottony knot,
closely covered; its apex is closed by a membrane, then its covering is
thrown off, and the apparent tiny eggs are merely smaller envelopes,
called the peridiola. These are lentil-shaped and pale, and are fastened
to the inside of the

142

covering by a long cord, which can be seen only through a strong
lens.

CYATHUS VERNICOSUS = varnished.
The Varnished Cup.

This differs from the crucible in color, form and habitat. It is about ½
an inch high. It is bell-shaped, becoming broadly open like a trumpet,
and of a slate or ash color. The mouth and lining shine as if varnished,
and hence its name. The plants grow on the ground, on wood and on
leaves.

LYCOPERDON CYATHIFORME = cup-shape.
The Cup-shaped Puff-ball.

This species of puff-ball is round with a contracted base. It is 4 to 10
inches across, a white or pinkish-brown color, afterward becoming a
darker brown and covered with small patches. When the spores mature the
upper part of the covering (peridium) becomes torn and only the lower
part remains. It looks like a dark-colored cup with a ragged margin, and
may be seen by the excursionist in the spring on the roadside. It has
survived the winter frosts and storms. It is split and shabby

143

looking. In August it is a whitish puff-ball, in the spring only a torn,
brown cup.

LYCOPERDON PYRIFORME = pear-shape.
The Pear-shaped Puff-ball.

This species is shaped like a pear. It is from 1 to 4 inches high and is
covered with persistent warts so small as to look like scales to the
naked eye. It is of a dingy white or brownish-yellow. Its shape
separates it from the puff-balls, especially from the warted puff-ball,
L. gemmatum, which is nearly round with a base like a stem, an
ashy-gray color, and the surface is also warty, but unequally so, and as
the warts fall off they leave the puff-ball dotted. The pear-shaped
puff-ball has little fibrous rootlets, and the plants grow in crowds on
decaying trees.

GEASTER HYGROMETRICUS = moisture, measure.
The Wandering Earth Star.

This earth star is from 2 to 3½ inches wide. It is sessile, of a
brownish color, and changes its form accordingly as the weather is moist
or dry, hence the name. It is contracted and round in dry weather, and
star-like in damp atmosphere, with its lobes stretched out on the

144

earth. The covering consists of three layers, the two outermost split
from the top into several acute divisions, which spread out like the
points of a star. The innermost layer is round and attached by the base.
There are one or more openings at the top for the escape of the
spores.

PHALLUS IMPUDICUS = disgusting.
The Fetid Wood Witch.

In the first stages the plant is white, soft and heavy, in shape and
size like a hen’s egg. It is covered by three layers, the outer one
firm, the middle one gelatinous, the third and inner one consists of a
thin membrane. This phallus develops under the ground until its spores
are mature. At length the apex is ruptured by the growth of the spore
receptacle, and the stem expands and elongates, escaping through the
top, and elevates the cap into the air. The stem at the early stage is
composed of cells filled with a gluten. The stem afterward becomes open
and spongy, owing to the drying of the gelatinous matter. The spores are
immersed in a strong-smelling, olive-green gluten. They are on the
outside of the cap and embedded in its ridges. A part of the volva

145

remains as a sheath at the base of the stem. This plant develops so
rapidly as to attain in a few hours the height of seven inches, the stem
is of lace-like structure, pure white, and its appearance suggests the
silicious sponge so ornamental in collections, commonly known as Venus’
basket. The drooping cap is also lacey with a network, and the spores
drip mucus and then dry up, in the meantime spreading around a
carrion-like, fetid smell. The Phallus, therefore, differs greatly in
appearance from the other genera of the order when it is seen above
ground, but if one is successful in finding it at an early stage, under
the surface of the earth, he will realize its relationship to the
general group, and find it an interesting subject of study.

ASCOMYCETES, OR SPORE-SAC FUNGI.

PEZIZA AUKANTIA = golden.
The Golden Peziza.

This species is 2 to 3 inches in diameter, its disc is bright orange
color, while its exterior is pale and downy, owing to the presence of
short, stout hairs. It is sessile or nearly so, and grows

146

in tufts on the ground near stumps of trees. At first the disc is thin
and brittle, with a raised margin, much waved, becoming incised, and
finally spreads flat on the ground.

MORCHELLA ESCULENTA = food.
The Edible or Common Morel.

This is 2 to 4 inches high, stem about ½ inch in diameter. The cap is of
a dull yellow color, olivaceous, darkening with age to a brownish tinge.
It is oval-shaped, with dark hollows.

HELVELLA INFULA = name of a woollen head-dress.
The Cap-like Helvella.

