SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN

A WEEKLY JOURNAL OF PRACTICAL INFORMATION, ART, SCIENCE,
MECHANICS, CHEMISTRY, AND MANUFACTURES.

NEW YORK, DECEMBER 14, 1878.

Vol. XXXIX.—No. 24. [NEW SERIES.]

$3.20 per Annum [POSTAGE PREPAID.]

Contents:

(Illustrated articles are marked with an
asterisk.)

THE BELGIAN SHIP CANAL.

The ship canal from Ghent to Terneuzen was originally
laid out with many bends, rendering navigation difficult; it
had a depth of 14 feet 4 inches and a width of 98 feet 6
inches at the water level. The works which are at present
in course of execution have especially for their object the
deepening of the canal to 21 feet 3 inches, with a width of
55 feet 9 inches at the bottom and 103 feet 9 inches on the
water line. The slopes have a uniform inclination of 1 to 3,
and the towing paths on each side are placed 6 feet 6 inches
above the water level, and are 32 feet 8 inches wide. In
many instances also the course of the canal has been altered
and straightened for the improvement of navigation; several
important diversions have been made for this purpose. The
excavation has been effected by hand, by dredging, and by
the Couvreux excavator, figured as below in Engineering.

The earth excavated was carried to spoil, and in many
cases was employed to form dikes inclosing large areas,
which served as receptacles for the semi-liquid material
excavated by the dredging machines with the long conductors;
the Couvreux excavator used will be readily understood
from the engraving. It had already done service on
the Danube regulation works. The material with which it
had to deal, however, was of a more difficult nature, being
a fine sand charged with water and very adherent. The
length of track laid for the excavator was about 3 miles
along the side of the old canal, which had been previously
lowered to the level of the water.

EXCAVATOR ON THE GHENT AND TERNEUZEN SHIP CANAL BELGIUM.

Preservation of Iron and Steel from Oxidation.

We are indebted to J. Pechar, Railway Director in Teplitz,
Bohemia, for the first official report in English from the Paris
International Exhibition which has come to hand. This volume
contains the report on the coal and iron products in all
countries of the world, and is valuable for its statistical and
other information, giving, as it does, the places where the
coal and minerals are found, and the quantities of each kind
produced, for what it is used, and to what other countries it
is exported. The able compiler of these statistics in the introduction
of his report gives the following account of the
means recommended by Professor Barff, of London, for preventing
oxidation, which is being considerably used abroad.
The writer says:

It is well known that the efficient preservation of iron
against rusting is at present only provided for in cases where
human life would be endangered by failure, as in the case of
railway bridges and steamers. Thus, for example, at Mr.
Cramer-Klett’s ironworks at Nuremberg every piece of iron
used for his bowstring bridges is dipped in oil heated to
eight hundred degrees. The very great care which is at
present taken in this matter may be judged from the current
practice of most bridge and roofing manufacturers. Every
piece of iron before being riveted in its place is cleaned from
rust by being immersed in a solution of hydrochloric acid.
The last traces of free acid having been cleared away, at first
by quicklime and afterward by a copious ablution with hot
water, the piece is immediately immersed in hot linseed oil,
which protects every part of the surface from the action of
the atmosphere. Afterward it is riveted and painted.

Notwithstanding all this, the painting requires continual
and careful renewal. On the Britannia Bridge, near Bangor,
the painter is permanently at work; yet, in spite of all this
care and expense, rust cannot be entirely avoided. The age
of iron railway bridges is still too short to enable us to draw
conclusions as to the probabilities of accidents. Now, Professor
Barff has discovered a process by which iron may be
kept from rusting by being entirely coated with its own sesquioxide.
A piece of iron exposed to the action of superheated
steam, in a close chamber and under a certain pressure,
becomes gradually covered by a skin of this black oxide,
of a thickness depending upon the temperature of the steam
and the duration of the experiment. For instance, exposure
during five hours to steam superheated to five hundred degrees
will produce a hermetical coating capable of resisting
for a considerable time the application of emery paper and
of preserving the iron from rust even in a humid atmosphere,
if under shelter from the weather. If the temperature is
raised to 1,200 degrees, and the time of exposure to six or
seven hours, the skin of sesquioxide will resist every mechanical
action, and the influence of any kind of weather. The
sesquioxide being harder than the iron itself, and adhering
to its surface even more firmly than the atoms of iron do to
each other, there is an increased resistance not only to chemical
but also to mechanical action. The surface is not altered
by the process in any other respect, a plain forging retaining
its roughness, a polished piece its smooth surface. If
the skin is broken away oxidation takes place, but only
just on the spot from which the oxide has been removed. If
Professor Barff’s experiments are borne out by practice, this
invention may become of very great importance. It is within
the bounds of probability that it may enable iron, by increasing
its facility in competing with wood, to recover, at least
for a considerable time, even more than the ground it has
lost by the extraordinary extension of the use of steel. Iron
is already being used for building purposes to a large extent;
but oxidation once thoroughly prevented it will be able to
take the place of wood and stone to a still greater degree.
Iron roofing may be made quite as light as that of wood, and
of greater strength, by a judicious arrangement and use of
T iron.

Warning to Locomotive Engineers.

Drs. Charles M. Cresson and Robert E. Rogers, of this
city, says the Philadelphia Ledger, well known as experts in
chemistry and dynamics, were appointed by the Reading
Railroad Company to inquire into and report upon the
causes of the recent explosion of the boiler of the express
locomotive “Gem,” at Mahanoy City, by which five lives
were lost. Their report, which is designed to cover the
whole scope of a most careful investigation, is not yet made
public, but they have arrived at the following specific conclusion,
which we give in their own language: “We are,
therefore, of the opinion that the explosion of the boiler of
the locomotive ‘Gem,’ was produced by the projection of
foam upon the heated crown bars of the furnace, caused by
suddenly and widely opening the safety valve, at a time
when the water had been permitted to get so low as to overheat
the crown of the furnace.” This is an important matter
that should be carefully noted by locomotive and other
engineers.

MUNN & CO., Editors and Proprietors.

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VOL. XXXIX., No. 24. [NEW SERIES.] Thirty-third Year.

NEW YORK, SATURDAY, DECEMBER 14, 1878.

TABLE OF CONTENTS OF

THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT

No. 154,

For the Week ending December 14, 1878.

Price 10 cents. For sale by all newsdealers.

I. ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.—Portable Steam Pumping Engine,
1 engraving.—New Bone Crushing Mill, 2 engravings.—Picard’s
Boiler. Extraction of Salt from Salt Water.—Compressed Air Machines.
Hydraulic vs. air pressure. Causes of the losses of power.
Estimates of useful effects obtainable.—The St. Gothard Tunnel. By
Geo. J. Specht, C.E.—Apparatus for Lifting Sunken Vessels, with 8
figures.—Russia Sheet Iron.—Manufacture of Artificial Stone.—Compressed
Fuel.—The New Magnesi Process for Boiler Feed Water.

II. FRENCH INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION OF 1878.—Wine Presses.
Description of sixteen new and peculiar wine presses at the Exhibition,
with 31 figures and 9 engravings. The Press Primat; Press Mabille;
Press David; Samain Press; Marchand, Maupre, Boyries, Chapellier,
Marmonier, Nogues, Mailhe, Moreau, Piquet, Delperoux, Terrel
des Chenes, and Cassan fils Presses.

The Algerian Exhibit. The street of Algiers, with 1 illustration.—Woolen Fabrics.

III. ELECTRICITY, LIGHT, HEAT, ETC.—Electric Lighting. Estimate
of the comparative heating effect in gas and electric lighting, and the
consequent loss of power.—The Electric Light. Remarks on its economy.—The
Present Bugbear of French Savants.

New Planets.

The Dutch Arctic Expedition. The Peak of Beerenburg, Spitzbergen,
with 1 illustration.

IV. CHEMISTRY AND METALLURGY.—New Process for Separating
Iodine and Bromine from Kelp.—Inoffensive Colors for Toys.—New
Coloring Matters.—Tungsten.

Ozone and the Atmosphere. By Albert R. Leeds, Ph.D. Table of
percentage of ozone contained in the atmosphere at various localities
in the United States. Register of ozone observations for one month at
Upper Saranac Lake, N. Y., giving thermometric and barometric observations,
and full record of weather. Examination of methods in
ozonometry. Preparation of ozone by electrolysis of water containing
sulphuric acid, with 1 engraving. Preparation by electricity, with
1 engraving. Does the electric spark decompose potassium iodide?
Collection and preservation of ozone. Preparation by chemical methods.
Critical examination of ozonoscopes. Potassium iodide; starch;
paper classification of ozonoscopes. Examination of ozonoscopes under
certain conditions.

Limits of the Combustibility of Gases.—The Diffusion of Salicylate
of Soda.—Singular use of Fluorescein.—New Metal. Philippium By
M. Marc Delafontaine.—Better Pharmaceutical Education. By
Richard V. Mattison, Ph. G.—An El Dorado for Apothecaries.

V. MEDICINE AND HYGIENE.—The Science of Easy Chairs. The
muscular conditions of fatigue, and how to obtain the greatest rest.
How easy chairs should be made.

Prof. Huxley on the Hand. Abstract of his inaugural lecture before
the South London Workingmen’s College.

Paint from a Sanitary Point of View. The required abolition of absorbent
surfaces in dwellings. Lead poisoning from paint not thoroughly
dry. Cases described in which white lead paint in dwellings
never dries, but gives off poisonous particles, which are inhaled by the
inmates, causing depression, weakness headache, and loss of appetite. Zinc
recommended in paint to avoid lead poisoning, and the new
oxy-sulphide of Zinc described, with covering qualities equal to white
lead.

The Purification of Sewage. By Henry Robinson, F.R.S. Paper
read before the Sanitary Institute of Great Britain. Progress in purifying
sewage by precipitation. The use of chemicals for precipitating,
deodorizing, and disinfecting. Practical data on a large scale, with
cost. Average number of gallons per head of population, etc., of the
successful system now in operation at Coventry and Hertford. How
the water is removed from the sludge by filter presses. Drying and
removal of the sludge. Theoretical and actual values of the sludge
for fertilizing.

VI. AGRICULTURE, HORTICULTURE, ETC.—The Broadside Steam
Digger, with 1 engraving.—Shall I Plow the Lawn?—Bee Culture.

PROGRESS OF PETROLEUM.

The efforts of the great majority of the Western Pennsylvania
petroleum producers to obtain relief from what
they deem the oppressive acts of the Standard Oil Company
and the unjust discriminations of the United Pipe Lines,
and the various railroads traversing the oil regions, have attracted
more than usual attention to the present condition of
this industry and its possible future.

We would here explain that the Standard Oil Company
originated in Cleveland, Ohio, about twelve years ago, and
was incorporated under the laws of Ohio, with a nominal
capital now, we are informed, of $3,000,000, which, however,
very inadequately represents the financial strength of
its members. It is now a combination of the most prominent
refiners in the country, and has before been credited
with manipulating the transportation lines to its own special
advantage.

We can recall no instance of such serious hostility between
parties whose interests are at the same time of such
magnitude and so nearly identical; nor can we see what substantial,
enduring benefit would accrue to the producers in
the event of their victory in the struggle.

They charge that the Standard Oil Company has become
the controlling power to fix prices and to determine the avenues
by which the oil shall be transported eastward for home
consumption and for foreign exportation; that the railway
companies have given this company lower rates than other
parties for transporting the oil; and that through the rates
given to it by the railways the value of their property is destroyed.

The reply, in effect, is, Granting all this to be true, what
does it amount to? Neither more nor less than that the
managers of the Standard Oil Company, by combination of
capital, by intelligence and shrewdness in the management
of their operations, have built up a successful business, and
that they have so extended it by the use of all practicable
appliances, and by the purchase of the property of competitors,
that they do practically control the prices of oil, both
crude and refined, and that the uncombined capital of the
other oil producers, lacking the power, the intelligence, and
the business skill which combined capital can secure, cannot
compete with the Standard Oil Company. Now, is there
any great wrong or injustice in this?

When brains can command capital it is always more successful
in business matters than any amount of brains without
capital or capital without brains. This result is the natural
working out of the same principle that is everywhere
to be seen—some men are successful and others are not.

It is the essence of communism to drag down those who
succeed to the level of the unsuccessful.

If men cannot compete with others in any business they
must accept the fact, and try some other employment.

If, through superior intelligence and capital, the Standard
Oil Company can control the oil business of Pennsylvania,
then, according to the principles of common sense, it must
be permitted to do so.

What right, then, has the oil producer to complain? Why,
if all that is alleged is true, will they persist in sinking more
wells, when, as they say, they are controlled by the Standard
Oil Company? No one forces them to lose money by continuing
in the business. Let them find other employment.
They do not show that the Standard Oil Company does anything
that combined capital on their part and equal business
ability could not effect.

The cry of monopoly in this case is altogether unfounded,
those opposed to the Standard Oil Company having just as
much right to do all that that company does, and, therefore,
there can be no monopoly, because they have no exclusive
powers.

As to the railway companies, they can afford and have a
right to transport the tonnage offered them by the Standard
Oil Company at less cost, because it costs them less to do a
regular and large business than an irregular and smaller one.
They would simply be acting in accordance with business
principles the world over.

These are the arguments, the statement of the position
of a successful combination confident in its resources and of
victory in the coming struggle. The justness, the correctness
of the doctrines enunciated, and the wisdom of so doing
at this crisis, we do not propose to criticise; but it is
very safe to say that if the prosperity of the complainants
depends upon relief in this direction they may as well cease
producing.

There are too many of them for harmonious and concerted
action against the powerful corporations they complain of;
and if they should succeed in securing equal transportation
facilities the prices would still be regulated by the monopolists,
who carry more than four-fifths of the accumulated
stock of the oil regions.

The proposed appeal to Congress to pass some law whereby
each producer can compel railroad companies to carry his
produce at regular rates, amounts to a confession of the desperate
straits of the producers and of their weakness as well;
and even if successful, which is most improbable, would not
remedy the deplorable existing state of things.

Still lower rates would fail to give relief, with all the present
avenues of trade filled to repletion and with an increasing
output at the wells. Relief and permanent relief can be
found only in the direction we have before indicated: in
the general application of petroleum and its products to the
manufacture of gas for illuminating and heating purposes,
and its substitution for coal in the metallurgic and other
prominent industries of the world.

THE LIMIT OF WORK.

In distributing the prizes to workmen at the Paris Exhibition,
Louis Blanc, the leader of the French Republican
Socialist party, quoted approvingly these words of Simonde
de Sismondi:

“If the workman were his own master, when he had
done in two hours with the aid of machinery what would
have taken him twelve hours to do without it, he would
stop at the end of the two.”

M. Blanc had been discussing very eloquently, but also
very fallaciously, the relations of machinery to labor. If
men were properly united in the bonds of association, he
said, if the solidarity of interests were realized, “the happy
result of the application of mechanical power to industry
would be equal production, with less of effort, for all. The
discovery of an economic method would never have the
lamentable consequence of robbing men of the work by
which they live. Unfortunately, we are far from this ideal.
Under the empire of that universal antagonism which is the
very essence of the economic constitution of modern societies,
and which too often only profits one man by ruining
another, machinery has been employed to make the rule of
the strong weigh more heavily on the weak. There is not a
single mechanical invention which has not been a subject of
anguish and a cause of distress to thousands of fathers of
families from the moment it began to work.”

If all this, and much else that M. Blanc alleges, were true,
then the condition of all workingmen to-day should be in
every way worse than that of their fathers, in anti-machinery
days. But such is not the case. There never was a time
when the laborer toiled less or enjoyed more than in these
days of machinery; and the laborer’s condition is best where
the machinery is best and most used.

A hundred years ago the laborer toiled long, produced
little, and enjoyed less. To-day, thanks to the victories of
invention, machinery does the heaviest of the work; the
workman’s hours of labor are fewer than formerly; his
wages are greater; and his earnings will buy vastly more,
dollar for dollar, than in any previous age in the world’s
history.

What laborer of to-day would be satisfied with the remuneration,
the food, the shelter, the clothing of the laboring
classes of one hundred years ago? The wants of men,
as well as their thoughts, are widened by the process of the
suns. And in no section of society have the daily wants
been more markedly increased, or the facilities for gratifying
them either, than among those that live by labor.

“If the workman were his own master, when he had done
in two hours with the aid of machinery what it would have
taken him twelve hours to do without it, he would stop at
the end of the two.”

So says the theoretical socialist. The practical workman
never has, nor, we believe, ever will, act so foolishly; certainly
not until the limit of man’s capacity to enjoy has been
reached. When the united products of manual and mechanical
effort fully satisfy the desires of all men, and leave
no margin of want unfilled, then and then only will men be
satisfied with the reduction of effort demanded by the
socialists. Until then the larger part of every increase in
production by mechanical improvements will go to swell the
volume of good things for human use and enjoyment. Our
machinery enables our thousands of busy workers to accomplish
what millions could not have done years ago, and a
very large part of the aggregate increase of product comes
back to them in conveniences and luxuries surpassing those
the wealthiest could enjoy were machinery not employed,
or were it employed, as the socialist advocates, without increasing
the aggregate of production. The laziness of the
savage and the advantages of civilization are incompatible.
The chief merit of machinery lies in its enabling us to multiply
constantly the scope and variety of our enjoyments
without a corresponding increase of toil.

IRIDESCENT GLASS.

Ornamental glassware in many styles, tinted with the
glowing colors of the rainbow, is now making its appearance
in the shop windows of Broadway and Fifth Avenue. This
is one of those brilliant little achievements of science that
delights the eye and pleases the imagination. To produce the
colors, the glass, while in a heated state, is subjected to the
vapor of chloride of tin. Shades of more or less depth or intensity
are imparted by adding to the tin chloride a little nitrate
of strontium or barium.

RAILS AND RAILWAY ACCIDENTS—NEW YORK
ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

A meeting of the Section of Physics, New York Academy
of Sciences, was held November 25, 1878. President
J. S. Newberry in the chair. Numerous publications of
learned societies were received and acknowledged. Professor
Newberry read a letter from Professor Agassiz stating
that sea lilies, which had hitherto been very rare—a single
specimen bringing as much as fifty dollars—have been found
in some numbers by dredging in the Gulf of Mexico. Their
colors are white, pink, and yellow. Professor Newberry
also exhibited specimens of garnet from California, lamellar
quartz from North Carolina, sharks’ teeth belonging to the
eocene and miocene tertiary ages from the phosphate beds of
South Carolina, and a number of shells.

Professor Thomas Egleston then addressed the Academy
on the subject of “The Structure of Rails as Affecting
Railway Accidents.”

The destruction of rails is due to three causes.

• 1. Defects in the manufacture;
• 2. Improper mechanical or chemical composition; and
• 3. Physical changes.

A very large number of rails are annually made which
should never be put in any track. Their defects are often
imperceptible to the naked eye, but they very soon begin to
break. Statistics show that the breakage from defects in
making increase until they have been used 18 months; then
it decreases to zero, and after that rails break from different
causes. In France, breakage usually begins in December,
reaches its maximum in January, and becomes normal in
April. As a more intense cold would be necessary to explain
such breakage than that which is felt in that climate, the
cause must be sought in the stiffness and inelasticity of the
frozen road bed. The impact of the locomotive is then apt
to break the rail, very much on the same principle that is
taken advantage of in breaking them up for the manufacture
of smaller objects. A nick is made somewhere, and
the workman then strikes a blow with a hammer at a point
between the nick and the place where the rail is supported.
This will sever the rail at the nicked place. Sometimes
more than a second intervenes between the blow and the
fracture. Now, whenever holes are punched in rails for the
fish plates, flaws are apt to radiate from them; and if these
flaws are not planed or filed out, they may cause the rail to
break, just as the nicks above mentioned. Such rails have
been known to last no longer than 18 months, and some have
actually broken on the way from the manufacturer to their
destination. There are establishments in this country and in
Europe where they “doctor” such rails by filling up the
flaws with a mixture of iron filings, sal ammoniac, and some
adhesive substance. Beware of them; a poor cheap rail is
dear at any price. The French government stipulates in its
contracts for rails, that flaws shall be planed, drilled, or filed
out; that the rails shall not be allowed to drop on the ground,
but shall be carried by men and slid down. The Lyons railroad
does not pay for its rails until 15,000 trains have passed
over them.

By imperfect mechanical composition is meant imperfect
union of the parts of rails. Steel heads are welded to the
rest of the rail in a variety of ways, and this welding is necessarily
imperfect. A number of sections of rails etched
with acid plainly showed this want of homogeneity, as did
likewise prints taken from the etched surfaces. Before such
rails have lost weight appreciably, they are used up by the
constant rolling they undergo. The advantage of a steel
rail is its homogeneity, but a good iron rail, such as those
made under the direction of the speaker, for the Reading
Railroad Company, is likely to prove better than one of poor
steel. The life of a steel rail is chiefly affected by the temperature
at which it is rolled and annealed. It ought not to
wear off more than 1 mm. for 20,000,000 tons of traffic, and
is usually calculated to wear 10 mm. before it is taken up. In
other words, it would last about 20 years on roads doing as
much business as the New York Central. It is, however,
unlikely that our steel rails will stand more than half this
amount of traffic.

The effects of chemical composition are but little understood.
Some of the purest irons have turned out utterly
worthless. Apparently the absolute quantities of carbon,
silicon, aluminum, phosphorus, etc., present are not of so
much importance as their relative proportion. One specimen
containing carbon 0.16, silicon 0.08, and phosphorus
0.012, could be bent double when cold, while another, containing
carbon 0.58, silicon 0.56, and phosphorus 0.011 broke
at once.

The physical tests for tensile and torsional strength, usually
made on a portion cut out of the head of the rail, are not
sufficient, because the flaws before spoken of exist mostly
in the flange of the rail, and fracture usually begins there.

The effect of cold rolling and shocks that a rail is exposed
to was shown by a piece of rail made by the Campbells,
Sheffield, Eng., which had been worn 3 mm. by a traffic of
60,000,000 tons at Spuyten Duyvel. The head had been
somewhat flattened, and the flange driven down into the foot
to a certain extent. Under such usage an iron rail would
have gone to pieces long ago.

Sometimes steel rails crumble all at once and pieces fall
out of the head. This is probably due to some physical defects
or to crystallization from shocks. The cause has not
yet been definitely ascertained.

Mr. Collingwood stated that of a rail only a section of ⅜
square inch was pressed by the wheel of a locomotive, the
effect being to cause this portion to act like a wedge, and
thus to contribute to the disintegration of the rail. He also
exhibited a hook which had been used to hoist stones of 10
to 12 tons, and then suddenly broke with a weight of only
6½ tons. It had been worn from a thickness of 2 inches to
1⅞. The pressure at the upper surface crowded the particles
and caused them to act as wedges. Their fracture was
crystalline, while that of the lower surface, which parted
more slowly, was fibrous.

Professor Egleston asserted that there was no such thing
as fibrous iron; what appeared so being simply crystalline
with the ends drawn out. A sharp blow would cause this
to fall off and show the crystalline structure beneath.

The discussion was continued by Professors Trowbridge,
Egleston, and Newberry.

C. F. K.

Formation of Iodiform.—All mixtures in which alcohol
and iodine enter in combination with any alkali forming
colorless solutions go in part to the formation of iodiform.
Even chloroform and iodine, forming a colorless solution,
give rise to the same product.

—L. Myers Connor.

