ON HORSEMANSHIP

By Xenophon

Translation by H. G. Dakyns

Contents

PREPARER’S NOTE

This was typed from Dakyns’ series, “The Works of Xenophon,” a four-volume
set. The complete list of Xenophon’s works (though there is doubt about
some of these) is:

ON HORSEMANSHIP

I

Claiming to have attained some proficiency in horsemanship (1) ourselves,
as the result of long experience in the field, our wish is to explain, for
the benefit of our younger friends, what we conceive to be the most
correct method of dealing with horses.

There is, it is true, a treatise on horsemanship written by Simon, the
same who dedicated the bronze horse near the Eleusinion in Athens (2) with
a representation of his exploits engraved in relief on the pedestal. (3)
But we shall not on that account expunge from our treatise any conclusions
in which we happen to agree with that author; on the contrary we shall
hand them on with still greater pleasure to our friends, in the belief
that we shall only gain in authority from the fact that so great an expert
in horsemanship held similar views to our own; whilst with regard to
matters omitted in his treatise, we shall endeavour to supply them.

{andres ippes, paragenesthe nun o kairos, o Simon, o Panaiti, ouk elate
pros to dexion keras};

bears the name.

As our first topic we shall deal with the question, how a man may best
avoid being cheated in the purchase of a horse.

Take the case of a foal as yet unbroken: it is plain that our scrutiny
must begin with the body; an animal that has never yet been mounted can
but present the vaguest indications of spirit. Confining ourselves
therefore to the body, the first point to examine, we maintain, will be
the feet. Just as a house would be of little use, however beautiful its
upper stories, if the underlying foundations were not what they ought to
be, so there is little use to be extracted from a horse, and in particular
a war-horse, (4) if unsound in his feet, however excellent his other
points; since he could not turn a single one of them to good account. (5)

regibus hic mos est: ubi equos mercantur, opertos inspiciunt, ne, si
facies, ut saepe, decora molli fulta pede est, emptorem inducat hiantem,
quod pulchrae clunes, breve quod caput, ardua cervix.

and see Virg. “Georg.” iii. 72 foll.

In testing the feet the first thing to examine will be the horny portion
of the hoof. For soundness of foot a thick horn is far better than a thin.
Again it is important to notice whether the hoofs are high both before and
behind, or flat to the ground; for a high hoof keeps the “frog,” (6) as it
is called, well off the ground; whereas a low hoof treads equally with the
stoutest and softest part of the foot alike, the gait resembling that of a
bandy-legged man. (7) “You may tell a good foot clearly by the ring,” says
Simon happily; (8) for the hollow hoof rings like a cymbal against the
solid earth. (9)

And now that we have begun with the feet, let us ascend from this point to
the rest of the body. The bones (10) above the hoof and below the fetlock
must not be too straight, like those of a goat; through not being properly
elastic, (11) legs of this type will jar the rider, and are more liable to
become inflamed. On the other hand, these bones must not be too low, or
else the fetlock will be abraded or lacerated when the horse is galloped
over clods and stones.

The bones of the shanks (12) ought to be thick, being as they are the
columns on which the body rests; thick in themselves, that is, not puffed
out with veins or flesh; or else in riding over hard ground they will
inevitably be surcharged with blood, and varicose conditions be set up,
(13) the legs becoming thick and puffy, whilst the skin recedes; and with
this loosening of the skin the back sinew (14) is very apt to start and
render the horse lame.

If the young horse in walking bends his knees flexibly, you may safely
conjecture that when he comes to be ridden he will have flexible legs,
since the quality of suppleness invariably increases with age. (15) Supple
knees are highly esteemed and with good reason, rendering as they do the
horse less liable to stumble or break down from fatigue than those of
stiffer build.

Coming to the thighs below the shoulder-blades, (16) or arms, these if
thick and muscular present a stronger and handsomer appearance, just as in
the case of a human being. Again, a comparatively broad chest is better
alike for strength and beauty, and better adapted to carry the legs well
asunder, so that they will not overlap and interfere with one another.
Again, the neck should not be set on dropping forward from the chest, like
a boar’s, but, like that of a game-cock rather, it should shoot upwards to
the crest, and be slack (17) along the curvature; whilst the head should
be bony and the jawbone small. In this way the neck will be well in front
of the rider, and the eye will command what lies before the horse’s feet.
A horse, moreover, of this build, however spirited, will be least capable
of overmastering the rider, (18) since it is not by arching but by
stretching out his neck and head that a horse endeavours to assert his
power. (19)

It is important also to observe whether the jaws are soft or hard on one
or other side, since as a rule a horse with unequal jaws (20) is liable to
become hard-mouthed on one side.

Again, a prominent rather than a sunken eye is suggestive of alertness,
and a horse of this type will have a wider range of vision.

And so of the nostrils: a wide-dilated nostril is at once better than a
contracted one for respiration, and gives the animal a fiercer aspect.
Note how, for instance, when one stallion is enraged against another, or
when his spirit chafes in being ridden, (21) the nostrils at once become
dilated.

A comparatively large crest and small ears give a more typical and
horse-like appearance to the head, whilst lofty withers again allow the
rider a surer seat and a stronger adhesion between the shoulders and the
body. (22)

A “double spine,” (23) again, is at once softer to sit on than a single,
and more pleasing to the eye. So, too, a fairly deep side somewhat rounded
towards the belly (24) will render the animal at once easier to sit and
stronger, and as a general rule better able to digest his food. (25)

The broader and shorter the loins the more easily will the horse raise his
forequarters and bring up his hindquarters under him. Given these points,
moreover, the belly will appear as small as possible, a portion of the
body which if large is partly a disfigurement and partly tends to make the
horse less strong and capable of carrying weight. (26)

The quarters should be broad and fleshy in correspondence with the sides
and chest, and if they are also firm and solid throughout they will be all
the lighter for the racecourse, and will render the horse in every way
more fleet.