This species is named Infula, because it is supposed to resemble in
shape the sacred woollen head-dress worn by priests of Rome, by
supplicants and victims, tied around the head by a ribbon or bandage,
which hangs down on both sides. The stem is surmounted with a lobed cap,
with two to four irregularly drooping lobes of reddish or cinnamon-brown
color, and is about 3 inches in diameter. The stem is 2 or 3 inches
high, usually smooth, but sometimes pitted. We found our specimen in the
woods in August.

[opp. 146]


Cortinarius distans.
Photographed by C. G. Lloyd.

DIRECTIONS FOR USING
KEYS.

Let
us suppose that the beginner finds a mushroom and wishes to name it. He
has learned its component parts. He has remarked the names of the
classes into which mushrooms are divided. How then shall he make use of
the Keys? We will imagine that he has found a Cantharellus. The cap is
yellow color, so let him turn to the list of fungi described under the
section “Yellow and Orange,” and see if it agrees in appearance with
anyone of these. (It is necessary before consulting a key to find the
color of the spores. This is done by cutting off the cap, and placing
it, gills downward, on paper, and leaving it there for two or three
hours. Having followed these directions in this case it will have been
seen that the spores are white.)

After consulting the list of “Yellow and Orange” he will find that the
first one mentioned is Cantharellus cibarius, the Chantarelle.

148

The description resembles that of the mushroom found in every
particular.

Now let the beginner go further, and prove the correctness of the name
in another way. Turning to the section called “General Helps to the
Memory,” on page 68, and reading the names of the different genera under
the headings until he comes to the name Cantharellus, he will find it in
the table called “Mushrooms with gills running down the stems
(decurrent).” This distinction is apparent in the specimen found. Again,
let him turn to the list of white-spored Agarics, page 73, and he will
find the name of the genus Cantharellus there. Now, as an additional
test, let him turn to the key at the end of this work, the key to
Hymenomycetes. He must have learned enough by this time to know that his
mushroom belongs to this class, namely, the one that has spores produced
upon the lower part of the cap, and, also, that it is an Agaric, from
its having gills on the under side. Let him begin with Section A, “with
cap.” 1. Mushrooms with radiating gills beneath caps (Agarics). The key
then follows: 1. Plants fleshy, soon decaying. 2. Turn to number 2.
There are two descriptions, juice milky and juice watery; he will choose
the second one,

149

which is followed by the number 3. Then follows, stem central or nearly
so; this agrees with the plant, and leads to 4. The first line reads
“white spores,” which is correct; then comes 5. There are four lines
with descriptions, the last one, “no ring and no volva,” is right, which
leads to 7. There are here two lines belonging to 7, the second one,
“gills in the form of folds, obtuse edge,” is correct, and points to 10.
This reads, “Gills decurrent, plant terrestrial, Cantharellus.” The Key
gives the name of the genus only. In the list of descriptions an
attempt is made to mention some of the commonest species. These
directions apply to all the keys alike.

DIVISION I.

DIVISION II.

GLOSSARY.

INDEX TO DESCRIPTIONS OF
FUNGI.

APPENDIX.

A GUIDE FOR THE IDENTIFICATION AND
DIFFERENTIATION OF AGARICS, COMPRISED
IN FOUR TABLES, ARRANGED WITH
REFERENCE TO THE COLORS OF
THE SPORES, VIZ.:

NOTE.

In
using this table the student should first ascertain the color of the
spores of the specimen under investigation. This will determine the
particular table to be applied to its further examination. If, for
instance, he finds its spores to be white, he will know that Table I. is
the one to be consulted. Turning to that table, he should recall the
place of its growth, its habitat. Now, suppose it to have been found
growing on a stump, he will, by looking at the first column, Habitat, of
Table I., be informed that it must be one of the four genera named in
the column with the heading “On Stumps.” Let him then examine its
“gills.” If he finds them to be “adnate,” he will be assured that it
must be an “Armillaria,” as no other genus is shown in the column as
growing “on stumps” and which has gills that are adnate. But to make
assurance doubly sure, he may proceed further

167

to discover whether the specimen has also the ring called for in column
headed “Ring.” If it has, and was found growing in the summer, he may
feel quite safe in classifying it as Armillaria. Sometimes the same
genus will be found in more than one column. This ought not to mislead
or confuse the beginner. In Table I., column headed “Volva,” Amanita is
mentioned, and also in the column headed “Ring,” but this indicates that
an Amanita has both the Volva (the universal veil) and the Ring. So in
the columns headed by “Stem,” Pleurotus is represented as having a
lateral or eccentric stem, and also as having no stem. The meaning is,
that some species of the genus have no stem, while there are others in
which the stem is lateral or eccentric.

Table I.—White Spores.

Table II.—Red and Pink Spores.

Table III.—Ochraceous Spores.

Table IV.—Dark Purple and Black
Spores.