THEORY OF SILK WEAVING

THEORY
OF
SILK WEAVING

A Treatise on the Construction and

Application of Weaves, and the

Decomposition and Calculation of

Broad and Narrow, Plain,

Novelty and Jacquard Silk Fabrics

Containing 95 Plates

By ARNOLD WOLFENSBERGER

Graduate of the Textile Institute of Zurich,

Switzerland

Second Revised and Enlarged Edition

NEW YORK

Issued by THE AMERICAN SILK JOURNAL

CLIFFORD & LAWTON

Publishers

1921

COPYRIGHT. 1921. by CLIFFORD & LAWTON

All rights reserved

GROLIER CRAFT PRESS, Printers. 229 West Twenty-eighth Street, New York
City

PREFACE

The silk industry of America has of late years rapidly advanced to the
front rank among the great textile industries of the world. It may indeed
be proud of this position, to which that enterprising spirit and untiring
energy peculiar to our nation, combined with our great technical and
natural resources, has brought it.

That we are, on the other hand, not yet at the height of perfection we
are also compelled to acknowledge, but if we consider the short space of
time that the American industry has required for its development, as
compared to the decades, almost centuries, to which some of the great
European silk centers can look back, the fact is neither surprising nor
discouraging.

While it must not be our aim to imitate or copy their ways, inasmuch
as out conditions and circumstances are quite different from theirs, we
may still profitably study their methods in order to overcome our
deficiencies.

The greatest advantage which our competitors derive from such a long
existence consists in having at their disposal a force of skilful,
trained help. The manufacturers, appreciating the importance of this
factor, make great efforts and pecuniary sacrifices to elevate and
maintain the high standard of their industry.

For instance, they support textile schools and lecture courses, where
young men can acquire a thorough technical education and equip themselves
for a career of usefulness, thereby serving their own interests and at
the same time furthering those of their chosen profession.

This beneficial influence cannot fail to exert itself from the
standard of the higher employer down to that of the weaver, who would
naturally take more pains and interest in his work than if he were a mere
mechanical appendage to his loom in order to keep it in motion.

Very little has been done in his country for technical education as
far as the silk industry is concerned, and it was on this special branch,
that prompted the author to offer in the present little work a treatise
on the theory of shaft weaving for broad silks and ribbons.

It is divided into three principal parts:

1st. Drawing-in the warp in the harness.

2nd. The weaves and their application.

3rd. Decomposition or analysis of the cloth.

To the foregoing there have been added in the revised and enlarged
edition several additional parts covering the following: JACQUARD WEAVES,
BOX LOOM WEAVES, including CREPES, and COST CALCULATIONS for plain and
fancy weaves.

The subject while condensed, is made as clear and comprehensible as
possible, and to many desirous of increasing their knowledge in this
direction, this should prove a valuable help.

The author, through the medium of this work, hopes to win the approval
and encouragement of the manufacturers, and will feel amply repaid should
his efforts tend to develop a deeper interest in the “Queen of
Textiles.”

THEORY OF SILK WEAVING

DRAWING-IN

With this term we designate the operation preceding the weaving, by
which all the warp-threads are drawn through the heddles of the
harness.

The order in which this is done varies according to the weave and the
nature of the fabric to be produced; so we distinguish:

Straight draws,

Skip draws,

Point draws,

Section draws.

STRAIGHT DRAWS

Fig. 1

Fig. 2

These form the simplest and most common method of drawing-in. We begin
with the first heddle on the left side of the shaft nearest to the
warp-beam, then take the first heddle of second shaft and so on until
all the shafts the set contains are used in rotation. This completes one
“draw,” and this operation is repeated until all the warp-threads are
taken up.

The method of making the shaft nearest to the warp-beam the first, is
almost universal with the silk business and is technically called
drawing-in from back to front.

The opposite, or drawing in from front to rear, is used
occasionally, however, and in this case makes the first heddle on the
left hand side of the front shaft No. 1.

The making out of the Drawing-in Draft, which must indicate the
arrangement or the rotation in which the warp-threads are drawn in, can
be done in various ways, of which we will mention the two most popular
methods. The first is by using common designing paper, and indicating the
rotation by dots. The horizonal rows of squares represent the shafts, the
vertical rows the warp-threads. Fig. 1 shows four
repeats of a straight draw on six harness marked out according to this
idea. A second method is to use paper ruled horizontally, the lines
representing the shafts; and to draw vertical lines
[pg 9]
for the warp-threads.
The latter are made to stop on the lines bearing the number of the shafts
into which the respective threads are to be drawn. Fig. 2 is such a draft, illustrating six repeats of a draw
on four harness from “Front to Rear.”

