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OMAHA DWELLINGS, FURNITURE, AND IMPLEMENTS

BY

JAMES OWEN DORSEY

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CONTENTS

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ILLUSTRATIONS

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OMAHA DWELLINGS, FURNITURE, AND IMPLEMENTS

BY JAMES OWEN DORSEY

INTRODUCTORY NOTE.

The accompanying paper is one of the results of personal investigations
among the Omaha of Nebraska and cognate tribes of Indians, beginning in
1878 and continued from time to time during late years.

While the paper treats of the Omaha tribe, much that is said is
applicable to the Ponka, as the two tribes have long had similar
environments and a common dialect, for, until 1877, their habitats were
almost contiguous, and since 1880 about one-third of the Ponka tribe has
been dwelling on its former reservation near the town of Niobrara,
Nebraska.

Acknowledgments are due Dr. O. T. Mason for many valuable suggestions
early in the progress of the work.

DWELLINGS.

The primitive domiciles of the Omaha were chiefly (1) lodges of earth
or, more rarely, of bark or mats, and (2) skin lodges or tents. It may
be observed that there were no sacred rites connected with the earth
lodge-building or tent-making among the Omaha and Ponka.

Earth Lodges.

When earth lodges were built, the people did not make them in a tribal
circle, each man erecting his lodge where he wished; yet kindred
commonly built near one another.

The earth lodges were made by the women, and were intended principally
for summer use, when the people were not migrating or going on the hunt.
Those built by the Omaha and Ponka were constructed in the following
manner: The roof was supported by two series of vertical posts, forked
at the top for the reception of the transverse connecting pieces of each
series. The number in each series varied according to the size of the
lodge; for a small lodge only four posts were erected in the inner
series, for an ordinary lodge eight were required, and ten generally
constituted the maximum. When Mr. Say1 visited

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the Kansa Indians, he
occupied a lodge in which twelve of these posts placed in a circle
formed the outer series, and eight longer ones constituted the inner
series, also describing a circle. The wall was formed by setting upright
slabs of wood back of the outer posts all around the circumference of
the lodge. These slabs were not over 6 feet in height, and their tops
met the cross timbers on which the willow posts rested. Stocks of hard
willow about 2 inches in diameter rested with their butts on the tops of
the upright slabs and extended on the cross timbers nearly to the
summit. These poles were very numerous, touching one another and
extending all around in a radiating manner, supporting the roof like
rafters. The rafters were covered with grass about a foot thick; and
over the whole lodge, including the sides or slabs, earth was piled from
a foot to 2 feet in depth. Such a covering lasted generally about twenty
years. A hole in the middle served as an exit for the smoke.

Fig. 306.—Yellow Smoke’s earth lodge.

In addition to the lodge proper there was a covered way about 10 feet
long and 5 feet wide, the entrance to which had a covering of tanned or
dried buffalo hides. This covering consisted of two hides hanging side
by side, with the inner borders slightly overlapping. They were fastened
to the passageway at the top and at the outer sides, but were loose at
the bottom where they overlapped. This part was raised by a person
entering the lodge. A similar covering was placed at the interior end of
the passageway.

Subsequently to 1855, the Omaha dwelt in three villages composed of
earth lodges, as follows: (1) Biku′de, a village near the agency; (2)
Windja′ge, Standing Hawk’s village, near the Presbyterian mission
house; and (3) Jaⁿȼa′te (“Wood Eaters,”) named after an insect
found

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under the bark of trees Sanssouci’s village, near the town of
Decatur, Nebraska.

Earth lodges were generally used for large gatherings, such as feasts,
councils, or dances. Occasionally there was a depression in the center
of the lodge which was used as a fireplace; but it was not over 6 inches
deep. Each earth lodge had a ladder, made by cutting a series of deep
notches along one side of a log. On a bluff near the Omaha agency I
found the remains of several ancient earth lodges, with entrances on the
southern sides. Two of these were 75 feet and one was 100 feet in
diameter. In the center of the largest there was a hollow about 3 feet
deep and nearly 4 feet below the surface outside the lodge.

Lodges of Bark or Mats.

The Omaha sometimes make bark lodges for summer occupancy, as did the
Iowa and Sak. [T]iu′ȼipu jiñ′ga, or low lodges covered with
mats, were used by the Omaha in former days. Such lodges are still
common among the Winnebago, the Osage, and other tribes. The ground plan
of such a lodge forms an ellipse. The height is hardly over 7 feet from
the ground. The tent poles are arranged thus: Each pole has one end
planted in the ground, the other end being bent down and fastened to the
pole immediately opposite; a number of poles thus arranged in pairs
formed both wall posts and rafters.