SANITARY SCIENCE IN THE UNITED STATES.

The following is an abstract of a paper on the Present and
Future of Sanitary Science in the United States, read by
Professor Albert R. Leeds, of the Stevens Institute of Technology,
before the New York Academy of Sciences at their
meeting, November 11th, 1878:

Sciences, such as the one under consideration, that have
in them a side largely practical, are sure of a welcome in our
midst. The study of the laws of public health grew into
prominence in this country during the war, when the Sanitary
Commission undertook to supervise the camps and hospitals.
Sanitary associations were then formed in many States
and smaller communities, and these have led to the establishment
of State and city boards of health, clothed to a greater
or less degree with executive functions. Every epidemic
has been the cause of wider dissemination of sanitary knowledge
by the daily press. The yellow fever plague, by which
more than twelve thousand people have perished, has
thoroughly aroused public interest. During its continuance
the papers were full of homilies on private and public
hygiene, the people everywhere sent aid and sympathy to
the afflicted, and a lady offered to defray the expenses of a
scientific commission of sanitary experts to inquire into the
cause and prevention of the scourge. The proper execution
of sanitary laws depends on the free and intelligent co-operation
of individuals much more than on the influence of
a strong central authority. A general health department at
Washington could not legislate pure air, pure water, and
pure food into use throughout the nation. The people themselves,
in each community, must be educated to demand
these requisites of health and to secure them in their own
way.

I. Vital Statistics.—The first “Bill of Mortality” in New
York city extended from November 1st, 1801, to January
1st, 1803. In it people are said to have died of “flux,”
“hives,” “putrid fever,” “breaking out,” “stoppage,” “fits,”
of “rash,” and, by way of contrast, of “lingering illness.”
This rude beginning gradually led to the organization of the
Metropolitan Board of Health, whose first report was made
in 1866. Their second report showed a decrease of 3,152
deaths, mainly in districts where the greatest amount of sanitary
work had been done. Valuable illustrations of the relation
between damp houses and consumption were obtained
by constructing maps of certain wards, on which every death
from phthisis for several years was noted opposite each
house. It was found that the disease was most fatal in the
lowest levels, in rainy seasons, and in crowded localities.

The registration of marriages continued so defective that
a writer on the subject declares it would be impossible for a
large portion of the adult native population of the United
States to prove by any legal document that they have a right
to the name they bear, or that their parents were ever married.
The mortality returns of 1871 were probably nearly
perfect, and their very accuracy told against New York city,
whose death rate was 28.6 per thousand, while St. Louis reported
17, Rochester 16, Buffalo 14, and Jersey City 7 per
thousand. To secure accuracy in the returns of marriages
and births, etc., more stringent legislation will be necessary.

In New Jersey the State Sanitary Association has conclusively
shown the utter worthlessness of the State vital statistics.
They memorialized the legislature, and caused the
passage of a law which gives to New Jersey one of the best
systems of registration yet devised. It owes its excellence
to the following features, which should be universally
copied:

     1. Burial Permits are issued only after registry has been
made by a properly qualified person; and

     2. The returns are made to an expert, who collates them
and deduces practical lessons from them.

II. Registration of Disease.—A large class of diseases may
be prevented from becoming epidemic if their existence is
known in time. For this purpose the boards of health should
be invested with power and provided with means to investigate,
reform, and, if necessary, to punish delinquency. Yet
in the face of so practical a requirement little more is annually
appropriated for the Board of Health of New Jersey
than for the pay of two policemen.

III. State Sanitary Legislation.—The agitation for sanitary
reform caused by the yellow fever should not be allowed to
die out with the pressure of the calamity that aroused it.
It should continue until every State that has been the seat of
yellow fever, year after year, has as efficient a health code
as Massachusetts and Michigan. The necessity of educating
the people before it is possible to secure the requisite legislation
will cause a considerable period of time to elapse before
all the States have laws in accordance with modern knowledge.
Probably no community takes the trouble to protect
itself until it has actually suffered. To the distress of London
the world owes the report of the Royal Commissions on
water supply and the pollution of rivers, still the best repertory
of the best knowledge on the subject. The manufactories
of England have made it necessary for the government
to take cognizance of aerial impurities. Similarly in this
country the pollution of the Passaic has caused inquiries
to be set on foot in the same direction.^*

An attempt was made to deprive the inhabitants of New
York of their public parks, and to occupy them with buildings
devoted to military and other purposes; but the people
had already been sufficiently educated up to an appreciation
of their sanitary value not to permit it. Dr. Seguin eloquently
advocated the improvement of the parks, to make
them not only pleasure grounds, but places of æsthetical and
practical out-door education of the public school children.

IV. Ventilation.—It would be a great step in the interests
of sanitary science if builders, vestrymen, and school or hospital
trustees could be persuaded that their offices did not
make them temporary authorities on ventilation, and that
they had best intrust this matter to specialists who have
fought their way into successful practice.

It appears that both the system of ventilation by aspiration
and that by propulsion have had great successes and
great failures. Many authorities have declared in favor of
mechanical ventilation, yet in most institutions where fans
had been introduced they are now standing still. In Roosevelt
Hospital, New York, they ran their fan backwards for
months and then stopped it.

V. Physical Education.—Instruction in hygiene and physical
exercise as a part of the college curriculum was first successfully
accomplished at Amherst College, and has now had
a trial of nearly twenty years. The importance attached to
it is shown by the fact that only distinguished members of
the medical profession are appointed as professors, and that
they have the same rank as the rest of the faculty. Their
first duty is to know the physical condition of every student
and to see that the laws of health are not violated. In case
of sickness, the students are given certificates to excuse them
from attendance and are put in the way of obtaining suitable
treatment. The records kept are of great interest. All
the classes are required to attend the gymnastic exercises
four times a week. For a full account see Professor Hitchcock’s
report on Hygiene at Amherst College to the American
Public Health Association. The excellent results of
this feature—it can no longer be regarded as an experiment—recommend
its introduction in all our colleges and public
schools.

VI. Health Resorts.—The number of people who leave the
cities in the summer to visit the seashore, the mountains,
and the country is annually increasing. A healthful village
is often changed to a center of pestilence merely by such an influx
of strangers, the ordinary means of removing offal, etc.,
being no longer adequate. The town of Bethlehem, N. H.,
became so popular by reason of its pure air that several
thousand hay fever patients sought relief there in 1877. The
consequence was insufficient drainage; but as the inhabitants
understood their interests, this defect was at once remedied.

The sea shore of New Jersey from Sandy Hook to Cape
May is becoming an almost continuous city, and harbors a
multitude of visitors every summer. Those whose interest
it is to retain this patronage cannot have it too strongly impressed
upon them to preserve their healthfulness by introducing
cemented cisterns, by causing garbage to be removed
daily, and by encouraging local boards of health.

VII. Illuminating Gas not only withdraws from the air of
our rooms a considerable amount of oxygen, but fills them
with noxious products of combustion. All this may be
avoided in the future by the introduction of the electric light.

VIII. Sanitary Surveys.—Dr. Bowditch has shown that a
thousand deaths from consumption in Massachusetts are due
to a wet and retentive soil, and this fact alone will show the
importance of sanitary surveys of the country, such as that
made of Staten Island by Professors Newberry and Trowbridge,
who determined the influence of the surface soil, of
the underlying rock, its porosity, its bedding and its joints,
upon the drainage and upon the local climate and health. A
similar survey of Hudson county, New Jersey, has been recently
made by L. B. Heard, C.E.

IX. Composition of the Atmosphere.—The English government
has been obliged to appoint the celebrated Dr. Angus
Smith to examine the effects of atmospheric contamination.
In Philadelphia there is scarcely a house front that is not disfigured
by the stain of magnesia and lime salts, caused by
acid vapors in the atmosphere.

A discussion followed, which was introduced by Mr. Collingwood,
who remarked that the problem of the sewage of
cities was still far from being solved. Though the recent experiments
in England on utilizing sewage for agricultural
purposes by filtration and otherwise were reported to be successful,
we had only dodged the question in this country.
Our sewage is still emptied into rivers to poison the water of
cities further down their course. When the country becomes
more thickly settled, this will answer no longer.

It was also stated that while gas in large chandeliers could
be made an effective means of ventilation, there was another
objection to its use in the fact that the soil of the city was
everywhere impregnated with it from leaky mains, thus causing
poisonous exhalations and an insufferable odor whenever
the ground was opened. Attention was also called to the evil
effects of the system of tenement houses, which led to an unfavorable
comparison of the health and morality of New
York with those of cities like Philadelphia and Cleveland,
that abound in small homes.

Dr. Minor attributed disease to what Richardson calls
“ultra-microscopic molecular aggregates,” which always exist
in the air, but take hold of us only when our vitality is reduced
to a certain point. It has been shown that decay is
absolutely impossible in vessels from which they are excluded.
But for them the earth would now be heaped with
the undecomposed remains of animals and vegetables. According
to this view, the future efforts of sanitary science
must be simply in the direction of learning how to protect
ourselves against the “ultra-microscopic molecular aggregates.”

C. F. K.

Felling Trees by Electricity.

Some years ago a Doctor Robinson of this city obtained a
patent through the agency of the Scientific American for
Felling Trees by Electricity. Subsequently a description of
the invention was published in this paper, soon after which
the newspapers in this country and Europe teemed with the
account of a gentleman in India having contrived an apparatus
for felling trees in the same manner. Since these several
years have elapsed we have heard nothing of the gentleman
from India till a few days ago our papers have taken up
the subject anew, and annexed is the account they give of
the inventor’s progress in developing his discovery.

The electric fluid in the form of lightning oftentimes
proves itself a very efficient wood cutter, and it has occurred
to some ingenious gentleman in India that artificial
electricity may be so applied and controlled as to cut down
trees a good deal faster than the clumsy ax or that American
notion the chain saw. The two ends of the copper wires of
a galvanic battery are connected with platinum wire, which
of course instantly becomes red hot, and while in that state
it is gently seesawed across the trunk of the trees to be
felled. When arrangements were made for the experiment,
it turned out that the thickness of the thickest platinum wire
that could be got was only that of crochet cotton. It was at
once seen that such a wire would be consumed before the
tree was half severed from its trunk. However, the attempt
was made. The burning wire performed its task very well
as long as it lasted, but, as anticipated, the wire continually
broke, and at length there was no wire left. There can be
little doubt that, with a stronger battery and a thicker wire,
the experiment would have been entirely successful. As it
was, the tree was sawn one fifth through.

AN IMPROVED VISE.

The novel vise shown in the engraving was recently
patented by Mr. William Starkey, of Pittsburg, Pa.

STARKEY’S VISE.

The fixed jaw is supported by two standards from the base
piece, and has a square boxing or tube for receiving the slide
of the movable jaw. This slide is hollow, and contains a
rack which is engaged by a pinion on the short vertical
shaft, which is supported by the fixed jaw. At the lower
end of the vertical shaft there is a worm wheel, that is engaged
by a worm on the horizontal shaft on which is placed
the hand wheel. By turning the hand wheel the vertical
shaft is rotated and the movable jaw is drawn against the
object to be clamped by the vise.

Culinary Uses for Leaves.

A writer in the London Iron Trade Exchange, calling attention
to a neglected source of culinary flavors, says:

“With the exception of sweet and bitter herbs, grown
chiefly for the purpose, and parsley, which is neither bitter
nor sweet, but the most popular of all flavoring plants, comparatively
few other leaves are used. Perhaps I ought also
to except the sweet bay, which is popular in rice and other
puddings, and certainly imparts one of the most pleasant
and exquisite flavors; but, on the other hand, what a waste
there is of the flavoring properties of peach, almond, and
laurel leaves, so richly charged with the essence of bitter
almonds, so much used in most kitchens! Of course such
leaves must be used with caution, but so must the spirit as
well. An infusion of these could readily be made, either
green or dry, and a tea or table spoonful of the flavoring
liquid used. One of the most useful and harmless of all
leaves for flavoring is that of the common syringa. When
cucumbers are scarce, these are a perfect substitute in salads
or anything in which that flavor is desired. The taste is not
only like that of cucumbers, but identical—a curious instance
of the correlation of flavors in widely different families.
Again, the young leaves of cucumbers have a striking likeness
in the way of flavor to that of the fruit. The same
may be affirmed of carrot tops, while in most gardens there
is a prodigious waste of celery flavor in the sacrifice of the
external leaves and their partially blanched footstalks.
Scores of celery are cut up into soup, when the outsides
would flavor it equally well or better. The young leaves of
gooseberries added to bottled fruit give a fresher flavor and
a greener color to pies and tarts. The leaves of the flowering
currant give a sort of intermediate flavor between black
currants and red. Orange, citron, and lemon leaves impart
a flavoring equal to that of the fruit and rind combined,
and somewhat different from both. A few leaves added to
pies, or boiled in the milk used to bake with rice, or formed
into crusts or paste impart an admirable and almost inimitable
bouquet. In short, leaves are not half so much used
for seasoning purposes as they might be.

NEW SHUTTER FASTENER.

IMPROVED SHUTTER FASTENER.

We give herewith an engraving of a new shutter fastener,
recently patented by Mr. P. F. Fernandez, of San Juan,
Porto Rico, West Indies. This fastener is designed for holding
doors or window shutters in position when open, to prevent
them from closing or swinging in the wind.

To the wall is secured a plate to which is pivoted the
spring-acted hook, A, and upon the shutter in the proper position
for engaging the hook, A, there is a rigid hook, B. A
coil spring is attached to the plate that supports the hook, A,
and when the shutter is open is engaged by a boss formed on
the end of the hook, B. By this means the hook, B, is
pressed forward into close contact with hook, A, thereby
preventing all jarring and rattling.

The hook, A, is provided with an eye for receiving the
cord, C, which extends to the window casing and is within
easy reach, so that when it is desired to close the shutter the
hook, A, may be readily disengaged from the hook, B, by
simply pulling the cord.

Further information may be obtained by addressing the
inventor as above.

AN IMPROVED GARDEN SPRINKLER.

HODEL & STAUBER’S GARDEN SPRINKLER.

A novel garden sprinkler, which may be carried on the
back, is shown in the accompanying engraving. The cylindrical
vessel has a removable cover, and contains a perforated
plunger which is operated by a hand lever from without.
The cylindrical vessel is provided with shoulder straps, and
it has two sprinkling nozzles connected with it by flexible
tubes.

This sprinkler is especially designed for applying insect-destroying
poison to plants. The operator, as he goes
through the field or garden, takes one nozzle in each hand
and distributes the liquid upon the plants. From time to
time the liquid will be agitated by moving the perforated
plunger.

This invention was recently patented by Adolf Hodel, of
Jefferson, and F. A. Stauber, of Chicago, Ill.

A NEW FOOT POWER.

LANE’S FOOT POWER.

In our issue of November 9 we illustrated and described a
sewing machine having W. F. Lane’s improved foot power
applied. We give herewith views of the foot power in detail,
Fig. 1 being a side elevation, and Figs. 2 and 3 sectional
views. The device is designed for application to any light
machinery that can be propelled by foot power. A is the
shaft to which motion is to be imparted by the treadles, B,
the latter being pivoted to oscillate on the shaft, H. Two
ratchet wheels, C, are secured to the shaft, A, and are each
worked by pawls, D, which are pivoted to a carrier, E,
which turns loosely on the shaft. The pawls are in the
form of an elbow lever, and the movement of their tooth
ends is limited by lugs or shoulders on the carrier, E. The
outer ends of the pawls are received between lugs that project
from the plate, F, which turns loosely on the shaft, A,
and has attached to it the rope pulley, G. When the plate,
F, is turned in one direction the pawls are raised and ride
loosely over the teeth, but when the plate turns in the other
direction the pawls engage the ratchet teeth and carry them
and also the shaft, A. A guide pulley, I, is pivoted below
the shaft, A, with its axis at right angles to the shaft.

The motion from the alternately-oscillated treadles, B, is
transmitted to the pulleys, G, by means of a rope (shown in
dotted lines), both ends of which are fastened by hooks to
some fixed point. This rope runs from one of the hooks
down under a pulley pivoted in the toe of one of the treadles,
thence around one of the pulleys, G, thence around the pulley,
I, over the other pulley, G, and downward around the
pulley in the other treadle, and upward to the second fixed
hook. The depression of one of the treadles causes the
shaft to rotate, and also lifts the other treadle into position
to be operated.

For further information address Wm. F. Lane, Elgin, Ill.

New Inventions.

Mr. Samuel Heaton, of Cedar Rapids, Iowa, has patented
an improved Iron Fence Post, which is particularly adapted
for wire fences. It is formed of a slotted iron bar, constituting
the post proper, and a triangular brace, which is so
connected with said bar that it may be easily adjusted at
different angles, corresponding to the undulation or unevenness
of the ground surface where the post is used.

Mr. Thomas S. Alexander, of Meriden, Conn., has patented
an improved Drawer Pull, which is neat, strong, and
durable, and is less expensive than when made in the usual
way.

An improved Earth Scraper has been patented by Mr.
Benjamin Slusser, of Sidney, Ohio. This is an improvement
in that class of earth scrapers which are arranged to
revolve for the purpose of dumping the load, and during
the intervals, or while being filled, are locked in rigid
position.

An improvement in Wagon Bodies has been patented by
Mr. James H. Paschal, of Camden, Ark. This invention
consists, essentially, in a frame provided with spurs projecting
therefrom for engagement with the bales to prevent
them from slipping, and the combination therewith of removable
extension side and end pieces, for enabling the
wagon to be used for other purposes when not employed for
hauling cotton bales; there is an extension of the frame
forming a feed trough for the horses employed to draw the
vehicle.

An improved Scraper has been patented by Mr. George
Eiteman, of Round Grove, Ill. This is a double-ended
scraper hung at its center on a rod connected to the handle
arms, whereby either end of the scraper may be used. It
has catches to prevent the scraper from revolving backward,
and spring actuated dogs on the handle frame to retain the
scraper in position and prevent it from turning over until
released.

AMATEUR MECHANICS.

For amusement, exercise, and profit we commend, to those
who are mechanically inclined, the practice of working with
tools of the smaller sort, either in wood or other of the softer
materials, or in metals, glass, or stone. This practice renders
the hands dexterous, the muscles strong, and the head
clear, with the further advantage of producing something
for either ornament or use. Of course a bench with a vise
and a few wood working and iron working tools will be required;
but the most expensive as well as the most essential
tool is a lathe. With this tool, not only turning in wood,
metal, ivory, rubber, etc., can be accomplished, but it may
also be used for screw-thread cutting, gear cutting, drilling
metals, boring wood, spinning metals, milling, sawing metal
and wood, grinding, polishing, moulding, shaping, and other
purposes. A first class plain lathe of small size cannot be
purchased for less than $50 or $60, and one of inferior quality
will cost $20 to $30.

While the purchase of a lathe is recommended there may
be many who would prefer to make
one. A lathe that will do admirably
and which may be easily made is shown
in the accompanying engravings, Fig.
1 representing in perspective the lathe
complete; Fig. 2 is a perspective view
of the lathe without the table; Fig. 3
is a vertical longitudinal section of the
lathe, showing the manner of securing
the head and tail stocks to the bars
which form the bed or shears.

In making this lathe one pattern only
will be required for the two standards
of the head stock, and the support of
the ends of the bars. The lower part
of the tail stock is made in two parts, so
that they may be clamped tightly together
on the shears by means of the
bolt that passes through both parts,
and is provided with a nut having a
lever handle. The rest support is also
made in two parts, clamped together on
the ways in a similar way.

The patterns may be easily sawed
from 1¼ inch pine. The holes that receive
the round bars should be chambered
to receive Babbitt metal, used in
making the fit around the bars forming
the shears, around the head and tail
spindles, and around the shank of the
tool rest. The smallest diameter of
the holes that receive the round bars
should be a little less than that of the
bars, so that the several pieces that are
placed on the bars may be fitted to
hold them in place while the Babbitt
metal is poured in.

The dimensions of the lathe are as
follows:

Length of round bars forming shears,
24 inches; diameter of bars, 1 inch;
distance from the upper side of upper
bar to center of spindle, 3 inches; between
bars, ¾ inch; between standards
that support the live spindle, 3½ inches;
size of standard above shears, ¾ x 1¼
inch; diameter of head and tail spindles,
¾ inch; diameter of pulleys, 5
inches, 3½ inches, and 2 inches; width
of base of standards, 5 inches; height of
standards, 7 inches.

The live spindle should be enlarged
at the face plate end, and tapered at
both ends, as indicated in the engraving.

The pulleys, which are of hard wood,
are made of three pieces glued together,
bored, and driven on the spindle,
secured by a pin passing through
both it and the spindle, and turned off.
The bars forming the shears may be either cold rolled iron
or round machinery steel; they will require no labor except
perhaps squaring up at the ends. The castings having been
fitted to the bars, and provided with set screws for clamping
them, the two standards that support the live spindle and
the support for the opposite end of the bars are put in position,
when the bars are made truly parallel, and a little clay
or putty is placed around each bar and over the annular
cavity that surrounds it, and is formed into a spout or lip at
the upper side to facilitate the pouring of Babbitt metal. The
metal must be quite hot when poured, so that it will run
sharp and fill the cavity. To guard against a possible difficulty
in removing the castings from the bars it might be well
to cover the side of the bar next the screw with a thin piece
of paper. The pieces of the tail stock and tool rest support
are fitted to the bars by means of Babbitt metal, the metal
being poured first in one half and then in the other. The
bolts which clamp the two parts of the rest support and tail
stock together are provided with lever handles. After fitting
the parts to the two bars by means of Babbitt metal, the
tail spindle, which is threaded for half its length, is placed
in the tail stock parallel with the bars and Babbitted. A
binding screw is provided for clamping the tail spindle, and
the spindle is drilled at one end to receive the center, and
has at the other end a crank for operating it.
A steel or bronze button is placed in the hole in the standard
that supports the smaller end of the live spindle, and the
spindle is supported in its working position and Babbitted.

The thread on the spindle should be rather coarse, so that
wooden or type metal face plates and chucks may be used.

LATHES FOR AMATEUR MECHANICS.
Fig. 1; Fig. 2; Fig. 3.

The table shown in Fig. 1 is simple and inexpensive. It
consists of two pairs of crossed legs halved together and
secured to a plank top. A small rod passes through the rear
legs near their lower ends, and also through a piece of gas
pipe placed between the legs. A diagonal brace is secured
to the top near one end, and is fastened to the lower end of
the rear leg at the other end of the table.

A block is secured to each pair of legs for supporting a
pair of ordinary grindstone rollers, which form a bearing for
the balance wheel shaft. This shaft has formed in it two
cranks, and it carries an ordinary balance wheel, to the side
of which is secured by means of hook bolts a grooved wooden
rim for receiving the driving belt. The cranks are connected,
by means of hooks of ordinary round iron, with a
treadle that is pivoted on the gas pipe at the rear of the table.
The shaft will work tolerably well, even if it is not turned.
The cranks must have half round grooves filed in them to
receive the treadle hooks. The size of the different diameters
of the drive wheel may be found by turning the larger
one first and the smaller ones afterward, using the belt to determine
when the proper size is reached. The wooden rim
may be turned off in position by using a pointed tool.

The lathe above described, although very easily made and
inexpensive, will be found to serve an excellent purpose for
hand work, and if the holes, instead of being Babbitted, are
bored, and if the bars forming the shears are turned, the
lathe may be converted into a kind of engine lathe by placing
a feeding screw between the bars, and putting a small tool
post in the rest support.