SKIP DRAWS

Fig. 3

Fig. 4

The draws coming under this heading are used very extensively in silk
weaving, especially for fabrics requiring a heavy warp and a large number
of shafts. Enter first the odd and then the even shafts. An 8 harness
draw of this kind, of which three repeats are shown in Fig. 3, runs as follows: 1, 3, 5, 7, 2, 4, 6, 8.

Fig. 4 is a 12 harness draw of the same
class.

POINT DRAWS

Fig. 5

Fig. 6

Fig. 7

Fig. 8

Fig. 9

Point draws are a combination of a regular straight draw from back to
front and one from front to back, the first and the last shafts only
being used once, while the rest receive two ends each in one repeat of
the draw. Fig. 5 illustrates a regular point draw in
2 repeats on 10 shafts. It will be seen that 14 ends make a repeat; in
fact, the number of warp-threads required for one draw will always be
double the number of harness less 2, hence a 12 harness regular point
draw will require 22 warp-threads for a repeat.

The drawing-in draft illustrated in Fig. 6 is a
slight variation of the regular point draw; it consists, as will be seen,
of a draw from back to front, and also a full one from front to back,
there by causing a double point.

Another change from the regular point draw is illustrated in Figs. 7 and 8; this class may be called
Broken point draws, because a new draw is begun before the other
one is complete. Fig. 9 also comes in this class and
represents a zigzag draw on 10 harness.

The drawing-in drafts which we have described under the head of “Point
draws,” are used mostly to obtain the various pointed and zigzag
effects.

SECTION DRAWS

Fig. 10

Fig. 11

Fig. 12

Fig. 13

Fig. 14

Fig. 15

This division of drawing-in drafts is used extensively in silk
manufacturing; for instance, in all fabrics having a ground warp and a
binder warp, also in double-face goods, or where two different weaves are
combined in one effect.

One or more threads are drawn on the first section, then one or more
on a second and third, if the harness is divided in so many sets.

The following examples will illustrate the principle of these
draws.

In Fig. 10, shafts 1, 2, 3, 4 from the first
set, shafts 5 and 6 the second, 8 threads are drawn straight on the
first, then 2 on the second section.

Fig. 11, first set shafts 1 to 6 inclusive,
second set shafts 7 and 8.

Fig. 12 is drawn end and end on two sections
having 8 shafts each.

Figs. 13, 14 and 15, while not strictly belonging to the class of
section draws, may, however, be considered under this heading. The idea
is to draw a certain number of ends in one part of the harness and
another group in another part, be it straight, point or skip, which will
cause the effect on the cloth to be accordingly transposed or broken
up.

THE WEAVES
AND THEIR CONSTRUCTION

In any woven fabric we distinguish two systems of threads, the Warp
or Chain, running lengthways in the cloth, and the Filling or
Weft, crossing the former at right angles.

This crossing or interlacing consists of every individual warp-thread
being placed alternately under and over one or more threads of the
filling system. The arrangement of this interlacing is technically called
the Weave, and the variety in which the points of crossing can be
distributed is practically endless.

It is principally the weave that lends to a fabric its character,
influenced, of course, by the material used, the size and tension of the
threads and the combination of the colors.

The weaves are divided into three main classes: the Foundation
weaves. In the silk business they are known under the following
names:

The Taffeta Weave,

The Serge Weave,

The Satin Weave.

In the foundation weaves each thread effects only one crossing in one
repeat of the weave, and the points of interlacing occur in a given
rotation. A repeat in the foundation weaves comprises the same number of
warp-threads as of
[pg 16]
picks or filling threads, and if
this number is 8, for instance, the weave is called an 8-shaft or an
8-harness weave. In marking out a weave, the warp-threads are represented
by vertical lines, the filling by horizontal ones, or in each case by the
space between these lines. The places where a warp-thread lies over the
filling are marked with paint or simply with a cross. In a similar manner
we mark out the chain draft, which indicates the rotation in which
the shafts are raised.

THE TAFFETA WEAVE

Fig. 16

Fig. 17

This is the simplest and oldest method of interlacing. The odd numbers
of warp-threads cross the even numbers after every pick; hence of two
warp-threads one will always go over the first pick and under the second,
and the other end under the first and over the second pick. Taffeta
cloth, therefore, has the same appearance on both sides, and in cotton
and wool weaving this weave is technically—and properly
indeed—called the Plain Weave. It has the smallest repeat, 2
warp-threads and 2 picks, and the exchanging of warp and filling is the
most frequent possible. The cloth thus produced is firmer and stronger
than that obtained with any other weave.

Fig. 16 is a taffeta on 4 shafts straight draw,
the draft executed in the manner which we have already mentioned in
explaining the drawing-in drafts.

Fig. 17 on common designing paper, illustrates a
taffeta made on 8-harness, skip draw.

Be it mentioned that the drawing-in draft and the chain draft will be
added throughout this work, the former over the weave to correspond with
the respective warp-threads, the latter to the right of the drawing-in
draft.