Fig. 307.—Ground plan of Osage lodge.

Generally there was one fireplace and one smokehole in such a lodge; but
when I visited the Osage in 1883, I entered a low lodge with two
fireplaces, each equidistant from its end of the lodge and the entrance,
each fireplace having its smokehole.

Skin Lodges or Tents.

The tent was used when the people were migrating, and also when they
were traveling in search of the buffalo. It was also the favorite abode
of a household during the winter season, as the earth lodge was
generally erected in an exposed situation, selected on account of
comfort in the summer. The tent could be pitched in the timber or brush,
or down in wooded ravines, where the cold winds never had full sweep.
Hence, many Indians abandoned their houses in winter and went into their
tents, even when they were of canvas.

Fig. 308.—Omaha tent (from a photograph by W. H. Jackson).

The tent was commonly made of ten or a dozen dressed or tanned buffalo
skins. It was in the shape of a sugar loaf, and was from 10 to

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12 feet
high, 10 or 15 feet in diameter at the bottom, and about a foot and a
half in diameter at the top, which served as a smokehole
(ʇihuʞaⁿ). Besides the interior tent poles (ʇici—3, figure
309) and the tent skin (ʇiha—1), the tent had the
ʇiȼumaⁿhaⁿ, or the place where the skins were fastened
together above the entrance (4). The ʇiȼumaⁿhaⁿ was fastened
with the ʇihuȼubaxaⁿ(5), which consisted of sticks or pieces of
hide thrust crosswise through the holes in the tent skins. The bottom of
the tent was secured to the ground by pins (ʇihuȼugadaⁿ—6)
driven through holes (ʇihugaqȼuge) in the bottom of the skins, made
when the latter were tanned and before they had become hard. The
entrance (ʇijebe) was
[Pg 273]
generally opposite the quarter from which the
wind was blowing. A door flap (ʇijebegȼaⁿ—7) hung over the
entrance; it was made of skin with the hair outside, so as to turn
water, and was held taut by a stick fastened to it transversely. The
bottom of the door flap was loose, but the top was fastened to the tent.

Fig. 309—Exterior parts of an Omaha tent.

The smokehole was formed by the two ʇihugabȼiⁿȼa(9), or
triangular ends of tent skins, immediately above the entrance and
ʇi¢umaⁿaⁿ. When there was no wind both of the
ʇihugabȼiⁿȼa were kept open by means of the
ʇihuȼubajiⁿ(8) or exterior tent poles, which were thrust through
the ujiha, or small sacks, in the corners of the
ʇihugabȼiⁿȼa. When the wind blew one of the
ʇihuȼubajiⁿ was raised to the windward and the other was
lowered, pulling its skin close to the tent and leaving an opening for
the escape of the smoke; but if the wind came directly against the
entrance both the flaps were raised, closing the smokehole to prevent
the wind from blowing down it. When the wind blew the people used
nandiȼagaspe to keep the bottom of each tent skin in place. These
consisted of twisted grass, sticks, stones, or other heavy objects.

Figure 310 represents the tent of [P]ejequde, an Omaha. The banners or
standards, which were carried by the leaders of a war party or a party
going on a dancing tour, are depicted with their decorations of strips
of red and blue Indian cloth. Sometimes these standards were ornamented
with feathers instead of with cloth. Each standard could be used in four
war expeditions.

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No totem posts were in use among the Omaha. The tent of the principal
man of each gens was decorated on the outside with his gentile badge,
which was painted on each side of the entrance as well as on the back of
the tent.1 The furniture of the sacred tents resembled that of the
ordinary ones.

Before the introduction of canvas tents by the whites no needles or
thread were used by the Siouan tribes. The women used sinew of the deer
or buffalo instead of thread, and for needles they had awls made of elk
horn.

Fig. 310.—[P]ejequde’s tent.

Since there were no outbuildings, public granaries, or other structures
of this description, each household stored away its own grain and other
provisions. There were no special tribal or communal dwellings; but
sometimes two or more households occupied a single earth lodge. When a
council was held, it took place in the earth lodge of one of the head
chiefs, or else two or three common tents were united, making one large
one.2 There were no public baths, as the Missouri river was near, and
they could resort to it whenever they desired. Dance houses were
improvised either of earth lodges or skin tents.