To come to the thighs (and buttocks): (27) if the horse have these
separated by a broad line of demarcation (28) he will be able to plant his
hind-legs under him with a good gap between; (29) and in so doing will
assume a posture (30) and a gait in action at once prouder and more firmly
balanced, and in every way appear to the best advantage.

The human subject would seem to point to this conclusion. When a man wants
to lift anything from off the ground he essays to do so by bringing the
legs apart and not by bringing them together.

A horse ought not to have large testicles, though that is not a point to
be determined in the colt.

And now, as regards the lower parts, the hocks, (31) or shanks and
fetlocks and hoofs, we have only to repeat what has been said already
about those of the fore-legs.

I will here note some indications by which one may forecast the probable
size of the grown animal. The colt with the longest shanks at the moment
of being foaled will grow into the biggest horse; the fact being—and
it holds of all the domestic quadrupeds (32)—that with advance of
time the legs hardly increase at all, while the rest of the body grows
uniformly up to these, until it has attained its proper symmetry.

Such is the type (33) of colt and such the tests to be applied, with every
prospect of getting a sound-footed, strong, and fleshy animal fine of form
and large of stature. If changes in some instances develop during growth,
that need not prevent us from applying our tests in confidence. It far
more often happens that an ugly-looking colt will turn out serviceable,
(34) than that a foal of the above description will turn out ugly or
defective.

II

The right method of breaking a colt needs no description at our hands. (1)
As a matter of state organisation, (2) cavalry duties usually devolve upon
those who are not stinted in means, and who have a considerable share in
the government; (3) and it seems far better for a young man to give heed
to his own health of body and to horsemanship, or, if he already knows how
to ride with skill, to practising manoeuvres, than that he should set up as
a trainer of horses. (4) The older man has his town property and his
friends, and the hundred-and-one concerns of state or of war, on which to
employ his time and energies rather than on horsebreaking. It is plain
then that any one holding my views (5) on the subject will put a young
horse out to be broken. But in so doing he ought to draw up articles, just
as a father does when he apprentices his son to some art or handicraft,
stating what sort of knowledge the young creature is to be sent back
possessed of. These will serve as indications (6) to the trainer what
points he must pay special heed to if he is to earn his fee. At the same
time pains should be taken on the owner’s part to see that the colt is
gentle, tractable, and affectionate, (7) when delivered to the
professional trainer. That is a condition of things which for the most
part may be brought about at home and by the groom—if he knows how
to let the animal connect (8) hunger and thirst and the annoyance of flies
with solitude, whilst associating food and drink and escape from sources
of irritation with the presence of man. As the result of this treatment,
necessarily the young horse will acquire—not fondness merely, but an
absolute craving for human beings. A good deal can be done by touching,
stroking, patting those parts of the body which the creature likes to have
so handled. These are the hairiest parts, or where, if there is anything
annoying him, the horse can least of all apply relief himself.

The groom should have standing orders to take his charge through crowds,
and to make him familiar with all sorts of sights and noises; and if the
colt shows sign of apprehension at them, (9) he must teach him—not
by cruel, but by gentle handling—that they are not really
formidable.

On this topic, then, of training, (10) the rules here given will, I think,
suffice for any private individual.

III

To meet the case in which the object is to buy a horse already fit for
riding, we will set down certain memoranda, (1) which, if applied
intelligently, may save the purchaser from being cheated.

First, then, let there be no mistake about the age. If the horse has lost
his mark teeth, (2) not only will the purchaser’s hopes be blighted, but
he may find himself saddled for ever with a sorry bargain. (3)

Given that the fact of youth is well established, let there be no mistake
about another matter: how does he take the bit into his mouth and the
headstall (4) over his ears? There need be little ambiguity on this score,
if the purchaser will see the bit inserted and again removed, under his
eyes. Next, let it be carefully noted how the horse stands being mounted.
Many horses are extremely loath to admit the approach of anything which,
if once accepted, clearly means to them enforced exertion.

Another point to ascertain is whether the horse, when mounted, can be
induced to leave other horses, or when being ridden past a group of horses
standing, will not bolt off to join the company. Some horses again, as the
result of bad training, will run away from the exercising-ground and make
for the stable. A hard mouth may be detected by the exercise called the
{pede} or volte, (5) and still more so by varying the direction of the
volte to right or left. Many horses will not attempt to run away except
for the concurrence of a bad mouth along with an avenue of escape home.
(6)

Another point which it is necessary to learn is, whether when let go at
full speed the horse can be pulled up (7) sharp and is willing to wheel
round in obedience to the rein.

It is also well to ascertain by experience if the horse you propose to
purchase will show equal docility in response to the whip. Every one knows
what a useless thing a servant is, or a body of troops, that will not
obey. A disobedient horse is not only useless, but may easily play the
part of an arrant traitor.

And since it is assumed that the horse to be purchased is intended for
war, we must widen our test to include everything which war itself can
bring to the proof: such as leaping ditches, scrambling over walls,
scaling up and springing off high banks. We must test his paces by
galloping him up and down steep pitches and sharp inclines and along a
slant. For each and all of these will serve as a touchstone to gauge the
endurance of his spirit and the soundness of his body.

I am far from saying, indeed, that because an animal fails to perform all
these parts to perfection, he must straightway be rejected; since many a
horse will fall short at first, not from inability, but from want of
experience. With teaching, practice, and habit, almost any horse will come
to perform all these feats beautifully, provided he be sound and free from
vice. Only you must beware of a horse that is naturally of a nervous
temperament. An over-timorous animal will not only prevent the rider from
using the vantage-ground of its back to strike an enemy, but is as likely
as not to bring him to earth himself and plunge him into the worst of
straits.

We must, also, find out of the horse shows any viciousness towards other
horses or towards human beings; also, whether he is skittish; (8) such
defects are apt to cause his owner trouble.

As to any reluctance on the horse’s part to being bitted or mounted,
dancing and twisting about and the rest, (9) you will get a more exact
idea on this score, if, when he has gone through his work, you will try
and repeat the precise operations which he went through before you began
your ride. Any horse that having done his work shows a readiness to
undergo it all again, affords sufficient evidence thereby of spirit and
endurance.