GROS DE TOURS WEAVES

Fig. 18

Fig. 19

In this weave the working of the warp is the same as in taffeta,
except that instead of one pick, two or more are inserted in the same
shed. It is mostly used in selvedges, where it serves to give more
firmness to the edge of an otherwise loosely woven cloth, and prevents
the weaving ahead of the edge in a tight weave. Gros de Tours is
sometimes used, especially when cotton or wool filling is employed, with
a view to lay two picks nicely side by side, whereas a thread entered two
ply with the taffeta weave will always receive some twist, which may
disturb the perfect evenness of the fabric.

Fig. 18 is a Gros de Tours with two picks on
four harness straight through.

Fig. 19 illustrates this weave with three picks
drawn end and end on two sections of four shafts each.

SERGE or TWILL WEAVES

While the taffeta weave produces either an entirely smooth fabric, or
one with a distinct transverse rib as in gros-grain, the twill weave
forms diagonal lines on the cloth, running either from left to right or
from right to left.

To make a twill, not less than three ends and three picks are
required, of which each thread floats over two of the other system and
interlaces with the third. The rotation of the interlacing is always
consecutive, that is it moves with each succeeding pick one thread to the
right (or to the left if the lines are to run in that direction). If warp
and filling have the same texture, that is the same number of threads in
a given space, the twill lines will form an angle of 45°; if the warp
stands closer than the filling, the incline will be steeper, and in the
opposite case the angle will approach more the horizontal.

The weaves can be expressed in numbers, for instance: the 3-end twill
warp effect would be marked 2-1, which indicates that each warp-thread
goes over two and under one pick.

Twill weaves are called evensided when the arrangement of “warp
up” and “filling up” are evenly balanced, and unevensided if
either warp or filling predominate on the face of the fabric; the latter
class is therefore subdivided in Warp effects and Filling
effects.

In the following a number of serge weaves are illustrated, the French
designations being added in some cases, as they are still extensively
used in the trade.

FILLING EFFECTS

Satin de Lyon, 2-1.

On 6 harness straight through.

Fig. 20

Levantine, 3-1

On 8 shafts skip draw.

Fig. 21

Polonaise, 5-1

On 12 harness skip draw.

Fig. 22

Serge grosse côte, 7-1

On 8 shafts straight through.

Fig. 23

Serge remaine, 6-2

On 8 shafts skip draw.

Fig. 24

Serge, 5-1, 1-1.

On 8 shafts skip draw.

Fig. 25

Serge, 4-2, 1-1, 1-1.

On 10 harness straight through.

Fig. 26

Serge, 7-1, 1-1, 1-1, 1-1, 1-1.

On 16 shafts skip draw.

Fig. 27

WARP EFFECTS

Levantine, 3-1.

On 4 shafts straight through.

Fig. 28

Serge, 5-1, 1-1.

On 8 shafts skip draw.

Fig. 29

EVENSIDED TWILLS

Surah, 2-2

On 4 shafts straight through.

Fig. 30

Croise, 3-3, 2-2, 1-1.

On 12 shafts straight through.

Fig. 31

Serge, 7-7, 1-1, 1-1, 1-1

On 20 shafts skip draw.

Fig. 32

POINTED TWILLS

in the direction of the filling and also of the warp.

Fig. 33

On 4 shafts point draw, weave 3-1.

Fig. 34

On 6 shafts point draw, drawn as follows:

Eighteen ends from back to front and 4 ends from front to
rear, weave 5-1.

Fig. 35

On 8 shafts pointed draw, weave 5-1, 1-1.

Fig. 36

On 10 shafts, with weave 3-3, drawn as follows:

Fig. 37

On 6 shafts straight draw, pointed weave 5-1.

Fig. 38

On 8 shafts straight through, pointed weave 5-1, 1-1.

Fig. 39

Broken pointed twill, on 8 harness.

Fig. 40

On 6 shafts point draw, pointed weave 5-1.

Fig. 41

On 8 shafts point draw, pointed weave 5-1, 1-1.

Fig. 42

Fancy twill, on 16 shafts straight draw.

SATIN WEAVES

The distinct diagonal lines which characterize the class of weaves
explained in the previous chapter are absent in the satin weaves; and
while the interlacing in the former is done in a strictly consecutive
order, we endeavor to scatter the points of stitching in the latter as
much as possible, in order
[pg 33]
to create an entirely smooth and
brilliant surface on the cloth.

In all satins the number of ends in a repeat is the same in warp and
filling.

The lowest repeat of a regular satin comprises five threads of each
system, and the interlacing is done in the following order:

Fig. 43 illustrates this weave. An examination
of the rotation, as given above, will show that every warp-thread
intersects two picks apart from its neighbor. The number “2” is in this
case what is technically known as the counter, that is the number
which indicates the points of interlacing by adding it to number 1 and
continuing so until all the warp-threads are taken up.