Sweat-lodges were in the form of low tents (ʇiuȼipu).3 Stones
were not boiled for the sweat-lodge, but were put into the fire to be
heated. They were removed from the fire by means of sticks called
iⁿߵĕbasiȼaⁿ,

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and then water from the kettle was poured on
them, creating steam. Cedar fronds were dropped on the stones, causing a
perfume to arise.

FURNITURE AND IMPLEMENTS.

Fireplaces.

Within the tent, in the center, was the fireplace (uneȼĕ), formed
by excavating a small hollow. Beside this was erected a forked post
(isagȼĕ), on which was hung the apparatus for suspending a kettle
over the fire. This apparatus was called ȼexe uȼugacke by the
Ponka, literally, “that by means of which the kettle is hung.” The Omaha
have two names for it, uhaⁿ uȼugacke, and uȼugackegȼe, the
last syllable of the latter name referring to the attitude of the post.
Around the fireplace was a circular space for the feet of the people as
they sat about the fire. The couches of the occupants of the tent were
arranged outside of and all around this circular space.

Beds and Bedding.

A couch was formed by laying down two or three winter hides dried with
the hair on. These hides were placed around the fireplace at a safe
distance. In the earth lodges, according to Joseph La Flèche, the Omaha
used sahi, or grass mats, for seats, as is the present custom of the
Winnebago; but at night they reclined on dressed hides with thick hair
on them, and covered themselves with similar hides.

For pillows they used ibehiⁿ or iⁿbehiⁿ. When the vegetation
was about 3 inches high in the spring, the Indians killed deer and
pulled off the hair in order to remove the thin skin or tissue next to
it. This latter, when thoroughly dried, is smooth and white, resembling
parchment. It was used for pillows and moccasin-strings. When used for
pillows the case was filled with goose feathers or the hair of the deer
until it was about 2 feet long and 9 inches high. During the day, and
whenever there was occasion, they were used as seats; but if none could
be had, the people sat on winter robes or hides forming the couches.1
Back of the couches and next to the interior tent-poles were placed the
baggage, sacks of corn, and other household properties.

The upright tent is one form of the Dakota “wake′ya,” the plural of
which, “wake′yapi,” undoubtedly gave rise to the familiar “wick′iup”
of the plains, and also to “wä-ka′-yo” of Morgan.2

Cradles.

A board of convenient size, usually about a yard long and a foot wide,
was selected to form a cradle or uȼuhe. No pillow was needed. A

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soft skin ([p]aqȼuqaha ȼaⁿ) covered with plenty of thick hair
was laid on the board, and on it was placed the infant.

Fig. 311.—Omaha cradle—plan.

In the annexed figures, a is the ĭnduaȼisiⁿkaⁿhe, the
object painted on the board at the end where the infant’s head is laid;
b is the ĭndeiȼidĭndiⁿ (“that which is drawn taut over the
face”), the two strings of beads and sinew or thread (sometimes made of
red calico alone), which keep in place the fan, etc.; the fan
(ĭndeagani), which is suspended from a bow of wood, (c) is about 6
inches square, and is now made of interwoven sinew on which beads have
been strung. Occasionally thimbles and other bright objects dangle from
the bottom of the fan. The iȼaȼistage (d) is the band by which
the infant is fastened to the cradle.

Fig. 312.—Omaha cradle—side view.

Children’s Swings.

For swings the ends of two withes of buffalo hide were secured to four
trees or posts which formed the corners of a parallelogram. A blanket
was thrown across the withes and folded over on them. The infant was
laid on top of the fold and swung from side to side without falling.

Brooms.

Brooms were of two kinds. One form was made of sticks tied together, and
was used for sweeping the ground outside of the tent or earth lodge, and
the interior of the earth lodge, except the fireplace. The other kind
was made of goose or turkey feathers, and was used for sweeping the
fireplace of an earth lodge.

Pottery.

Pottery has not been made by the Omaha for more than fifty years. The
art of making it has been forgotten by the tribe.

Mortar and Pestles.

A mortar was made by burning a large hole in a round knot or piece of
wood about 7 inches in diameter. The lower end was sharpened

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to a point, which was thrust into the ground when needed for use. After
putting corn in a mortar of this description, the woman grasped the
wooden pestle in the middle, with the larger end upward; the smaller
end, which was about an inch in diameter, was put into the mortar. The
operation of pounding corn among the Omaha was called “he.” The mortar
(uhe) and pestle (wehe) were both made commonly of elm, although
sometimes they were fashioned of white oak. Mortars were of various
sizes, some of them measuring 2 feet in diameter. Pestles were always of
hard and heavy wood, and fully 3 feet long, taperring from 4 inches to
an inch in diameter.