To put the matter in a nutshell: given that the horse is sound-footed,
gentle, moderately fast, willing and able to undergo toil, and above all
things (10) obedient—such an animal, we venture to predict, will
give the least trouble and the greatest security to his rider in the
circumstances of war; while, conversely, a beast who either out of
sluggishness needs much driving, or from excess of mettle much coaxing and
manoeuvering, will give his rider work enough to occupy both his hands and
a sinking of the heart when dangers thicken.

IV

We will now suppose the purchaser has found a horse which he admires; (1)
the purchase is effected, and he has brought him home—how is he to
be housed? It is best that the stable should be placed in a quarter of the
establishment where the master will see the horse as often as possible.
(2) It is a good thing also to have his stall so arranged that there will
be as little risk of the horse’s food being stolen from the manger, as of
the master’s from his larder or store-closet. To neglect a detail of this
kind is surely to neglect oneself; since in the hour of danger, it is
certain, the owner has to consign himself, life and limb, to the safe
keeping of his horse.

Nor is it only to avoid the risk of food being stolen that a secure
horse-box is desirable, but for the further reason that if the horse takes
to scattering his food, the action is at once detected; and any one who
observes that happening may take it as a sign and symptom either of too
much blood, (3) which calls for veterinary aid, or of over-fatigue, for
which rest is the cure, or else that an attack of indigestion (4) or some
other malady is coming on. And just as with human beings, so with the
horse, all diseases are more curable at their commencement (5) than after
they have become chronic, or been wrongly treated. (6)

But if food and exercise with a view to strengthening the horse’s body are
matters of prime consideration, no less important is it to pay attention
to the feet. A stable with a damp and smooth floor will spoil the best
hoof which nature can give. (7) To prevent the floor being damp, it should
be sloped with channels; and to avoid smoothness, paved with cobble stones
sunk side by side in the ground and similar in size to the horse’s hoofs.
(8) A stable floor of this sort is calculated to strengthen the horse’s
feet by the mere pressure on the part in standing. In the next place it
will be the groom’s business to lead out the horse somewhere to comb and
curry him; and after his morning’s feed to unhalter him from the manger,
(9) so that he may come to his evening meal with greater relish. To secure
the best type of stable-yard, and with a view to strengthening the horse’s
feet, I would suggest to take and throw down loosely (10) four or five
waggon loads of pebbles, each as large as can be grasped in the hand, and
about a pound in weight; the whole to be fenced round with a skirting of
iron to prevent scattering. The mere standing on these will come to
precisely the same thing as if for a certain portion of the day the horse
were, off and on, stepping along a stony road; whilst being curried or
when fidgeted by flies he will be forced to use his hoofs just as much as
if he were walking. Nor is it the hoofs merely, but a surface so strewn
with stones will tend to harden the frog of the foot also.

But if care is needed to make the hoofs hard, similar pains should be
taken to make the mouth and jaws soft; and the same means and appliances
which will render a man’s flesh and skin soft, will serve to soften and
supple a horse’s mouth. (11)

V

It is the duty of a horseman, as we think, to have his groom trained
thoroughly in all that concerns the treatment of the horse. In the first
place, then, the groom should know that he is never to knot the halter (1)
at the point where the headstall is attached to the horse’s head. By
constantly rubbing his head against the manger, if the halter does not sit
quite loose about his ears, the horse will be constantly injuring himself;
(2) and with sores so set up, it is inevitable that he should show
peevishness, while being bitted or rubbed down.

It is desirable that the groom should be ordered to carry out the dung and
litter of the horse to some one place each day. By so doing, he will
discharge the duty with least trouble to himself, (3) and at the same time
be doing the horse a kindness.

The groom should also be instructed to attach the muzzle to the horse’s
mouth, both when taking him out to be groomed and to the rolling-ground.
(4) In fact he should always muzzle him whenever he takes him anywhere
without the bit. The muzzle, while it is no hindrance to respiration,
prevents biting; and when attached it serves to rob the horse of
opportunity for vice. (5)

Again, care should be taken to tie the horse up with the halter above his
head. A horse’s natural instinct, in trying to rid himself of anything
that irritates the face, is to toss up his head, and by this upward
movement, if so tied, he only slackens the chain instead of snapping it.
In rubbing the horse down, the groom should begin with the head and mane;
as until the upper parts are clean, it is vain to cleanse the lower; then,
as regards the rest of the body, first brush up the hair, by help of all
the ordinary implements for cleansing, and then beat out the dust,
following the lie of the hair. The hair on the spine (and dorsal region)
ought not to be touched with any instrument whatever; the hand alone
should be used to rub and smooth it, and in the direction of its natural
growth, so as to preserve from injury that part of the horse’s back on
which the rider sits.

The head should be drenched with water simply; for, being bony, if you try
to cleanse it with iron or wooden instruments injury may be caused. So,
too, the forelock should be merely wetted; the long hairs of which it is
composed, without hindering the animal’s vision, serve to scare away from
the eyes anything that might trouble them. Providence, we must suppose,
(6) bestowed these hairs upon the horse, instead of the large ears which
are given to the ass and the mule as a protection to the eyes. (7) The
tail, again, and mane should be washed, the object being to help the hairs
to grow—those in the tail so as to allow the creature the greatest
reach possible in brushing away molesting objects, (8) and those of the
neck in order that the rider may have as free a grip as possible.

Mane, forelock, and tail are triple gifts bestowed by the gods upon the
horse for the sake of pride and ornament, (9) and here is the proof: a
brood mare, so long as her mane is long and flowing, will not readily
suffer herself to be covered by an ass; hence breeders of mules take care
to clip the mane of the mare with a view to covering. (10)

Washing of the legs we are inclined to dispense with—no good is done
but rather harm to the hoofs by this daily washing. So, too, excessive
cleanliness of the belly is to be discouraged; the operation itself is
most annoying to the horse; and the cleaner these parts are made, the
thicker the swarm of troublesome things which collect beneath the belly.
Besides which, however elaborately you clean these parts, the horse is no
sooner led out than presently he will be just as dirty as if he had not
been cleaned. Omit these ablutions then, we say; and similarly for the
legs, rubbing and currying by hand is quite sufficient.