The following is the rule to find the counter for any regular
satin:

Divide the number of harness into two parts, which must neither be
equal nor have a common divisor. Any of these two numbers can be used for
counting off, but usually the smaller one is taken. According to this
rule we obtain a regular satin

The 4 harness broken twill, Fig. 53, is
sometimes classed among the satins.

The 6 harness satin, Fig. 54, is irregular; as a
counter cannot be derived from number 6 by the given rule. The rotation
generally used is 1, 3, 6, 4, 2, 5.

Regular Satins

5 harness Satin, “Satin de Chine.”

Straight draw, counter 2.

Fig. 43

7 harness Satin, “Satin Merveilleux.”

Skip draw, counter 2.

Fig. 44

7 harness satin

Straight draw, counter 3.

Fig. 45

8 harness satin “Duchese”

Skip draw, counter 3.

Fig. 46

9 harness satin

Straight draw, counter 4.

Fig. 47

10 harness satin

Straight draw, counter 3.

Fig. 48

11 harness satin

Skip draw, counter 5.

Fig. 49

12 harness satin

Skip draw, counter 5.

Fig. 50

16 harness satin

On 2 sections of 8 shafts each, drawn end and end, counter 7.

Fig. 51

8 harness satin, warp effect.

Straight draw, counter 3.

Fig. 52

IRREGULAR SATINS

Satin Turc.

On 4 shafts straight through.

Fig. 53

Satin à la Reine

On 6 shafts straight draw.

Fig. 54

DERIVATIVE WEAVES

1. From the Taffeta

Royale is a modification of the regular Gros de Tours, inasmuch
as the rib line, which in the latter runs straight across the cloth, is
broken off after a given number of warp-threads. These groups, which may
comprise 8, 12 or more threads, will interlace each one pick higher than
the preceding one.

Royale of 8 ends

On 2 sections of 4 shafts each.

Fig. 55

Velours Ottoman or Faille française.

In order to obtain a broader rib than that of Gros de Tours, and at
the same time to lend firmness to the fabric, we add to the ground warp,
which forms the ribs, another
[pg 42]
or binder warp, which works continually
taffeta, while the ground warp changes only every 3 or 4 picks for the
rib.

Faille française.

Fig. 56

Velours Ottoman without a Binder-warp.

In this weave, of which Fig. 57 illustrates a
specimen, comprising 8 warp-threads and 32 picks in a repeat, the rib
contains 4 picks. Of the 8 warp-threads, 3 float over and 3 under the
rib, while the 2 others bind taffeta, which latter function is executed
by 2 other threads in the next rib.

Fig. 57

2. From the Twills

One variety is obtained by interlacing the warp-threads alternately
one or more picks behind, and then a number of picks ahead of their
respective neighbors; so the complete arrangement of the points of
binding in a repeat will generally form two parallel diagonal lines. This
will cause the twill lines to appear less pronounced than is the case in
the regular twill, and the character of the fabric approaches more that
of the satin.

Fig. 58

Satin Sergé.

On 8 shafts, straight draw.

Fig. 59

Côte Satinée.

On 16 harness, skip draw.

Rhadzimir-Surah 2-2. After a certain number of picks of the
regular surah all the warp-threads are crossed in two’s thereby causing a
sort of a rib or cut line across the fabric.

Rhadzimir of 4 picks.

On 8 shafts, straight draw.

Fig. 60

Rhadzimir of 6 picks.

On 8 shafts, straight draw.

Fig. 61

3. From the Satin Weave

Satin Soleil shows a satin-like surface with a cross line
appearance. Fig. 62 illustrates it as made on 8
shafts, straight draw.

Fig. 62

Satin Grec is a 12-harness satin, in which a taffeta point is
added to each place of interlacing, thus giving the cloth a much firmer
hand. Fig. 63 represents this weave on 12 shafts,
skip draw.

Fig. 63

Peau de Soie. An 8-shaft satin with one point added on the
right or left to the original spots, giving the fabric a somewhat grainy
appearence. Fig. 64 represents a peau de soie on 8
shafts, straight through.

Fig. 64

Fleur de Soie. The face is a satin de Lyon (2-1 twill), with a
backing interlaced on the 12-shaft satin principle, Fig. 65, on 12 shafts, skip draw.

Fig. 65

CANNELE and REPP WEAVES

are in their construction related to the taffeta, and are used mostly
in the form of stripes as an additional ornament to a fabric. The threads
going into the composition of these effects exchange continually from
taffeta interlacing to floating over a certain number of threads, and
must be introduced either in warp or filling close enough to make the
floats cover up the taffeta work entirely, and thus enable the material
used to show up with the full brilliancy it possesses.