Fig. 314.—Omaha pestle.

Fig. 313.—Omaha mortar.

Spoons, Ladles and Drinking Vessels.

Spoons were made of horn, wood, or pottery. The black spoons made of
buffalo horn (ʇehe sabĕ), are not used by such Omaha as belong to
the Buffalo gentes (Iñkesabĕ, Ȼatada, [T]esinde, etc.) which may
not touch a buffalo head. Other horn spoons of light color are made of
cow horn. These are of modern origin. Wooden spoons (jaⁿʇehe) were
made of knobs or knots of trees. Spoons made of buffalo horn are found
among the Omaha and Ponka, but the Osage, Kansa, and Kwapa use clam
shells (ʇihaba, in Ȼegiha; tcühaba, tcühuba, in Kansa), so the
Kansa call a small spoon, tcühaba jiñga. Spoons of buffalo horn had
their handles variously ornamented by notches and other rude carving,
often terminating in the head of a bird, the neck or handle of each
being elevated at an angle of 50° or 60° with the bowl, which, was about
3 inches in width by about 5 in length. As the handle of such a spoon
usually terminates in a head or hook, it was impossible for it to slip
into the bowl when the hook rested on the outside of the rim of the
bowl.

Food was served in bowls of a very wide and simple form and of various
sizes, generally carved out of large knots of wood. These served as
drinking cups (ni′iȼátaⁿ), but now cups of tin or earthenware
are used for that purpose.

Water Vessels

When pottery was made, they used bowls and kettles. Some used wooden
bowls of different sizes, the largest being about 2 feet in diameter.
When they went on the hunt, they used the ínijeha (or sack made of the
muscular coating of the buffalo paunch, by filling

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with, grass to make
it stand out and keep its shape until dried). When the ínijeha was
filled with water the mouth was tied, and it was kept covered and in the
shade that it might remain cool. After being used for a few days it
became strong smelling, and was thrown away, another taking its place.
Some preferred the “ʇenăn′de uqȼa′ha ȼaⁿ” or
pericardium(?) of the buffalo, which is like sinew. This does not smell
unpleasant, even when used for seven or ten days. But at the expiration
of that time it is unfit for further service.

Jugs have been introduced by the traders.

Other Vessels.

Provision sacks or parflèche cases were made of dried buffalo hide. When
used for carrying the dried meat, they were called weábastá. After two
or three years’ use they became soft and were fit only for making
moccasin soles. These sacks had the hair taken off, and were sometimes
made in trunk fashion.

Fruit baskets were of three kinds. The Ponka made them of the bark of a
tree, called tawáߵaⁿhe, which is found on the old Ponka reservation
in Dakota. Northern Indians make boats of this bark. The Omaha do not
find the tree on their land, so they make the fruit baskets of other
kinds of bark. The three kinds of baskets are as follows: Naⁿ′pa
úȼisĕ, used for chokecherries; agȼañ′kamañge úȼisĕ,
used for raspberries; and bact úȼisĕ, used for strawberries. When
the Ponka wished to make the baskets, they stripped off the bark in
horizontal sections, not pulling upward or downward.

In modern times the Omaha have learned to make sacks of thread of
different colors drawn from black, red, blue, and white blankets.
Different figures are woven. Each sack is about a foot deep, 16 inches
from the mouth to the opposite side, and from 2 to 2-1/2 feet long. The
opening is on one of the long sides, and when the articles are put in a
gathering string is drawn and tied.

Hoes and Axes.

For hoes, the Omaha used the shoulder blades of the buffalo. Axes and
hatchets are now made of iron, hence, the Omaha name, maⁿ′ze-pe,
sharp iron. But the Kansa have the ancient name, maⁿ′hi-spe,
answering to the Dakota, waⁿhiⁿ′-kpe, sharp flint. The hatchet
is distinguished from the ax by adding “jiñga,” small. Some of the stone
axes and hatchets have been found on the Omaha reservation, but they
could hardly have been used for cutting. It is not known what tools were
used for felling trees.

Knives.

Knives were made of stone. A prominent butte, near the old Ponka agency,
Nebraska, is known as “Máhiⁿ-ʇu,” signifying blue knife, from the
character of the stone with which its surface is covered. It is

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several miles from the mouth of Ponka creek and nearly opposite the month of
Choteau creek, South Dakota.