VI

We will now explain how the operation of grooming may be performed with
least danger to oneself and best advantage to the horse. If the groom
attempts to clean the horse with his face turned the same way as the
horse, he runs the risk of getting a knock in the face from the animal’s
knee or hoof. When cleaning him he should turn his face in the opposite
direction to the horse, and planting himself well out of the way of his
leg, at an angle to his shoulder-blade, proceed to rub him down. He will
then escape all mischief, and he will be able to clean the frog by folding
back the hoof. Let him clean the hind-legs in the same way.

The man who has to do with the horse should know, with regard to this and
all other necessary operations, that he ought to approach as little as
possible from the head or the tail to perform them; for if the horse
attempt to show vice he is master of the man in front and rear. But by
approaching from the side he will get the greatest hold over the horse
with the least risk of injury to himself.

When the horse has to be led, we do not approve of leading him from in
front, for the simple reason that the person so leading him robs himself
of his power of self-protection, whilst he leaves the horse freedom to do
what he likes. On the other hand, we take a like exception to the plan of
training the horse to go forward on a long rein (1) and lead the way, and
for this reason: it gives the horse the opportunity of mischief, in
whichever direction he likes, on either flank, and the power also to turn
right about and face his driver. How can a troop of horses be kept free of
one another, if driven in this fashion from behind?—whereas a horse
accustomed to be led from the side will have least power of mischief to
horse or man, and at the same time be in the best position to be mounted
by the rider at a moment’s notice, were it necessary.

In order to insert the bit correctly the groom should, in the first place,
approach on the near (2) side of the horse, and then throwing the reins
over his head, let them drop loosely on the withers; raise the headstall
in his right hand, and with his left present the bit. If the horse will
take the bit, it is a simple business to adjust the strap of the
headstall; but if he refuses to open his mouth, the groom must hold the
bit against the teeth and at the same time insert the thumb (3) of his
left hand inside the horse’s jaws. Most horses will open their mouths to
that operation. But if he still refuses, then the groom must press the lip
against the tush (4); very few horses will refuse the bit, when that is
done to them. (5)

The groom can hardly be too much alive to the following points * * * if
any work is to be done: (6) in fact, so important is it that the horse
should readily take his bit, that, to put it tersely, a horse that will
not take it is good for nothing. Now, if the horse be bitted not only when
he has work to do, but also when he is being taken to his food and when he
is being led home from a ride, it would be no great marvel if he learnt to
take the bit of his own accord, when first presented to him.

It would be good for the groom to know how to give a leg up in the Persian
fashion, (7) so that in case of illness or infirmity of age the master
himself may have a man to help him on to horseback without trouble, or, if
he so wish, be able to oblige a friend with a man to mount him. (8)

The one best precept—the golden rule—in dealing with a horse
is never to approach him angrily. Anger is so devoid of forethought that
it will often drive a man to do things which in a calmer mood he will
regret. (9) Thus, when a horse is shy of any object and refuses to
approach it, you must teach him that there is nothing to be alarmed at,
particularly if he be a plucky animal; (10) or, failing that, touch the
formidable object yourself, and then gently lead the horse up to it. The
opposite plan of forcing the frightened creature by blows only intensifies
its fear, the horse mentally associating the pain he suffers at such a
moment with the object of suspicion, which he naturally regards as its
cause.

If, when the groom brings up the horse to his master to mount, he knows
how to make him lower his back, (11) to facilitate mounting, we have no
fault to find. Still, we consider that the horseman should practise and be
able to mount, even if the horse does not so lend himself; (12) since on
another occasion another type of horse may fall to the rider’s lot, (13)
nor can the same rider be always served by the same equerry. (14)

VII

The master, let us suppose, has received his horse and is ready to mount.
(1) We will now prescribe certain rules to be observed in the interests
not only of the horseman but of the animal which he bestrides. First,
then, he should take the leading rein, which hangs from the chin-strap or
nose-band, (2) conveniently in his left hand, held slack so as not to jerk
the horse’s mouth, whether he means to mount by hoisting himself up,
catching hold of the mane behind the ears, or to vault on to horseback by
help of his spear. With the right hand he should grip the reins along with
a tuft of hair beside the shoulder-joint, (3) so that he may not in any
way wrench the horse’s mouth with the bit while mounting. In the act of
taking the spring off the ground for mounting, (4) he should hoist his
body by help of the left hand, and with the right at full stretch assist
the upward movement (5) (a position in mounting which will present a
graceful spectacle also from behind); (6) at the same time with the leg
well bent, and taking care not to place his knee on the horse’s back, he
must pass his leg clean over to the off side; and so having brought his
foot well round, plant himself firmly on his seat. (7)

To meet the case in which the horseman may chance to be leading his horse
with the left hand and carrying his spear in the right, it would be good,
we think, for every one to practise vaulting on to his seat from the right
side also. In fact, he has nothing else to learn except to do with his
right limbs what he has previously done with the left, and vice versa. And
the reason we approve of this method of mounting is (8) that it enables
the soldier at one and the same instant to get astride of his horse and to
find himself prepared at all points, supposing he should have to enter the
lists of battle on a sudden.

But now, supposing the rider fairly seated, whether bareback or on a
saddle-cloth, a good seat is not that of a man seated on a chair, but
rather the pose of a man standing upright with his legs apart. In this way
he will be able to hold on to the horse more firmly by his thighs; and
this erect attitude will enable him to hurl a javelin or to strike a blow
from horseback, if occasion calls, with more vigorous effect. The leg and
foot should hang loosely from the knee; by keeping the leg stiff, the
rider is apt to have it broken in collision with some obstacle; whereas a
flexible leg (9) will yield to the impact, and at the same time not shift
the thigh from its position. The rider should also accustom the whole of
his body above the hips to be as supple as possible; for thus he will
enlarge his scope of action, and in case of a tug or shove be less liable
to be unseated. Next, when the rider is seated, he must, in the first
place, teach his horse to stand quiet, until he has drawn his skirts from
under him, if need be, (10) and got the reins an equal length and grasped
his spear in the handiest fashion; and, in the next place, he should keep
his left arm close to his side. This position will give the rider absolute
ease and freedom, (11) and his hand the firmest hold.