Cannele effects can be produced in two distinct ways. One is to let
every individual thread work alternately taffeta and float, while in the
other method one thread weaves always taffeta, and a second thread is
used for the cannele exclusively. These latter threads must come from a
separate warp, which is introduced to embellish the ground or taffeta
part of the fabric.

The floating threads can either stitch all on one pick and so form a
continuous cut line, or be divided in groups, of which one will bind in
the middle of the floats of the other group. The following designs show
both the face and backside of the respective weaves:

Alternating Cannele of 6 picks.

On 4 shafts, straight through.

Fig. 66

Canelle (2 beams). Over 3 picks, interlacing on every fourth
pick, drawn end and end on 2 sections of 4 shafts each.

Fig. 67

Cannele over 5 picks, binding on the sixth, but every second
thread advanced 3 picks (to the middle of the float of the first thread),
drawn end and end on 2 sections of 4 shafts each.

Fig. 68

Cannele arranged in groups of 8 threads, floating over 6 picks
and binding on the seventh and eighth, drawn on 2 sections, with 4 shafts
in first and 2 in second section.

Fig. 69

Repp on 8 shafts straight through. Rotation of filling. 1 pick
taffeta, 1 pick float (rib).

Fig. 70

Repp of 8 threads, on 2 sections of 4 shafts each, 8 ends per
section.

Fig. 71

Repp of 5 threads, binding on the sixth; every second pick
binds on the middle of the first pick. On 6 harness straight draw.

Fig. 72

Repp in groups, floating over 6 ends and binding on the seventh
and eighth on 8 shafts straight draw.

Fig. 73

DOUBLE FACED FABRICS

In this class we find either two systems of warp or of filling so
combined that only one will be visible on either side. The color on one
side is generally different from the other, and so may the interlacing be
of a different nature on face and back. In the latter case great care
must be exercised not to allow the weave on one side to disturb the one
on the other, and as a rule the points of interlacing of the first warp
or filling system are placed as much as possible in the middle of the
floats of the second. This will prevent either color or weave to be seen
on the opposite side, as the floats of one side will naturally lay
themselves over the binders of the other. The number of ends in a repeat
of the two weaves must either be alike or one a multiple of the
other.

Warp Effects

Levantine on 8 shafts straight draw.

Fig. 74

Serge 6-2 on 2 sections of 8 shafts each.

Fig. 75

8 shaft satin on 2 sections of 8 harness each.

Fig. 76

12 shaft satin on 2 sections of 12 shafts each.

Fig. 77

Cannele of 8 picks on 2 sections of 4 shafts each.

Fig. 78

FILLING EFFECTS

Serge 5-1 on 6 harness straight draw.

Fig. 79

10 harness satin on 10 shafts skip draw.

Fig. 80

Repp on 2 sections of 4 shafts each, 8 threads per section.

Fig. 81

PEKINS

With this name we designate fabrics in which stripes of a different
interlacing run in the direction of the warp. In combining these weaves
it is advantageous to have them contrast distinctly, for instance, a
short weave such as taffeta or Gros de Tours, with a longer and looser
one such as satin, sergé or cannele, also changes from warp to filling
effects. Care must be taken to arrange the joining of the two weaves so
that the last thread of one weave will cross the first thread of the
other. This will prevent the threads from either stripe to slide over
into the other, and so make a clean cut line.

Pekin. A stripe of

Fig. 82

Pekin. A stripe of

Fig. 83

Pekin. A stripe of

Fig. 84

BAYADÈRES

While pekins are formed by warp stripes, bayadère shows us stripes of
different weaves running in the direction of the filling. The rules given
in the previous chapter as to the joining of the weaves will also apply
here. The warp which was raised on the last pick of the weave must stay
down wherever possible on the first pick of the following weave. The
number of shafts employed must go up evenly in the repeat of each one of
the weaves that go into the make up of the bayadère.

Bayadère

Fig. 85

Bayadère

Fig. 86

CHECKS AND PLAIDS

If pekin and bayadère stripes are combined, we obtain checked fabrics,
and of these an endless variety and pleasing effects can be produced with
the aid of suitable color combinations.

Check

Fig. 87

Check

Fig. 88

DECOMPOSITION

Under the name of Disposition we comprise all those points and
details which we must ascertain before we can proceed with the
construction of a fabric. They are:

1. The weave.

2. Length and width of the cloth.

3. The stock and the dyeing thereof.

4. Reed calculation (number of dents and ends per inch and total number of dents required).

5. Drawing-in the warp in harness and reed.

6. Texture and arrangement of warp (warping ticket)

7. Arrangement of harness.

8. Reduction of filling.

9. Calculation of warp and filling.

10. Finishing.

11. Calculation of cost.

1. THE WEAVE

If a given sample is to be reproduced or imitated, it must be
analyzed, and the following hints will greatly facilitate this operation
to the beginner.