Implements Connected with Fire.

In former ages, the Ȼegiha made fire by rubbing or turning a stick
round and round between the hands. On the present Omaha reservation, and
in that region, the Omaha use elm roots for that purpose. In the country
called [P]izábahéhe, near the source of Elkhorn river, there is a grass
known as “duáduáhi,” which has about a hundred fine shoots from each
root, which is half the size of the head. The stalk was used for hand
drills and fire sticks. One stalk was cut almost flat, and the man puts
his feet on the ends to steady them. Then, holding the other stick in
his hands, with one end touching the stalk on the ground, he turned it
round and round till the friction produced fire. Sometimes a small
quantity of dry sand was placed on the flat stick. The same flat stick
answered for several occasions. When the cavity made by turning the hand
drill became too large, the point of contact was shifted to another part
of the flat stick, and so on until the whole of that stick was used,
when it was thrown away and another was obtained. Duáduáhi, according to
Mr. Francis La Flesche, may be found in Judiciary square, Washington,
District of Columbia. After the coming of the white man, but before the
introduction of friction matches, which are now used by the whole tribe,
the Omaha used flints and tinder for making fire.

Spits for roasting, etc., náqpe, or wébasnaⁿ, were made of any kind
of wood.

For tongs they used the [p]ediȼaȼisande (“fire-holder”), made by
slitting one end of a stick. This implement was also called, jaⁿ
jiñga nini ibista (“the stick that presses the fire against the
tobacco”), because it was used for lighting pipes.

Smoking Paraphernalia.

Fig. 315.—Omaha calumet

The pipes in use among the Omaha are of three kinds: the sacred pipe
(niniba waqube, mysterious pipe), including the war pipes and those used
by the chiefs in making peace; the niniba weawaⁿ or calumet
(illustrated in figure 315), used in the calumet dance or dance of
adoption,1 and the hatchet pipe or maⁿzepe niniba, introduced since
the coming of the white man. One form of the pipe used on ordinary

[Pg 280]

Tobacco pouches (niniújiha) were made of deer or antelope skin, and
were ornamented with porcupine quills or a fringe of deerskin. Sometimes
buffalo bladders were used for this purpose. The women used them as
receptacles for their porcupine quills.

occasions is shown in figure 316. This pipe has a bowl of catlinite, and
the stem is decorated with horsehair.

Fig. 316.—Omaha pipe used on ordinary occasions.

Equipage for Horses.

Saddles (cánakágȼe) were in use before the coming of the whites. They
were made of wood, around which was wrapped hide, while still
“ʇaha-nuʞa” (green or soft). According to Joseph La Flèche these
saddles did not rub sores on the backs of the native horses (Indian
ponies), but Dougherty1 said, in 1819, “The Indians are generally
cruel horse-masters, perhaps in a great measure through necessity; the
backs of their horses are very often sore and ulcerated, from the
friction of the rude saddle, which is fashioned after the Spanish
manner, being elevated at the pummel and croup, and resting on skin
saddle cloths without padding.” They ride very well, and make frequent
use of the whip and their heels, the latter being employed instead of
spurs.

For bridles and halters they used strips of hide, out of which material
they made also lariats. The bridle used consisted of a withe, one end of
which was wrapped two or three times around the animal’s lower jaw,
while the other was held in the hand, forming but a single rein. This
did not hinder the rider from guiding his horse, as he was able to turn
him to the left by pressing the single rein against the animal’s neck,
as well as by the use of the right heel against its side. When he wished
to turn to the right, he pulled the rein and pressed his left heel
against the horse’s side.

Whips were of three kinds. The wahí wégasapi was attached to a bone
handle. The handle of a jaⁿ′ukeȼiⁿ wégasapi was made of
common wood. That of a zaⁿzí wégasapi was made of Osage orange wood,
which is very hard. The whip was attached to the wrist by a broad band,
which passed through a hole near the end of the handle. The handle was
about 15 inches long and was very stout. A specimen that has been
deposited in the National Museum (a gift to the author from an Omaha)
has a lash 2 feet long, composed of 8 thongs one-fifth of an inch wide.
These are plaited together in one rounded plait for 18 inches, the rest
of the lash being in 2 plaits of 4 thongs each, knotted near the ends.