As to reins, we recommend those which are well balanced, without being
weak or slippery or thick, so that when necessary, the hand which holds
them can also grasp a spear.

As soon as the rider gives the signal to the horse to start, (12) he
should begin at a walking pace, which will tend to allay his excitement.
If the horse is inclined to droop his head, the reins should be held
pretty high; or somewhat low, if he is disposed to carry his head high.
This will set off the horse’s bearing to the best advantage. Presently, as
he falls into a natural trot, (13) he will gradually relax his limbs
without the slightest suffering, and so come more agreeably to the gallop.
(14) Since, too, the preference is given to starting on the left foot, it
will best conduce to that lead if, while the horse is still trotting, the
signal to gallop should be given at the instant of making a step with his
right foot. (15) As he is on the point of lifting his left foot he will
start upon it, and while turning left will simultaneously make the first
bound of the gallop; (16) since, as a matter of instinct, a horse, on
being turned to the right, leads off with his right limbs, and to the left
with his left.

As an exercise, we recommend what is called the volte, (17) since it
habituates the animal to turn to either hand; while a variation in the
order of the turn is good as involving an equalisation of both sides of
the mouth, in first one, and then the other half of the exercise. (18) But
of the two we commend the oval form of the volte rather than the circular;
for the horse, being already sated with the straight course, will be all
the more ready to turn, and will be practised at once in the straight
course and in wheeling. At the curve, he should be held up, (19) because
it is neither easy nor indeed safe when the horse is at full speed to turn
sharp, especially if the ground is broken (20) or slippery.

But in collecting him, the rider should as little as possible sway the
horse obliquely with the bit, and as little as possible incline his own
body; or, he may rest assured, a trifle will suffice to stretch him and
his horse full length upon the ground. The moment the horse has his eyes
fixed on the straight course after making a turn, is the time to urge him
to full speed. In battle, obviously, these turns and wheelings are with a
view to charging or retiring; consequently, to practise quickening the
pace after wheeling is desirable. When the horse seems to have had enough
of the manege, it would be good to give him a slight pause, and then
suddenly to put him to his quickest, away from his fellows first, (21) and
now towards them; and then again to quiet him down in mid-career as short
as possible; (22) and from halt once more to turn him right-about and off
again full charge. It is easy to predict that the day will come when there
will be need of each of these manoeuvres.

When the moment to dismount has come, you should never do so among other
horses, nor near a group of people, (23) nor outside the
exercising-ground; but on the precise spot which is the scene of his
compulsory exertion there let the horse find also relaxation. (24)

VIII

As there will, doubtless, be times when the horse will need to race
downhill and uphill and on sloping ground; times, also, when he will need
to leap across an obstacle; or, take a flying leap from off a bank; (1)
or, jump down from a height, the rider must teach and train himself and
his horse to meet all emergencies. In this way the two will have a chance
of saving each the other, and may be expected to increase their
usefulness.

And here, if any reader should accuse us of repeating ourselves, on the
ground that we are only stating now what we said before on the same
topics, (2) we say that this is not mere repetition. In the former case,
we confined ourselves to advising the purchaser before he concluded his
bargain to test whether the horse could do those particular things; (3)
what we are now maintaining is that the owner ought to teach his own
horse, and we will explain how this teaching is to be done.

With a horse entirely ignorant of leaping, the best way is to take him by
the leading rein, which hangs loose, and to get across the trench yourself
first, and then to pull tight on the leading-rein, to induce him to leap
across. If he refuses, some one with a whip or switch should apply it
smartly. The result will be that the horse will clear at a bound, not the
distance merely, but a far larger space than requisite; and for the future
there will be no need for an actual blow, the mere sight of some one
coming up behind will suffice to make him leap. As soon as he is
accustomed to leap in this way you may mount him and put him first at
smaller and then at larger trenches. At the moment of the spring be ready
to apply the spur; and so too, when training him to leap up and leap down,
you should touch him with the spur at the critical instant. In the effort
to perform any of these actions with the whole body, the horse will
certainly perform them with more safety to himself and to his rider than
he will, if his hind-quarters lag, in taking a ditch or fence, or in
making an upward spring or downward jump. (4)

To face a steep incline, you must first teach him on soft ground, and
finally, when he is accustomed to that, he will much prefer the downward
to the upward slope for a fast pace. And as to the apprehension, which
some people entertain, that a horse may dislocate the shoulder in
galloping down an incline, it should encourage them to learn that the
Persians and Odrysians all run races down precipitous slopes; (5) and
their horses are every bit as sound as our own. (6)

Nor must we omit another topic: how the rider is to accommodate himself to
these several movements. (7) Thus, when the horse breaks off into a
gallop, the rider ought to bend forward, since the horse will be less
likely to slip from under; and so to pitch his rider off. So again in
pulling him up short (8) the rider should lean back; and thus escape a
shock. In leaping a ditch or tearing up a steep incline, it is no bad plan
to let go the reins and take hold of the mane, so that the animal may not
feel the burthen of the bit in addition to that of the ground. In going
down a steep incline the rider must throw himself right back and hold in
the horse with the bit, to prevent himself being hurled headforemost down
the slope himself if not his horse.

It is a correct principle to vary these exercises, which should be gone
through sometimes in one place and sometimes in another, and should
sometimes be shorter and sometimes longer in duration. The horse will take
much more kindly to them if you do not confine him to one place and one
routine.