Cut the sample straight on two sides, and draw out a number of warp
and filling threads until there is a small fringe of perhaps ¼ of an
inch. This will allow a thread to be raised a little for examination,
without danger of its falling out of the fabric. In most cases it is
easier to dissect the filling side, that is, the interlacing of each
warp-thread in the threads of the filling system. With the help of the
microscope or counting glass we can easily determine over and under how
many picks that thread passes and the points of interlacing are
accordingly marked on designing paper. This being done for at least the
length of a repeat warpways, we take it out and examine the following
thread, and so on until the repeat filling-ways is complete. It is
advisable to ascertain how many picks ahead or back of the first examined
thread the next following one binds before taking the former out.

A knowledge of the construction of weaves as explained in the
foregoing chapters will enable us to determine the weave of a simple
pattern by merely raising a warp-thread with a needle on any point of
interlacing and counting off how many picks apart from this place it
makes an impression.

2. LENGTH AND WIDTH OF THE FABRIC

To the length and width which the finished product is to have, we must
add a certain allowance for shrinkage and taking up of warp during
weaving. It may differ from one to ten per cent., according to the
texture and weave of the fabric, and can be ascertained with sufficient
accuracy by stretching out and measuring a thread of warp and filling and
comparing their length with the respective measurements of the sample to
be reproduced.

3. THE STOCK AND ITS DYE

Under this heading we must give the particulars as to nature,
twist, quality and size of the silk, and the
directions for the dyeing, whether bright or souple, and in
what colors, also whether to be weighted or not.

The size is generally ascertained (in practical work) by comparing it
with other silk of which the exact count is known. Another method is to
count the number of cocoon threads which a thread of the sample contains,
adding to that 1/3 or ¼, according to the quality of the silk; the result
will be the count in deniers. To obtain it in drams, divide the latter
number by 17,3 as 1 dram is equal to 17,3 deniers.

Suppose we find 20 cocoon ends in a thread of silk: add 1/3, and we
have 26-2/3 deniers, which, divided by 17,3 make 1,54 drams.

As silk is always more or less uneven, it is safer to count the cocoon
fibers of several threads and to take average thereof.

It requires the experience of years to judge with any degree of
certainty as to the origin and quality of silk, whether it be
“classical,” “extra,” “sublime,” etc.

There are machines wherewith to ascertain exactly the twist, that is,
the number of turns the silk has received in the throwing process.

In the dyeing we distinguish two great classes, of which the names
themselves give a good definition. “Bright” has a brilliant luster, while
“souple” has more of a dull, subdued appearance. To find out whether the
silk has been weighted in the dyeing process, we may compare it with
other silk of which the exact conditions are known, or we may burn a
small quantity of it. Unweighted silk does not burn readily and leaves a
residue of white ashes, while heavy weighted silk burns lively, leaving
black, charry ashes.

4. REED CALCULATION

We count the number of repeats of the weave in a given space,
generally ¼ or ½ inch, and multiply this with the number of threads one
repeat contains, which gives us the reduction of the warp.

Suppose we had a taffeta, which, as we know, has only 2 ends to a
repeat, and counted 30 interlacings per ¼ inch on one pick; we would have
60 threads per ¼ inch or 240 per one inch. In this case the reed may be
80 by 3 or 60 by 4.

Another instance: In an 8-shaft satin we count 10 warp-threads, which
bind on the same pick in ¼ inch; this, multiplied by 8, equals 80 ends
per ¼, or 320 per one inch; the reed will be an 80 with 4 in a dent or a
64 by 5.

In short, the number of the reed is found by dividing the number of
warp-threads that are to go in one dent, in the number of ends per inch.
Sometimes, the reed marks are clearly visible in a sample by holding the
latter against the light. Silk fabrics move with very few exceptions
within the limits of 50 and 90 dents per inch.

To learn the full number of dents required for the width of the cloth,
simply multiply the dents per one inch with the width, adding a certain
allowance for shrinkage. The edges, of course, must also be taken in
consideration, and very often the dents that are taken up by the latter
are used to counter-balance that shrinkage.

5. DRAWING-IN THE WARP IN HARNESS AND REED

Here we must specify the number of dents that contain the same number
of ends, and whether the latter are single or double, also the number of
shafts and the method of drawing-in.

6. WARPING TICKET

To make out the warping ticket, we need to ascertain the total number
of ends, whether leased single or double, and the arrangement of the
colors.

7. HARNESS ARRANGEMENT

This is governed by the number of ends to be drawn in and the
necessary shafts. If we have, for instance, 100 threads per inch to be
drawn on 4 shafts, we must give each shaft 25 heddles per inch. There are
generally between 25 and 45 heddles per inch on one shaft.