M.

Machine Shop Economy.

In times like the present, when even with good management
our best machine shops are enabled to exhibit but small
margins of profit, and shops with indifferent management
exhibit margins on the wrong side, it is a question of paramount
importance what kind of economy should be pursued
in order to maintain a successful business. The directors of
long established machinery enterprises differ widely upon
some methods of conducting business, and while one gains
success by pursuing a certain plan, another, with perhaps as
much ability, cannot pursue the same with satisfactory results.

While in the main there are many different plans upon
which successful machinery establishments are conducted,
there are some underlying principles that must be observed
to avoid meeting with difficulties. The rate of wages paid
is certainly a large element of shop economy, but there are
so many other elements that should be considered before
wages are reached, that we often find proprietors, who pay
their workmen at a comparatively high rate, doing a more
prosperous business than their competitors who have reduced
wages to the lowest possible scale. Many machine shop
owners, not having mastered the various economies of management,
as soon as profits begin to shorten, pounce directly
upon the wages paid to their workmen, and pare them down
so as to make up for the deficiency elsewhere. They don’t
seem to realize that there are important elements of economical
management other than closely watching the wages
of labor and the cost of material. It is
sometimes necessary to reduce the rate
of wages, but what a different effect it
has upon the men in different shops!
In one shop you scarcely hear a murmur—no
angry meetings—no threats of
a strike—no growling at the head of
the establishment. The intelligent
workmen understand the reasons for
the reduction without a wordy explanation,
and accept it, feeling confident
that it has not been unjustly made. In
another shop it causes ill feeling, angry
protests, and perhaps a disastrous
strike. The owner often charges his
trouble to the character of his workmen.
Let him review his course, and
see if the great cause is not in his own
management. Mechanics are keen and
observing. If the business is poorly
managed they are not slow to mark it,
and when a cut is made in wages can
generally cipher out the cause. It is
good economy to keep a systematic record
of the cost of everything. This
record will be found very valuable in
making estimates, much more so than
guess work. It is not good economy
to keep using worn-out tools when any
work of consequence is to be performed.
The extra cost of labor and
spoiled pieces would soon pay for new
tools. It is not good economy to keep
discharging capable workmen for petty
causes, and employing new hands to
take their places. It is poor economy
to use slow-cutting grindstones to accomplish
work that fast cutting emery
wheels are suited for. It is questionable
economy to employ lathes, planers,
and drills to perform work of any extent
that a milling machine will do
better in less time and at much less expense.

It is decidedly bad economy to employ
engines and boilers that waste
fuel and are troublesome to keep in
good running condition. It is mistaken
economy to buy inferior tools,
machines, and shop supplies, because
they are low priced.

It is very defective economy to fit
the parts of machines together by trial
instead of making them by aid of correct
drawings and standard tools for
accurate measurement. It is faulty
economy to practice borrowing and
lending working tools.

The idea that economy consists in
withholding every expense not absolutely demanded is
erroneous. An extra outlay in one or another direction
often assures the saving as well as the making of money.
Wise economy looks to the future as well as the present, and
requires that all work sent out from a shop should be of the
best and most reliable character.

—American Machinist.

The Reward of Invention.

Capital and Labor publishes the substance of a letter from
Mr. Henry Bessemer with reference to the refusal of the
English Government, or of its ambassador in Paris, to allow
the Grand Cross of the Legion of Honor to be accepted by
its countrymen, and in his letter Mr. Bessemer furnishes
some autobiographic particulars which cannot fail to be of
interest. He tells us that at the age of eighteen he came to
London from a small country village, knowing no one, and
himself unknown; but his studious habits and his love of
invention soon gained for him a footing, and in two years
he was pursuing a method of his own invention for taking
copies from antique and modern bassi-rilievi in a manner
that enabled him to stamp them on a cardboard, thus producing
thousands of embossed copies of the highest works
of art, at a small cost. The facility for making a permanent
die, even from a thin paper original, capable of producing
a thousand copies, would have opened a wide door
to successful fraud if the process had been known to unscrupulous
persons; for by its means, Mr. Bessemer states,
there is not a government stamp, or the paper seal of a corporate
body, that every common office clerk could not forge
in a few minutes at the office of his employer or at his own
home. The production of a die from a common paper
stamp is the work of only ten minutes; the materials cost
less than one penny. No sort of technical skill is necessary,
and a common copying press or letter stamp yields most successful
copies. There is no need for the would-be forger to
associate himself with a skillful die sinker, capable of making
a good imitation in steel of the original, for the merest
tyro could make an absolute copy on the first attempt. The
public knowledge of such a means of forging would, at
that time, have shattered the whole system of the British
Stamp Office, had a knowledge of the method been allowed
to escape. The secret has, however, been carefully guarded
to this day.

During the time that Mr. Bessemer was engaged in studying
this question he was informed that the government
were themselves cognizant of the fact that they were losers
to a great amount annually by the transfer of stamps from
old and useless deeds to new skins of parchment, thus making
the stamps do duty a second or third time, to the serious
loss of the revenue. One official in high position said
that he believed they were defrauded in this way to the extent
of probably £100,000 per annum. To fully appreciate
the importance of this fact, and realize the facility afforded
for this species of fraud by the system then in use, it must
be understood that the ordinary impressed or embossed
stamp, such as is employed on all bills of exchange, if impressed
directly on a skin of parchment, would be entirely
obliterated by exposing the deed for a few months to a
damp atmosphere. The deed would thus appear as if unstamped,
and therefore invalid. To prevent this it has
been the practice as far back as the reign of Queen Anne
to gum a small piece of blue paper on to the parchment;
and for still greater security a strip of metal foil is passed
through it, and another small piece of paper with the printed
initials of the Sovereign is gummed over the loose ends of
the foil at the back. The stamp is then impressed on the
blue paper, which, unlike parchment, is incapable of losing
the impression by exposure to a damp atmosphere. But,
practically, it has been found that a little piece of moistened
blotting paper applied for a whole night so softens the
gum that the two pieces of paper and the slip of foil can
be removed from the old deed most easily, and be applied to
a new skin of parchment, and thus be made to do duty a
second or third time. Thus the expensive stamps on thousands
of old deeds of partnership, leases, and other old
documents, when no longer of value, offer a rich harvest to
those who are dishonest enough to use them. A knowledge
of these facts led Mr. Bessemer to fully appreciate
the importance of any system of stamps that would
effectually prevent so great a loss; nor did he for one moment
doubt but that government would amply reward success.
After some months of study and experiment, which
he cheerfully undertook (although it interfered considerably
with the pursuit of regular business, inasmuch as it was
necessary to carry on the experiments with the strictest
secrecy, and to do all the work himself during the night
after his people had left work), he succeeded in making a
stamp that satisfied all the necessary conditions. It was
impossible to remove it from one deed and transfer it to another.
No amount of damp, or even saturation with water,
could obliterate it, and it was impossible to take any impression
from it capable of producing a duplicate.

Mr. Bessemer says that he knew nothing of patents or
patent law in those days; and adds that if he had for a
moment thought it necessary to make any preliminary conditions
with government he would have at once scouted the
idea as utterly unworthy, thinking his interests absolutely
secure. In this full confidence he sought an interview with
the then chief of the Stamp Office, Sir Charles Presley, and
showed him by numerous proofs how easily all his stamps
could be forged, and also the mode of prevention. He was
greatly astonished, and at a later interview he suggested that
the principle of the invention should be worked out fully.
This Mr. Bessemer was only too anxious to do; and some
five or six weeks later called again with a newly designed
stamp, which greatly pleased him. The design was circular,
about 2½ inches in diameter, and consisted of the Garter
with the motto in capital letters surmounted by a crown.
Within the Garter was a shield with the words “five
pounds.” The space between the shield and the Garter was
filled with network in imitation of lace. The die had been
executed in steel, which pierced the parchment with more
than 400 holes, each one of the necessary form to produce
its special portion of the design. Since that period perforated
paper of this kind has been largely employed for valentines
and other ornamental purposes, but was previously
unknown. It was at once obvious that the transfer of such
a stamp was impossible. It was equally clear that dampness
could not obliterate it; nor was it possible to take any
impression from it capable of perforating another skin of
parchment.

This design gave great satisfaction, and everything went
on smoothly; Sir Charles consulted Lord Althorp, and the
Stamp Office authorities determined to adopt it. Mr. Bessemer
was then asked if, instead of receiving a sum of
money from the Treasury, he would be satisfied with the
position of Superintendent of Stamps, at some £600 or £800
per annum. This was all that he then desired, rejoicing
over the prospect, for he was at that time engaged to be
married, and his future position in life seemed assured. An
incident now occurred that reads almost like romance. A few
days after affairs had assumed this satisfactory position, he
called on the young lady to whom he was then engaged (now
Mrs. Bessemer), and showed her the pretty piece of network
which constituted the new parchment stamp, explaining
how it could never be removed from the parchment and
used again, and mentioning the fact that old deeds with
stamps on them dated as far back as the reign of Queen
Anne could be fraudulently used. She at once said, “Yes,
I understand this; but surely, if all stamps had a date put
upon them, they could not at a future time be used again
without detection?” This was indeed a new light, and
greatly startled the inventor, who at once said that steel dies
used for this purpose could have but one date engraved upon
them. But after a little consideration he saw that movable
dates were by no means impossible, and that this could
easily be effected by drilling three holes of about a quarter of
an inch in diameter in the steel die, and fitting into each of
these openings a steel plug or type with sunk figures engraved
on their ends, giving on one the date of the month,
on the next the month of the year, and on the third circular
steel type the last two figures of the year. This plan would
be most simple and efficient, would take less time and money
to inaugurate than the more elaborate plan that had been
devised; but while pleased and proud at the clever and simple
suggestion of the young lady, her future husband saw
also that all his more elaborate system of piercing dies, the
result of months of study, and the toil of many a weary and
lonely night, was shattered to pieces by it. He feared to
disturb the decision that Sir Charles Presley had come to, as
to the adoption of the perforated stamp, but, with a strong
conviction of the advantages of the new plan, felt in honor
bound not to suppress it, whatever might be the result.
Thus it was that he soon found himself again closeted with
Sir Charles at Somerset House, discussing the new scheme,
which he much preferred, because, as he said, all the old
dies, old presses, and old workmen could be employed, and
there would be but little change in the office—so little, in
fact, that no new superintendent of stamps was required,
which the then unknown art of making and using piercing
dies would have rendered absolutely necessary. After due
consideration the first plan was definitely abandoned by the
office in favor of the dated stamps, with which every one is
now familiar. In six or eight weeks from this time an Act
of Parliament was passed calling in the private stock of
stamps dispersed throughout the country, and authorizing
the issue of the new dated ones.

Thus was inaugurated a system that has been in operation
some forty-five years, successfully preventing that source of
fraud from which the revenue had so severely suffered. If
anything like Sir Charles Presley’s estimate of £100,000 per
annum was correct, this saving must now amount to some
millions sterling; but whatever the varying amount might
have been, it is certain that so important and long established
a system as that in use at the Stamp Office would never have
been voluntarily broken up by its own officials, except under
the strongest conviction that the losses were very great, and
that the new order of things would prove an effectual barrier
to future fraud. During all the bustle of this great
change no steps had been taken to install the inventor in the
office. Lord Althorp had resigned, and no one seemed to
have authority to do anything. All sorts of half promises
and excuses followed each other, with long delays between,
and Mr. Bessemer gradually saw the whole thing sliding out
of his grasp. Instead of holding fast to the first plan, which
they could not have executed without his aid and special
knowledge, he had, in all the trustfulness of youthful inexperience,
shown them another plan, so simple that they could
put it in operation without any assistance. He had no patent
to fall back upon, and could not go to law, even if he
wished to do so, for he was reminded, when pressing for
mere money out of pocket, that he had done all the work
voluntarily. Wearied and disgusted, he at last ceased to
waste time in calling at the Stamp Office, and he felt that
nothing but increased exertions could make up for the loss
of some nine months of toil and expenditure. Thus, sad
and dispirited, and with a burning sense of injustice overpowering
all other feelings, he went from the Stamp Office,
too proud to ask as a favor that which was indubitably his
just right, and he adds, “Up to this hour I have never received
one shilling or any kind of acknowledgment whatever
from the British Government.” It is notorious, adds
the editor, that some of the most renowned and invaluable
inventions of recent years, especially those connected
with the navy, have narrowly escaped rejection by permanent
but ignorant officials; and that the authors of the inventions
have had to submit to delay, loss, annoyance, and
contumely before their processes could be tried, even after
their success had been officially demonstrated. Perhaps it
is not now so much a question of money, for it is to be
hoped that Mr. Bessemer is reaping the due reward of ingenuity
and skill in other fields of invention. But even his
discoveries in steel making, if they have very properly enriched
himself, have, in an infinitely larger degree, added to
the wealth of the country, and have given employment to
many thousands. Such a man is a public benefactor, and
eminently deserves recognition by the state, especially by
way of atonement for former neglect and injustice. Military
men receive titular honors and a pecuniary reward for
slaying a crowd of savages and burning their huts, while
the men who have helped to make England what she is,
commercially and industrially, are in most cases left to their
fate, which may chance to be pecuniary ruin.

Oil Notes.

PENNSYLVANIA.

The total production of crude petroleum for the first three
quarters of 1878 was 11,126,037 barrels, against 8,436,867
barrels for the same time in 1877; increase in 1878, 1,689,170
barrels.

The total number of drilling wells completed for the first
three quarters of 1878 were 2,333, against 2,699 for the same
time in 1877; decrease in 1878, 366.

The daily average production of the new wells completed
for the first three quarters of 1878 was 13 ²⁄10 barrels,
against 14 ²⁄10 for the same time in 1877; decrease in 1878,
1 barrel.

The total number of dry holes developed in the first three
quarters of 1878 were 280, against 476 for the same time in
1877; decrease in 1878, 196.

The total amount of crude petroleum held in the producing
regions of Pennsvlvania, at the close of the third quarter
of 1878, was 4,599,362 barrels, against 2,503,657 at the
same time in 1877; increase in 1878, 2,095,705 barrels.

The amount of crude petroleum represented by outstanding
certificates on the last day of September was 1,705,853
barrels, against 1,317,484 barrels on the last day of October,
a reduction during October of 158,127 barrels.

Mr. J. M. Guffey has purchased of Marcus Hulings an undivided
half interest in the celebrated Kinzua Creek property
(Bradford district). The purchased portion contains
6,400 acres, on which there is a well that was struck in June
last, and since that time has been doing from 16 to 18 barrels,
and has never been torpedoed. Mr. Guffey looks upon
this as one of the best prospective oil territories in the
country.

D. W. C. Carroll & Co., of Pittsburg, have kept from 45
to 75 men employed, since June, in the oil regions, building
iron tanks, nearly all of which are located in the Bradford
district.

WEST VIRGINIA.

The Wheeling Intelligencer says: As noticed in our
Moundsville letter this morning, extensive preparations have
been made to bore for oil on the opposite side of the river at
the Union Coal Works shaft. The machinery was brought
down from Pittsburg on Tuesday, and is now being put in
position by contractors, who have engaged to go down 1,200
feet. It will be recollected that for a long time past oil has
been found in the coal shaft, and the company who are putting
down the well feel confident that plenty of it exists
deeper down. Some parties look forward to the development
of the fact that Moundsville is situated in an important oil
break, and that oil in abundance will be found on both sides
of the river. The progress of the well will be looked forward
to with much interest by the people of that vicinity.

MASSACHUSETTS.

The Maverick Oil Works at East Boston have recently
made some very extensive additions and improvements,
lengthening their wharf and making a variety of alterations
in their buildings. They will shortly complete a new cooper
shop, wherein, it is probable, they will construct all the tin
cans required by the demands of their business.

OHIO.

The oil excitement has broken out afresh in West Mecca,
Warren county, Ohio. Oil men, heavily backed with capital,
have recently come in from Pennsylvania, and are making
things lively in that locality. Eight new wells have
been put in operation during the past week. This district
is the same where the principal excitement prevailed 18
years ago.

JAPAN.

The Tokio Times states that the principal feature of American
trade with Japan is the petroleum exports from New
York. The enterprise was inaugurated only eight years ago;
but the business has so increased that while only 200 cases
of kerosene, valued at $600, were exported in 1870, in 1877
366,639 cases were sent to Yokohama, and 128,158 cases to
Hiogo, whither none had before been carried direct. The
value of these consignments was over $1,000,000.

Several refineries are in operation in Japan, making kerosene
from native petroleum.

RUSSIA.

The recent reports concerning the discovery of oil near
the shores of the Caspian Sea seem to be fully confirmed.
From one of the wells a stream, free from gas and froth, is
forced to a height of 75 feet, yielding at the rate of 10,000
barrels a day. It is reported that companies are forming at
Odessa, Kovo-Tcherkask, Astrakhan, and other cities, for
the purpose of obtaining oil. Two large manufacturing
concerns, who have their headquarters in New York city,
recently received orders for considerable quantities of oil-line
pipes, steam pumps, engines, boilers, and other apparatus,
to be shipped immediately for St. Petersburg, Russia.

ITALY.

The oil wells of Italy comprise about 5, with a capacity
of about 30 barrels per day, of a thick substance of 14 gravity.
They are pumped by hand, which, though primitive, is
cheaper than steam, for both men and women are employed,
the former receiving as compensation for a day’s work 1
lira, equal to 20 cents; and the women 60 centessimi, equal
to 12 cents of our money. The wells are located in a deep
valley, and the oil carried up on the backs of donkeys to a
refinery, where it is treated, and yields from 2 to 5 per cent.
of burning oil.

PERU.

It is proposed to build a pipe line from the refinery on the
estates of Henry Meiggs to the shipping port, a distance of
about 7 miles. It is stated that oil can be produced at this
point for less than 1 cent a gallon, and as the fields have
produced from time immemorial, there is no prospect of
their early exhaustion.

ONTARIO.

The oil refinery at St. Thomas, Ont., is running day and
night; 494 barrels of crude petroleum were brought from
Petrolia for it in one week recently.

—Stowell’s Petroleum
Reporter.

Railway Notes.

The new track laid in this country during the year ending
September 10, 1878, was 1,160 miles. During the six
preceding years the number of miles of track laid was: In
1872, 4,498; 1873, 2,455; 1874, 1,066; 1875, 702; 1876, 1,467;
1877, 1,176.

The statement made in the recent Narrow Gauge Convention,
that standard gauge freight cars weigh ten tons
and carry ten tons, is indignantly disputed by users of the
latter. One gentleman, having much to do with freight
cars, says that the modern freight cars weigh from 17,000 to
18,000 lbs., commonly carry (and that on long hauls) 28,000
lbs., are guaranteed to carry 30,000 lbs., while he has seen
them show on the scales 30,000 and 32,000 lbs. of load, and
in one case 35,000 lbs. The general tendency for some
years has been to increase loads without increasing, but in
many cases decreasing, weights of cars; and it seems quite
likely that 30,000 lbs. will soon be the standard load. The
tank cars used for carrying petroleum have an average
capacity—and they are almost always run full—of 30,000
lbs. The Standard Oil Company, which has some 3,000 of
such cars, carried on four-wheeled trucks with the Master
Car Builders’ standard axle, has run them with such loads
for years, and only recently had its first case of a broken
axle, manifestly due to a defect in the iron.

Interesting observations have been made recently on
the Cologne-Minden Road, Prussia, on the rusting of iron
rails. A pile of rails of odd lengths were laid on sleepers
over a bed of gravel early in 1870, and remained undisturbed
until the fall of 1877, there being no use for them. It was
then found that they were covered with a layer of rust 0.12
inch thick, which had to be removed by striking the rail
with a hammer. The cleaned rail weighed only 398.2 lbs.,
while its original weight was 419.1 lbs., showing that 5 per
cent. of the rail had been destroyed by rust, which covered
the rail quite uniformly. This confirms the observation
often made, that rails stacked away are much more liable to
rust than those laid down in a track.

According to Le Fer, at a meeting of directors of the
German railroads held at Constance, the following information
was furnished in regard to the relative value of the different
methods of injecting ties:

     1. Railroad from Hanover and Cologne to Minden. Pine
ties injected with chloride of zinc; after 21 years the proportion
of ties renewed was 21 per cent. Beech ties injected
with creasote; after 22 years, 46 per cent. Oak ties
injected with chloride of zinc; after 17 years, 20.7 per cent.
Oak ties not injected; after 17 years, 49 per cent. The conditions
were very favorable for experiment; the road bed
was good, and permitted of easy desiccation. The unrenewed
ties showed, on cutting, that they were in a condition
of perfect health.

     2. Railroad “Kaiser-Ferdinands-Nord.” Oak ties not injected;
after 12 years the proportion renewed was 74.48 per
cent. Oak ties injected with chloride of zinc; after 7 years,
3.29 per cent. Oak ties injected with creasote; after 6 years,
0.09 per cent. Pine ties injected with chloride of zinc; after
17 years, 4.46 per cent.

The annual official reports of the railroads of India place
the length of railways there at 7,551½ miles, of which 492½
miles were completed during the year 1877, and 223 miles
since the close of the year. There are 806½ miles of double
track; 5,912¾ miles are constructed on the 5 foot 6 inch
gauge, and 1,638¾ on narrower gauges. The capital outlay
on the State lines amounted to £3,122,051, and on the
guaranteed lines to £1,374,882, bringing the total capital
expenditure, up to the end of October, as regards the State,
and to the end of March last, as regards the guaranteed
lines, to £113,144,541. The expenditure up to the end of
the year may be taken in round numbers at £13,344,500.
The revenue from all the open lines was £6,232,888, of
which £6,091,532 were earned by the guaranteed lines, with
a capital of £95,482,941, and £141,356 were earned by the
State lines, on a capital expenditure of £17,661,600. The
net receipts from the guaranteed lines exceeded the amount
advanced for guaranteed interest by £1,454,591; the year
previous there was a deficit of £216,517.

A French engineer named Duponchel has made a report
on the project of a railroad across the Desert of Sahara.
The projected railway would run from Algiers to Timbuctoo,
a distance of 2,500 kilometers. M. Duponchel stated
that the principal portion of the line would rest during
nearly its whole extent on layers of sand, and toward the
end on primitive volcanic rocks, granite, gneiss, etc. No
mountainous obstructions would have to be encountered.
The average heat does not appear to exceed 23° or 24° C.
(73 2-5° or 75 1-5° Fah.), but account must be taken of the
great variations which occur in the 24 hours. For instance,
occasionally, a very cold night succeeds a temperature of
40° C. (104° Fah.) in the day time. The great difficulty to
be overcome would be the want of water, which is not to
be procured in that region. M. Duponchel calculates that
for three trains daily the amount of water required would
be 4,000 cubic meters, and that the engineering science of
the day is quite sufficient to supply even a much greater
quantity at the requisite points.

The government of Costa Rica has advertised for tenders
for building bridges on the second Atlantic Division of its
railroad. There will be needed 194 bridges. The bridges will
vary in length from 3 feet to 1,044 feet, and will be built for
a track of 3 foot 3½ inch gauge. They will be of sufficient
strength to stand a strain of 2,240 lbs. to the lineal foot, in
addition to the weight of the usual freight carried.

THE WERDERMANN ELECTRIC LIGHT.

THE WERDERMANN LAMP.