Since it is a matter of prime necessity that the rider should keep his
seat, while galloping full speed on every sort of ground, and at the same
time be able to use his weapons with effect on horseback, nothing could be
better, where the country suits and there are wild animals, than to
practise horsemanship in combination with the chase. But when these
resources fail, a good exercise may be supplied in the combined efforts of
two horsemen. (9) One of them will play the part of fugitive, retreating
helter-skelter over every sort of ground, with lance reversed and plying
the butt end. The other pursues, with buttons on his javelins and his
lance similarly handled. (10) Whenever he comes within javelin range he
lets fly at the retreating foeman with his blunted missiles; or whenever
within spear thrust he deals the overtaken combatant a blow. In coming to
close quarters, it is a good plan first to drag the foeman towards
oneself, and then on a sudden to thrust him off; that is a device to bring
him to the ground. (11) The correct plan for the man so dragged is to
press his horse forward: by which action the man who is being dragged is
more likely to unhorse his assailant than to be brought to the ground
himself.

If it ever happens that you have an enemy’s camp in front, and cavalry
skirmishing is the order of the day (at one time charging the enemy right
up to the hostile battle-line, and again beating a retreat), under these
circumstances it is well to bear in mind that so long as the skirmisher is
close to his own party, (12) valour and discretion alike dictate to wheel
and charge in the vanguard might and main; but when he finds himself in
close proximity to the foe, he must keep his horse well in hand. This, in
all probability, will enable him to do the greatest mischief to the enemy,
and to receive least damage at his hands.

The gods have bestowed on man, indeed, the gift of teaching man his duty
by means of speech and reasoning, but the horse, it is obvious, is not
open to instruction by speech and reasoning. If you would have a horse
learn to perform his duty, your best plan will be, whenever he does as you
wish, to show him some kindness in return, and when he is disobedient to
chastise him. This principle, though capable of being stated in a few
words, is one which holds good throughout the whole of horsemanship. As,
for instance, a horse will more readily take the bit, if each time he
accepts it some good befalls him; or, again, he will leap ditches and
spring up embankments and perform all the other feats incumbent on him, if
he be led to associate obedience to the word of command with relaxation.
(13)

IX

The topics hitherto considered have been: firstly, how to reduce the
chance of being cheated in the purchase of a colt or full-grown horse;
secondly, how to escape as much as possible the risk of injuring your
purchase by mishandling; and lastly, how to succeed in turning out a horse
possessed of all the qualities demanded by the cavalry soldier for the
purposes of war.

The time has come perhaps to add a few suggestions, in case the rider
should be called upon to deal with an animal either unduly spirited or
again unduly sluggish in disposition. The first point to recognise is,
that temper of spirit in a horse takes the place of passion or anger in a
man; and just as you may best escape exciting a man’s ill-temper by
avoiding harshness of speech and act, so you will best avoid enraging a
spirited horse by not annoying him. Thus, from the first instant, in the
act of mounting him, you should take pains to minimise the annoyance; and
once on his back you should sit quiet for longer than the ordinary time,
and so urge him forward by the gentlest signs possible; next, beginning at
the slowest pace, gradually work him into a quicker step, but so gradually
that he will find himself at full speed without noticing it. (1) Any
sudden signal will bewilder a spirited horse, just as a man is bewildered
by any sudden sight or sound or other experience. (I say one should be
aware that any unexpected shock will produce disturbance in a horse.) (2)

So if you wish to pull up a spirited horse when breaking off into a
quicker pace than requisite, you must not suddenly wrench him, but quietly
and gently bring the bit to bear upon him, coaxing him rather than
compelling him to calm down. It is the long steady course rather than the
frequent turn which tends to calm a horse. (3) A quiet pace sustained for
a long time has a caressing, (4) soothing effect, the reverse of exciting.
If any one proposes by a series of fast and oft-repeated gallops to
produce a sense of weariness in the horse, and so to tame him, his
expectation will not be justified by the result; for under such
circumstances a spirited horse will do his best to carry the day by main
force, (5) and with a show of temper, like a passionate man, may contrive
to bring on himself and his rider irreparable mischief.

A spirited horse should be kept in check, so that he does not dash off at
full speed; and on the same principle, you should absolutely abstain from
setting him to race against another; as a general rule, your
fiery-spirited horse is only too fond of contention. (6)

Smooth bits are better and more serviceable than rough; if a rough bit be
inserted at all, it must be made to resemble a smooth one as much as
possible by lightness of hand.

It is a good thing also for the rider to accustom himself to keep a quiet
seat, especially when mounted on a spirited horse; and also to touch him
as little as possible with anything except that part of the body necessary
to secure a firm seat.

Again, it should be known that the conventional “chirrup” (7) to quiet and
“cluck” to rouse a horse are a sort of precept of the training school; and
supposing any one from the beginning chose to associate soft soothing
actions with the “cluck” sound, and harsh rousing actions with the
“chirrup,” the horse could be taught to rouse himself at the “chirrup” and
to calm himself at the “cluck” sound. On this principle, at the sound of
the trumpet or the shout of battle the rider should avoid coming up to his
charger in a state of excitement, or, indeed, bringing any disturbing
influence to bear on the animal. As far as possible, at such a crisis he
should halt and rest him; and, if circumstances permit, give him his
morning or his evening meal. But the best advice of all is not to get an
over-spirited horse for the purposes of war.

As to the sluggish type of animal, I need only suggest to do everything
the opposite to what we advise as appropriate in dealing with an animal of
high spirit.

X

But possibly you are not content with a horse serviceable for war. You
want to find in him a showy, attractive animal, with a certain grandeur
of bearing. If so, you must abstain from pulling at his mouth with the
bit, or applying the spur and whip—methods commonly adopted by
people with a view to a fine effect, though, as a matter of fact, they
thereby achieve the very opposite of what they are aiming at. That is to
say, by dragging the mouth up they render the horse blind instead of alive
to what is in front of him; and what with spurring and whipping they
distract the creature to the point of absolute bewilderment and danger.
(1) Feats indeed!—the feats of horses with a strong dislike to being
ridden—up to all sorts of ugly and ungainly tricks. On the contrary,
let the horse be taught to be ridden on a loose bridle, and to hold his
head high and arch his neck, and you will practically be making him
perform the very acts which he himself delights or rather exults in; and
the best proof of the pleasure which he takes is, that when he is let
loose with other horses, and more particularly with mares, you will see
him rear his head aloft to the full height, and arch his neck with nervous
vigour, (2) pawing the air with pliant legs (3) and waving his tail on
high. By training him to adopt the very airs and graces which he naturally
assumes when showing off to best advantage, you have got what you are
aiming at—a horse that delights in being ridden, a splendid and
showy animal, the joy of all beholders.