8. REDUCTION OF THE FILLING

Here we state the number of picks per inch, give directions as to
doubling, if such is necessary, and if more than one color or shuttle is
used, the rotation thereof.

9. CALCULATION OF WARP AND FILLING

The system adopted in this country for specifying the size of silk is
based on the weight in drams (avoirdupois) of a skein containing 1000
yards. A skein, thus weighing 5 drams, is technically called 5-dram silk.
The number of yards of 1-dram silk to a pound must accordingly be 256000.
The formulas for figuring the amount of silk required for a piece of
cloth are as follows:

Warp Calculation

Filling Calculation

The system of grading the silk which is in vogue in Europe, and which
is employed by a number of mills on this side, is as follows:

The warp calculation, taking the international denier, would run:

10. FINISHING

Give directions as to the process of finishing to which the goods are
to be subjected, whether to be pressed, calendered, sized, moiréd,
etc.

11. CALCULATION OF COST

If all the foregoing conditions are ascertained, and a sample or a
piece of the fabric executed, it remains to the manufacturer to determine
the exact figure at which he can produce the article. That this must be
done with great accuracy is naturally of the utmost importance, and the
calculator
[pg 73]
must know in the first place the raw
stock prices, and also be acquainted with the details of the
manufacturing process and the rates of wages paid therein. As a rule, the
manufacturer establishes a scale of prices covering all the items of
labor cost, mill expenses, etc., and uses this as a basis for his
calculations.

A rule or formula for this operation cannot very well be given, as the
methods vary in almost every establishment, each choosing the one best
adapted to its ideas or dictates of circumstances and conditions.

DISPOSITION 1

Taffeta glacé

Fig. 89

DISPOSITION 2

Surah 3-1

Fig. 90

DISPOSITION 3

Satin Duchesse.

Fig. 91

for the split edge 3 shafts, of which one has only half a heddle.

DISPOSITION 4

Armure Satinée

Fig. 92

DISPOSITION 5

Surface Printed Armure.

Fig. 93

After weaving, the small flower effects have to be printed on the
cloth.

DISPOSITION 6

Pekin: 8 shaft satin and repp.

Fig. 34

On each side of every repp stripe two ends of the satin warp must be
entered on the 2 binder shafts (2d section), to prevent the ends of the
satin to slide over into the repp stripes.

This warp has to be beamed in stripes. Make out a diagram for the
warper the same as shown in Fig. 95.

Fig. 95

JACQUARD WEAVES

Jacquard weaves usually show on a plain ground figure or flower
effects. To obtain these effects the ground is made of one weave, say
taffeta, while the figures or flowers are produced in another weave, say
satin.

We enter the warp through a jacquard harness, and according to the
repeat use a 200, 400, 600, 900, 1200, etc., hook jacquard machine, which
means 200, 400, 600, 900 and 1200 ends per repeat.

With a 600-hook machine a larger repeat can be produced than with a
499-hook machine. For instance, if we want to make a cloth the figures of
which are to be two inches apart, it is a two-inch repeat, and use the
count of 50/4 or 200 ends per inch, we can use a 400-hook machine, 2 in.
x 200 ends. But we can make this cloth also on a 1200-hook machine, only
the repeat must be designed three times. The advantage of using a
1200-hook machine with the count 50/4 is that 2, 3, 4, 6-inch repeats can
be produced, while with a 400-hook machine, only a 2-inch repeat can be
made.

There is no end to all the different weaves and the possible flower
and other pattern effects that can be made with the jacquard machine. For
a jacquard weaving plant the designing is the most important factor.

BOX LOOM WEAVES INCLUDING CREPES

Box looms are required for weaves such as bayadères, checks, plaids
(see pages 63-65), bengalines, crêpes, etc., where two or more shuttles
are needed to bring out the effect.

For the crêpes (crêpe de chine, crêpe georgette) only two shuttles are
needed, while plaids and other articles are made with more shuttles.

To weave such articles the loom or the lay must be fitted with two or
more shuttle boxes on one or both sides of the loom.

If a manufacturer decides to change plain looms to box looms or buy
new box looms, it is wise to get 4 × 4 boxes, or four shuttle boxes on
each side.

With these looms about everything can be made that is called for in
box-loom effects, and as styles change, it is wise to be prepared.

MANUFACTURING COSTS

The calculator first ascertains for the warp: What silk will be used,
the cost of the same, total number of ends in the warps for the amount of
silk, cost of throwing, dyeing, winding, warping, twisting, entering, and
weaving.

Then the filling: Silk to be used, how much, cost of silk, cost of
throwing, dyeing, winding, doubling, quilling.

After this determine the cost of weaving, cloth picking, finishing,
factory costs, and selling expenses.

To-day most of the operations are paid by “piece work.”

The calculator must always take into consideration that poor raw silk
or poor dyeing make production slow, increase the cost of labor, and also
that more waste will be made.