The lasso was called maⁿ′tanah-íȼize, i.e., “that by which (a)
wild (horse) is taken.” It was made by taking the hair from the head of

[Pg 281]

a buffalo and plaiting it into a very strong rope as thick as one’s
thumb. This rope was called “ʇaha-ȼisaⁿ,” and was utilized by
the Omaha and Ponka instead of the common lasso for catching wild horses
in northwestern Nebraska. One end of the rope was formed into a noose
large enough to slip over a horse’s head, and the ends of this noose
were secured to a long pole by small cords. The other end of the rope,
arranged in a coil, was fastened to the belt or waist of the man. He
rode with the pole held in one hand and tried to thrust the noose in
front of a horse. When he succeeded in passing the noose over the head
of an animal, he threw away the stick, which had become separated from
the noose, and held the rope alone, which he pulled toward him. When the
horse was caught, the man made an ĭndúȼiciⁿ. (bridle or face
cover), being careful to place some buffalo hair over the nose and under
the chin, to guard against paining the horse, whose eyes remained
uncovered.

Trappings for the saddle (sĭn′de-ehéȼĕ) were used. Some years
ago a specimen of Omaha trapping was presented by the writer to the
Anthropological Society of Washington, and subsequently was deposited in
the National Museum.

Traveling Gear.

Snow-shoes (sé-hiⁿbe) were worn by the Omaha and Ponka when they
traversed a region, north of their modern, habitat.

For traveling on foot a staff (hí-mañgȼe) was used when it was
necessary to pass over mountains; also when, heavy loads had to be
carried. This staff differed from the crutch (í-mañgȼe).

The women had mácaʞa^n, or straps, for aiding them in carrying loads
of wood, etc.

Boats.

When they wished to cross streams they made hide boats, or mandéha.
These were manufactured from dried buffalo hides, which were sewed
together with sinew, and so tightly that no water could penetrate the
seams. Ten branches of red willow were placed within, the ends being
bent upward and fastened by withes to two other saplings, which extended
the whole length of the boat at the inside of the gunwale. The ten
pieces were the ʇíci-íki[p]ádaⁿ. The rudder or steering oar
(íȼisaⁿ′ȼĕ) was fashioned like the oars (mandúȼugáhi),
with the blade flat and of the breadth of two hands. The rowers
(uȼúgahi aká) sat near the bow, and the steersman
(ȼisaⁿ′ȼa aká) took his seat at the stern.

Musical Instruments.

Battles were of five kinds, [P]exe were generally gourds; wataⁿ′
[p]exe, gourd rattles, were always round, and were partially filled with
seed, fine shot, or gravel, [T]ahánuʞa [p]éxe, green-hide rattles,
were of two sorts, one of which is “ȼigúje,” bent a little. Specimens
of this form are in the National Museum.

[Pg 282]

Two kinds of rattles were called ʇa-cáge, i.e., “deers-claws,” from
the composition of one variety, though the other was made of molars of
the elk.

Fig. 317—Skin drum.

The Omaha used three styles of drums. The ȼéxe-gaʞú bȼáska, or
flat drum, is illustrated by a specimen (no. 21675) in the National
Museum. The ȼéxe-gaʞú gadáje is made of buffalo hide, cowhide, or
the skin of a horse. An example of this drum (no. 24682) is also in the
National Museum, and is illustrated by the accompanying figure 317. The
jaⁿ′ ȼéxe-gaʞú, or ʞúge ȼéxe-gaʞú, is a wooden or box
drum, represented by the accompanying figure 318, also from a specimen
(no. 58610) in the National Museum.

Fig. 318—Box drum.

Whistles were made of elder (baʇúci-hi, or popgun wood) by pushing out
the pith. No holes were made in the sides of the tube.

Nisúde ʇañ′ga, or large flutes, were made of red cedar. A branch was
cut off, rounded, split open with a knife, and hollowed out; then six
holes were made in the side of one of them, and the halves were stuck
together again. When one of these instruments is blown it produces
quavering notes. The best specimens were made by
[P]áȼiⁿ-ʇañ′ga, Big Pawnee.

The large flute is illustrated in figure 319.1 Wahí nisúde, or bone
flutes, were made of the long bones from the eagle wing. These small
flutes have only one hole. Reed flutes, ȼíqȼe nisúde, were made of
a kind of reed which grows south of the Omaha territory, probably in

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Kansas. The Omaha obtained the reeds from some of the southern tribes
and made them into flutes having but one hole each.

Fig. 319.—Omaha large flute.

WEAPONS.

Clubs.

Fig. 320.—Omaha club (jaⁿ-[p]áɔna).