How these desirable results are, in our opinion, to be produced, we will
now endeavour to explain. In the first place, then, you ought to have at
least two bits. One of these should be smooth, with discs of a good size;
the other should have heavy and flat discs (4) studded with sharp spikes,
so that when the horse seizes it and dislikes the roughness he will drop
it; then when the smooth is given him instead, he is delighted with its
smoothness, and whatever he has learnt before upon the rough, he will
perform with greater relish on the smooth. He may certainly, out of
contempt for its very smoothness, perpetually try to get a purchase on it,
and that is why we attach large discs to the smooth bit, the effect of
which is to make him open his mouth, and drop the mouthpiece. It is
possible to make the rough bit of every degree of roughness by keeping it
slack or taut.

But, whatever the type of bit may be, let it in any case be flexible. If
it be stiff, at whatever point the horse seizes it he must take it up
bodily against his jaws; just as it does not matter at what point a man
takes hold of a bar of iron, (5) he lifts it as a whole. The other
flexibly constructed type acts like a chain (only the single point at
which you hold it remains stiff, the rest hangs loose); and while
perpetually hunting for the portion which escapes him, he lets the
mouthpiece go from his bars. (6) For this reason the rings are hung in the
middle from the two axles, (7) so that while feeling for them with his
tongue and teeth he may neglect to take the bit up against his jaws.

To explain what is meant by flexible and stiff as applied to a bit, we
will describe the matter. A flexible bit is one in which the axles have
their points of junction broad and smooth, (8) so as to bend easily; and
where the several parts fitting round the axles, being large of aperture
and not too closely packed, have greater flexibility; whereas, if the
several parts do not slide to and fro with ease, and play into each other,
that is what we call a stiff bit. Whatever the kind of bit may be, the
rider must carry out precisely the same rules in using it, as follows, if
he wishes to turn out a horse with the qualities described. The horse’s
mouth is not to be pulled back too harshly so as to make him toss his head
aside, nor yet so gently that he will not feel the pressure. But the
instant he raises his neck in answer to the pull, give him the bit at
once; and so throughout, as we never cease repeating, at every response to
your wishes, whenever and wherever the animal performs his service well,
(9) reward and humour him. Thus, when the rider perceives that the horse
takes a pleasure in the high arching and supple play of his neck, let him
seize the instant not to impose severe exertion on him, like a taskmaster,
but rather to caress and coax him, as if anxious to give him a rest. In
this way the horse will be encouraged and fall into a rapid pace.

That a horse takes pleasure in swift movement, may be shown conclusively.
As soon as he has got his liberty, he sets off at a trot or gallop, never
at a walking pace; so natural and instinctive a pleasure does this action
afford him, if he is not forced to perform it to excess; since it is true
of horse and man alike that nothing is pleasant if carried to excess. (10)

But now suppose he has attained to the grand style when ridden—we
have accustomed him of course in his first exercise to wheel and fall into
a canter simultaneously; assuming then, he has got that lesson well by
heart, if the rider pulls him up with the bit while simultaneously giving
him one of the signals to be off, the horse, galled on the one hand by the
bit, and on the other collecting himself in obedience to the signal “off,”
will throw forward his chest and raise his legs aloft with fiery spirit;
though not indeed with suppleness, for the supple play of the limbs ceases
as soon as the horse feels annoyance. But now, supposing when his fire is
thus enkindled (11) you give him the rein, the effect is instantaneous.
Under the pleasurable sense of freedom, thanks to the relaxation of the
bit, with stately bearing and legs pliantly moving he dashes forward in
his pride, in every respect imitating the airs and graces of a horse
approaching other horses. Listen to the epithets with which spectators
will describe the type of horse: the noble animal! and what willingness to
work, what paces, (12) what a spirit and what mettle; how proudly he bears
himself (13)—a joy at once, and yet a terror to behold.

Thus far on this topic; these notes may serve perhaps to meet a special
need.

XI

If, however, the wish is to secure a horse adapted to parade and state
processions, a high stepper and a showy (1) animal, these are qualities
not to be found combined in every horse, but to begin with, the animal
must have high spirit and a stalwart body. Not that, as some think, a
horse with flexible legs will necessarily be able to rear his body. What
we want is a horse with supple loins, and not supple only but short and
strong (I do not mean the loins towards the tail, but by the belly the
region between the ribs and thighs). That is the horse who will be able to
plant his hind-legs well under the forearm. If while he is so planting his
hind-quarters, he is pulled up with the bit, he lowers his hind-legs on
his hocks (2) and raises the forepart of his body, so that any one in
front of him will see the whole length of his belly to the sheath. (3) At
the moment the horse does this, the rider should give him the rein, so
that he may display the noblest feats which a horse can perform of his own
free will, to the satisfaction of the spectators.

There are, indeed, other methods of teaching these arts. (4) Some do so by
touching the horse with a switch under the hocks, others employ an
attendant to run alongside and strike the horse with a stick under the
gaskins. For ourselves, however, far the best method of instruction, (5)
as we keep repeating, is to let the horse feel that whatever he does in
obedience to the rider’s wishes will be followed by some rest and
relaxation.