THROWING: Regular organ usually has 16 turns per inch in the first
twist and 14 turns to the inch in the second or reverse twist. Tram
receives only one twisting, about three turns to the inch.

As the warp twisting-in is paid for at so much per hundred or thousand
ends, no matter how short or long the warp is, it is a saving to make the
warps as long as possible, especially in raw, black and staple
colors.

The calculator must not forget the cost of entering the first warp in
a harness, also the reeding.

Most mills figure the cost of harness and reed in the expense
accounts. If plain and fancy goods are made an extra percentage should be
figured for the latter.

EXPENSES are figured differently, as almost every manufacturer has his
own system. If a mill makes only a few staple articles it is easy to put
down the cost of expenses. Say the mill has a production of 500,000 yards
per year, that the expense amounts to $35,000, the cost then is 7 cents
per yard.

Manufacturers making all kinds of goods sometimes figure the expenses
in percentage, say, for plain goods, with a few picks, like gros-grain,
peau de soie, etc., 10 per cent. per yard. Taffeta, satin, etc., having
more picks, 12½ per cent. per yard, and fancy and jacquard goods, 15 per
cent. per yard. In the expense account we include all charges except raw
silk, throwing, dyeing and piece work.

SELLING EXPENSES. Before a calculation is finished we must add the
selling expenses to the cost, also take account of the trade discount.
Small mills usually sell through a commission house, which pays all
expenses and charges a certain commission. Many large firms have their
own selling end, and some have their sales guaranteed by a commission
house or a bank.

CALCULATIONS

The prices marked in the following calculations are about as in
“normal times.” Absolutely correct piece work prices cannot be given as
different localities have different prices.

Calculations are usually made per 100 yards, 100-meter warps.

Most goods gain from 3 to 7 per cent. in weaving. That is, if we make
a warp of 300 meters for a satin and we obtain 315 yards of cloth, this
gain should not be calculated, as usually there is no account taken of
samples used in the selling department. But the loss in length should be
figured and taken account of on goods with a heavy rib, such as moiré,
faille, etc.

DISP. 7—A 3 1/3-inch repeat can be obtained with a 600-hook
jacquard machine, seven repeats in a width of 23 inches.

DISP. 8—Taffeta weave, but the two cotton picks must go in one
hole. This article can only be made with at least two shuttle boxes on
each side. For warping use a single and double cross reed, heavy cotton,
no knots must be tied.

DISP. 10—This article must be warped with as much tension as
possible and no knots should be tied in. Silk is to be delivered on
bobbins from throwster.

CANTON CREPE

DISP. 9—Can also be made with Canton silk for filling and may be
called Canton crêpe. As Canton silk is much cheaper than Japan, the
manufacturer can use 4-thread Canton instead of 3-thread Japan for
filling at a little difference in cost, thus the cloth will be heavier,
but Canton silk is not as even and clean as Japan.

CALCULATION BLANK

INDEX

DRAWING-IN, 7

Straight Draws, 7

Skip Draws, 9

Point Draws, 9

Section Draws, 10

THE WEAVES AND THEIR CONSTRUCTION, 15

The Taffeta Weave, 17

Gros de Tours Weaves, 19

Serge Weaves, 20

Twill Weaves, 20

FILLING EFFECTS 21

Satin de Lyon, 21

Levantine, 21

Polonaise, 22

Serge grosse coté, 22

Serge Romaine, 23

Serge, 23

WARP EFFECTS, 25

Levantine, 25

EVENSIDED TWILLS, 26

Surah, 26

Croise, 26

POINTED TWILLS, 27

SATIN WEAVES, 32

Satine de Chine, 34

Satin Merveilleux, 34

7 Harness Satin, 35

Duchesse, 35

IRREGULAR SATINS, 39

Satin Ture, 39

Satin à la Reine, 40

DERIVATIVE WEAVES, 41

From the Taffeta, 41

From the Twills, 43

From the Satin Weave, 46

Cannele and Repp Weaves, 49

DOUBLE FACED FABRICS, 55

Warp Effects, 55

FILLING EFFECTS, 58

Pekins, 60

Bayadères, 63

Checks and Plaids, 65

DECOMPOSITION, 67

The Weave, 68

Length and Width of the Fabric, 68

The Stock and Its Dye, 69

Reed Calculation, 70

Drawing-in the Warp in Harness and Reed, 70

Warping Ticket, 71

Harness Arrangement, 71

Reduction of the Filling, 71

Calculation of Warp and Filling, 71

Finishing, 72

Calculation of Cost, 72

DISPOSITIONS, 75

JACQUARD WEAVES, 100

Box Loom Weaves Including Crêpes, 100

Manufacturing Costs, 101

CALCULATIONS, 103

Calculation Blank, 110