The jaⁿ-wétiⁿ, “striking-wood,” is a four-sided club. It is made
of ash, and is as long as from the elbow to the tips of the fingers. The
ja^n-dáona, “wood with a smooth head,” is a club made of ironwood, which
is very hard. According to the late Joseph La Flèche, the Omaha form of
this weapon had a steel point projecting from the ball.

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Fig. 321.—Omaha club (jaⁿ-dáɔna).

Figures 320 and 321 are forms of the jaⁿ-[p]áɔna which may be seen
in the National Museum (nos. 2649 and 22419). The weaqȼade, another
kind of war club, is made of some kind of hard wood. There are two
varieties, one of which is shown in figure 322 (National Museum no.
23729). The other has a ball carved at the end of a straight handle,
with a wooden point (of one piece with the ball and handle) projecting
from the ball, making an angle of about 130° with one side of the
handle. There is a steel point inserted in the ball, forming an angle of
about 110° with the other side of the handle. The iⁿ′-wate-jiñ′ga
is something like a slung shot. A round stone is wrapped in a piece of
hide which is fastened to a wooden handle about 2 feet long.

Fig. 322.—Omaha club (weaqȼade).

Tomahawks.

The heads of tomahawks as well as of battle-axes were at first made of
stone; but within the last century and a half they have been fashioned
of iron.

Spears.

Lances, darts, or spears are designated by the general term
man′dĕhi. The jaⁿ′-man’dĕhi are made of ash, and are from 6
to 8 feet long. There

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are two kinds, of one of which the handle is
round, and about an inch in diameter, and the point is flat and about
the width of three fingers at its juncture with the handle.

Besides these there are the lances, called waqȼexe-ȼáze, of which
there are two varieties. One consists of a straight pole, which has been
thrust through a piece of buffalo hide that has its long end sewed
together, forming a sort of covering. To this hide are fastened feathers
of the crow and miⁿ′xa-saⁿ, or swan, in alternate rows or
bunches. Between the feathers are fastened square pieces of blanket.
About the middle of the pole a space of nearly 6 inches is left without
feathers, and this is the place where the spear is grasped. When the
pole was not set into a metal point the lower end was cut very sharp.1
The other variety, or mandĕhi ȼiguje, “bent spear,” is the weapon
which the Dakota call “wahukeza.” It is ornamented with eagle feathers
placed at intevals, one being at the end of the curved part; and it
generally terminates at the bottom in an iron point. It is possible for
one of these waqȼexeȼaze to reach a man about 6 feet distant; and
even mounted men have been killed by them. Spears are used also in some
of the dances. Around the shaft is wrapped the skin of a swan or brant.
The end feather at the top is white; the other feathers are white or
spotted. The bent spear is no longer employed by the Omaha, though the
Osage, Pawnee, and other tribes still use it to a greater or lesser
extent.

Bows.

Fig. 323.—Omaha bow (zaⁿzi-mandĕ).

Fig. 324.—Omaha bow (ʇaʞaⁿ-mandĕ)

Bows (man-dĕ) are of two kinds. One is the man-dĕ or
zaⁿzi-mandĕ (bow-wood bow), having an unbroken curve past the grip
to within an inch or two of each nock.2 The other kind is the
ʇaʞaⁿ-mandĕ, so called because it has deer sinew glued on its
back.3 Bows were made of hickory, ash, ironwood, or zaⁿzi, the last
being greatly preferred. It is a wood resembling that of the Osage
orange, with which some persons confound it; but it is black and much
harder than the former, the Osage orange wood being yellow, soft, and
easily cut. The zaⁿzi is probably that which Dougherty4 called
“bow-wood (Maclura aurantiaca of Nuttall).”

[Pg 286]

Bowstrings were made of the twisted sinew of the elk and buffalo, as
among other tribes.

Arrows.

Fig. 325.—Omaha hunting arrow.

The arrows (maⁿ) used in former days were of several kinds. The
hunting arrow, used for killing the buffalo, was generally about 2 feet
long, of the usual cylindric form, and armed with an elongate triangular
point, made at first of flint, afterward of sheet iron. The shoulders of
the arrow were rounded instead of angular, as in the ordinary barbed
form. The point, or head, was firmly secured to the shaft by deer sinew
wrapped around the neck of the point, and over that was spread some
cement, made in a manner to be afterward explained. The flight of the
arrow was equalized by three half-webs of feathers, neatly fastened near
its base in the usual manner.