It has been looked upon as essential that a certain distance
should separate the ends of the carbon electrodes used in
electric lamps. Every one has accepted this as an axiom.
Mr. Werdermann’s skepticism has, however, caused him to
doubt the axiom, and the result is that he has discarded the
electric arc space, and by placing his electrodes in actual
contact, has produced a lamp which provides the means of
dividing the electric current, and promises to give almost
any number of lights from a single machine. Mr. Werdermann’s
inventions, says the Engineering, are secured by patents
considerably in advance of those of Mr. Edison, and
may in their chief points be explained as follows:

In place of two electrodes of similar form and dimensions,
one electrode consists of a large bun-shaped disk of carbon
placed with the rounded face downward. The other carbon
is a fine rod of carbon of about ⅛ or ⁵⁄32 inch in diameter.
The upper end of this is pointed and maintained in contact
with the center of the lower surface of the disk. This rod
is supported by means of a spring collar, which also forms
the circuit connection. This is within about ¾ in. of the
top of the carbon, so that the ¾ in. becomes incandescent,
and the contact between the two carbons being only a point,
a small electric arc is produced between the two carbons,
while the electricity is at the same time passed on through
the carbon disk, and the connections there attached to the
next lamp.

DIAGRAM OF CURRENT.

Referring to our diagrams, in Fig. 1 the upper carbon is
shown at C, and the rod carbon at c. The former is supported
by means of an adjustable jointed bracket, B, attached
to the wood stand. The rod carbon is guided by the spring
collar on the top of the stand, and to which the connection
is made, and is supported by the fine cord running over the
pulley, P. This cord is attached to the clasp, D, at the bottom
of the rod, and to the balance weight, W, by which the
rod is maintained in constant, practical, though not absolute
contact with the disk. Round the upper part of the disk is
a metal band, A, to which the circuit wire is attached, and
the current thus passed on to the next lamps.

At a recent trial of this lamp, the current was derived
from a small Gramme electro-plating machine, requiring
only 2 horse power to put it in full work. It may therefore
be assumed that this was about the limit of the power at
work to produce the light. At the commencement of the
proceedings two lights were maintained, each stated to be
equal to 320 sperm candles. At this rate the two lights
would be equal to 640 candles, or 40 full power gas lights,
each consuming 5 cubic feet of 16 candle gas per hour.
Such gas lights, it may be observed, are not often seen, except
in the argand form. The two lights burned with extreme
steadiness, there being no undulation, or flickering
whatever, although there was no glass globe to tone down
any variations of luster. The lights were perfectly bare and
unprotected, and the place where the trial was made was a
workshop of moderate size.

Later in the evening one light was exhibited outside the
building, in an open thoroughfare, and the same perfect
steadiness was observable. After the two lights had been
burning for a time they were extinguished, and the current
was sent through a row of ten lamps. The light per lamp
was of course reduced, but there was the remarkable fact
that ten lights were maintained by a comparatively weak
machine, driven by an engine exerting the power of only
two horses.

The light of each of these ten lamps was stated to be that
of 40 candles, making, therefore, a total of 400. A reduction
of light, consequent on the further division of the current,
is thus apparent; but for this loss there may be ample
compensation in the superior economy of a distributed light
as compared with one that is concentrated. In the case of
the ten lamps, the light is equal to that of 25 full power gas
lights, consuming altogether 125 cubic feet of gas per hour.
The extremely small arc due to the peculiar arrangement of
the carbons in the Werdermann light has the advantage of
offering the least possible resistance to the passage of the
current.

This resistance increases much more rapidly than is represented
by increase of distance between the carbon points.
Hence the electric power with Werdermann’s lamp is economized
to the utmost in this respect, and it becomes possible—as
in the recent experiment—to make use of an electric
current large in quantity but of low intensity. The tension
being small, there is the less difficulty with regard to insulation.
If one lamp or more should be accidentally extinguished,
the rest will continue to burn. The whole of the
lamps can also be extinguished and relit by merely stopping
the current and then sending it on again. No nice and
troublesome adjustment with reference to the length of the
electric arc is requisite, and simple contact between the
point of the rod and the surface of the disk is sufficient for
the manifestation of the light.

In respect to duration, a carbon rod ⁵⁄32 in. in diameter,
and a yard long, obtained from Paris, costs a franc. This,
placed in a large lamp, having an estimated lighting power
of 320 candles, will last from 12 to 15 hours. The smaller
lamps take a carbon of ⅛ in. diameter.

Mr. Werdermann endeavors to make the resistance of the
external portion of the circuit equal to the internal resistance,
in order to obtain the greatest effect. It is well known
that the best results are obtained when the internal and external
resistances are equal. The method adopted is that
known to electricians as the divided arc, and will easily be
understood from Fig. 2. Let B represent the source of the
electric current, and A a copper wire connected to the positive
and negative poles of the source as in the diagram. The
wire, A, has a certain resistance. Suppose, now, we arrange
for the current to pass as in the diagram, Fig. 3. By
the insertion of the new wire, C, we have lessened the total
external resistance and increased the current, as will be seen
by reference to Ohm’s law.

where C = current;
E = electromotive force; R = resistance external; r =
resistance internal.

The fraction

increases as its denominator
is lessened.

The current passes along the two branches in equal quantities
if the resistances of the wires are equal, but inversely
as the resistances if they are unequal. Thus, if the branch,
A, has a resistance, 9, and C has a resistance, 1, ⁹⁄10 of the
current will pass through C, and ¹⁄10 through A. Similarly,
for any number of branches the current will divide itself according
to the resistances. If, then, we have a number of
branches, as indicated in Fig. 4, the current will divide itself
equally among the branches when the resistances of the
branches are equal. This is the arrangement adopted by
Mr. Werdermann, as will be seen from the annexed diagram,
Fig. 5, in which N and P represent the negative and
positive poles of the machine, and L L the electric lamps.

When any one lamp is put out the inventor arranges that
an equivalent resistance shall be put into the circuit, so
that as a whole the circuit is unaltered, and the other lamps
unaffected.

CASSON’S SAW BENCH.

We give herewith a perspective view of a circular saw
bench made by Messrs. Oliver & Co. (Limited), of Chesterfield,
England, which we take from Engineering. The chief
features in this machine are that it is fitted with Mr. John
Casson’s patent feed gear and apparatus for steadying the
saws. This feeding arrangement has now been in use some
years, and has been fitted to a very large number of circular
saw benches. This being the case, and the arrangement being
very clearly shown by our engraving, it will be unnecessary
for us to describe it in detail here.

The saw-steadying apparatus, with which the saw bench
we illustrate is fitted, is a novel arrangement, recently
patented by Mr. Casson; in the present case it is applied
to two saws.

BENCH WITH SAW-STEADYING APPARATUS.

The steadying arrangement consists of accurately fitted
sliding jaws mounted
on the arms of
a forked support, so
that they can be
moved and adjusted
only by fine threaded
screws, the jaws
having their surfaces
next the saws,
accurately parallel
with the plane of
the collar of the saw
spindle; these jaws,
A, are fixed when
the adjusting screws
are at rest, and they
are faced with strips
of greenheart or
other suitable timber,
secured by
countersunk screw
bolts, these faces
forming a perfectly
true guide for the
saw blades.

For a single saw
the guides just described
would suffice;
but for two or
more saws the outside
guides must
be supplemented by
others between the
saw blades.

It will be noticed
that the support, F,
carrying the guiding
jaws, has a
square stem sliding
through the head of
a suitable standard,
and it can be readily
fixed at any desired
height by
means of the set
screw.

The arrangement
we have been describing
is well carried
out, and there
can be no doubt
that it will do good
service, and enable
thin saws to be efficiently used with a heavy feed. We have
received very satisfactory reports of its performance.

A Bait for Inventors.

I will give $200 for a machine that will bale hay in the
field. Rake and press combined would be preferable, but
would not object to its taking the hay in the windrow. The
machine must be expeditious, executing as fast as a mower
is able to cut. Must have sufficient power to make a bale
suitable for commercial uses; shape of the bale immaterial;
a round one preferred. Must be of light draught; one team
is generally all that is available for any machine on the
farm. These, with the other qualifications demanded of
every machine, simplicity, durability, easy to manage, etc.
If such an invention could be produced it would make a
revolution in the hay field almost equal to that which the
mower has made.

What an awkward, ungainly spectacle a man presents,
struggling at one end of a six foot pole, with a ten pound
lock of hay at the other end, endeavoring with all his might
and main to elevate it 12 or 15 feet on top of a load! It is
an insult to human intelligence. A load of loose hay is an
uncertain quantity. You are never sure of getting it into
the barn. Top heavy, one sided, too wide or too high for
the doors; and even with the best of luck, a good percentage
has drizzled in the wake of the wagon over the lot to
the barn. A 100 or 200 lb. bale, with an inclined plane, or
a pulley on side or aft of a good strong rack, and all this barbarism
has succumbed to civilization.

At the barn comes a worse servitude. (I don’t mean the
horse fork; that is a grand lift to civilization. I hope to
modify it shortly to throw bales.) There a man struggles
with sheer desperation to press by his own avoirdupois 20
tons of hay into a place that won’t hold 10. Tramp, tramp,
tramp, leg-weary, panting like an overheated dog, every
fiber of his clothing saturated with perspiration, a subject
worthy of a better immortality than the Greek slave. O
Edison! don’t fritter away your genius on sounding brass
and tinkling cymbal. Elevate the laborer. Liberate our
overworked people. Make us a chariot to press our hay.

—Edmund
Adams, North Manlius, N. Y., to the New York
Tribune.

A Silver Mill in the Clouds.

The largest and most complete silver mill ever constructed,
says the San Francisco Stock Report, has recently been built
by Messrs. Rankin, Brayton & Co., of the Pacific Iron
Works of that city, for the Cerro de Pasco Mining Company,
of Peru, and shipped for Callao, the port of destination.
This enormous mill consists of 80 stamps, 900 lbs,
each, 44 live foot amalgamating pans, 22 nine foot settlers,
and all the accessories of a first-class modern mill. It is to
be erected upon the above named mines, which are situated
in the heart of the Andes, some 150 miles east of the city of
Lima, at an elevation of more than 14,000 feet. To admit
of mule transportation a portion of the way up this tremendous
ascent, the mill had to be made in sections, no piece
weighing more than 500 lbs. Some idea of the magnitude
of this work may be inferred from the fact that the mill, as
thus constructed, consisted of more than 17,000 pieces, and
weighed upward of 600 tons. This enormous amount of
machinery was constructed by the above firm and put on
board a ship 50 days from date of contract.

The Cerro de Pasco mines have been the richest and most
famous in the world’s history. They have been worked by
the old arastra process for the past 200 years, and have produced,
according to the most authentic records, more than
$500,000,000. With such improved machinery the product
of these mines will undoubtedly attract the attention of the
world, and so reflect great credit upon the capacity, ingenuity,
and skill of our mechanical establishments.

Poultices.

The common practice in making poultices of mixing the
linseed meal with hot water, and applying them directly to
the skin, is quite wrong, because, if we do not wish to burn
the patient, we must wait until a great portion of the heat
has been lost. The proper method is to take a flannel bag
(the size of the poultice required), to fill this with the linseed
poultice as hot as it can possibly be made, and to put
between this and the skin a second piece of flannel, so that
there shall be at least two thicknesses of flannel between the
skin and the poultice itself. Above the poultice should be
placed more flannel, or a piece of cotton wool, to prevent it
from getting cold. By this method we are able to apply the
linseed meal boiling hot, without burning the patient, and
the heat, gradually diffusing through the flannel, affords a
grateful sense of relief which cannot be obtained by other
means. There are few ways in which such marked relief is
given to abdominal pain as by the application of a poultice
in this manner.

—Dr. T. Lauder Brunton, in Brain.

New Mechanical Inventions.

Mr. Joseph Adams, of Washington, D. C., has patented
an improved Gas Regulator, designed either to cut off the
gas entirely or to let on a larger amount of gas than its automatic
action would ordinarily permit, or to allow the regulator
to operate with an automatic action, as usual.

Mr. Jean A. Hitter, Jr., of St. Martinsville, La., has patented
an improved Type Writer, of simple and compact
construction, that
may be readily used
for printing on paper
and for other
purposes, being
small enough to be
carried conveniently
in the pocket, if
desired, and readily
operated with little
practice.

Messrs. Edwin N.
Boynton, Geo. M.
Coburn, and Thos.
F. Carver, of Worcester,
Mass., have
patented an improved
Hand Drilling
Machine, by
which a fast or slow
motion can be
readily obtained, at
the will of the
operator, the slower
motion being especially
advantageous
in drilling large
holes, as more power
is obtained, and
the holes are drilled
with greater ease.

Mr. Reuben R.
James, of Rising
Sun, Ind., has devised
an improved
Adding Machine of
simple and comparatively
inexpensive
construction. The
chief feature of the
machine is a series
of toothed revolving
counting wheels,
which are inscribed
on their peripheries
with the nine digits
and cipher, and
mounted loosely on
a common axis, and
each having four
lateral inclines or
cams, which cause,
at the proper time,
a weighted pawl lever to engage the next counting wheel on
the left, so as to carry ten when the numbers added on the
wheel on the right exceed ten. The adding is effected by
successively drawing down to a stop on the finger board the
teeth of the counting wheels which are opposite the numbers
to be added, and the numerical result will be seen on the
wheels in a series of slots or apertures in the case of the machine.

Mr. Jacob Croft, of Scipio, Utah Ter., has devised an improved
Turbine Water Wheel, which is constructed to prevent
back pressure by the water against the casing as it
escapes from the buckets. Sand and other substances in the
water are prevented from entering around the shaft and cutting
or wearing it.

An improvement in Sweeping Machines has been patented
by Mr. Isaac A. Chomel, of Brooklyn, N. Y. This invention
relates to apparatus for sweeping up and collecting dirt,
dust, and other refuse from floors, carpets, streets, and other
places. The dust box is to be rolled over the floor and the
brush revolved by a winch. The speed of the brush is
independent of the motion of the machine along the floor.

Mr. D. A. Ferris, of Tioga Center, N. Y., has patented an
improved Implement for Forcing Flooring Planks together
when laying floors. It is simple, convenient, and powerful.

Effect of Quinine on the Hearing.

It is a well known fact to medical men that there exists a
great prejudice among a large number of people against
taking quinine, the idea being very prevalent that a prolonged
use of it not only affects the hearing, but (to use the
common expression) that it “gets into the bones.” As regards
the former belief, Dr. Roosa, of New York, has recently
been collecting and examining the evidence as far as
possible, and has come to the conclusion that in some cases
there really is a permanent nervous affection of the ear produced
which justifies the opinion held by the laity. Hitherto
physicians have generally disbelieved this, and ascribed
the notion to prejudice.

The Microphone as a Thief Catcher.

The microphone as a thief catcher has proved very useful
to an English resident in India, who found his store of oil
rapidly and mysteriously diminishing. He fixed a microphone
to the oil cans, carried the wire up to his bedroom,
and, after the house had been closed for the night, sat up
to await the result. Very shortly he heard the clinking of
bottles, followed by the gurgling sound of liquid being
poured out, and running downstairs he caught his bearer in
the act of filling small bottles with oil for easy conveyance
from the premises.

The Tallest Tree in the World.

The tallest accurately measured Sequoia standing in the
Calaveras Grove, near Stockton, California, measures 325
feet, and there is no positive evidence that any trees of this
genus ever exceeded that height. Of late years, explorations
in Gippsland, Victoria, have brought to light some
marvelous specimens of Eucalyptus, and the State Surveyor
of Forests measured a fallen tree on the banks of the
Watts River, and found it to be 435 feet from the roots to the
top of the trunk. The crest of this tree was broken off,
but the trunk at the fracture was 9 feet in circumference,
and the height of the tree when growing was estimated to
have been more than 500 feet. This tree, however, was
dead, though there is no doubt that it was far loftier than
the tallest Sequoia. Near Fernshaw, in the Dandenong district,
Victoria, there has recently been discovered a specimen
of the “Almond Leaf Gum” (Eucalyptus amygdalesia),
measuring 380 feet from the ground to the first branch, and
450 feet to the topmost wing. This tree would overtop
the tallest living Sequoia by 125 feet. Its girth is 80 feet,
which is less than that of many Sequoias, but as far as
height is concerned it must be considered the tallest living
tree in the world.

THE ARGONAUT, OR PAPER NAUTILUS.

ARGONAUT, OR PAPER NAUTILUS.

This mollusk received the first title in allusion to the pretty
fable which was formerly narrated of its sailing powers, and
the latter title is given on account of the extreme thinness
and fragility of the shell. It is remarkable that the shell of
the argonaut is, during the life of its owner, elastic and
yielding, almost as if it were made of thin horn.

The two arms of the argonaut are greatly dilated at their
extremities; and it was formerly asserted, and generally believed,
that the creature was accustomed to employ these arms
as sails, raising them high above the shell, and allowing itself
to be driven over the surface by the breeze, while it directed
its course by the remaining arms, which were suffered to
hang over the edge of the shell into
the water and acted like so many
oars. In consequence of this belief
the creature was named the argonaut,
in allusion to the old classical
fable of the ship Argo and her
golden freight.

The animal, or “poulp,” as it is
technically called, is a lovely creature
despite its unattractive form.
It is a mass of silver with a cloud
of spots of the most beautiful rose
color, and a fine dotting of the same,
which heighten its beauty. A
large membrane, which is the expanded
velation of the arms, covers
all. It has been definitely proved
that the use of the expanded arms
which cover the exterior of the shell
is to build up its delicate texture,
and to repair damages, the substance
being secreted by these arms, and by
their broad expansions moulded into
shape. The larger figure in the en-
graving represents the argonaut
while thus within its shell.
While crawling the creature turns
itself so as to rest on its head, withdraws
its body as far as possible
into its shell, and, using its arms
like legs, creeps slowly but securely
along the ground, sometimes affixing
its disks to stones or projecting
points of rocks for the purpose of
hauling itself along. When, however,
it wishes to attain greater speed, and to pass through
the waters, it makes use of a totally different principle.
Respiration is achieved by the passage of water over
double gills or branchiæ; the water, after it has completed
its purpose, being ejected through a moderately long tube,
technically called a siphon. The orifice of the siphon is
directed toward the head of the animal, and it is by means
of this simple apparatus that progression is effected. When
the creature desires to dart rapidly through the water, it
gathers its six arms into a straight line, so as to afford little
resistance to the water, keeps its velated arms stretched
tightly over the shell, and then, by violently ejecting the
water from the siphon, drives itself by reaction in the opposite
direction. The uppermost figure shows the argonaut in
the act of swimming.

THE TRAP DOOR SPIDER OF JAMAICA.

TRAP DOOR SPIDER.

This spider digs a burrow in the earth and lines it with a
silken web. The burrow is closed by a trap door, having a
hinge that permits it to be opened and closed with admirable
accuracy. The door is circular, and is made of alternate
layers of earth and web, and is hinged to the lining of the
tube that leads to the burrow by a band of the same silken
secretion. The door exactly fits the entrance to the burrow,
and when closed, so precisely corresponds with the surrounding
earth that it can hardly be distinguished, even when its
position is known. It is a strange sight to see the earth
open, a little lid raised, some hairy legs protrude, and gradually
the whole form of the spider show itself.

The mode in which these spiders procure food seems to
be by hunting at night, and in some cases by catching insects
that are entangled in the threads that the creature spins by
the side of its house.

In the day time they are very chary of opening the door
of their domicile, and if the trap be raised from the outside,
they run to the spot, hitch the claws of their fore feet in the
silken webbing of the door, and those of the hind feet in
the lining of the burrow, and so resist with all their might.
The strength of the spider is wonderfully great in proportion
to its size.

To Make a Hole in Glass.

New Remedies describes the following easy method of
making a hole in plate glass: Make a circle of clay or
cement rather larger than the intended hole; pour some kerosene
into the cell thus made, ignite it, place the plate upon a
moderately hard support, and with a stick rather smaller
than the hole required, and a hammer, strike a rather smart
blow. This will leave a rough-edged hole, which may be
smoothed with a file. Cold water is said to answer even
better than a blow.

The Preservation of Eggs.

As science advances, the processes proposed for the preservation
of organic substances are being brought to greater
and greater perfection. No subject perhaps in this connection
has received greater attention, and been the subject of
more processes, patent and otherwise, than that of the preservation
of eggs. In fact this is a question of considerable
importance, not only from a culinary, but also from an industrial
standpoint—that of the manufacture of albumen for
photographic purposes. In the Moniteur de la Photographie
Dr. Phipson calls attention to a new process, which may be
briefly stated as follows:

On taking the eggs from the nest they are covered over,
by means of a bit of wool, with butter in which has been
dissolved 2 or 3 per cent of salicylic acid. Each egg, after
receiving this coat, is placed in a box filled with very fine
and absolutely dry saw dust. If care be taken that the eggs do
not touch each other, and that they be perfectly covered with
the saw dust, they will keep fresh for several months—perhaps
for more than a year. Dr. Phipson states that he has
experimented with this process for two years, with most excellent
results. So much for the preservation of the entire
egg; but there is also a process for the preservation of
the albumen of the egg for photographic uses, due to M.
Berg. In this process, the white, separated from the yolk,
is evaporated in zinc pans or porcelain cups, at a temperature
of 45° C. The solidified albumen thus obtained is pulverized
by means of a mill. The yolk, by means of machinery,
is whipped up into a light mass, and then spread
out on zinc plates and evaporated to dryness at a temperature
of 80°, and finally powdered. The powders thus obtained
keep for a long time. The white of eggs, so prepared,
is used for the purposes to which albumen is applied
in the industrial arts, while the powdered yolks are
used for domestic purposes.

Characteristics of American Sheep Husbandry.

Dr. Hayes, in his recent address before the National Agricultural
Congress, remarking that a very inadequate idea is
given of a nation’s resources by the number of sheep raised—the
character of the animals being of the first consideration—proceeds
to show some of the characteristics of American
sheep husbandry. He states that the sheep of the United
States consist, first, of what are called native sheep; second,
descendants from improved English races; third, the Mexican
sheep found in Texas, New Mexico, Colorado, and California;
fourth, the merino sheep, and crosses of that breed
with the three preceding races. The merinos constitute the
principal and characteristic race of the United States; and
this is the most important fact in the enumeration of our
resources for sheep husbandry and the wool manufacture.
England has no merinos, except in her colonies; Russia has
but 12,000,000 merinos; France, but 9,000,000. The merinos
and grades in the United States exceed 25,000,000. Merino
wool is for clothing what wheat is for food; it is the chief
material for cloth at the present day, the coarsest as well as
the finest. While the softest, it is the strongest of all fibers.
From its fulling and spinning qualities, it is the best adhesive
for the cheap fabrics—coarser wool, cotton, or shoddy;
the mixture of merino wool increasing indefinitely the material
for cheap clothing. An abundance
of merino wool is the greatest
boon the world has received from
the animal kingdom in the last century.
It is, in fact, in its extended
culture the product of the last century.
A century ago all the merinos
in the world, confined exclusively
to Spain, did not number
1,000,000. 1765 marks the epoch of
the first exportation of the merinos
to Saxony; 1786, to France; 1833,
to Australia; 1802, the introduction
of the first merino sheep to this
country; and to Gen. Humphreys,
of Connecticut, and to the introduction
to his farm of twenty-one rams
and seventy ewes, may be directly
traced the most celebrated breeds of
the American merino; producing
individuals actually sold for $5,000
each, others for $2,000 to $3,000, and
one for which $10,000 was refused.
The fiber of the merino sheep is not
the only excellence of the animal;
when properly bred, this race has a
hardiness surpassing all other high-bred
races. The “yolk,” provided
by nature to assist in the growth of
the wool, abounding in this race
more than in any other, causes the
tips of the fleece to be cemented,
and to become impenetrable to rains
and snows. A lighter pasture suffices
for their maintenance than
would support the mutton races. This race is fitted, above
all others, for the remote pastoral lands and for culture on
a large scale.