To quote a dictum of Simon, what a horse does under compulsion he does
blindly, and his performance is no more beautiful than would be that of a
ballet-dancer taught by whip and goad. The performances of horse or man so
treated would seem to be displays of clumsy gestures rather than of grace
and beauty. What we need is that the horse should of his own accord
exhibit his finest airs and paces at set signals. (6) Supposing, when he
is in the riding-field, (7) you push him to a gallop until he is bathed in
sweat, and when he begins to prance and show his airs to fine effect, you
promptly dismount and take off the bit, you may rely upon it he will of
his own accord another time break into the same prancing action. Such are
the horses on which gods and heroes ride, as represented by the artist.
The majesty of men themselves is best discovered in the graceful handling
of such animals. (8) A horse so prancing is indeed a thing of beauty, a
wonder and a marvel; riveting the gaze of all who see him, young alike and
graybeards. They will never turn their backs, I venture to predict, or
weary of their gazing so long as he continues to display his splendid
action.

If the possessor of so rare a creature should find himself by chance in
the position of a squadron leader or a general of cavalry, he must not
confine his zeal to the development of his personal splendour, but should
study all the more to make the troop or regiment a splendid spectacle.
Supposing (in accordance with the high praise bestowed upon the type of
animal) (9) the leader is mounted on a horse which with his high airs and
frequent prancing makes but the slightest movement forward—obviously
the rest of the troop must follow at a walking pace, and one may fairly
ask where is the element of splendour in the spectacle? But now suppose
that you, sir, being at the head of the procession, rouse your horse and
take the lead at a pace neither too fast nor yet too slow, but in a way to
bring out the best qualities in all the animals, their spirit, fire, grace
of mien and bearing ripe for action—I say, if you take the lead of
them in this style, the collective thud, the general neighing and the
snorting of the horses will combine to render not only you at the head,
but your whole company (10) down to the last man a thrilling spectacle.

One word more. Supposing a man has shown some skill in purchasing his
horses, and can rear them into strong and serviceable animals, supposing
further he can handle them in the right way, not only in the training for
war, but in exercises with a view to display, or lastly, in the stress of
actual battle, what is there to prevent such a man from making every horse
he owns of far more value in the end than when he bought it, with the
further outlook that, unless some power higher than human interpose, (11)
he will become the owner of a celebrated stable, and himself as celebrated
for his skill in horsemanship.

XII

We will now describe the manner in which a trooper destined to run the
risks of battle upon horseback should be armed. In the first place, then,
we would insist, the corselet must be made to fit the person; since, if it
fits well, its weight will be distributed over the whole body; whereas, if
too loose, the shoulders will have all the weight to bear, while, if too
tight, the corselet is no longer a defensive arm, but a “strait jacket.”
(1) Again, the neck, as being a vital part, (2) ought to have, as we
maintain, a covering, appended to the corselet and close-fitting. This
will serve as an ornament, and if made as it ought to be, will conceal the
rider’s face—if so he chooses—up to the nose.

{… othi kleis apoergei aukhena te stethos te, malista de kairion estin.}

“Where the collar-bone fenceth off neck and breast, and where is the most
deadly spot” (W. Leaf).

As to the helmet, the best kind, in our opinion, is one of the Boeotian
pattern, (3) on the principle again, that it covers all the parts exposed
above the breastplate without hindering vision. Another point: the
corselet should be so constructed that it does not prevent its wearer
sitting down or stooping. About the abdomen and the genitals and parts
surrounding (4) flaps should be attached in texture and in thickness
sufficient to protect (5) that region.

Again, as an injury to the left hand may disable the horseman, we would
recommend the newly-invented piece of armour called the gauntlet, which
protects the shoulder, arm, and elbow, with the hand engaged in holding
the reins, being so constructed as to extend and contract; in addition to
which it covers the gap left by the corselet under the armpit. The case is
different with the right hand, which the horseman must needs raise to
discharge a javelin or strike a blow. Here, accordingly, any part of the
corselet which would hinder action out to be removed; in place of which
the corselet ought to have some extra flaps (6) at the joints, which as
the outstretched arm is raised unfold, and as the arm descends close tight
again. The arm itself, (7) it seems to us, will better be protected by a
piece like a greave stretched over it than bound up with the corselet.
Again, the part exposed when the right hand is raised should be covered
close to the corselet either with calfskin or with metal; or else there
will be a want of protection just at the most vital point.

Moreover, as any damage done to the horse will involve his rider in
extreme peril, the horse also should be clad in armour—frontlet,
breastplate, and thigh-pieces; (8) which latter may at the same time serve
as cuisses for the mounted man. Beyond all else, the horse’s belly, being
the most vital and defenceless part, should be protected. It is possible
to protect it with the saddle-cloth. The saddle itself should be of such
sort and so stitched as to give the rider a firm seat, and yet not gall
the horse’s back.

As regards the limbs in general, both horse and rider may be looked upon
as fully armed. The only parts remaining are the shins and feet, which of
course protrude beyond the cuisses, but these also may be armed by the
addition of gaiters made of leather like that used for making sandals. And
thus you will have at once defensive armour for the shins and stockings
for the feet.

The above, with the blessing of heaven, will serve for armour of defence.
To come to weapons of offence, we recommend the sabre rather than the
straight sword, (9) since from the vantage-ground of the horse’s position
the curved blade will descend with greater force than the ordinary weapon.

Again, in place of the long reed spear, which is apt to be weak and
awkward to carry, we would substitute two darts of cornel-wood; (10) the
one of which the skilful horseman can let fly, and still ply the one
reserved in all directions, forwards, backwards, (11) and obliquely; add
to that, these smaller weapons are not only stronger than the spear but
far more manageable.

As regards range of discharge in shooting we are in favour of the longest
possible, as giving more time to rally (12) and transfer the second
javelin to the right hand. And here we will state shortly the most
effective method of hurling the javelin. The horseman should throw forward
his left side, while drawing back his right; then rising bodily from the
thighs, he should let fly the missile with the point slightly upwards. The
dart so discharged will carry with the greatest force and to the farthest
distance; we may add, too, with the truest aim, if at the moment of
discharge the lance be directed steadily on the object aimed at. (13)

This treatise, consisting of notes and suggestions, lessons and exercises
suited to a private individual, must come to a conclusion; the theory and
practice of the matter suited to a cavalry commander will be found
developed in the companion treatise. (14)