Another kind of hunting arrow was the hidé nazíȼĕ, which was
altogether of wood. About 6 inches from the point the shaft was
triangular or quadrangular; and the point was made by holding the shaft
close to a fire and turning it round and round till the heat had reduced
it to the proper shape and had hardened it. This was used for killing
fish, deer, and small game.

Fig. 326.—Omaha war arrow.

The war arrow (b) differed from that used in hunting in having a
barbed point, which was very slightly attached to the shaft, so that if
it penetrated the body of an enemy it could not be withdrawn without
leaving the point in the wound.

Children used the hidé-ʇece, or target arrow, when they began to learn
the use of the bow. With this a boy could kill small birds and animals.

The Ponka used to make arrowshafts (maⁿsa) of jaⁿ-′qude-hí,
“gray wood,” juneberry wood, which grew in their country, but is not
found among the Omaha. Most of the Omaha made their shafts of the
maⁿʹsaqtihí, or “real arrow-wood,” (Viburnum) as that was the wood
best suited for the purpose. Sometimes they were made of chokecherry
wood; and Joseph LaFlèche informs me that he has made them of ash and
hickory.

Arrowshafts were held lengthwise directly in a line with the eyes of the
workman, who sighted along them to see if they were straight. If one was
bent, he held one end of it between his teeth, while he pressed against
the rest of it with his hands. They were polished by means of the
polishers, or maⁿ′-ȼiqȼáde, two pieces of sandstone, each of
which had

[Pg 287]

a groove in the middle of one side. These grooves were
brought together, and the arrow was drawn between them.

Fig. 327.—Omaha style of hidé-ʇáce

War arrows had crooked lines drawn along the shafts from the points to
the other ends, down which, so I was informed by the Indians, it was
intended that the blood of a wounded foe should trickle.

Arrowheads (máhiⁿ-sí), when made of flint, as at the first, were
called “iⁿ′ߵĕ mahiⁿsí,” stone arrowheads. In more recent times,
they were manufactured of pieces of sheet iron; as, for example, hoops
of pails and barrels.

Arrow cement (hiⁿ′pa), for attaching the heads to the shafts, was
usually made from the skin taken off a buffalo or elk head. This was
boiled a long time, till ready to fall to pieces. When the gelatinous
matter forming the cement rose to the top of the water, a stick (called
hiⁿpá-jaⁿjiñ′ga) was thrust in and turned round and round,
causing the material to be wrapped around it. When cooled it was
smoothed with the hand. Then the act was repeated till a large quantity
was collected on the stick. When needed for use, it was warmed by
placing either in the mouth or in hot water. The skin of the big turtle
was also used for making cement.

A set of arrows were called, collectively, “maⁿwiⁿ′daⁿ.” A
set generally consisted of ten arrows, but the number varied; sometimes
there were two, four, or even twenty. When a man had arrows left in his
quiver, he compared them with that which was in the slain animal. When
he had none left, he appealed to some one who knew his style of arrow.

There were no clan or gentile marks on arrows. One set was distinguished
from another by the order of the paint stripes on them, by the kind of
feathers used, by the mode in which the arrowheads were made, etc. The
Oto made bad arrows; those of the Pawnee were better, but they were
inferior to those made by the Dakota, Ponka, and Omaha.

The feathers, half-webs generally, put on arrows were those of the
eagle, buzzard, wild turkey, great owl, and goose. Sometimes hawk or
crow feathers were employed.

Quivers.

Quivers (maⁿ′jiha) for men were made of buffalo hide; but boys’
quivers were made either of otter skins or of the skins of cougars, with
the tail of the animal hanging down from the upper extremity. A skin
case was attached to the quiver for carrying the bow when not in use.
The wrist was defended from the percussion of the bowstring by the
leather wristguard or áqande-[p]a.

Shields and Armor.

Shields (ʇaháwagȼe) were made of the hides of buffalo bulls. They
were round and very thick, reaching to the waist of the bearer. Arrows
did not penetrate them. Joseph La Flèche never heard of the use of
defensive armor, such as helmet and mail, among the Omaha and Ponka.

[Pg 288]

He had heard of a Pawnee who made a coat from four elk skins, two
forming the front and two the back. Between each pair of skins was
placed sand. A helmet was made in like manner. It covered the back of
the head and extended over the forehead, coming down as far as the eyes.
When the Pawnee noticed an arrow coming toward him, he bowed his head
forward.

Firearms.

Firearms were introduced among the Omaha prior to 1819, when Dougherty
says that they preferred those called “Mackinaw guns.”

INDEX.