Our breeders, in aiming to increase the weight of their
fleece, have developed the length of the staple, and have
unconsciously created a merino combing wool—a wool in
special demand through modern improvements in machinery
and changes in the fashion of goods. Mr. Ferneau, an eminent
Belgian wool manufacturer, who has thoroughly studied
our wool resources and manufactures, says that three quarters
of the American wool is “combing wool,” and will be
ultimately employed for this purpose. The bulk of American
merino wools is of strong, sound, and healthy staple,
having few weak spots in them. Those from the other States
of the West are free from burrs. Those from California have
this defect in a high degree. They are admirably fitted for
blankets, flannels, and fancy cassimeres, and the great bulk
of our card wool manufactures. They are so excellent, as a
whole, that M. Ferneau says they are too valuable to be used
for clothing purposes. They supply nine tenths of all the
card or clothing wool consumed in American mills.

THE PROGRESS OF SCIENCE IN MEXICO.

Mexico, the land of so many and such frequent revolutions,
and the scene of such intestinal commotions and bitter
strife through the whole period of her existence, from the
Spanish conquest up to within a few years, is at present happily
in a state of comparative peace and quiet; the laws are
less disregarded, brigandage is gradually disappearing, more
attention is being paid to the protection of life and property,
and public education is in a prosperous condition. No
greater evidence of this felicitous state of affairs could be
afforded than that shown in the display of energy and zeal
with which the present administration, aided by the foremost
Mexican scientists, is carrying out an extended system
of scientific explorations, investigations, and internal improvements;
and the progress of which is being recorded in
a valuable series of government publications; one of these—the
Annals of the Minister of Public Works—being now
before us. This volume, the third of the series, begins
with an article by the able director of the National Meteorological
Observatory, Sr. Mariano Barcena, calling attention,
in the first place, to the great national importance, as well
as necessity, of a well organized system of meteorological
observations; (2) giving a description of the Mexican Observatory,
its equipment, the questions it proposes to investigate,
and the hours of observation; (3) an explanation,
accompanied by charts, of the daily system of registration
pursued at the observatory; and, finally, observations on the
periodic phenomena of vegetation, and notes on the orography
and geology of the valley of Mexico. Sr. A. Anquiano
follows with a communication on the “Geographical
Position of Chalco,” prefacing the results of his labors
by an able essay on the “Mexican Method” of determining
the latitude of places, a “method” founded on an observation
of the stars. It would be interesting to quote from this,
but our limited space will not permit. The “Citlaltepetl
Commission,” consisting of the engineers, Srs. Plowes,
Rodriguez, and Vigil, whose patriotic ardor induced the
minister to commission them to explore “and be the first to
plant the flag of Mexican science on the snow clad peak of
Citlaltepetl,” render their report of operations during the
year 1877 in the form of an exceedingly interesting memoir.
They ascertained the peak of the volcano Citlaltepetl (or
Orizaba) to be 17,651 feet above the level of the sea, which
is 292 feet more than Humboldt made it. After a somewhat
exhaustive treatise on the “Telescope and its Amplifying
Power,” by Sr. Jimenez, we have a long and extremely interesting
account of the Ancient Aqueduct of Zempoala, one
of the most notable of existing monuments of the old Spanish
rule. These aqueducts (for there were three) were projected
and carried to a successful termination by an humble
and ignorant Franciscan monk—the Friar Tembleque. The
construction of these remarkable works, begun in 1554 and
occupying a period of 17 years, was undertaken for the purpose
of carrying water from Zempoala to Otumba (a distance
of 27 miles), and was the occasion of a curious contract between
the inhabitants of these two cities. It seems that
Otumba, situated at a high elevation, needed water; Zempoala
was blessed with water, but was sadly in need of spiritual
advisers; the people of the former city, therefore,
agreed to furnish a certain proportion of friars to minister
to the religious wants of the parties of the second part,
and the latter in return bound themselves to furnish
water, and the labor and materials for the building of an
aqueduct to lead it, to the parties of the first part. No tradition
remains to state when these structures ceased to be
used. The longest of the three extends across the valley of
the Papelote, a distance of 2,960 feet, and consists of 68
arches, the highest of which has an altitude of 106 feet. Señor
Salazar urges on the Minister of Public Works the importance
of having these monuments of a past age repaired and
restored, not alone for archaeological reasons, but because
Otumba to-day is as greatly in need of running water as it
was in that remote period when these viaducts were constructed.
Señor Barcena follows with a description and
colored plate of a plant (Gaudichaudia Enrico-Martinezii)
new to the Mexican flora, and Sr. Federico Weidner with
some “General Reflections on the Iron Industry of the Country.”
Succeeding the latter paper, an exhaustive article by
the same writer gives us, from a geological point of view,
the structure, as far as can be ascertained, of the “Cerro de
Mercado” of Durango, which is said to be one vast mass of
iron. The author after a thorough examination of this hill,
last year, concludes that it is of eruptive or volcanic origin.
This is contrary to the statements made in most published
works, the authors of which probably derived their notions
from the views expressed by Humboldt, who was of the
opinion that this mass of iron was an immense aerolite. Sr.
Weidner, however, concludes that the great traveler never
visited the locality in person, but obtained his information
from heresay. He shows that the hill is deficient in the
chemical constituents of aerolites, namely, iron, nickel, and
cobalt, in a native or malleable state; but, on the contrary,
is made up in a great measure of crystalline magnetic iron,
and various useful oxides of the same metal. By a careful
estimate of the quantity of iron contained in that portion
only of the Cerro which appears above the surface of the
soil, the author obtains as a result the enormous sum of
507,000,000 pounds, and this reduced to a metallic state would
yield 250,000,000 pounds of pure iron. The structure of
this remarkable hill is made apparent to the reader by means
of an excellent geological section, in colors, accompanying
the text.

The volume closes with some notes by Sr. Barcena on the
“Hydrographic System of the Hacienda of Cienega de
Mata, and its application to one of the theories that explain
Natural Fountains.”

In taking leave of this subject we have to congratulate
the Mexican Government not only for the valuable matter
contained in its scientific publications, but also for the very
excellent style in which the latter are being issued. The
general make up of the volume before us leaves little to be
desired; the arrangement of the types is extremely tasty,
the imprint is clean, sharp, and clear, the paper good, the
margins of the pages broad, and the illustrations exceedingly
well executed. It is to be sincerely hoped that the present
state of peace, which our sister republic is enjoying, will endure
for numerous years to come; and that the scientific
work begun under such happy auspices may go on uninterruptedly
until the whole country shall have been thoroughly
explored. For as yet, we know but comparatively little
about the geology of Mexico, and a great deal is yet to be
learned, too, about her natural productions.

Alum in Bread.—A Reply to Dr. Mott’s Article in
Scientific American of November 16, entitled
“Deleterious Use of Alum in Baking Powder.”

by w. p. clotworthy, baltimore, md.

On August 13, 1878, I obtained letters patent for the exclusive
right to use exsiccated ammonia alum in baking powders.
This fact I state that the public may know the reason that
elicits this reply to the remarkable article on adulterations in
baking powders, in the Scientific American of Nov. 16th,
emanating from the pen of Henry A. Mott, Jr. I wish the
Professor had been equally candid in stating his reasons for
contributing the article. It is rare for a chemist to turn
philanthropist without some consideration. The analysis of
forty-two baking powders requires no little labor; twenty-one
were examined at the expense of the government for
the benefit of the Indian Department, the others, no doubt, at
the expense and for the benefit of the Royal Baking Powder
Company. I hope his services have been liberally requited.
The public certainly owe him nothing for his labor or
opinions. An excuse can be made for the prejudice existing
against the use of alum in any form for baking purposes; it
is an inheritance from a preceding age; but no apology can
be offered for a practical chemist in this day, who labors to
keep alive and foster a prejudice by the suppression of
truths and facts. Professor Mott, in attempting to prove a
fraud in food, has perpetrated a fraud in facts. That this
opinion may not be unwarranted, I will state the facts about
alum, which may be new to the public, but familiar to every
chemist. Alum was formerly a compound of sulph. alumina
and sulph. potash. In the past ten years nearly all manufacturers
of alum have substituted sulph. ammonia for the
sulph. potash; this change removes from alum a dangerous
and objectionable ingredient, and adds a healthful one.
Professor Mott recommends the use of ammonia in the form
of a carbonate—carbonate of ammonia is one of the results
in baking powder of the decomposition which takes place
between alum and bicarbonate of soda; in the complete decomposition
which takes place pure alumina is eliminated,
highly recommended as an antacid. During the process of
baking, alum is completely decomposed through the liberation
of carbonic acid. Professor Mott must have known
this, yet with this knowledge warns the public on the deleterious
effect of alum in bread.

About the first of last October I determined to vindicate
the use of exsiccated ammonia alum as a substitute for
cream of tartar, and accordingly issued a circular to the
trade; from this circular I now give the following extract,
which enters minutely into the subject:

“To claim that an experience of 35 years in compounding
medicines should entitle my opinion on chemicals and
chemical compounds to a respectful consideration, is neither
presumptuous nor unreasonable. With this simple introduction
I now avow myself the originator and patentee of exsiccated
ammonia alum baking powder. The use of exsiccated
ammonia alum has been declared unhealthful by the
advocates of other baking powders, and every manufacturer
using it has been held up for public reprobation. This has
been done by rival manufacturers, either through ignorance
or malice; if from the former they are to be pitied, if from
the latter they are contemptible. These opinions have been
promulgated by kitchen chemists, whose circle of knowledge
begins and ends with cream tartar and soda; and even of
these articles they only know that cream tartar is in some
way derived from grapes. In this circular I propose to state
a few facts in relation to cream tartar and exsiccated alum,
and the combinations they form with bicarbonate of soda,
and allow you to form your own opinion of their respective
merits. Crude tartar is the incrustation found in wine
casks. It contains coloring matter and about 15 per cent. of
lime. This article is purified and called the cream of tartar,
but it is impossible to extract all the lime. Commercially
pure cream tartar contains at least 5 per cent. of lime. When
cream tartar is used in proportion of two parts to one of bicarbonate
of soda, you will have an average of 3 to 4 per
cent of lime. In using cream tartar and soda in baking, a
chemical change commences as soon as water is added; the
cream tartar unites with the soda, setting free the carbonic
acid gas, which lightens the bread, and the residue is
Rochelle salts. This is what you eat in your bread, the
cream tartar and soda entirely disappearing in the process of
baking, by forming this salt. Any doctor or chemist will
confirm the above statement. When I undertook to manufacture
baking powder, I labored to improve the quality and
cheapen the cost. The first I accomplished by retaining the
carbonic acid until heat was applied, the latter, by manufacturing
a more economical acid than foreign cream tartar.
After more than a thousand experiments covering a period
of six months, I discovered by exsiccating ammonia alum I
provided an article that would possess the necessary qualities.
This article no more resembles the ordinary alum than
charcoal resembles wood—it is light, porous, friable, and
without taste. This article, under the influence of heat,
combines with the soda and forms Glauber salts. In baking,
the alum unites with the soda, just as cream tartar unites.
In using the baking powder prepared according to my formula,
you have in your bread Glauber instead of Rochelle
salts. To your physician apply for his opinion of these salts;
I will bow to his decision. Another false impression these
zealous guardians of the public health have made is, that I
used the exsiccated alum because it was cheap. The fact is
that when I commenced its use it cost by the thousand
pounds 12 per cent. more than the best cream tartar is worth
to-day, and 33 per cent. more than average price of that article
for the past year. I have since reduced the cost of
manufacturing, and as I did so, correspondingly reduced the
price of powder to the public. I regard the quantity of
soda in cream tartar baking powders as very objectionable;
they generally contain about 33 per cent. In my powder
only 20 per cent. The prejudice in the public mind against
alum, originated in the habit of the English bakers buying
damaged flour, and by the addition of crude alum, made
their bread in appearance equal to that made from best flour.
Against this practice laws were enacted, not so much against
the qualities of alum, as against its use in covering up a
fraud in flour. This was the common potash alum and uncombined
with any carbonated alkali, and it passed into the
stomach unchanged. It is a trick—for it deserves no better
name—of our rivals to show by chemical analysis that my
powder contains alum, but are careful neither to state the
kind nor the change it undergoes in baking. The manufacturer
who knowingly misrepresents the goods of a rival,
may well be doubted when he speaks of the quality of his
own.

“Great stress is laid on the fact that cream tartar is a vegetable
acid, the product of the grape, hence it must be
healthy. They forget that cream tartar is not entirely vegetable,
but principally second handed minerals. It is a
compound of tartaric acid, potash, and lime; the last two
are minerals, which the grape takes up from the earth, but
redeposits them as crude tartar when fermentation converts
the grape into wine. In 1807 Sir Humphry Davy from
this crude tartar first made the metal potassium. Of lime
it is unnecessary to speak. The potash and lime form the
bulk of cream tartar. In ammonia alum there is no more
mineral substance than in cream tartar. The chemistry of
nature is wonderful. Vegetation lives on minerals—wheat,
corn, potatoes, are all mineral compounds. Lime, soda, potash,
magnesia, sulphur, iron, etc., are all found abundantly
in water and grain, and all these minerals are essential in
food.”

Professor Mott has given the Royal Baking Powder the
benefit of his indorsement; it may be all that he claims for
it. But baking powders are now judged by constituent ingredients
and chemical analysis; to this test I propose to
bring the Royal. It is now in the hands of a competent
chemist, and when the analysis is complete I will give the
public the benefit of a comparison between that powder and
the Patapsco. I will take Professor Mott’s analysis of Patapsco,
which, though not correct, I accept as such. The
comparison will be made on the healthfulness of constituents
in combination, and the chemical changes they undergo
in baking. This is a progressive age. The people want
facts, and they will form their own theories. Will the
reader believe that in the reign of Henry VIII. of England,
a citizen of London was executed for burning coal, which
was then a capital offense? A pope about the same time issued
a Bull excommunicating all Catholics who used tobacco,
calling it the devil’s weed. To-day coals still burn, and tobacco
solaces millions of the civilized world. If the Royal
Baking Powder Company (what a misnomer) possessed royal
prerogatives, the advocates of exsiccated alum would fare
no better than they did under the sumptuary laws of England.
Professor Mott has fulminated ex cathedra his blast,
but we survive. “Truth is a torch, the more ’tis shook it
shines.” Our strength is in the intelligence of the age.

Smith, Hanway & Co., Baltimore.

The Elongation of Tree Trunks.

The College Quarterly says that experiments made at the
Iowa Agricultural College show that the popular notion
that the trunks of trees elongate is entirely erroneous.
Tacks were driven into the trunks of various trees, and the
distance between them accurately measured. At the end of
the season they were found to have neither increased nor decreased
their distances. In the experiment, tree trunks were
selected of all ages, from one year up to five or six, and in
no case was there any change whatever noticeable.

ASTRONOMICAL NOTES.

by berlin h. wright.

Penn Yan, N. Y., Saturday, December 14, 1878.
The following calculations are adapted to the latitude of
New York city, and are expressed in true or clock time, being
for the date given in the caption when not otherwise stated:

PLANETS.

FIRST MAGNITUDE STARS, ETC.

MOON’S PLACE IN THE CONSTELLATIONS AT 7 P.M.

REMARKS.

The sun will attain his greatest southern declination and
enter the constellation Sagittarius December 21, 5h. 45m.
evening, at which time winter begins. Mars will be 5° north
of the moon December 21, in the morning. Saturn will be
90° east of the sun December 18, passing the meridian at 6
o’clock in the evening. He is now advancing among the
stars, and will soon be again upon the equinoctial colure.
Uranus will be nearly 4° north of the moon December 15.

Sympathetic Inks.

Under the name of sympathetic inks are designated certain
liquids which, being used for writing, leave no visible
traces on the paper, but which, through the agency of heat,
or by the action of chemicals, are made to appear in various
colors. The use of such means for secret correspondence
is very ancient. Ovid, Pliny, and other Roman
writers speak of an ink of this kind, which, however, was
nothing more than fresh milk. It merely sufficed to dust
powdered charcoal over the surface of the paper upon which
characters had been traced with the colorless fluid, when the
black powder adhered only to those places where the fatty
matter of the milk had spread. Such a process, however,
was merely mechanical, and the results very crude.

A great number of sympathetic inks may be obtained by
means of reactions known to chemistry. For instance, write
on paper with a colorless solution of sugar of lead; if the
water that is used for the solution be pure, no trace of the
writing will remain when it becomes dry. Now hold the
paper over a jet of sulphureted hydrogen, and the characters
will immediately appear on the paper, of an intense
black color. The following recipes for inks of this kind are
more simple: If writing be executed with a dilute solution
of sulphate of iron, the invisible characters will appear of a
beautiful blue, if the dry paper be brushed over with a pencil
full of a solution of yellow prussiate of potash; or they
will be black, if a solution of tannin be substituted for the
prussiate. If the characters be written with a solution of
sulphate of copper, they will at once turn blue on exposing
to the vapors of ammonia. Another sympathetic ink is
afforded by chloride of gold, which becomes of a reddish
purple when acted upon by a salt of tin. A red sympathetic
ink may be made in the following manner: Write with a
very dilute solution of perchloride of iron—so dilute, indeed,
that the writing will be invisible when dry. By holding
the paper in the vapor arising from a long-necked glass flask
containing sulphuric acid and a few drops of a solution of
sulpho-cyanide of potassium, the characters will appear of a
blood-red color, which will again disappear on submitting
them to the vapors of caustic ammonia. This experiment
can be repeated ad infinitum.

During the war in India, some years ago, important correspondence
was carried on by the English by means of the
use of rice water as a writing fluid. On the application of
iodine the dispatches immediately appeared in blue characters.

Sympathetic inks which are developed under the influence
of heat only are much easier to use than the foregoing.
The liquids which possess such a property are very numerous.
Almost every one perhaps knows that if writing be
executed on paper with a clean quill pen dipped in onion or
turnip juice, it becomes absolutely invisible when dry; and
that when the paper is heated the writing at once makes its
appearance in characters of a brown color. All albuminoid,
mucilaginous, and saccharine vegetable juices make excellent
sympathetic inks; we may cite, as among the best, the
juices of lemon, orange, apple, and pear. A dilute solution
of chloride of copper used for writing is invisible until the
paper is heated, when the letters are seen of a beautiful yellow,
disappearing again when the heat that developed them
is removed. The salts of cobalt, as the acetate, nitrate, sulphate,
and chloride, possess a like property. When a dilute
solution of these salts is used as an ink, the writing, although
invisible when dry, becomes blue when exposed to heat.
The addition of chloride of iron, or of a salt of nickel, renders
them green, and this opens the way for a very pretty
experiment: If a winter landscape be drawn in India ink,
and the sky be painted with a wash of cobalt alone, and the
branches of the trees be clothed with leaves executed with a
mixture of cobalt and nickel, and the snow-clad earth be
washed over with the same mixture, a magic transformation
at once takes place on the application of heat, the winter
landscape changing to a summer scene.

There is a well known proprietary article sold in Paris
under the name of “Encre pour les Dames” (ink for ladies).
Hager, in a recent scientific journal, states that this consists
of an aqueous solution of iodide of starch, and is “specially
intended for love letters.” In four weeks characters written
with it disappear, preventing all abuse of letters, and doing
away with all documentary evidence of any kind in the
hands of the recipient. The signers of bills of exchange
who use this ink are of course freed from all obligations in
the same length of time.

NEW WIRE CLOTHING FOR BURRING CYLINDERS.

NEW WIRE CLOTHING FOR BURRING CYLINDERS.

Heretofore two kinds of clothing for cylinders for treating
fibrous material have been employed, one consisting of
a set of serrated rings cut from sheet steel and secured to
the periphery of the cylinder, and the other consisting of
flat serrated iron wire. The serrated rings, of necessity, entail
a great loss of material in their manufacture, and the
iron wire clothing is so soft that it soon wears out or becomes
dull, necessitating the reclothing or sharpening of the
cylinder.

Our engraving represents a new form of steel wire clothing
for such cylinders, which was recently patented by Mr.
Frank P. Pendleton, of Philadelphia, Pa.

The improvement consists in notching or nicking the base
of the teeth or back of the wire, so as to admit of bending
the wire around the cylinders without breaking.

Petroleum and Gold.

As one of the leading staples of American export, our petroleum
wells have been more valuable than gold mines. A
recent discovery by Mr. John Turnbridge, of Newark, N. J.,
indicates that in some cases petroleum wells may be in fact,
as well as in effect, real gold mines. He says that while investigating
the peculiar behavior of the hydrocarbons and
their singular quality of separating the precious metals from
aqueous solutions, assisted by constant application that furnished
evidence of the force of chemical action which could
be satisfactorily measured, there occurred to him the probability
that analogous effects might be traced in the operations
of nature; more particularly in certain geological formations
peculiar to auriferous soils. These ideas, he asserts, have
been singularly verified in subsequent research by the discovery
of gold in many samples of crude petroleum, also in
the sediment or refuse of the distillation of that substance.
The attraction existing between the hydrocarbons and many
elementary bodies ought to create no surprise, especially if
reference is had to the reducing action of the hydrocarbons
in contact with metallic solutions. The procedure in the
examples above referred to consist in pouring crude petroleum
on vegetable fiber or wood shavings and firing it, collecting
the ashes and making the usual fire assay. The
cupel disclosed a small pellet. After due examination with
the appropriate test it was found to be pure gold. The distillery
refuse when assayed gave $34.85 value per ton. It
may be mentioned in the last case considerable molybdenum
was present, a substance resembling plumbago. Mr. Turnbridge
has no knowledge of the locality whence these samples
of crude petroleum were originally obtained. He infers,
however, that oil wells in the vicinity of auriferous deposits
may yield a larger quantity of gold than from oil wells
situated in carboniferous strata. There has been, he states,
a practical application of this discovery for the recovery of
gold, applied in cases where quicksilver has failed to be of
service.

Reduction of Nitrate of Silver by Means of Charcoal.

A very simple method of reducing nitrate of silver, analogous
to that some years ago mentioned by the late Mr.
Hadow, is given in the Archiv der Pharmacie, by Mr. C. F.
Chandler. If crystallized or fused nitrate of silver be placed
upon glowing charcoal, combustion forthwith takes place,
the silver remaining behind in a metallic form, while nitrous
oxide and carbonic acid are freely given off. The nitrate of
silver is fused by the heat developed by the reaction, and is
imbibed through the pores of the charcoal; as every atom
of consumed carbon is replaced by an atom of metallic silver,
the original form and structure of the charcoal are preserved
intact in pure silver. By proceeding in this manner
it is possible to produce silver structures of any desired size,
possessing in every way the original form of the wood. A
crystal of nitrate of silver is in the first place put upon a
piece of charcoal, and a blowpipe flame is then applied in
the vicinity, in order to start the reaction in the first instance,
and as soon as combustion commences crystal after
crystal may be added as these, one after another, become
consumed. The silver salt is liquefied, and penetrates
into the charcoal, where it becomes reduced. Pieces
of silver may in this way be prepared, of one or two ounces
in weight, which exhibit all the markings and rings of the
original wood to a most perfect and beautiful degree.

New Agricultural Inventions.

Mr. Charles E. Macarthy, of Forsyth, Ga., has patented an
improved Horse Power, designed more particularly to be
located beneath a gin house for ginning cotton, but applicable
for all purposes for which a horse power is ordinarily
employed.

An improved Corn Planter has been patented by Mr.
Thomas A. Sammons, of Lewisburg, West Va. This corn
planter is designed to plant the corn in straight rows both
ways and at varying distances apart. It is constructed
upon the general principle of a reciprocating slide, passing
alternately beneath a hopper, and carrying a number of
grains from beneath the same to a discharge outlet.

An improved machine for Cutting the Bands of Gavels or
bundles of grain, and feeding the same to the cylinder of a
thrasher, has been patented by Mr. James M. O’Neall, of
Fort Worth, Texas.

An improved Sulky Breaking Plow has been patented by
Mr. Edward T. Hunter, of Hallsville, Ill. This is an improved
sulky attachment for breaking plows, which is so
constructed as to receive any ordinary plow; it may be adjusted
to cause the plow to work deeper or shallower in the
ground, and will allow the plow to be turned to either side.

Mr. Osman C. Du Souchet, of Alexandria, Mo., has invented
an improved Check Row Corn Planter and Drill,
which is so constructed that its operating mechanism may
be at all times under the control of the driver. It will plant
the corn in accurate check row, and is easily controlled.

An improved Thrashing Machine has been patented by
Mr. Peter Parrott, of Red Bud, Ill. This is an improvement
in the class of thrashing machines having an attachment
for removing dust from the space in front of the cylinder,
and having pickers for loosening or shaking the grain
from straw delivered from the cylinder.

An improved Corn Planter has been patented by Mr.
John H. Zarley, of Oakland, Ill. The object of this invention
is to provide an efficient and cheaply constructed corn
planter, which may be drawn forward by horses, but is arranged
so that the seed valves may be operated by hand.

Messrs. Clayton M. Van Orman and James M. Hagenbaugh,
of Athens, Mich., have patented an improved Grain
Separator, in which the arrangement of the screens, feedboard,
and blast of a fanning mill effect the thorough removal
from the grain of all impurities. Only two screens
are employed.

An improved Churning Apparatus has been patented by
Messrs. William H. Foster and Isaac C. Roberts, of Louisburg,
Kan. It is simple, inexpensive, convenient, and effective
in operation. It will bring the butter very quickly,
and at the same time gather it.

An improved Plow has been patented by Mr. Robert B.
Mitchell, of Minneapolis, Kan. The object of this invention
is to improve the construction of sod, stirring, and other
plows, so that the cutter may be moved forward as it is
worn or ground off. It prevents roots, grass, and other
trash from gathering upon the share.

Messrs. John B. Martin and William T. Carothers, of
Clarence, Mo., have patented an improved Hay Loader capable
of placing hay upon stacks or ricks, or upon wagons.
It is simple in its construction and effective in its operation.

Naphtha and Benzine.

We have often been asked the difference between benzine
and naphtha, many people wanting to know whether naphtha
didn’t include benzine, or whether it wasn’t the same
thing under a marketable name. A prominent refiner says
that benzine is the first product that arises from the process
of refining crude oil, and bears the same relation to naphtha
that that distillate does to refined oil. In other words, benzine
is crude naphtha. The reason it is not quotable under
the name of benzine, therefore, is because it has to be reduced
to naphtha before it is marketable in any extensive
quantity.

The process that benzine is subject to, to produce naphtha,
is not a separate business, but is carried on by the regular oil
refiners in the same stills and retorts that the refined oil is
produced. The benzine is treated with sulphuric acid, and
the result is naphtha, which is in wide demand in Europe,
especially in France, for the purpose of producing aniline
dyes, while it is also put to many other purposes.

This demand is partially instrumental in keeping up its
price, but its rapid evaporation also has a tendency in that
direction, as any large seller of it has to take into consideration
the depreciation that might take place by the time he
sells it on that account, and for the same reason buyers give
no more orders than immediate necessity requires.

All refiners, however, do not produce naphtha, but some
of them sell the benzine, which is largely used for fuel purposes,
for which it is much better than coal, as it is not only
absolutely cheaper, but gives a steadier heat.—Parker Daily.

For joining the porcelain heads to the metal spikes used
for ornamental nails, the Prakt. Maschinen Construct., recommends
the use of a thick paste made of a mixture of
Portland cement and glue.

TO INVENTORS.

An experience of more than thirty years, and the preparation
of not less than one hundred thousand applications
for patents at home and abroad, enable us to understand
the laws and practice on both continents, and
to possess unequaled facilities for procuring patents
everywhere. In addition to our facilities for preparing
drawings and specifications quickly, the applicant can
rest assured that his case will be filed in the Patent Office
without delay. Every application, in which the fees
have been paid, is sent complete—including the model—to
the Patent Office the same day the papers are signed
at our office, or received by mail, so there is no delay in
filing the case, a complaint we often hear from other
sources. Another advantage to the inventor in securing
his patent through the Scientific American Patent
Agency, it insures a special notice of the invention in
the Scientific American, which publication often
opens negotiations for the sale of the patent or manufacture
of the article. A synopsis of the patent laws
in foreign countries may be found on another page,
and persons contemplating the securing of patents
abroad are invited to write to this office for prices,
which have been reduced in accordance with the times,
and our perfected facilities for conducting the business.
Address MUNN & CO., office Scientific American.

The Charge for Insertion under this head is One Dollar
a line for each insertion; about eight words to a line.
Advertisements must be received at publication office
as early as Thursday morning to appear in next issue.

Magic Lanterns and Stereopticons of all prices. Views
illustrating every subject for public exhibitions. Profitable
business for a man with a small capital. Also lanterns
for college and home amusement. 74 page catalogue
free. McAllister, Mf. Optician, 49 Nassau St., N. Y.

Chapman Valves and Hydrants received the highest
award at Mass. Mechanics Fair. Chapman Valve Manuf.
Co., Boston, Mass.

Wanted, cheap.—2d hand Lathe Chuck to swing 17 in.
Iron sheave. Penfield Block Works, Lockport, N. Y.

To Manufacturers.—Messrs. Bignall & Ostrander, 806-808
N. 2d St., St. Louis, Mo., have added to their present
establishment a Machinery Department, from whence
the wants of the Western machine-using public will be
supplied. Manufacturers will do well to correspond
with them.

On actual test the Eaton Sulky Plow is ahead. Manufacturers
wanted to build them. Territory for sale.
Address E. C. Eaton, Pinckneyville, Ill.

Sir Henry Halford says Vanity Fair Smoking Tobacco
has no equal. Received highest award at Paris, 1878.

Wanted.—Tools for the manufacture of Wagon Axles
and Springs. Address Box 66, Lambertville, N. J.

For Sale.—Norwalk Engine, 16 x 42; little used; excellent
order; very cheap. Address Box 106, Meriden, Ct.

H. W. Johns’ Asbestos Liquid Paints contain no
water. They are the best and most economical paints
in the world for general purposes, and for wood and iron
structures exposed to severe tests of climatic changes,
saltwater atmosphere, etc. They are 50 per cent more
durable than the best white lead and linseed oil.

1,000 2d hand machines for sale. Send stamp for descriptive
price list. Forsaith & Co., Manchester, N. H.

Florey & Smith, San Francisco, make a specialty of
introducing useful inventions in the Pacific States.

J. C. Hoadley, Consulting Engineer and Mechanical
and Scientific Expert, Lawrence, Mass.

Nickel Plating.—Wenzel’s Patent Perforated Carbon
Box Anode for holding Grain Nickel. A. C. Wenzel, 114
Center St., New York City.

Bolt Forging Machine & Power Hammers a specialty.
Send for circulars. Forsaith & Co., Manchester, N. H.

For Sale.—A 6 x 6 Upright Yacht Engine, 6 H. P.
Wm. F. Codd, Nantucket, Mass.

For Solid Wrought Iron Beams, etc., see advertisement.
Address Union Iron Mills, Pittsburgh, Pa., for
lithograph, etc.

The Lawrence Engine is the best. See ad. page 381.

Sheet Metal Presses, Ferracute Co., Bridgeton, N. J.

The only Engine in the market attached to boiler
having cold bearings. F. F. & A. B. Landis, Lancaster, Pa.

Brush Electric Light.—20 lights from one machine.
Latest & best light. Telegraph Supply Co., Cleveland, O.

The Lathes, Planers, Drills, and other Tools, new and
second-hand, of the Wood & Light Machine Company,
Worcester, are to be sold out very low by the George
Place Machinery Agency, 121 Chambers St., New York.

For the best advertising at lowest prices in Scientific,
Mechanical, and other Newspapers, write to E. N. Freshman
& Bros., Advertising Agents, 186 W. 4th St., Cin., O.

For Town and Village use, comb’d Hand Fire Engine
& Hose Carriage, $350. Forsaith & Co., Manchester, N. H.

Manufacturers of Improved Goods who desire to build
up a lucrative foreign trade, will do well to insert a well
displayed advertisement in the Scientific American
Export Edition. This paper has a very large foreign
circulation.

Brick Presses for Fire and Red Brick. Factory, 309
S. 5th St., Philadelphia, Pa. S. P. Miller & Son.

Punching Presses, Drop Hammers, and Dies for working
Metals, etc. The Stiles & Parker Press Co., Middletown, Conn.

Hydraulic Presses and Jacks, new and second hand.
Lathes and Machinery for Polishing and Buffing Metals.
E. Lyon & Co., 470 Grand St., N. Y.

Nickel Plating.—A white deposit guaranteed by using
our material. Condit, Hanson & Van Winkle, Newark, N. J.
English Agency, 18 Caroline St., Birmingham.

H. Prentiss & Co., 14 Dey St., N. Y., Manufs. Taps,
Dies, Screw Plates, Reamers, etc. Send for list.

Diamond Engineer, J. Dickinson, 64 Nassau St., N. Y.

Solid Emery Vulcanite Wheels—The Solid Original
Emery Wheel—other kinds imitations and inferior.
Caution.—Our name is stamped in full on all our best
Standard Belting, Packing, and Hose. Buy that only.
The best is the cheapest. New York Belting and Packing
Company, 37 and 38 Park Row, N. Y.

Presses, Dies, and Tools for working Sheet Metals, etc.
Fruit and other Can Tools. Bliss & Williams, Brooklyn,
N. Y., and Paris Exposition, 1878.

The Cameron Steam Pump mounted in Phosphor
Bronze is an indestructible machine. See advertisement.

Wheel Press, Cotton Press, Pipe Line, and Test Mercury
Gauges. T. Shaw, 915 Ridge Ave., Philadelphia, Pa.

The Scientific American Export Edition is published
monthly, about the 15th of each month. Every
number comprises most of the plates of the four preceding
weekly numbers of the Scientific American, with
other appropriate contents, business announcements
etc. It forms a large and splendid periodical of nearly
one hundred quarto pages, each number illustrated with
about one hundred engravings. It is a complete record
of American progress in the arts.

Special Planers for Jointing and Surfacing, Band and
Scroll Saws, Universal Wood-workers, etc., manufactured
by Bentel, Margedant & Co., Hamilton, Ohio.

Boston Blower Co., Boston, Mass. Blowers, Exhaust
Fans, Hot Blast Apparatus. All parts interchangeable
material and workmanship warranted the best. Write
for particulars.

We make steel castings from ¼ to 10,000 lbs. weight
3 times as strong as cast iron. 12,000 Crank Shafts of this
steel now running and proved superior to wrought iron.
Circulars and price, list free. Address Chester Steel
Castings Co., Evelina St., Philadelphia, Pa.

Machine Cut Brass Gear Wheels for Models, etc. (new
list). Models, experimental work, and machine work
generally. D. Gilbert & Son, 212 Chester St., Phila., Pa.

Elevators, Freight and Passenger, Shafting, Pulley
and Hangers. L. S. Graves & Son, Rochester, N. Y.

Holly System of Water Supply and Fire Protection
for Cities and Villages, is fully described in SCIENTIFIC
AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT, No. 140.

Howard Patent Safety Elevators. Howard Iron Works
Buffalo, N. Y.

Mellen, Williams & Co., 57 Kilby St., Boston, Mass. Wiegand
Sectional Steam Boiler. Ætna Rocking Grate Bar.

North’s Lathe Dog. 347 N. 4th St., Philadelphia, Pa.

Self-feeding upright Drilling Machine of superior
construction. Drills holes from ⅛ to ¾ in. diameter
Pratt & Whitney Co., Manufs., Hartford, Conn.

Wm. Sellers & Co., Phila., have introduced a new
Injector, worked by a single motion of a lever.

For Shafts, Pulleys, or Hangers, call and see stock
kept at 79 Liberty St. Wm. Sellers & Co.

The Turbine Wheel made by Risdon & Co., Mt. Holly
N. J., gave the best results at Centennial test.

Wheels and Pinions, heavy and light, remarkably
strong and durable. Especially suited for sugar mills
and similar work. Pittsburgh Steel Casting Company,
Pittsburgh, Pa.

(1) Detroit asks whether a boat propelled
with a force of 3 miles an hour on still water will with
the same propelling force run 6 miles an hour in a current
running 3 miles an hour?  A. We think so.

(2) J. C. R asks: Which was the first railroad
built in the United States? That is, a regular, incorporated
road, connecting two points, and conveying
passengers, freight, etc.  A. We believe that the road
now known as the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad was the
first in the United States chartered for carrying on a general
transportation business.

(3) J. R. E. asks how to make an ordinary
sunshade for a telescope when placed, and what
kind of glass it is composed of.  A. Any very dark
glass will answer, providing it is perfectly plane. It
should be placed between the eye and eyepiece.

(4) W. H. G. S. writes: I wish to give a
blue color to screw heads, wire and steel. What shall I
use?  A. Heat them in a sand bath, or apply shellac or
copal varnish, to which a little Prussian blue has been
added.

(5) T. McW. asks (1) for a good recipe for
making Babbitt metal.  A. By weight, 4 parts copper,
8 parts antimony, 96 parts tin. 2. What is meant by
heating surface in boilers, and how is it computed?
 A. The term heating surface, as ordinarily used, refers to
the surface which has water on one side, and flame or
the products of combustion on the other. 3. I have a
peculiar kind of steel which I cannot harden by fire and
water, neither will it caseharden by prussiate of potash.
What can I do with it to harden it?  A. Assuming your
account to be correct, we judge that you cannot harden it.

(6) A. Van B. writes: A correspondent in
your last issue asks how to keep rubber belts from slipping.
Mine slipped considerably, but I checked it by
throwing powdered rosin in between the belt and pulley
while running. The pulley soon becomes covered with
a tough black coating, very much like leather, and there
is no more slip. [This expedient can be used to advantage
in certain cases, but it is better to have a belt large
enough to drive without using any preparation.—Ed.]

(7) E. B. C. asks: 1. Does a more powerful
battery produce better results in telephone or microphone?
 A. A powerful battery is not required for
either. 2. Can you give me a short description of the
principle and construction of the aerophone?
 A. We think it has not been perfected.

(8) A. T. L. asks for a recipe for a liquid
boot or shoe polish.
 A. Clausen’s ink is made as follows:
Nutgalls, 8 parts; logwood extract, 10 parts; boil
together in water, q. s., and add Castile soap, 4 parts;
glycerin, trace.
Crocker’s—Logwood extract, 6 ozs.;
water, 1 gallon; ivory black, 1.5 oz.; glycerin, 1 oz.;
bichromate of potassa, 0.125 oz.; copperas, 0.125 oz.; boil together.
Sefton’s—Orange shellac, 64 ozs.; alcohol,
4 gallons; pure asphaltum, 60 ozs.; neat’s foot oil,
1 pint; lampblack, q. s.
Ovington’s—Water, 1 gallon;
logwood extract, 6 ozs.; water, 1 gallon; borax, 6 ozs.;
shellac, 1.5 oz.; water, 0.5 pint; bichromate of potassa,
0.375 oz. Mix the solutions, and add 3 ozs. ammonia.
Shaw’s—Borax, 3 ozs.; orange shellac, 5 ozs.; water,
q. s.; boil and add soluble aniline black or nigrosine,
q. s. Rub the spots with strong aqueous solution of
ferric chloride, and dry before applying the dressing.

(9) J. S. & R. M. write: 1. We propose
putting in a steam engine of 20 horse power, and we are
informed there is an engine that weighs 2,700 lbs., that
has a balance wheel weighing 500 lbs., cylinder 10 x 10
inches; cutting off at ¾ stroke, running at 180 to 200 revolutions
a minute, and they say that it is 20 horse at 70
lbs. steam. Will such an engine develop 20 horse
power?  A. The engine would develop 20 horse power
under the above conditions, if well constructed. 2.
How can we calculate the power of an engine?  A. To
determine the power of an engine, multiply the mean
pressure on the piston in lbs., by the piston speed in feet
per minute, and divide the product by 33,000.

(10) A. L. G. asks: 1. With a boiler 15
inches in diameter by 30 inches in height, with five 1½
inch tubes 18 inches long, firebox 12 x 12, and all made
of iron plates ¼ inch thick. What is the greatest number
of pounds of steam to the square inch it will hold,
and what fraction of a horse power will it give to an engine
having a cylinder 2 x 4 inches, situated 2 feet from
the boiler, and connected by 40 inches of steam pipe?
 A. You can carry 150 lbs. of steam, and might develop
1 horse power. 2. What is meant by the pitch of a
wheel in a propeller, and what is the inclination of a
cylinder?  A. The pitch of a propeller is the distance
it would advance in the direction of its axis at each revolution,
if it worked without slip. The inclination of a
cylinder refers to the angle made by its axis with a horizontal
or vertical line.

(11) J. H. asks: 1. Has steel been used
for portable boilers?  A. Yes. 2. What size boiler is
required for an engine having a 3 x 4 inch cylinder?  A.
Diameter, 24 inches; height, 45 inches; heating surface,
65 to 70 square feet.

(12) J. A. M. asks: How large must an air
pump be for an engine steam cylinder 8 x 8, making 100
revolutions per minute with 90 lbs. of steam, allowing
the pump to be 4 inches stroke, double acting, to be attached
to surface condenser?  A. Diameter, 3½ inches.

(13) J. A. F. asks: 1. What shall I paint
my boiler and smoke stack with, and where can I get the
paint? My engine is a thrashing engine, and of course
is out of doors during the fall of the year.  A. Get some
black varnish made from petroleum, from a dealer in
machinists’ supplies. 2. How shall I care for the boiler
inside?  A. Leave the boiler perfectly dry, unless you
can coat the interior with oil. 3. What shall I do for
the engine. Is it necessary to take the piston out of
cylinder and oil it?  A. If the engine is to stand for
some time, remove the piston, coat it and the cylinder
with tallow; the same for the journals. Cover all finished
parts of the engine with a mixture of white lead
and tallow. 4. I find my steam gauge does not indicate
less than 10 lbs. when boiler is cold. What is the
trouble and how can it be repaired?  A. In such a case
it is best to send the gauge to a maker for repairs.

(14) “Zebra” wishes to know the best test
of the genuineness of white lead; also the simplest
way to try the comparative value of two samples of
ground white lead. Also the name of the best work to
consult upon the manufacture of Portland cement.  A.
See answer No. 29, p. 283, current volume, Scientific
American. Also pp. 102-105 Normandy and Noad’s
“Commercial Analysis.” The relative value of different
samples of white lead in oil is roughly judged from the
weight of a given measured quantity, the covering properties
when compared on glass with a sample of finest
white lead, and the color and general appearance of the
sample. You may consult Reid’s “Manufacture of
Portland Cement.”

(15) J. B. B. asks: Can I arrange an electric
battery so as to heat a platinum wire for the purpose
of cutting wood? Is it practicable?  A. Two or
three Bunsen cells will do it. It is impracticable save
as an experiment.

(16) D. S. M. asks how to color butter to
make it yellow, without injuring it in any way.  A. A
little annotto is often used. If pure, it is not injurious.

(17) H. C. M. asks: What substances are
there that will absorb light during the day when exposed
to light, and give it out again at night? A. 1. Heat strontium
theosulphate for fifteen minutes over a good Bunsen
gas lamp and then for 5 minutes over a blast lamp. 2.
Heat equal parts of strontium carbonate and lac sulphuris
gently for 5 minutes, then strongly for 25 minutes
over a Bunsen lamp, and finally 5 minutes over a blast
lamp. 3. Precipitate strong aqueous solution of strontium
chloride by means of sulphuric acid, dry the precipitate,
and heat it to redness for some time in a current
of hydrogen, then over a Bunsen lamp for 10 minutes,
and for 20 minutes over a blast lamp. Mix any of
these with pure melted paraffin for use as a paint, and
expose for a time to sunlight. The two former yield a
greenish phosphorescence in the dark, the latter a bluish
light.

(18) Z. asks: Is the Great African Desert
below the level of the sea, and if so, could it be made
into an inland sea by flooding from the ocean?  A. A
considerable, though relatively small, portion of the Sahara
is below the sea level, and the flooding of the lowest
portion has been proposed. The greater part of
North Africa lies at a higher level, the exception being
a chain of old lake beds or chotts on the border of Algeria.

(19) J. P. L. asks: How can I make a filter
to cleanse rain water from smoke as it passes from the
roof to the cistern? The coal which is burned here
(bituminous) gives us a great deal of trouble in this regard.
 A. The carbonaceous matters may be removed
by passing the water through a large barrel half filled
with fine gravel and pounded, freshly-burnt charcoal
(free from dust), distributed in alternate layers, each
several inches deep. Over this spread a clean piece of
bagging, and fill in with fine gravel or coarse clean
quartz sand for 12 inches or more. The inlet pipe
should discharge at the bottom of the barrel—the filtered
water flowing from the top.

(20) F. E. H. asks: Can percussion caps be
so composed as to explode when pierced by a sharp
pointed needle? If so, of what should they be composed?
 A. Such an arrangement is employed in the
needle gun. The composition may be of mercuric fulminate.

(21) C. A. N. asks: What is the horse power
of an engine 30 inches stroke, 14 inches cylinder, 51 revolutions
per minute, 60 lbs. mean pressure in cylinder?
A. Piston area = 153.94 square inches.
Piston speed = 255 feet per minute.

(22) P. O. asks: If I admit steam 100 lbs.
pressure in a cylinder 15 x 24 inches, and cut the steam
off when piston has traveled 6 inches, what will be
the pressure at 6 inches, 12 inches, 18 inches, and 24
inches, or just before it exhausts?  A. The pressure will
vary about in the inverse ratio of the volume, so that,
approximately,

(23) H. T. S. asks: What size should I
make the holes in the side of a fan wheel, 20 inches in
diameter? Also what size should the nozzle be?  A.
Allow an opening of from 17 to 20 square inches at inlet
and discharge.

(24) E. M. D. writes: I am constructing a
telephone according to directions in Scientific American
Supplement No. 142, using a bar magnet in place
of horseshoe magnet and soft iron core. 1. Would it
reduce the strength of bar magnet to cut a thread on
one end of it?  A. No. 2. Will a bar magnet, used in
Bell telephone, lose its power to such a degree as not to
work?  A. Not readily. 3. Is No. 22 copper wire of sufficient
size for a telephone line of 1,000 feet?  A. Yes;
but larger would be better.

(25) S. & Y. write: We have a pair of burrs
on which we grind plaster. The burrs are about 4 feet
in diameter and 1½ foot thick. We are running them as
an over runner at this time, but wish to change them
and make the lower burr run instead of the upper. Can
a pair of burrs of the above size be run in that way,
and if so, what is the maximum speed at which they
can be run?  A. If properly arranged, you can run
them, after the change, as fast as is allowable for overrunning
stones.

(26) J. J. asks: Which tire makes a wheel
the strongest, 1.25 x 0.50 inch iron, or 1.25 x ⁵⁄16
steel tire?
 A. The steel tire will be the strongest, comparing good
qualities of steel and iron.

(27) E. L. W. asks: Is a ton (2,000 lbs.) of
first class coke equal in heat giving power to a ton (2,000
lbs.) of coal? If not, please give me the relative value
of coke and coal in heat giving power?  A. Calling the
evaporative power of good anthracite coal 1, good bituminous
coal rates at about 0.92, and coke from 0.89
to 0.95.

(28) J. W. S. asks what to impregnate paper
with to give it an agreeable smell while burning.  A.
You may try a strong ethereal or alcoholic solution of
benzoin, tolu, storax, olibanum or labdanum. To burn
well the paper should first be impregnated with an
aqueous solution of niter and dried.

(29) M. G. asks whether hydrogen and oxygen
can be produced as rapidly and copiously in the decomposition
of water by the galvanic battery as by the
action of sulphuric acid on zinc or lead in the one case,
and by heating chlorate of potassa in the other.  A.
Yes, with a very powerful current.

(30) T. G. H. asks for names of useful
treatises on mechanical movements.  A. “Scientific
American Reference Book,” and “507 Mechanical
Movements.”

(31) R. B. T. writes: We have just set up a
new engine; the cylinder is 8 x 12, has a common slide
valve. We think the valve is too short; it is set 0.125
inch open when on center, takes steam 10 inches before
cutting off; the exhaust is very free. The engine runs
about 110 revolutions per minute. We think we could
save steam by using a longer valve, and cut-off about ⅝
stroke, and make the exhaust space in the valve shorter,
so that it will shut in a portion of the exhaust and form
a cushion for the piston. About how much of the exhaust
can we shut in without overdoing it?  A. You can
obtain a good action by making the ratio of compression
equal to the ratio of expansion, with the proviso that the
final cushion pressure must not exceed the initial
pressure.

(32) D. B. L. writes: Our boiler after being
repaired was tested at 110 lbs. cold water pressure.
Three days after it gave out where it was repaired at 58
lbs. steam pressure. To find the leak we put on 80 lbs.
cold water pressure, and could not find it. We then put
steam pressure at 40 lbs., which made the leak very great,
whereas with cold water pressure we could find none.
Can you explain it?  A. The phenomenon is probably
due to the change of shape in the boiler when heated.

(33) F. C. writes: Our engine is a plain
slide valve engine, 24 x 9, steam following almost to end
of stroke. How shall I make a valve to cut off at ¾?
Our exhaust now is 1 inch, steam ports 0.75, bridges
0.75. Length of valve 4½ inches, cavity 2⅜, travel of
valve 2 inches. Will I have to enlarge the steam chest;
the valve uses the whole length of it now?  A. As the
length and travel of valve must be increased, it will be
necessary to lengthen the steam chest, unless you can
apply an independent cut-off valve.

(34) T. P. writes: A small basement room 9
feet high is to be heated by a furnace in an adjoining
room. By carrying the hot air pipe through the partition
midway between the floor and the ceiling it will
stand at an angle of about 45°. If carried through at
the top of the room it will of course be nearer vertical.
In which position of the hot air pipe will the room be
most easily heated?  A. Place the hot air pipe in the position
first described. Take the cold air from a point
near the floor through a flue opening above the roof.

(35) G. M. P. asks: What is a good and
cheap substitute for salt for raising the temperature of
water to 230° Fah.?  A. An oil bath is often used instead.
Chloride of calcium will answer as well as salt,
though not so cheap.

Right Triangle – sides 15, 20, 25ft.

(36) J. D. reminds us of an old and good
method of drawing a perpendicular to a straight line for
the purpose of squaring foundations, etc.
From the corner of the foundation take two
lines respectively 15 and 20 feet, and connect
them by a line of 25 feet; the
angle included between the two shorter lines will be a
right angle. The numbers 3, 4, 5, or, as in the present
case, their multiples 15, 20, 25, are taken to measure respectively
the perpendicular, base, and slant side of the
triangle. It is obvious that any scale may be used so
long as the ratio of 3, 4, 5, is observed.

(37) J. H. asks what kind of iron to use in
making cast iron armatures.  A. Soft gray iron.

(38) F. H. C. asks: How can I etch cheaply
on glass to imitate ground figures or transparent figures
on a ground background?  A. For this purpose the sand
blast is now generally used; the glass is covered with a
film of wax or varnish, through which, with suitable
needles or gravers, is etched the design; a fine sharp silicious
sand impelled by a current of air is then directed
from a suitable jet over the prepared surface, and the
etching is accomplished in a few minutes. Glass is
etched also by hydrofluoric acid; the plate may be prepared
as for the sand blast, and placed face downwards
over a shallow leaden tray, containing powdered fluorspar
moistened with strong oil of vitriol and gently
warmed; the gaseous hydrofluoric acid given off rapidly
etches the portions of the glass not protected by the
wax or varnish. Hydrofluoric acid should be used with
great care.

(39) L. H. writes: I have seen it asserted
that the parasites that infest the Asiatic tiger’s paw are
an exact miniature image of itself. Is this so?  A.
No.

(40) J. G. B. asks if there is any way of
melting brass in a common sand crucible for castings of
a pound or so in weight for a small engine.  A. You
may melt small quantities of brass in any common
stove having a good draught, using a coal fire. You may
use borax as a flux.

(41) F. & Co. ask: 1. In making a telephone
as described in Figs. 4 and 5, Supplement 142, must the
diaphragm be entirely free, or can it be punched and
the screws which secure the flange pass through it?  A.
The diaphragm should not be punched. 2. In new form
of telephone in No 20, current volume, must there be a
battery in the circuit, or is the telephone sufficient to
work it?  A. A battery is required.

(42) J. M. B. asks: What will prevent the
hair from falling out?  A. Keep the pores of the skin
open by frequent bathing and change of underclothing.
Bathe the head with clean soft water, and stimulate the
scalp with a moderately stiff brush morning and evening.
The head should be occasionally cleansed with a
weak solution of glycerin soap in dilute spirit of wine,
with care to remove all traces of soap from the hair.
Use no pomades or oils of any kind.

(43) B. H. P. asks (1) how to make malleable
iron, such as used in wrenches.  A. Malleable iron
castings are made from mottled iron. They are cleaned
by tumbling and then packed in iron boxes with alternating
layers of rolling mill scale. The boxes are carefully
luted and packed in an annealing furnace, where
they are kept at a white heat for a week or more, and
then allowed to cool gradually. 2. How is steel or iron
made to adhere to the face of the jaws of the wrench?
 A. By welding.

(44) J. G. E. asks: What is the highest column
of water that can be raised from a well by means
of a siphon pump with 60 lbs. steam, likewise a 1 inch
column of water with 60 lbs. steam?  A. Lift, from 26
to 27 feet.

(45) W. H. W. asks: 1. Is there any solution
excepting rubber that will make cloth thoroughly
waterproof, or at least withstand the attack of water
for an hour or so? It should be applied by dipping the
cloth in the solution.  A. Linseed oil boiled with a little
wax and litharge is useful for some purposes. Cloth prepared
with paraffin, balata gum, the gum of the asclet
pias or milkweed, naphtha solution of the dried pulp of
the bamboo berry, anhydrous aluminum soaps (see pp.
149 and 159, “Science Record,” 1874), are also employed.
2. Is there any chemical that could be combined with the
solution, imparting some property to the same for which
rats or mice would have an antipathy so as to prevent
their attacks?  A. A trace of phenol will generally suffice.

(46) J. L. asks: Is the balata gum softened
by animal oils or fat?  A. Yes.

(47) P. L. W. asks. What distance would a
100 lb. weight have to fall to run a sewing machine
for 5 hours?  A. For an ordinary family sewing machine,
requiring about one thirtieth of a horse power,
the weight would have to fall about 3,300 feet in the 5
hours.

(48) W. G. R. asks: 1. What is the valve
yoke of a steam engine?  A. We presume you refer to
the rectangular yoke that receives the back of the valve
in the class of engines having balanced valves. 2. What
should be the diameter of the bore of an engine of 1
horse power with 100 lbs. pressure, also the length of
stroke?  A. Diameter, 2¾ inches; stroke, 4½ inches. 3.
How are the back gears of a lathe made so as to be
thrown out of gear when it is wished to use the lathe at
a high speed?  A. Ordinarily by a cam and lever, or
tight and loose joint. 4. Would ¹⁄64
of an inch thickness
of sheet steel be strong enough for the boiler of a small
model locomotive? How much pressure would it stand
to the inch?  A. If the diameter does not exceed 3 inches,
you can carry a pressure of from 50 to 60 lbs. per
square inch.

(49) J. W. W. asks: Which will stand the
most pressure, a piece of round iron 1 inch long and 1
inch in diameter, or a piece of gas pipe the same dimensions,
both being set upon end?  A. The round
iron.

(50) W. M. B. writes: 1. I have one
eighth inch basswood, cherry, butternut and walnut.
Which do you advise for the sounding board of a microphone
and Hughes telephone?  A. Either will do, but
pine or spruce is better. 2. Would a glazed earthen jar
do for the outside of battery described in Scientific
American Supplement, No. 149?  A. Yes. 3. Could I
make insulated wire myself? If so, how?  A. Wire
may be insulated by giving it a coat of shellac varnish
and allowing it to become dry and nearly hard before
winding.

(51) W. H. S. asks how to satin finish
tubing like sample sent.  A. The specimen has been
electro-plated with silver in the usual manner, and the
electric current then reversed for a few moments, thus
redissolving a portion of the plate, the remainder presenting
the peculiar satin like luster.

(52) S. W. C. asks: Has carbon for telephone
purposes ever been made by subjecting the black
deposited by a flame to a heavy pressure?  A. Yes. Edison’s
carbons are made in this manner.

(53) “Hardware” asks: 1. Where is best
to take hot air in a room, at register near ceiling or in
floor?  A. At or near the floor. 2. Where is best place
to have ventilation, near floor or near ceiling? A. If
connected with a flue having a good draught it should
be near the floor.

(54) R. W. J. asks: What causes the cracking
noise in the pipes of a steam heating apparatus,
when a fire has been started to warm up the building?
Is it the water in the pipes made by condensed steam,
or is it the expansion of the pipes from being heated?
 A. The noise is due to both causes in some degree, but
principally to the water, which produces violent blows.

(55) C. N. A. asks how to temper steel tools
for working on stone or similar work. There is some
preparation which is put in water which accomplishes
the purpose when the steel is heated and plunged in.
 A. Heat the tools to a cherry red, and plunge in clean,
moderately cool water. A little common salt is sometimes
added to the water.

(56) G. B. asks: 1. Is the height to which
water is raised by a hydraulic ram measured from the
ram itself or from the spring from which the supply
comes? A. From the ram. 2. Can a hydraulic ram be
constructed to discharge 1,000 gallons of water per minute?
 A. Yes.

(57) L. D. writes that benzine will answer
much better to exterminate roaches, moths, etc., than
anything else. It will not hurt furniture in the least,
will evaporate, and can be easily applied.

Minerals, Etc.—Specimens have been received
from the following correspondents, and
examined, with the results stated:

M. B. W.—No. 1 is a silicious clay—it might be useful
in the manufacture of some grades of pottery, etc.
No. 2 is a ferruginous shale—contains about 80 per cent.
of silica and 10 per cent. of alumina, besides lime, magnesia,
iron oxide, and water.—W. S.—It is fibrous talc—talc
of good quality is in considerable demand for paper
making and other purposes.—W. G. H.—The sand contains
no precious metal—the glittering particles are
mica.—S. F.—The specimen you send consists of a
mass of the long hairs which have been attached to the
seeds of the “milkweed” (asclepias), or, as it is sometimes
called, from the silky nature of these appendages,
“silkweed.” We believe that this material is put to no
other economic use at present than that of a filling for
cushions and pillows. The beauty of this silk like down
long ago attracted attention, and many unsuccessful attempts
have been made to put it to some practical use in
the arts; but, as you have probably noticed, the hairs
are both brittle and weak, and an examination with a
lens will show that it wants the roughness and angularity
necessary to fit it for being spun like other fibers.
It has, however, been mixed with cotton and woven into
fabrics having a silky luster and capable of taking brilliant
dyes, but the manufacture has never been prosecuted.
The plants, though widely distributed over the
United States, and quite common, are nevertheless not
abundant enough in a wild state to afford much of a
supply, and we believe no experiments have been made
in cultivating them.

Any numbers of the Scientific American Supplement
referred to in these columns may be had at this
office. Price 10 cents each.

COMMUNICATIONS RECEIVED.

The Editor of the Scientific American acknowledges
with much pleasure the receipt of original papers and
contributions on the following subjects:

Manufacture of Porous Cups for Tyndall Grove Battery. By W. H. S.
Cylinder Condensation. By F. F. H.
Sawdust. By W. H. M.
Keely Motor. By G. R. S.
Firing. By A. P. A.
Steam Launches. By G. F. S.

HINTS TO CORRESPONDENTS.

We renew our request that correspondents, in referring
to former answers or articles, will be kind enough to
name the date of the paper and the page, or the number
of the question.

Many of our correspondents make inquiries which
cannot properly be answered in these columns. Such
inquiries, if signed by initials only, are liable to be cast
into the waste basket.

Persons desiring special information which is purely
of a personal character, and not of general interest,
should remit from $1 to $5, according to the subject,
as we cannot be expected to spend time and labor to
obtain such information without remuneration.

English Patents Issued to Americans.

From November 8 to November 12, inclusive.

Electric light.—T. A. Edison, Menlo Park, N. J.
Feed water apparatus.—S. J. Hayes et al.,———.
Pipe, manufacture of.—W. Radde, N. Y. city.
Potato digger.—L. A. Aspinwall, Albany, N. Y.
Refrigerator.—J. A. Whitney, N. Y. city.
Screw cutting machinery.—C. D. Rogers, Providence, R. I.
Sewing machine.—Wilson Sewing Machine Company, Chicago, Ill.
Wire machinery.—C. D. Rogers, Providence, R. I.

[OFFICIAL.]

INDEX OF INVENTIONS

FOR WHICH

Letters Patent of the United States were

Granted in the Week Ending

October 15, 1878,

AND EACH BEARING THAT DATE.

[Those marked (r) are reissued patents.]

A complete copy of any patent in the annexed list,
including both the specifications and drawings, will be
furnished from this office for one dollar. In ordering,
please state the number and date of the patent desired,
and remit to Munn & Co., 37 Park Row, New York city.

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THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN EXPORT
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GENERAL TABLE OF CONTENTS

Of the Scientific American Export Edition for November,
1878.

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STRONG AND CHEAP SPAR BRIDGES.
General description, dimensions, and particulars, with
2 pages of drawings, covering illustrations of all the
details, for a bridge of 100 feet span or less; specially
useful for crossing of creeks, small rivers, gullies, or
wherever a costly structure is not desirable. The drawings
are from the Spar Bridge exhibited at the Centennial,
in the U. S. Department of Military Engineering.
These bridges are wholly composed of undressed stuff.
Supplement 71. Price 10 cents.

FIREPROOF DWELLINGS OF CHEAP CONSTRUCTION.
A valuable and important paper, containing
Plans and Descriptions of Model Fireproof Dwellings
of cheap construction lately erected in Chicago. By
A. J. Smith, Architect. With 9 illustrations. Plan No. 1
exhibits the construction of comfortable one-story, 16 ft.
front dwellings, of brick and concrete, finished complete
at a cost of $1,200. Plan No. 2 exhibits the construction
of a comfortable 23 ft. front, two-story dwelling, of brick
and concrete, finished complete, with cellar, for $1,700.
Several of these dwellings, on both plans, have been
built at the prices stated. This valuable paper also contains
the Report of the City Authorities of Chicago,
certifying to the fireproof nature of these buildings, with
other useful particulars. Contained in Scientific
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OUTWARD MARKS OF A GOOD COW.
By Capt. John C. Morris, Pa. Carelessness in Breeding.
How to Select for Breeding. Marks of the Handsome
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Marks of Good Milkers. Distinguishing Marks and
Characteristics of the “Bastard” and the “Bogus”
Cow, etc. Contained, with useful Remarks on Bee
Culture, in Scientific American Supplement No.
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ON CHRONIC MALARIAL POISONING.
By Alfred L. Loomis, M.D. A Highly Instructive
Clinical Lecture, delivered at the University Medical
College, N. Y Contained in Scientific American
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this office and of all newsdealers.

ICE-HOUSE AND COLD ROOM. —BY R. G.
Hatfleld. With directions for construction. Four
engravings. Supplement No. 59. Price, 10 cents.

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By the terms of the New Patent Law of Spain, which
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as follows:

The Spanish Patent, if applied for by the original inventor
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WATER SUPPLY FOR TOWNS AND VILLAGES.
—By Clarence Delafield, C.E. A concise and
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various systems—Discussion of the Holly system, its
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of 1,000 buildings. Contained in Supplement 27.
Price 10 cents.

ICE BOATS—THEIR CONSTRUCTION
and management. With working drawings, details,
and directions in full. Four engravings, showing mode
of construction. Views of the two fastest ice-sailing
boats used on the Hudson river in winter. By H. A.
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of ice-boat clubs, the sailing and management of
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ICE AND ICE-HOUSES—HOW TO MAKE
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CAVEATS, COPYRIGHTS, TRADE MARKS, ETC.

Messrs. Munn & Co., in connection with the publication
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much in England and some other foreign countries.
Five patents—embracing Canadian, English, German,
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monopoly to his discovery among about one
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$50.

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Address

MUNN & CO.,          
Publishers SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN,
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BAIRD’S CATALOGUES OF BOOKS Our new and enlarged Catalogue of Practical and Scientific Books, 96 pages, 8vo; a Catalogue of Books on Dyeing, Calico Printing, Weaving, Cotton and Woolen Manufacture, 4to; Catalogue of a choice collection of Practical, Scientific, and Economic Books, 4to; List of Books on Steam and the Steam Engine, Mechanics, Machinery, and Engineering, 4to; List of Important Books on Metallurgy, Metals, Strength of Materials, Chemical Analysis, Assaying, etc., 4to; two Catalogues of Books and Pamphlets on Social Science, Political Economy, Banks, Population, Pauperism, and kindred subjects sent free to any one who will forward his address. HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO., Industrial Publishers, Booksellers, and Importers, 810 Walnut St., Philadelphia, Pa. An engine that works without Boiler. Always ready to be started and to give at once full power. SAFETY, ECONOMY, CONVENIENCE. Burns common Gas and Air. No steam, no coal, no ashes, no fires, no danger, no extra insurance. Almost no attendance. THE NEW OTTO SILENT GAS ENGINE. Useful for all work of small stationary steam engine. Offered in sizes of 2, 4, and 7 H. P. Send for illustrated circular. SCHLEICHER, SCHUMM & CO., Phila., Pa. A GOOD PLAN The most profitable plan for operating in stocks is by uniting capital of various sums in combining or pooling orders of thousands of customers and using them as one mighty whole, which is done so successfully by Messrs. Lawrence & Co., Bankers, 57 Exchange Place, N. Y. City. By this cooperative system each investor is placed on an equal footing with the largest operator and profits divided pro rata among shareholders every 30 days. $10 invested makes $50 or 5 per cent. on the stock during the month—$50 returns $350 or 7 per cent., $100 pays $1,000, or 10 per cent., and so on according to the market. The firm’s new circular (copyrighted and free) contains “Two unerring rules for success in stock operations,” and explains everything. All kinds of Stocks and Bonds wanted. New Government Loan supplied. LAWRENCE & CO., Bankers and Brokers, 57 Exchange Place, N. Y. City. Portable Grain Mills. For Mill and Farm. Built on the durable and scientific principles. Warranted fully equal to any in the market. Mills for grinding all substances. We have made mill building a specialty for 13 years. WALKER BROS. & CO., Engineers, Founders & Machinists, 23d and Wood St., Phila., Pa. ON THE CARE OF HORSES. BY PROF. Pritchard, R.V.S. Showing the Proper Construction of Stables. Best Floor. Lighting and Ventilation. Hay-racks. Watering and Feeding. Grooming and Exercise. Cracked Heels; Lice; Colic; Mud Fever; Wind Galls. Also, in same number, facts about improved Cow Stables. How to keep Cows clean and maintain Pure Air in Stables. Increased Cleanliness and Convenience with Less Labor. Contained in Scientific American Supplement. No. 123. Price 10 cents. To be had at this office and of all newsdealers. MINING MACHINERY. Engines, Boilers, Pumps, Coal and Ore Jigs, Dust Burning Appliances. Drawings and advice free to customers. Jeanesville Iron Works (J. C. Haydon & Co.). Address HOWELL GREEN, Supt., Jeanesville, Luzerne Co., Pa. Straub’s Scientific Grain Mill, 12, 20, and 30 inch MILL STONES, For Farm and Merchant work. Warranted the full equal of any mill built in America. Before purchasing elsewhere send for our circular and price list. A. W. STRAUB & CO.,      Philadelphia, Pa. USE WILHIDE’S NOISELESS, SELF-Setting Rat and Mouse Traps. Caught 19 rats one hour; 46 one night. Ask your storekeeper for them. State right for sale. Circulars, etc., free. J. T. WILHIDE & BRO., York Road, Carroll Co., Md. AGENTS and SALESMEN wanted in every city and town to introduce a new Work, the “COMPLETE BUSINESS REGISTER” to dealers. Great inducements. Don’t fail to write for particulars. W. H. Pamphilon, Pub., 30 Bond St., N. Y. L ADIES can make $5 a day in their own city or town.  Address ELLIS M’F’G CO., Waltham, Mass. The “Bijou” Microscope. With mounted objects, 50c. A complete little instrument for examining minute objects. Has adjustable lens-cap, object slides and diaphragm, and magnifies 10,000 times. A marvel of perfection, cheapness, simplicity and compactness. Of pretty design and nicely finished in brass. Price, with an assortment of interesting mounted microscopic objects, 50c. Sent post paid on receipt of price to Gem Microscope Co., 156 Fulton St., N. Y. XMAS “WONDER BOX.” Contains 12 Sheets Paper, 12 Envelopes, 3 Sheets Colored Paper, 1 Lead Pencil, 3 Pens, 1 Text, 12 Comic Cards, 40 Silhouettes, 36 Mottoes, 85 Patterns for Fancy Work, 112 Decalcomanie, 131 Embossed Pictures, 50 Fancy Ornaments, 1 Penholder, 2 Book Marks, 5 Black Tablets, 5 Picture Cards, 30 Scrap-Book Pictures, 1 Xmas Banner, 1 Game Age Cards, 2 Xmas Cards, 1 Toy Parasol. Price, 42 cts.; by mail. 53 cts. Retail value, $1.45. Postage stamps taken. J. JAY GOULD, 10 Broomfield st., Boston, Mass. Gold, Silver, and Nickel Plating. A trade easily learned. Costs little to start. The Electro Plater’s Guide, a 72 page book, sent for 3 stamps. Scientific instruments and books loaned to any one. Price list free. F. LOWEY, 90 11th St., Brooklyn, N. Y. Shaped or Crude, furnished and set for Boring Rocks, Dressing Mill Burrs, Emery Wheels, Grindstones, Hardened Steel, Calender Rollers, and for Sawing, Turning, or Working Stone and other hard substances; also Glaziers’ Diamonds. J. DICKINSON, 64 Nassau St., N. Y. IMPORTANT FOR ALL CORPORATIONS AND MANF’G CONCERNS.—Buerk’s Watchman’s Time Detector, capable of accurately controlling the motion of a watchman or patrolman at the different stations of his beat. Send for circular. J. E. BUERK, P.O. BOX 979, Boston, Mass N. B.—The suit against Imhaeuser & Co., of New York, was decided in my favor, June 10, 1874. A fine was assessed against them Nov. 11, 1876, for selling contrary to the order of the court. Persons buying or using clocks infringing on my patent will be dealt with according to law. The George Place Machinery Agency Machinery of Every Description. 121 Chambers and 103 Reade Streets, New York. THE FORSTER-FIRMIN GOLD AND SILVER AMALGAMATING COMP’Y of Norristown, Pa., will grant state rights or licenses on easy terms. This system works up to assay, and recovers the mercury rapidly. Apply as above. THE DRIVEN WELL. Town and County privileges for making Driven Wells and selling Licenses under the established American Driven Well Patent, leased by the year to responsible parties, by WM. D. ANDREWS & BRO., NEW YORK. SPARE THE CROTON AND SAVE THE COST. Driven or Tube Wells furnished to large consumers of Croton and Ridgewood Water. WM. D. ANDREWS & BRO., 414 Water St., N. Y., who control the patent for Green’s American Driven Well. STEAM AND HYDRAULIC Passenger and Freight Elevators, STEAM ENGINES AND BOILERS, WHITTIER MACHINE CO., Boston, Mass. Portable Steam Engines With Automatic Cut-off. No Commissions to Agents.      Bottom Prices to Purchasers. SEND FOR CATALOGUE. Armington & Sims A. & S. were lately with THE  J. C. HOADLEY COMP. STEAM PUMPS. HENRY R. WORTHINGTON, 239 Broadway, N. Y. 83 Water St., Boston. The Worthington Duplex Pumping Engines for Water Works—Compound, Condensing or Non-Condensing. Used in over 100 Water-Works Stations. Steam Pumps—Duplex and Single Cylinder. Water Meters.   Oil Meters. Prices Largely Reduced. PATENTS at AUCTION. Regular Monthly Sales by George W. Keeler, Auctioneer. For terms, address NEW YORK PATENT EXCHANGE, 67 Liberty Street, New York. 50  Perfumed Chromo and Motto Cards, 10c. Name in Gold and Jet. Seavy Bros., Northford, Ct.

	$12 WATCHES For Only $3 Each. A BANKRUPT STOCK OF WATCHES, Warranted for One Year. This bankrupt stock of Watches must be closed out in 90 days. The former price of these Watches was $12.00 each. They are silvered case and open face, all one style, and of French manufacture, the movements of which being well known the world over for their fine finish. They are used on railroads and steamboats, where accurate time is required, and give good satisfaction. Think of it, a $12.00 Watch for only $3.00, and warranted one year for time. Cincinnati. O., October 1st, 1878. The Walters Importing Co. is an old established and very reliable house, and we cheerfully recommend them. Cincinnati Post. After the closure of sale of this bankrupt stock of Watches, which will continue 90 days from date of this paper, no order will be filled at less than $12.00 each; so please send your order at once. With each Watch we furnish our special warrantee for one year for accurate time. We will forward the Watch promptly on receipt of $3.00, or will send C.O.D. if customers desire and remit $1.00 on account. Address all orders to Walters Importing Co., 180 Elm Street, Cincinnati, O. TO WATCH SPECULATORS: We call particular I attention to these Watches, as they sell readily at from $12.00 to $20.00 each. Cut this Advertisement Out.

$10 to $1000  Invested in Wall St. Stocks makes fortunes every month. Books sent free explaining everything. Address BAXTER & CO., Bankers, 17 Wall St., N. Y. Patent Portable Chuck Jaws. Improved Solid Emery Wheels, for grinding Iron and Brass Castings. Tools, etc. Manufactured by AM. TWIST DRILL CO., Woonsocket, R. I. Lathes, Planers, Shapers Drills, Bolt and Gear Cutters, Milling Machines. Special Machinery. E. GOULD & EBERHARDT, Newark, N. J. U. S. P IANO CO., 163 BLEECKER ST., N. Y., Manufacturers of strictly first-class Pianos. We sell direct to Families from our own Factory at lowest wholesale price. Beautiful new 7 1-3 Octave, Rosewood Pianos. Sent on trial. Thousands in use. Heavy Discount to cash buyers. DON’T buy until you read our Catalogue. It will interest you—Mailed free. Mowry Car & Wheel Works, manufacturers of CARS AND CAR WHEELS of all descriptions, Wheels and Axles, Chilled Tires, Engine, Car and Bridge Castings, of any pattern, furnished to order at short notice. Also Street Car Turn Tables. Wheels of all sizes constantly on hand. Office, 27 1-2 W. Third St., CINCINNATI, O. Works, Eastern Avenue and Lewis Street. C. W. LE COUNT, SOUTH NORWALK, CONN., Mfr. of Lathe Dogs, Iron and Steel Expanding Mandrels of all sizes. A specialty made of Amateurs’ Mandrels and Dogs. B ARNES’  FOOT  POWER MACHINERY. 13  Different machines with which Builders, Cabinet Makers, Wagon Makers, and Jobbers in miscellaneous work can compete as to Quality and Price with steam power manufacturing; also Amateurs’ supplies. Machines sent on trial. Say where you read this, and send for catalogue and prices. W. F. & JOHN BARNES, Rockford, Winnebago Co., Ill. AMERICAN NOVELTIES wanted for English trade. 1,000 Sewing Machines to be sold cheap. Apply BRITANNIA COMPANY, Colchester, England.

Retail 9  Cents Per Pound. Warranted of the hardest temper, and never to settle.

ESTABLISHED 1843 Steel Horn, warranted not to break and Face of Best Cast Steel.

Better than any English make, and only one
that is fully

!! WARRENTED !!

50 sizes, from 1-2 lb. to 800 lbs.

Catalogues furnished on application.

A VALUABLE WORK. THE STEAM ENGINE The Relative Proportions of the Steam Engine. A course of Lectures on the Steam Engine delivered to the students of Dynamical Engineering in the University of Pennsylvania. By Wm. D. Marks, Whitney Professor of Dynamical Engineering. With numerous Illustrations. 12mo. Flexible cloth. $1.50. “A valuable addition to the literature of the Steam Engine, and one which will be appreciated by engineers in practice as well as by students.”—Pittsburgh American Manufacturer. “A valuable work, and one which will meet with a favorable reception. * * * There is much need and much room for a rational and practical method for proportioning the various parts of the steam engine, and in this respect your work is very welcome.”—Augustus Jay Du Bois, Ph.D., Yale College. *  *    *   For sale by all Booksellers, or will be sent by mail, postpaid, upon receipt of price, by J. B. LIPPINCOTT & CO., Publishers,      715 and 717 Market St., Philadelphia. SHEPARD’S CELEBRATED $50 Screw Cutting Foot Lathe. Foot and Power Lathes, Drill Presses, Scrolls, Circular and Band Saws, Saw Attachments, Chucks, Mandrils, Twist Drills, Dogs, Calipers, etc. Send for catalogue of outfits for amateurs or artisans. H. L. SHEPARD & CO., 331, 333, 335, & 337 West Front Street, Cincinnati, Ohio.

Special Offer. 
OUR NEW IMPROVED DOUBLE
COILED METALIC TELEPHONE
is the finest in the world, and the only completely satisfactory low
priced instrument, with Spring Call Attachment, made by practical
machinists on scientific principles; warranted to work
one mile, unaffected
by changes in the weather. We will send to one address one sample set,
comprising two Telephones, two walnut holders, six copper bound insulators
and 200 feet heavy wire, at 25 per cent. discount
from regular rates,
which is $3.00 for the $4.00 instruments. This offer will
not hold good after
Jan. 15, 1879, as our goods will then be sufficiently well
known to sell through the trade, and we shall
be obliged to strictly maintain the retail price. Any
person of ordinary intelligence can put them up by following
directions sent with each pair. We have sold during the last
three months nearly 1000 of these instruments, and have
hundreds of testimonials from all parts of the country.
We guarantee all instruments sold. For any Telephone that
fails to work, we will refund the money and pay
all charges. Ask any Commercial Agency, and you will find we are
good for all we agree to do.

Name this paper when you write.

Kent, Woodman & Co., 25 Congress St., Boston, Mass.

THE DEFIANCE METALLIC PLANES TRADE MARK “THE BATTLE AXE.” ARE THE BEST WORLD. Send for a full descriptive circular and price list to the manufacturers, the BAILEY WRINGING MACHINE CO., 99 Chambers St., New York. BEST AND CHEAPEST FOOT POWER SCREW CUTTING GOODNOW & WIGHTMAN 176 WASHINGTON ST BOSTON MASS. The Only Grand Prize for Sewing Machines, at the Exposition Universelle, Paris, 1878, was awarded, over 80 competitors, to Wheeler & Wilson Mfg. Co. New York City, and Bridgeport, Conn. American Standard Gauge and Tool Works. 22d and WOOD STS., PHILADELPHIA. Standard Gauges and Measuring Implements, Hardened Steel Turning Mandrels, Adjustable Blade Reamers, Patent Tool Holders, Lathe Drivers, etc. JOHN RICHARDS & CO., WARRANTED THE BEST. 1 H. P. Boiler & Engine, $150. 2 H. P., $175. 3 H. P., $200.      Tested to 200 lbs. Steam. LOVEGROVE & CO., 152 N. 3d St., Philadelphia, Pa., Builders of Engines and Boilers, 1 to 100 horse power. Send for circulars and prices, and state size and style you want. Wood-Working Machinery, Such as Woodworth Planing, Tonguing, and Grooving Machines, Daniel’s Planers. Richardson’s Patent Improved Tenon Machines, Mortising, Moulding, and Re-Saw Machines, and Wood-Working Machinery generally. Manufactured by WITHERBY, RUGG & RICHARDSON,       26 Salisbury Street, Worcester, Mass. (Shop formerly occupied by R. BALL & CO.) LAP WELDED CHARCOAL IRON Boiler Tubes, Steam Pipe, Light and Heavy Forgings, Engines, Boilers, Cotton Presses, Rolling Mill and Blast Furnace Work. READING IRON WORKS, 261 South Fourth St., Phila. PERRY & CO.’S STEEL PENS. A sample box, for trial, containing our leading styles, including the famous “U” and “Falcon” Pens, mailed on receipt of 25 cts. Ivison, Blakeman, Taylor & Co., Sole Agents for U. S., New York. EAGLE TUBE CO., 614 to 626 W. 24th St., New York. BOILER FLUES of all the Regular Sizes, Of Best Material and Warranted.           ORDERS PROMPTLY EXECUTED. No Payment Required till Tubes are Fully Tested and Satisfactory. Cigar Box Lumber, MANUFACTURED by our NEW PATENT PROCESS. The Best in the World. SPANISH CEDAR, MAHOGANY, POPLAR. Also thin lumber of all other kinds, ⅛ to ½ in., at corresponding prices. All qualities. Equal in all respects to any made, and at prices much under any to be obtained outside of our establishment. Send for price list. GEO W. READ & CO., 186 to 200 Lewis Street, N. Y. Partner Wanted To introduce my IMPROVED PROTRACTOR. Splendid chance for a person with small capital. Address or call on O. M. DAYTON, Utica, N. Y. Calvin Wells, Prest.Jas. K. Verner, Secy. Pittsburgh Forge & Iron Co., IRON and HAMMERED CAR AXLES. Also manufacture as a specialty Wrought Iron Bridge Bolts & Bolt Ends, With Plain and Upset Ends, To any required tensile strength, from one to three and one-half inches, with thread and nuts. Orders for which are respectfully solicited. Office, 10th Street, near Penn Ave., Pittsburgh, Pa. J. LLOYD HAIGH, Manufacturer of Of every description, for Railroad and Mining Use. Elevators, Derricks, Rope Tramways, Transmission of Power, etc. No. 81 John St., N. Y. Send for price list. Plans and Estimates furnished for Suspension Bridges. Mill Stones and Corn Mills We make Burr Millstones, Portable Mills, Smut Machines, Packers, Mill Picks, Water Wheels, Pulleys, and Gearing, specially adapted to Flour Mills. Send for Catalogue. J. T. NOYE & SON, Buffalo, N. Y. MACHINISTS’ TOOLS. New and Improved Patterns. Send for new illustrated catalogue. Lathes, Planers, Drills, &c. NEW HAVEN MANUFACTURING CO., New Haven, Conn. HYDRAULIC CEMENT Of the very highest order and quality made any and everywhere from Refuse or Decomposed Limestone, Marble, Shells, Chalk and Clay, and River Deposit as per Letters Patent. Address JOHN DIMELOW, Laboratorian, Austin, Texas. PARIS EXHIBITION PRIZES.      FULL Official List of the Awards in the American Department, enumerating Exhibits and Names and Addresses of Exhibitors, with kind of Prize awarded in each case. Supplements 149, 150. Price 10 cents each. T HE UNION IRON MILLS, Pittsburgh, Pa., Manufacturers of improved wrought iron Beams and Girders (patented). The great fall which has taken place in the prices of Iron, and especially in Beams used in the construction of FIRE PROOF BUILDINGS, induces us to call the special attention of Engineers, Architects, and Builders to the undoubted advantages of now erecting Fire Proof structures; and by reference to pages 52 & 54 of our Book of Sections—which will be sent on application to those contemplating the erection of fire proof buildings—THE COST CAN BE ACCURATELY CALCULATED, the cost of Insurance avoided, and the serious losses and interruption to business caused by fire; these and like considerations fully justify any additional first cost. It is believed, that, were owners fully aware of the small difference which now exists between the use of Wood and Iron, in many cases the latter would be adopted. We shall be pleased to furnish estimates for all the Beams complete, for any specific structure, so that the difference in cost may at once be ascertained. Address CARNEGIE, BROS. & CO., Pittsburgh, Pa. $7  A DAY to Agents canvassing for the Fireside Visitor. Terms and Outfit Free. Address P. O. VICKERY, Augusta, Maine. B. W. Payne & Sons, Corning, N. Y. Established in 1840. Eureka Safety Power.  h.p.   cyl.   ht.   space   wt.   price.  2  3⅛ x 4   48 in.   40 x 25  900  $150  4 4 x 6   56  46 x 30   1600  250  6 5 x 7   72  72 x 42   2700  400  Also, SPARK ARRESTING PORTABLES, and Stationary Engines for Plantations. Send for Circulars. PERFECT NEWSPAPER FILE The Koch Patent File, for preserving newspapers, magazines, and pamphlets, has been recently improved and price reduced. Subscribers to the Scientific American and Scientific American Supplement can be supplied for the low price of $1.50 by mail, or $1.25 at the office of this paper. Heavy board sides; inscription “SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN,” in gilt. Necessary for every one who wishes to preserve the paper. Address MUNN & CO., Publishers Scientific American.

HOWE SCALE CO., Rutland, Vt. Paris 1878 Were awarded the GOLD MEDAL The highest award for Scales; also several Special Medals of Gold, Silver, and Bronze. In addition to the above the

HOWE SCALE CO.

have been awarded the “First Premium” at Twelve different
State Fairs held during the Fall of the present year.

Principal Agencies:

PRIEST, PAGE & CO., 325 Broadway, New York.PRIEST, PAGE & CO., 145 Franklin St., Boston.

A. M. GILBERT & CO., 97 to 101 Lake St., Chicago.J. FRED DENNIS, European Manager, Bremen, Germany.

The Columbia Bicycle, Made by THE POPE M’F’G CO., 89 Summer Street, Boston. A practical road machine, easy to learn to ride, and when mastered one can beat the best horse in a day’s run over an ordinary road. Send 3c. stamp for catalogue. BIG  PAY.—With Stencil Outfits. What costs 4 cts. sells rapidly for 50 cts. Catalogue free. S. M. SPENCER, 112 Wash’n St., Boston, Mass. 65  MIXED CARDS with name, 10c. and stamp. Agent’s Outfit, 10c. L. C. COE & Co., Bristol, Ct. YALE VERTICAL MILL Iron Frame; French Burr; Self-oiling; Self-feeding; Long Bearings; Adjustable-balanced; best arranged, made and finished, cheapest, and for quality and quantity ground no superior in the world. Also the Yale Vertical and Horizontal Steam Engines and Boilers. Send for Circular. YALE IRON WORKS, New Haven, Conn. Working Models And Experimental Machinery, Metal or Wood, made to order by J. F. WERNER, 62 Centre St., N. Y.

BOILER COVERINGS.

Are the most Effective and Economical Non-conducting Coverings in
the World. Ready for use and can be easily applied by any one.
Be sure and get the Genuine, which are Manufactured only by

H. W. JOHNS MANUFACTURING CO., 87 Maiden Lane. New York,

Sole Manufacturers of Genuine Asbestos Roofing, Liquid Paints,
Cements, etc. Send for Price Lists, etc.

Pyrometers,  For showing heat of Ovens, Hot Blast Pipes, Boiler Flues, Superheated Steam, Oil Stills, etc. HENRY W. BULKLEY, Sole Manufacturer, 149 Broadway, N. Y. CAMERON Steam Pumps For Mines, Blast Furnaces, Rolling Mills, Oil Refineries, Boiler Feeders, &c. For Illustrated Catalogue and Reduced Price List send to Works, Foot East 23d St., New York. Address JOHN A. ROEBLING’S SONS, Manufacturers, Trenton, N. J., or 117 Liberty Street, New York. Wheels and Rope for conveying power long distances. Send for circular. ICE AT $1.00 PER TON. The PICTET ARTIFICIAL ICE CO., LIMITED, Room 51, Coal and Iron Exchange, P.O. BOX 3083, N. Y. ROOTS’ ROTARY HYDRAULIC ENGINE. FOR BLOWING ORGANS AND RUNNING LIGHT MACHINERY OPERATED BY HYDRANT PRESSURE, GIVES GREATEST USEFUL EFFECT OF WATER. IS A POSITIVE PRESSURE ENGINE. P. H. & F. M. ROOTS, Manuf’rs, CONNERSVILLE, IND. S. S. TOWNSEND, Gen’l Ag’t, 6 Cortlandt St., NEW YORK. Woodward Steam Pumps and Fire Engines, G. M. WOODWARD, 76 and 78 Centre Street, New York. Send for catalogue and price list. 60  Chromo and Perfumed Cards [no 3 alike], Name in Gold and Jet, 10c. Clinton Bros., Clintonville, Ct. The only Machines giving a solid core showing exact nature of rocks passed through. Every Man His Own Printer! $3 PRESS  Prints labels, cards etc. (Self-inker $5) 9 Larger sizes For business, pleasure, young or old. Catalogue of Presses, Type, Etc., for 2 stamps. KELSEY & Co. Meriden, Conn. M ICROSCOPES, Opera Glasses, Spectacles, at greatly reduced prices. Send three stamps for Illustrated Catalogue. R. & J. BECK, Philadelphia, Pa. F OR ALL KINDS OF MACHINERY—Apply to S. C. HILLS, 78 Chambers St., New York. DAMPER REGULATORS BEST AND WEIGHTED GAUGE COCKS. MURRILL & KEIZER, 44 HOLLIDAY ST., BALTIMORE.

GET THE BEST

PIPE AND BOILER COVERING

ASBESTOS-LINED HAIR FELT.

Lightest covering and best non-conductor. Asbestos lining prevents
any charring of the hair felt. Easily applied and removed.

For prices,
etc., address THE ASBESTOS PACKING CO., 25 State St., Boston, Mass.

THE TANITE CO., STROUDSBURG, PA. EMERY WHEELS AND GRINDERS. GEO. PLACE, 131 Chambers St., New York Agent. Established 1844. JOSEPH C. TODD, Engineer and Machinist. Flax, Hemp, Jute, Rope, Oakum and Bagging Machinery, Steam Engines, Boilers, etc. I also manufacture Baxter’s New Portable Engine of 1877. Can be seen in operation at my store. A one horse-power portable engine, complete, $125; two horse-power, $225; two and a half horse-power, $250; three horse-power, $275. Manufactured exclusively by J. C. TODD, 10 Barclay St., New York, or Paterson, N. J. BAXTER $100 1 HORSE ENGINE OF 1877. For State Rights to manufacture above, apply to A. VAN WINKLE, Newark, N. J. TO ADVERTISERS!  We fill orders for the insertion of advertisements in the newspapers of the United States and Dominion of Canada. To furnish advertisers with reliable information concerning newspapers and their rates, and thus enable the most inexperienced to select intelligently the mediums best adapted to any particular purpose, WE ISSUE SEMI-ANNUAL EDITIONS OF AYER & SON’S MANUAL FOR ADVERTISERS. 164 8vo. pp. Gives the names, circulation, and advertising rates of several thousand newspapers in the United States and Canada, and contains more information of value to an advertiser than can be found in any other publication. All lists carefully revised in each edition, and where practicable prices reduced. The special offers are numerous and unusually advantageous. It will pay you to examine it before spending any money in newspaper advertising. The last edition will be sent postpaid to any address on receipt of 25 cents by N. W. AYER & SON, Advertising Agents, Times Building, Philadelphia. Pond’s Tools, Engine Lathes, Planers, Drills, &c. DAVID W. POND, Worcester, Mass. Can I Obtain a Patent? This is the first inquiry that naturally occurs to every author or discoverer of a new idea or improvement. The quickest and best way to obtain a satisfactory answer, without expense, is to write to us (Munn & Co.), describing the invention, with a small sketch. All we need is to get the idea. Do not use pale ink. Be brief. Send stamps for postage. We will immediately answer and inform you whether or not your improvement is probably patentable; and if so, give you the necessary instructions for further procedure. Our long experience enables us to decide quickly. For this advice we make no charge. All persons who desire to consult us in regard to obtaining patents are cordially invited to do so. We shall be happy to see them in person at our office, or to advise them by letter. In all cases, they may expect from us a careful consideration of their plans, an honest opinion, and a prompt reply. What Security Have I that my communication to Munn & Co. will be faithfully guarded and remain confidential? Answer.—You have none except our well-known integrity in this respect, based upon a most extensive practice of thirty years’ standing. Our clients are numbered by hundreds of thousands. They are to be found in every town and city in the Union. Please to make inquiry about us. Such a thing as the betrayal of a client’s interests, when committed to our professional care, never has occurred, and is not likely to occur. All business and communications intrusted to us are kept secret and confidential. Address MUNN & CO., Publishers of the Scientific American, 37 Park Row New York. T HE “Scientific American” is printed with CHAS. ENEU JOHNSON & CO.’S INK. Tenth and Lombard Sts., Philadelphia, and 59 Gold St., New York.